Elliptic Function Jacobi Approach Complete

Math 213a (Fall 2021) Yum-Tong Siu 1
ELLIPTIC FUNCTIONS (Approach of Abel and Jacobi)
Significance of Elliptic Functions. Elliptic functions and their associated

theta functions are a new class of special functions which play an impor-
tant role in explicit solutions of real world problems. Elliptic functions as
meromorphic functions on compact Riemann surfaces of genus 1 and their
associated theta functions as holomorphic sections of holomorphic line bun-
dles on compact Riemann surfaces pave the way for the development of the
theory of Riemann surfaces and higher-dimensional abelian varieties.
Two Approaches to Elliptic Function Theory. One approach (which we

call the approach of Abel and Jacobi) follows the historic development with
motivation from real-world problems and techniques developed for solving
the difficulties encountered. One starts with the inverse of an elliptic func-
tion defined by an indefinite integral whose integrand is the reciprocal of
the square root of a quartic polynomial. An obstacle is to show that the
inverse function of the indefinite integral is a global meromorphic function
on C with two R-linearly independent primitive periods. The resulting dou-
bly periodic meromorphic functions are known as Jacobian elliptic functions,
though Abel was actually the first mathematician who succeeded in inverting
such an indefinite integral. Nowadays, with the use of the notion of a Rie-
mann surface, the inversion can be handled by using the fundamental group
of the Riemann surface constructed to make the square root of the quartic
polynomial single-valued.
The great advantage of this approach is that there is vast literature for the
properties of the Jacobain elliptic functions and of their associated Jacobian
theta functions. Moreover, the trigonometric functions are the special cases
of the Jacobian elliptic functions when the (elliptic) modulus degenerates
to zero so that the properties and relations of trigonometric functions can
serve a guide, albeit an extremely crude one, to those of the Jacobian elliptic
functions and Jacobian theta functions. The second approach, which we
call the approach of Weierstrass, starts with the construction of an infinite
sum of partial fraction expansions, known as the Weierstrass ℘ function, and
then verifies that the function it represents is a doubly periodic meromorphic
function on C which satisfies a first-order differential equation so that it is
the inverse of an indefinite integral whose integrand is the reciprocal of the
square root of a cubic polynomial. The second approach of Weierstrass is
that it is cleaner, easier, and more elegant to develop. Moreover, it fits in

more naturally with the geometric theory of (complex) cubic plane curves.
Both Approaches Are Treated in the Course. We will discuss both ap-
proaches in this course, first the inversion of the inverse Jacobian elliptic sine
function defined by an indefinite integral whose integrand is the reciprocal
of the square root of a quartic polynomial. Properties and relations of the
several Jacobian elliptic functions will be discussed. Then we will introduce
the Weierstrass ℘ function as an infinite sum of partial fractions and derive
its properties and its relation with the Jacobian elliptic sine function. Then
we will treat the Jacobian theta functions and their applications to the sums
of squares problem and quadratic reciprocity. We start with the motion of
the simple pendulum, with more details, for whose solution the Jacobian el-
liptic sine function with (elliptic) modulus k is introduced as the inverse of
the indefinite integral
Z ξ
−1 1
sn ξ = p .
x=0 (1 − x )(1 − k 2 x2 )
2
Exact Solution of Motion of Simple Pendulum. Let m be the mass of the

bob at the end of the pendulum, a be the length of the pendulum, θ be the
angle of inclination which the pendulum makes with a vertical line, α be the
initial angle of inclination when the pendulum is released from rest position
at time zero, t be the time variable, and g be the constant of the gravity of
the earth. The equation of the conservation of energy is
2
1 2 dθ
ma − mga cos θ = −mga cos α.
2 dt
It follows that
2
dθ g g 2 α 2 θ
= 2 (cos θ − cos α) = 4 sin − sin .
dt a a 2 2
The motivation to use the double angle formula for the cosine function to
get the last expression is that when one tries to simplify
Z
dx
p
(1 − x ) (1 − k 2 x2 )
2
√
by using the substitution x = sin ϕ to get rid of 1 − x2 , one gets the integral
Z
dϕ
p
1 − k 2 sin2 ϕ
and in that integral there is the expression sin2 ϕ. In order to get an integral
equivalent to the form Z
dϕ
p ,
1 − k 2 sin2 ϕ
we use the substitution
sin 2θ
sin ϕ = .
sin α2
One gets the differential equation
2
dϕ g α
= 1 − sin2 sin2 ϕ .
dt a 2
So Z ϕ
a dψ
t= q .
g ψ=0 1 − sin2 α2 sin2 ψ
The final answer is r
θ α g
sin = sin sn t
2 2 a
with the (elliptic) modulus k equal to sin α2 .
The periodic time of the pendulum is

r r Z π
a a 2 dϕ
4 K=4 p
g g 0 1 − k 2 sin2 ϕ
r Z π
a 2 1 2 2 1·3 4 4
=4 1 + k sin ϕ + k sin ϕ + · · · dϕ
g 0 2 2·4
2 2 !
·
r
a 1 1 3
= 2π 1+ k2 + k4 + · · · ,
g 2 2·4
because π
π 1 · 3 · 5 · · · (2n − 1)
Z
2
sin2n ϕdϕ = · ,
0 2 2 · 4 · 6 · · · (2n)
from
π
1 2π 2n 1 2π 1 iϕ 2n
Z Z Z
2
2n −iϕ
sin ϕdϕ = sin ϕdϕ = e −e dϕ
0 4 0 4 0 2i
Z 2n 2n
1 2π 1

n 2n 1 1 n 2n
= (−1) dϕ = 2π (−1) .
4 0 2i n 4 2i n
The purpose of the formula about the periodic time of the pendulum is to
show the order of the error involved when the trigonometric sine function is
used instead of the Jacobian elliptic sine function.
Inversion by Addition Formula by Abel. Abel in his 1827 paper used the
addition formula to invert the indefinite integral
Z ξ
−1 1
sn ξ = p .
x=0 (1 − x )(1 − k 2 x2 )
2
To understand the role of the additional theorem, let us consider first the
simpler case of trigonometric functions (also known as circular functions).
The inverse sine function is given by
Z ξ
−1 dx
θ = sin ξ = √ .
x=0 1 − x2
Because of monotonicity from the positivity of the derivative √ 1 , we can
1−ξ 2
π π
always invert for the range of −1 ≤ ξ ≤ 1 to get the range of θ in − 2 , 2 .
We know that the function θ = sin−1 ξ of the indefinite integral is not single-
valued.
To invert it, we hope to get a single-valued function ξ = sin θ so that the

multivaluedness of θ = sin−1 ξ would mean the periodicity of ξ = sin θ. For
fixed −1 ≤ ξ ≤ 1 we would like to know, besides one value θ with ξ = sin θ,
what other values θ0 would also give ξ = sin θ0 . It is a matter of comparing
sin θ with sin(θ + ϕ) (where ϕ = θ0 − θ).
For that reason, one would like to use the addition formula to express
sin(θ + ϕ) and sin(θ − ϕ) in terms of sin θ, cos θ, sin ϕ and cos ϕ. In 1827
Abel actually used this method to invert the indefinite integral which defines
an elliptic function and was the first person to succeed the inversion.
To understand how one can derive the addition formula from the indefinite
integral of the inverse function, one first looks at the simpler case of the
circular functions (i.e., the trigonometric functions). The addition formula
is
sin(θ + ϕ) = sin θ cos ϕ + cos θ sin ϕ
q p
= sin θ 1 − sin2 ϕ + 1 − sin2 θ sin ϕ.
Let ξ = sin θ and η = sin ϕ so that θ = sin−1 ξ and ϕ = sin−1 η. The addition
formula expressed in terms of ξ and η now becomes
sin−1 ξ + sin−1 η = θ + ϕ
q p
−1 2 2
= sin sin θ 1 − sin ϕ + 1 − sin θ sin ϕ
p p
= sin−1 ξ 1 − η 2 + 1 − ξ 2 η ,
which, in terms of the defining indefinite integrals, is

Z ξ Z η Z ξ√1−η2 +√1−ξ2 η
dx dx dx
√ + √ = √ .
1−x 2 1−x 2 1 − x2
x=0 x=0 x=0
The addition theorem tells us that the sum of two definite integrals is equal
to a third definite integral whose upper limit is expressed in terms of the
upper limits of the original two definite integrals. The upper term of each
integral is the variable for the inverse function in the addition formula.
Once we have such an equation of three definite integrals with appropriate

upper limits, we can always check it by differentiating both sides with respect
to the upper limit of the first integral and using the fundamental theorem
of calculus. The challenge is to guess from the additional formula for the
circular functions (as a special case of the elliptic functions) what the addition
formula should be for the elliptic functions (if there is one at all). Abel in
his 1827 paper introduced many ingenious procedures to get the additional
formula for elliptic functions.
After Riemann introduced the concept of a Riemann surface, nowadays

the inversion process to define an elliptic function over all of C is done by
using the fundamental group. We will use this method which is cleaner and
more elegant. To help us understand how it works, let us first use the concept
of a Riemann surface to invert the circular function case of
Z ξ
−1 dx
θ = sin ξ = √ .
x=0 1 − x2
We already mentioned that the difficulty of choosing ξ > 1 is that we have
to go to complex numbers. So we consider the integration of the 1-form
dz
ω := √
1 − z2
with z ∈ C. The trouble is that the 1-form ω is multi-valued and, more
precisely, double-valued. Riemann’s idea to make it single-valued is to replace
a point z by two points above it to form a new structure so that a 1-form can
be defined on this new structure as single-valued. This new structure is a
Riemann
√ surface. What makes the 1-form ω double-valued is √its denominator
1 − z . We need only come up a new structure on which 1 − z 2 is single-
2
valued. In other words, we need a Riemann surface which is double-sheeted

over C such that we can define a √ single-valued holomorphic function on it
which corresponds to the function 1 − z 2 on C.
√
There are some points z in C for which 1 − z 2 is already single-valued,
for example, z = 1 or z = −1. We should make the new structure only a
single point (instead of two points) above the points z = 1 and z = −1.
Earlier we discussed how to define the√ branch of a multi-valued holomorphic
function by using branch-cuts.
√ For 1 − z 2 we can use [−1, 1] as a branch-
2
cut to get two branches of 1 − z . To get the Riemann surface X we can
take two copies of C−[−1, 1] and join them along [−1, 1] with the upper edge
of [−1, 1] in one copy identified with the lower edge of [−1, 1] in the other
copy. Denote by π : X → C the projection which is 2-to-1 except over the
dz
two points −1 and 1. On X we have the well-defined 1-form √1−z 2 which we
will integrate with some initial point to get a map and then use the inverse
dz
of the map. We would like to be able to describe X and √1−z 2 in such a
way that we can actually explicitly carry out the integration and invert the
resulting map.
Consider the map z = 21 w + w1 from C − {0} (coordinate w) to C

(with coordinate z). We are going to use this map to describe the projection
π : X → C To describe the map, we use the polar coordinates w = ρeiϕ for
Figure 1: Two red-colored edges identified and two blue-colored edges iden-
tified
the domain space but use the Cartesian coordinate z = x + iy for the target
space to get

1 1 1 1
x= ρ+ cos ϕ and y = ρ− sin ϕ.
2 ρ 2 ρ
The image of a fixed circle ρ = ρ0 > 1 in the w-plane traversed
in the
counter-
clockwise direction is an ellipse with semi-major axis 12 ρ0 + ρ10 and semi-

minor axis 12 ρ0 − ρ10 traversed in the counter-clockwise direction in the
z-plane. The image of a fixed circle ρ = ρ0 < 1 in the w-plane traversed
in

1 1
the counter-clockwise direction is an ellipse with semi-major axis 2 ρ0 + ρ0

1 1
and semi-minor axis 2 ρ0 − ρ0 traversed in the clockwise direction in the
z-plane.
The image of the fixed unit circle ρ = 1 in the w-plane traversed in the
counter-clockwise direction in the w-plane starting with w = 1 covers the
interval [−1, 1] twice in the z-plane, once from right to left and then once
from left to right. This description shows us that C−{0} (with coordinate w)
is precisely the Riemann surface X and the map z = 21 w + w1 is precisely

the projection π : X → C. This finishes the concrete description of X as

C − {0}.
Our next step is to use the indefinite integral obtained on X by pulling

back the given integrand which is not single-valued because of the square
root in its denominator. We want describe the 1-form on X which is the
pullback of the integrand
dz
√
1 − z2
on C. Since
√ the coordinate on X is w, we solve for w in terms of z to get
w = z + z 2 − 1 so that

1 + √ z dz
dw z 2 −1 dz dz
i =i √ = i√ =√ .
w z + z2 − 1 z2 − 1 1 − z2
Integrating the 1-form idw
w
on the Riemann surface to get ζ = i log(−iw) and
inverting it to get w = ie−iζ so that

1 1 1 −iζ 1
z= w+ = ie + −iζ = sin ζ.
2 w 2 ie
This conclusion means that we obtain the multi-valued function ζ = sin−1 ζ

in terms of z by using the indefinite integral
dz
√ .
1 − z2
This is precisely what we would like to do for the indefinite integral
dz
√
1 − z2
and it is now done for the indefinite integral
dz
√
1 − z2
to give us first the picture for this simpler case.
The use of i log(−iw), instead of i log w, as the result of integrating idw

w
simply means the choice of w = i as the initial point of integration. When
we introduce the map
1 1
z= w+
2 w
for our discussion, we simply say that we consider such a map without ex-
plaining why such a map is chosen. Now we can explain the reason for it.
The use of the map
1 1
z= w+
2 w
from C−{0} to C to describe the projection of the Riemann surface π : X →
C is actually motivated by the information
1 iζ
e − e−iζ

sin ζ =
2i
and reverse engineering.
Now that we have seen the introduction of the notion of Riemann surface
and its role in inverting an indefinite integral the familiar setting of the
trigonometric sine function, we start to carry out the same procedure for the
more complicated new setting of the elliptic sine function.
Riemann Surfaces from Joining Branches of Multi-Valued Holomorphic

Functions and as Graphs of Multi-Valued Holomorphic Functions. Be-
fore we invert the indefinite integral for the inverse elliptic sine function, we
would like to discuss a bit more about the construction of Riemann surfaces
to make multi-valued holomorphic functions single-valued. As we have seen,
one way to do the construction is to join together all branches of the multi-
valued holomorphic function defined outside the branch-cuts. There may be
an infinite number of branches. The simplest and the earliest example is the
case of the multi-valued holomorphic function log z on C − {0}. The picture
of the Riemann surface of log z is an infinite spiraling ramp in the figure
below, with the analytic description given after the slide of the picture.
Figure 2: Visualization of the Riemann surface of log z as an infinite spiral

ramp
Riemnn Surface for log z. With the branch-cut [0, ∞) the m-th branch of
log z with zeiϕ is defined with 2mπ < ϕ < 2(m + 1)π. The Riemann surface
X for log z is obtained by stacking up copies of C − [0, ∞) indexed by m ∈ Z
so that the lower edge of (0, ∞) of the m-th copy of C − [0, ∞) is glued with
the upper edge of (0, ∞) of the (m + 1)-th copy of of C − [0, ∞). On X the
logarithmic function log z is single-valued and holomorphic.
Riemann Surfaces as Graphs of Multi-Valued Holomorphic Functions.

Another way to do the construction of the Riemann surface of a multi-valued
holomorphic function is to simply use the graph of the multi-valued holo-
morphic
√ function. For example, for the multi-valued holomorphic function
w = 1 − z 2 , one simply consider the graph
n o
(z, w) ∈ C2 w2 = 1 − z 2

√
of w = 1 − z 2 in C2 . One disadvantage of using the graph is that it is in a
space of real dimension 4 which is not easy to visualize and to topologically

analyze, even in simple cases like z 2 + w2 = 1.
Another disadvantage is that when we would like to get a compact Rie-

mann surface by adding the structure at ∞, it may be difficult to decide
how to extend the graph to get a compact Riemann surface. For exam-
ple, in
p the case of the elliptic sine function, if we use extend the graph of
w = (1 − z 2 )(1 − k 2 z 3 ) in C2 to its topological closure P21 or in P2 , we end
up with an extra branching point at infinity. In the context of this disad-
vantage, as we discuss later when we come topthe topic of the Weierstrass
3
elliptic function, the Riemann surface p of w = 4z − g2 z − g3 in the Weier-
strass formulation (instead of w = (1 − z 2 )(1 − k 2 z 3 ) for the formulation
of Abel and Jacobian) is better suited for the construction of the Riemann
surface as the graph. We now return to the problem of inversion of indefinite
integral to construct the elliptic sine function as a global doubly periodic
meromorphic function on C.
p
Riemann Surface Constructed to Make (1 − z 2 )(1 − k 2 z 2 ) Single-Valued.
One way to help us concretely visualize the geometric picture, we can think
of k as in (0, 1). The argument works for general k, subject to very mild
conditions. Just in the case of inverting the indefinite integral for the inverse
sine function, we need to use complex numbers because one cannot avoid
taking the square roots of negative numbers. The function
p
(1 − z 2 )(1 − k 2 z 2 )
of the complex variable z is double-valued except at the four roots ±1, ±1

k
of
the quartic polynomial. To make the double-valued function
p
(1 − z 2 )(1 − k 2 z 2 ),
we construct a new structure which replaces a single point z by two points

(except when z = ±1, ±1
k
) so that
p
(1 − z 2 )(1 − k 2 z 2 )
becomes single-valued on this new structure. To construct this new structure,

which is the Riemann surface X we seek, we consider the two branches of
p
(1 − z 2 )(1 − k 2 z 2 )
on the domain obtained by removing the two branch-cuts [ −1 , −1] and 1, k1

k
from the Riemann sphere P1 = C ∪ {∞}. The two branches are the negative
of each other.
Any of the two branches take values of opposite sign on both edges of
each of the two branch-cuts. To get the Riemann surface X we can take two
copies of
−1 1
P1 − , −1 ∪ 1,
k k
−1
and join them by identifying
−1 the upper
edge of k
, −1 in one copy identified
with the lower edge of k , −1 in the other copy and at the same time
1
identifying
1the
upper edge of 1, k in one copy identified with the lower
edge of 1, k in the other copy.
Figure 3: Two red-colored edges identified. Two blue-colored edges identified.

Two green-colored edges identified. Two brown-colored edges identified.
Denote by π : X → P1 the projection which is 2-to-1 except over the four

points ±1, ±1k
. We would like to understand X topologically. It is a torus
whose fundamental group is generated by two loops. We are going to de-
scribe them with the following figures. First, we replace the crisscrossing
identification of the two sides of a slit with the two sides of another slit by
turning one sphere inside out. Figure 4explains how turning on sphere inside
out helps when the two slits are both along the real axis. Figure 5 explains
how one gets a torus by the identification process. Figure 6 describes the
first loop on the torus. Figure 7 describes the first loop on the torus. Figure
8 describes the two loop by using the original C and the two ramps of moving
between the two copies of C.
Figure 4: To switch positions of two edges of horizonal slit along the real
axis, one rotates the plane with respect to the real axis so that the back
side of the plane becomes the front side. When the plane is compactified
to a sphere, the switching of its back side and front side means turning the
sphere inside out
Figure 5: Torus constructed after cutting up branch-cuts of both spheres and

glueing corresponding edges.
Figure 6: Description of the first loop of the resulting torus.

Figure 7: Description of the second loop of the resulting torus.

Figure 8: Both loops of the fundamental group of the torus. First goes to
another sheet through one branch-cut (represented by dotted curve) and then
returns to the original sheet through another branch-cut.
Two Periods from Two Loops of Fundamental Group of Torus. The

period from the first loop which goes around the line segment [−1, 1] with
one part in one sheet and another part in the other sheet is 4K with
Z 1
dx
K= p .
0 (1 − x )(1 − k 2 x2 )
2
1
The period from the second loop which goes around the line segment 1, k
(or equivalently around the line-segment − k1 , −1 ), all on one single sheet,

is 2iK 0 with Z 1/k

0 dx
iK = p .
1 (1 − x2 )(1 − k 2 x2 )
Nowhere Zero Holomorphic Form on Riemann Surface and Inverse Map

of its Indefinite Integral. On X we have the well-defined 1-form
dz
p
(1 − z 2 )(1 − k 2 z 2 )
which we will integrate with some initial point to get a map and then use
the inverse of the map. The initial point we use is the point in X above 0
where the value of p
(1 − z 2 )(1 − k 2 z 2 )
is +1. p
After the construction of the Riemann surface X to make (1 − z 2 )(1 − k 2 z 2 )
single-valued, we have a well-defined 1-form
dz
ω := p .
(1 − z 2 )(1 − k 2 z 2 )
The complex-analytic coordinate charts on Riemann surface X can natu-

rally be defined from the complex-analytic coordinate charts on the Riemann
sphere P1 = C ∪ {∞}, except at the four points of X which lie above ±1
and ± k1 . At these four points of X above c = ±1, ± k1 , we let z − c = ζ 2 so
that ζ can define a complex-analytic coordinate chart on X centered at the
point above c. With respect to these complex-analytic coordinate charts on
X the 1-form ω is holomorphic and nowhere zero. This is clear outside the
four points of X above ±1 and ± k1 .
At one of the four points c = ±1, ± k1 , with respect to the complex-analytic

coordinate ζ, we have dz = 2ζdζ and the denominator yields a factor of ζ
from the factor z − c of the quartic polynomial (1 − z 2 )(1 − k 2 z 2 ). The map Φ
obtainedp from integrating ω on X (with the initial point above 0 where the
value of (1 − z 2 )(1 − k 2 z 2 ) is 1) is multi-valued holomorphic with nowhere
zero derivative. Denote by τ1 and τ2 the two periods of ω from the two loops
in the fundamental group of X. Then the map Ψ from X to C /(Zτ1 + Zτ2 )
induced by Φ is biholomorphic, because it maps the fundamental group of
X one-one onto the fundamental group of C /(Zτ1 + Zτ2 ). The inverse map
of the indefinite integral now is the composite of π ◦ Ψ−1 ◦ Π from C to
P1 = C ∪ {∞}, where Π : C → C /(Zτ1 + Zτ2 ) is the natural quotient map.
It is a meromorphic function on C with two primitive periods τ1 , τ2 . It has
two distinct simple zeros (respectively poles) in a fundamental domain which
correspond to the two points of X above 0 (respectively above ∞).
Derivative of Elliptic Sine, Cosine and Delta Amplitude Functions. By

applying the fundamental theorem of calculus to the infinite integral
Z w
−1 1
sn w = p
ζ=0 (1 − ζ )(1 − k 2 ζ 2 )
2
we obtain
dw p
= (1 − w2 )(1 − k 2 w2 ),
dz
√
which motivates the definition of the Jacobian elliptic function cn z = 1 − sn2 z,
with value 1 at√z = 0, analogous to the trigonometric functions. There is
another factor 1 − sn2 z without analogue in the theory of trigonometric
functions,
√ for which one introduces the Jacobian elliptic function dn z =
2 2
1 − k sn z, with value 1 at z = 0, known as the Jacobian delta amplitude
function.
d
The formula for the derivative of w = sn z is now simply dz sn z = cn z dn z
and is the same as the trigonometric case except for the factor dn z, which be-
comes 1√when the (elliptic) modulus
√ k degenerates to 0. From the definitions
cn z = 1 − sn z and dn z = 1 − k 2 sn2 z, both with value 1 at 0, it is not
2
clear that they can be defined to be global meromorphic functions on all of

C, though their squares obviously are meromorphic functions on C. The way
to handle this is to use the chain rule to derive differential equations for them
so that each can be defined as the inverse function of an indefinite integral

whose integrand is the reciprocal of the square root of a quartic polynomial.
d
By the chain rule, from dz sn z = cn z dn z we obtain the following formu-
las for the derivatives of cn z and dn z.
d d√ sn z cn z dn z
cn z = 1 − sn2 z = − √ = −sn z dn z
dz dz 1 − sn2 z
and
d d√ sn z cn z dn z
dn z = 1 − k 2 sn2 z = −k 2 √ = −k 2 sn z cn z.
dz dz 1 − k 2 sn2 z
From
d √ √
cn z = −sn z dn z = − 1 − cn2 z 1 − k 2 sn2 z
dz √ p
= − 1 − cn2 z 1 − k 2 (1 − cn2 z)
p
= − (1 − cn2 z) (1 − k 2 + k 2 cn2 z)
we can use the inverse function of the infinite integral
Z 1
−1 dζ
cn w = p
ζ=w (1 − ζ 2 )(1 − k 2 + k 2 ζ 2 )
to define the meromorphic function on C. From

r r
d 1 2 1
2 2
1 − 2 1 − dn2 z

dn z = −k sn z cn z = −k 2
1 − dn z
dz k k
q
= − 1 − dn2 z k 2 − 1 + dn2 z

we can use the inverse function of the infinite integral

Z 1
−1 dζ
dn w = p
ζ=w (ζ 2 − 1)(1 − k 2 − ζ 2 )
to define the meromorphic function on C.
Note that the variable w is in the lower limit of both definite integrals to
absorb the minus sign the derivatives of cn z and dn z. The choice of 1 in the
upper limit is to guarantee that cn 0 = 1 and dn 0 = 1.
We now discuss the addition theorem for the elliptic sine function.
Use of Addition Theorem for Trigonometric Sine Function to Introduce

Addition Theorem for Elliptic Sine Function. The addition formula for
the trigonometric sine function is
sin(z + w) = sin z cos w + cos z sin w.
We are going to use its proof by differentiation to introduce the addition

formula for the elliptic sine function. We use a complex constant C to rewrite
the formula for the trigonometric sine function as
sin C = sin z cos(C − z) + cos z sin(C − z)
for all z ∈ C. To prove it by differentiation, it suffices to check that
(i) the value of the right-hand side is sin C at z = 0 and
(ii) the first-order derivative of the right-hand side with respect to z is

identically 0.
Statement (i) clearly holds from sin 0 = 0 and cos 0 = 1. To check Statement
(ii), we let ξ = sin z and η = sin w with w = C − z. We use the notation
sin0 z = dz
d
sin z to rewrite
sin z cos(C − z) + cos z sin(C − z)
as
sin z sin0 w − sin0 z sin w = ξη 0 − ξ 0 η
so that
d 0
(sin z cos(C − z) + cos z sin(C − z)) = (ξη 0 − ξ 0 η) = ξη 00 − ξ 00 η,
dz
where the notation “prime” means differentiation with respect to z. State-
ment (ii) follows from ξ 00 = −ξ and η 00 = −η. In this proof of the addi-
tion formula for the trigonometric sine function is the identical vanishing of
(ξη 0 − ξ 0 η)0 .
For the case of the elliptic sine functions, with a complex constant C and
the setting of w = C − z and ξ = sn z and η = sn w, the crucial expression
(ξη 0 − ξ 0 η)0 is no longer identically zero. For the proof of the additional
formula for the trigonometric sine function, one can also use the identical
vanishing of
0
(log (ξη 0 − ξ 0 η))
instead of the identical vanishing of (ξη 0 − ξ 0 η)0 . It makes no difference in the
case of the proof of the additional formula for the trigonometric sine function,
but it makes all the difference in the exploration for the additional formula
for the elliptic sine function, because after reduction by using the differential
equations for the elliptic sine function, the non-identically-zero expression
0 ξη 00 − ξ 00 η
(log (ξη 0 − ξ 0 η)) =
ξη 0 − ξ 0 η
may show us how to modify the addition formula of the trigonometric sine
function to obtain the additional formula for the elliptic sine function.
We already know the first-order differential equations

2
ξ 0 = (1 − ξ 2 )(1 − k 2 ξ 2 ) = 1 − (1 + k 2 )ξ 2 + k 2 ξ 4
and
2
η 0 = (1 − η 2 )(1 − k 2 η 2 ) = 1 − (1 + k 2 )η 2 + k 2 η 4
for the elliptic sine functions. Here again the notation “prime” means differ-
entiation with respect to z. To get the second-order derivatives of the elliptic
sine function, we can differentiate the first-order differential equation
2
df
= (1 − f 2 )(1 − k 2 f 2 )
dz
for the elliptic sine function f (z) = sn z once more with respect to z to get
2
df df df 2 2 2 df
2 2
= −2f (1 − k f ) + (1 − f ) −2k f .
dz dz dz dz
df
which, after the cancellation of 2 dz from both sides, is reduced to
d2 f
= −(1 + k 2 )f + 2k 2 f 3 .
dz 2
From
ξ 00 = −(1 + k 2 )ξ + 2k 2 ξ 3 and η 00 = −(1 + k 2 )η + 2k 2 η 3
we get the expression
−ξη 00 + ηξ 00 = 2k 2 ξη(ξ 2 − η 2 ).
for the numerator of

0 ξη 00 − ξ 00 η
(log (ξη 0 − ξ 0 η)) = .
ξη 0 − ξ 0 η
To use the first-order differential equation for the elliptic sine function to
compute the denominator, it is easier to have (ξ 0 )2 and (η 0 )2 because they
occur in the first-order differential equation for the elliptic sine function with-
out the use of square roots. Instead of computing the denominator ξη 0 − ξ 0 η
we compute
ξ 2 (η 0 )2 − (ξ 0 )2 η 2 = (ξη 0 − ξ 0 η)(ξη 0 + ξ 0 η).
From
2
ξ 0 = (1 − ξ 2 )(1 − k 2 ξ 2 ) = 1 − (1 + k 2 )ξ 2 + k 2 ξ 4
and
2
η 0 = (1 − η 2 )(1 − k 2 η 2 ) = 1 − (1 + k 2 )η 2 + k 2 η 4 .
it follows that
2 2
ξ 2 η 0 − η 2 ξ 0 = ξ 2 1 − (1 + k 2 )η 2 + k 2 η 4 − η 2 1 − (1 + k 2 )ξ 2 + k 2 ξ 4

= ξ 2 − η 2 + k 2 ξ 2 η 2 (η 2 − ξ 2 ) = (ξ 2 − η 2 )(1 − k 2 ξ 2 η 2 )
so that
−ξη 00 + ηξ 00 −2k 2 ξη(ξ 0 η + ξη 0 )
= .
−ξη 0 + ηξ 0 1 − k2ξ 2η2
At this point the big surprise is that the numerator of the right-hand side is
equal to the derivative of the denominator of the right-hand side so that
0
1 − k 2 ξ 2 η 2 = −2k 2 ξη(ξ 0 η + ξη 0 .
It means that the derivative of
log(−ξη 0 + ηξ 0 ) − log(1 − k 2 ξ 2 η 2 )
with respect to z is identically zero.

By integrating
0
log(−ξη 0 + ηξ 0 ) − log(1 − k 2 ξ 2 η 2 ) ≡ 0,
we obtain the constancy of
log(−ξη 0 + ηξ 0 ) − log(1 − k 2 ξ 2 η 2 )
and upon exponentiating, we obtain the constancy of
ξη 0 − ηξ 0 sn z cn w dn w + sn w cn z dn z
= .
1 − k2ξ 2η2 1 − k 2 sn2 z sn2 w
To determine the constant, we set z = 0 and w = C − z = C to get
sn z cn w dn w + sn w cn z dn z sn 0 cn C dn C + sn C cn 0 dn 0
2 2 2
= = sn C
1 − k sn z sn w 1 − k 2 sn2 0 sn2 C
so that we end up with the addition formula
sn z cn w dn w + sn w cn z dn z
sn(z + w) =
1 − k 2 sn2 z sn2 w
for the elliptic sine function.
Addition Theorems for Elliptic Cosine and Delta Amplitude Functions.

The addition theorems for the elliptic cosine and delta amplitude functions
are
cn z cn w − sn z sn w dn z dn w
cn(z + w) = ,
1 − k 2 sn2 z sn2 w
dn z dn w − k 2 sn z sn w cn z cn w
dn(z + w) = ,
1 − k 2 sn2 z sn2 w
and they can be proved by squaring both sides of the addition theorem for the
elliptic sine function and doing some rather tedious algebraic manipulations.
The details of the algebraic manipulation for cn z is as follows. To simplify
notations let s1 = sn z, s2 = sn w, c1 = cn z, c2 = cn w, d1 = dn z, and
d2 = dn w. Then
(1 − k 2 s21 s22 )2 cn2 (z + w)

= (1 − k 2 s21 s22 )2 1 − sn2 (z + w)

= (1 − k 2 s21 s22 )2 − (s1 c2 d2 − s2 c1 d1 )2 (after using addition formula for sn(z + w) )

= (1 − 2k 2 s21 s22 + k 4 s41 s42 ) − (s21 c22 d22 + s22 c21 d21 − 2s1 s2 c1 c2 d1 d2 )
= (1 − 2k 2 s21 s22 + k 4 s41 s42 ) − s21 (1 − s22 )(1 − k 2 s22 ) + s22 (1 − s21 )(1 − k 2 s21 ) − 2s1 s2 c1 c2 d1 d2

= (1 − 2k 2 s21 s22 + k 4 s41 s42 ) − s21 − (1 + k 2 )s21 s22 + k 2 s21 s42

− s22 − (1 + k 2 )s21 s22 + k 2 s41 s22 + 2s1 s2 c1 c2 d1 d2

= 1 + k 4 s41 s42 − s21 − s22 + 2s21 s22 − k 2 s21 s42 − k 2 s41 s22 + 2s1 s2 c1 c2 d1 d2
= (1 − s21 )(1 − s22 ) + s21 s22 (1 − k 2 s21 )(1 − k 2 s22 ) − 2s1 s2 c1 c2 d1 d2
= (c1 c2 − s1 s2 d1 d2 )2
to yield
c1 c2 − s 1 s 2 d 1 d 2
cn(z + w) = ± .
1 − k 2 s21 s22
The plus sign is determined by continuity and the evaluation at z = w = 0.
Of course, the addition theorems for the elliptic cosine and delta ampli-
tude functions can also be proved in the same way that we prove the addition
theorem for the elliptic sine function. We will leave such a proof for the el-
liptic cosine function to a homework problem.
Addition Theorem for Elliptic Functions in Terms of Defining Indefinite

Integrals. In general, the addition theorem f (z1 + z2 ) = Ξ(f (z1 ), f (z2 )) for a
function wR= f (z) whose inverse function is defined by an indefinite integral
w
f −1 (w) = ζ=a Φ(ζ)dζ can be rewritten in terms of the defining integrals as
Z w1 Z w2 Z Ξ(w1 ,w2 )
Φ(ζ)dζ + Φ(ζ)dζ = Φ(ζ)dζ
ζ=a ζ=a ζ=a
when w1 = f (z1 ) and w2 = f (z2 ), because the above equation simply states
that
f −1 (w1 ) + f −1 (w2 ) = z1 + z2 = f −1 (f (z1 + z2 ))
= f −1 (Ξ(f (z1 ), f (z2 )) = f −1 (Ξ(w1 , w2 )) .
In terms of the defining indefinite integrals, the addition theorem for sn z

becomes
Z ξ Z η
dx dx
p + p
x=0 (1 − x2 )(1 − k 2 x2 ) x=0 (1 − x2 )(1 − k 2 x2 )
√ √
Z ξ (1−η2 )(1−k2 η2 )+η (1−ξ2 )(1−k2 ξ2 )
1−k2 ξ2 η 2 dx
= p
x=0 (1 − x )(1 − k 2 x2 )
2
and the addition theorems for cn z and dn z become

Z 1 Z 1
dx dx
p + p
x=ξ (1 − x2 )(1 − k 2 + k 2 x2 ) x=η (1 − x2 )(1 − k 2 + k 2 x2 )
Z 1
dx
= √
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
p
x=
ξη− (1−ξ )(1−k +k ξ )(1−η )(1−k +k η )
1−k2 (1−ξ2 )(1−η 2 )
(1 − x2 )(1 − k 2 + k 2 x2 )
and
Z 1 Z 1
dx dx
p + p
x=ξ (x2 − 1)(1 − k 2 − x2 ) x=η (x2 − 1)(1 − k 2 − x2 )
Z 1
dx
= √
ξη− 12 (ξ2 −1)(1−k2 −ξ2 )(η 2 −1)(1−k2 −η 2 )
p .
k (x 2 − 1)(1 − k 2 − x2 )
x= 1
1− (1−ξ2 )(1−η 2 )
k2
Riemann Surfaces for Jacobian Elliptic Functions. Since the inverse func-
tion of the Jacobian elliptic function is defined by
Z 1
−1 dζ
cn w = p ,
ζ=w (1 − ζ )(1 − k 2 + k 2 ζ 2 )
2
the Riemann surface we need to construction to invert the indefinite integral

is to look at the roots of the quartic polynomial
(1 − ζ 2 )(1 − k 2 + k 2 ζ 2 )
q
2
which are ±1 and ± 1−k −k2
. To simplify expressions we introduce k 0 =
√ √
1 − k 2 . To make a choice of the sign of the square root k 0 = 1 − k 2
continuously, we take a branch-cut [−1, 1] with the value of 1 at k = 1.
Riemann Surfaces for Jacobian Elliptic Functions. In this choice of the

branch-cut, we seem to have excluded some choices of k 2 in the definition of
sn z from which cn z and dn z are derived. Actually we have not excluded any
cases for sn z, because to introduce an elliptic sine function we can assume
without loss of generality that k > 0 and if k > 1 we can rewrite change the
variable z to ζ = kz in the indefinite integral
Z w
dz
p
z=0 (1 − z 2 )(1 − k 2 z 2 )
to transform it to Z kw
1 dζ
q
k ζ=0 (1 − 1 2
ζ )(1 − ζ 2)
k2
and to end with the same elliptic sine function with rescaling in both the
independent and dependent variable. We come back to the indefinite integral
Z 1
−1 dζ
cn w = p ,
ζ=w (1 − ζ )(1 − k 2 + k 2 ζ 2 )
2
with the roots ±1 and ± ik

k0
in the quartic polynomial in the denominator.
0 0
We choose the branch-cuts [ ikk , −1] and [1, −ik
k
] to get two branches of the
multi-valued function
p
(1 − ζ 2 )(1 − k 2 + k 2 ζ 2 ).
By glueing the edges of the branch-cuts in a criss-cross way we end up with a

compact Riemann surface X which covers the Riemann sphere P1 = C∪{−1}
as a two-sheeted cover with 4 branching points over ±1 and ± ik k0
.
Two primitive periods for cn z are given by

Z 1
dζ
2 p ,
ζ=− ikk
0
(1 − ζ )(1 − k 2 + k 2 ζ 2 )
2
Z 1
dζ
2 p ,
ζ=−1 (1 − ζ )(1 − k 2 + k 2 ζ 2 )
2
We would like to express these two primitive periods in terms of K and K 0

which were introduced as
Z 1
dz
K= p ,
z=0 (1 − z 2 )(1 − k 2 z 2 )
Z 1
0
k dz
iK = p ,
z=1 (1 − z )(1 − k 2 z 2 )
2
so that 4K and 2iK 0 form two primitive periods of sn, z
Computation of Two Primitive Periods of Elliptic Cosine Function. This

is done by using the addition theorem for cn z and the definitions
√ of K and
0 2
K . By definition
√ of K, we have sn K = 1 so that cn K = 1 − sn K = 0 and
dn K = 1 − k sn2 K = k 0 . By definition of K 0 , we have sn (K + iK 0 ) = k1
2
so that
r
0
p 1 ik 0
cn (K + iK ) = 1 − sn2 (K + iK 0 ) = 1 − 2 = −
k k
and r
p 0 1
dn (K + iK ) = 1 − k 2 sn2 (K + iK 0 ) = 1 − k2 = 0.
k2
0
cn (K + iK 0 ) = − ikk means that
Z 1
dζ
p = K + iK 0
0 2 2 2 2
(1 − ζ )(1 − k + k ζ )
ζ=− ikk
and one of the two primitive periods of cn z is 2K + 2iK 0 . Note that since
sn z is odd and has period 4K, we have
sn(2K) = −sn(−2K) = −sn(−2K + 4K) = sn(−2K) = −sn(2K)

p
which means sn(2K) = 0 and cn(2K) = 1 − sn2 (2K) = ±1. Since in the
degenerate case of k = 0, K = π2 and cos(2K) = cos π = −1, by continuity
arguments we know that cn(2K) = −1. Apply the addition theorem
cn z cn w − sn z sn w dn z dn w
cn(z + w) =
1 − k 2 sn2 z sn2 w
to z = −2K and w = 2K + 2iK 0 to get
cn(2iK 0 ) = cn(−2K + (2K + 2iK 0 ))

cn(−2K) cn(2K + 2iK 0 ) − sn(−2K) sn(2K + 2iK 0 ) dn(−2K) dn(2K + 2iK 0 )
=
1 − k 2 sn2 (−2K) sn2 (2K + 2iK 0 )
= −1,
which means that

Z 1
dζ
p = 2iK 0
ζ=−1 (1 − ζ 2 )(1 − k2 + k2ζ 2)
and the other primitive period of cn z is 4iK 0 . Instead of the two primitive
periods 2K + 2iK 0 and 4iK 0 , one can also use 4K and 2K + i2iK 0 as periods.
Note that the lattice of periods Z(4K) + Z(2K + 2iK 0 ) of cn z is different
from the lattice Z(4K) + Z(2iK 0 ) of periods of sn, z.
Period
p Lattice of Delta Amplitude Function. The Riemann surface for
(ζ 2 − 1)(1 − k 2 − ζ 2 ) in the denominator of the indefinite integral
Z 1
−1 dζ
dn w = p
ζ=w (ζ 2 − 1)(1 − k 2 − ζ 2 )
for the definition of the inverse function of dn z can be constructed by glueing

the edges of the two branch-cuts [−k 0 , −1] and [1, k 0 ] and in a criss-cross way
to end up with a compact Riemann surface X which covers the Riemann
sphere P1 = C ∪ {−1} as a two-sheeted cover with 4 branching points over
±1 and ±k 0 . The period lattice for dn, z is Z(2K) + Z(4iK 0 ), which can be
verified in the same way as for the elliptic cosine function cn z. We will leave
the verification to a homework assignment.
Period lattices and zero-sets and pole-sets of sn z (in black), cn z (in

green) and sn z (in red).
Period lattice of sn z is Z(4K) + Z(2iK 0 ). Simple zeroes at 0 and 2K.

Simple poles at iK 0 and 2K + iK 0 .
Period lattice of cn z is Z(2K + 2iK 0 ) + Z(4iK 0 ). Simple zeroes at K + 2iK 0

and K + 4iK 0 . Simple poles at iK 0 and 3iK 0 .
Period lattice of dn z is Z(2K) + Z(4iK 0 ). Simple zeroes at K + iK 0 and

K + 3iK 0 . Simple poles at Simple poles at iK 0 and 3iK 0 .
Amplitude in Jacobi’s Language of Elliptic Functions. The Jacobian

elliptic function w = sn, z is defined by
Z w
−1 dz
sn w = p .
z=0 (1 − z 2 )(1 − k 2 z 2 )
The natural change of variable to simplify it to use the function sin ϕ. Instead
of doing the conventional substitution z = sin ϕ for the variable of integration
z to get
Z w Z sin−1 (w)
dz dϕ
p = p ,
z=0
2 2 2
(1 − z )(1 − k z ) ϕ=0 1 − k 2 sin2 ϕ
for our setting one directly introduces a new function ϕ(z) such that z =
sn−1 w = sn−1 (sin ϕ(z)) (which simply means sn z = sin ϕ(z), without using
an indefinite integral. The idea is to compare the elliptic sine function the
trigonometric sine function in terms of how much change (measure by the
function ϕ(z)) in the independent variable would make the two the same.
Amplitude in Jacobi’s Language of Elliptic Functions. The function ϕ(z)

is locally defined near z = 0 without any worry about inverting functions
globally. From sin2 ζ + cos2 ζ = 1 and sn2 z + cn2 z = 1 and the initial values
of the relevant functions at the origin, it follows that cn z = cos ϕ(z). Ap-
plying differentiation to sn z = sin ϕ(z) yields cn z dn z = cos ϕ(z) dϕ
dz
, which
dϕ
upon the cancellation of a common factor implies dn z = dz . Jacobi called the
variable ϕ the amplitude, because it is like an angle variable of the trigono-
metric sine funtion. He used the notation ∆ to denote differentiation so that
the elliptic function dn z is called the delta amplitude function because of the
equation dn z = dϕ dz
. On line 7 of p.31 of Jacobi’s 1829 book Fundamenta
nova theorie functionum ellipticarum, he used ∆ am u to denote dn u.
Evenness of Inverse Function with Branching Point as Initialp Point of

Indefinite Integral. Suppose X is a compact Riemann surface for P (z) of
some polynomial P (z) and ω is a holomorphic 1-form on X. A branch-point
P̃ on X which is above z = P ∈ C isR chosen as the initial point of integration
w
for the indefinite integral z(w) = P̃ ω used to define the inverse function
z 7→ w. We now prove that the inverse function z 7→ w of the integral is
even. The curve-segment γ in the target C from P to w = Q is lifted to two
curve-segments γ− from P̃ to Q− and γ+ from P̃ to Q+ in the Riemann
surface X. The value of ω at a point of γ− equals the negative of its value

at the corresponding point of γ+ (above the same point in the target C).
The value −z of the integral of ω along γ− is the negative of the value z of
the integral of ω along γ+. Since both terminal points of γ+ and γ− are
projected to the same point Q = w of the target C, it follows that z 7→ w is
an even function.
Figure 9: Inverse Function is even if a branch point is chosen as the initial

point of the defining indefinite integral whose integrand is the reciprocal of
the square root of a polynomial.
Twelve Jacobi Elliptic Functions as Analogues of Six Trigonometric

Functions. In trigonometry, besides the sine and cosine functions, there
are four other trigonometric functions. The six trigonometric functions
sin z, cos z, tan z, cot z, sec z, cosec z

are formed as quotients of ordered pairs from the three functions sin z, cos z, 1.
Analogously there are 12 possibilities of quotients of ordered triples from the
four functions sn z, cn z, dn z, 1. The naming convention is that the recip-
rocals of
sn z, cn z, dn z
are
ns z, nc z, nd z
with the two letters in the name of the original function reversed. The
quotient
sn z
cn z
is named sc z. The first letter of the name of the quotient function is the
first letter of the name of the numerator function. The second letter of the
name of the quotient function is the first letter of the name of the numerator
function.
Special Values and Translates by Fractional Periods for Jacobian Elliptic

Functions Used to Compute Period Lattices, Zero-Sets and Pole-Sets.
From definition of K
sn K = 1, cn K = 0, dn K = k 0
addition formulas yield
sn(z + K) = cd(z), cn(z + K) = −k 0 sd(z), dn(z + K) = k 0 nd(z).
From definition of K 0 and the addition of the integral for K,
ik 0
sn(K + iK 0 ) = 1, cn(K + iK 0 ) = − , dn(K + iK 0 ) = 0.
k
Addition formulas yield
1
sn(z + K + iK 0 ) = dc(z),
k
ik 0
cn(z + K + iK 0 ) = − nc(z),
k
0 0
dn(z + K + iK ) = ik sc(z).
Using z + iK 0 = (z − K) + (K + iK 0 ) and the addition formulas as well as

the oddness of sn z and the evenness of cn z and dn z, one obtains
1 i
sn(z + iK 0 ) = ns(z), cn(z + iK 0 ) = − ds(z), dn(z + iK 0 ) = −i cs(z).
k k
Integral Formulas for 12 Jacobian Elliptic Functions with 6 Derived

by Use of Addition Formula. The following formulas for integrating 6 of
the 12 Jacobian elliptic functions can readily verified by differentiating the
right-hand side. Z
1
sn z dz = log (dn z − kcn z) ,
k
Z
1
cn z dz = sin−1 (ksn z),
k
Z
dn z dz = sin−1 (sn z),
Z
cs z dz = − log (ns z + ds z) ,
Z
ds z dz = log (ns z − cs z) ,
Z
dc z dz = log (nc z + sc z) ,
The following formulas for integrating the remaining 6 of the 12 Jacobian

elliptic functions are obtained by applying the above 6 to z + K, instead of
z, and using the addition formula.
Z
1
cd z dz = log (nd z + ksd z) ,
k
Z
1
sd z dz = − 0 sin−1 (kcd z),
kk
Z
1
nd z dz = 0 sin−1 (cd z),
k
Z
1
sc z dz = 0 log (dc z + k 0 nc z) ,
k
Z
1
nc z dz = 0 log (dc z + k 0 sc z) ,
k
Z
ns z dz = − log (ds z + cs z) ,
Abel’s Elliptic Functions and Addition Formulas. For his elliptic function
ϕ(αi)
corresponding to the sine function, Abel used ϕ(α) which is given by y = i
with Z y
∂y
α= p
0 (1 − e y 2 )(1 + c2 y 2 )
2
on lines 9-10 from the bottom of p.104 of his 1827 paper.

Niels Henrik Abel, Recherches sur les fonctions elliptiques, Journal für die reine und
angewandte Mathematik 2 (1827), 101 – 181. ibid. 3 (1828), 190 – 190.
For his elliptic functions corresponding respectively to the cosine function

and the delta amplitude function, Abel used
p p
f (α) = 1 − c2 ϕ(α)2 and F (α) = 1 + e2 ϕ(α)2
on lines 9-10 from the bottom of p.104 of his 1827 paper.

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Math 213a (Fall 2021) Yum-Tong Siu 1

ELLIPTIC FUNCTIONS (Approach of Abel and Jacobi)

Significance of Elliptic Functions. Elliptic functions and their associated

Two Approaches to Elliptic Function Theory. One approach (which we

that it is cleaner, easier, and more elegant to develop. Moreover, it fits in

Exact Solution of Motion of Simple Pendulum. Let m be the mass of the

The periodic time of the pendulum is

To invert it, we hope to get a single-valued function ξ = sin θ so that the

which, in terms of the defining indefinite integrals, is

Once we have such an equation of three definite integrals with appropriate

After Riemann introduced the concept of a Riemann surface, nowadays

valued. In other words, we need a Riemann surface which is double-sheeted

Consider the map z = 21 w + w1 from C − {0} (coordinate w) to C

the projection π : X → C. This finishes the concrete description of X as

Our next step is to use the indefinite integral obtained on X by pulling

This conclusion means that we obtain the multi-valued function ζ = sin−1 ζ

The use of i log(−iw), instead of i log w, as the result of integrating idw

Riemann Surfaces from Joining Branches of Multi-Valued Holomorphic

Figure 2: Visualization of the Riemann surface of log z as an infinite spiral

Riemann Surfaces as Graphs of Multi-Valued Holomorphic Functions.

space of real dimension 4 which is not easy to visualize and to topologically

Another disadvantage is that when we would like to get a compact Rie-

of the complex variable z is double-valued except at the four roots ±1, ±1

we construct a new structure which replaces a single point z by two points

becomes single-valued on this new structure. To construct this new structure,

on the domain obtained by removing the two branch-cuts [ −1 , −1] and 1, k1

Figure 3: Two red-colored edges identified. Two blue-colored edges identified.

Denote by π : X → P1 the projection which is 2-to-1 except over the four

Figure 5: Torus constructed after cutting up branch-cuts of both spheres and

Figure 6: Description of the first loop of the resulting torus.

Figure 7: Description of the second loop of the resulting torus.

Two Periods from Two Loops of Fundamental Group of Torus. The

is 2iK 0 with Z 1/k

Nowhere Zero Holomorphic Form on Riemann Surface and Inverse Map

The complex-analytic coordinate charts on Riemann surface X can natu-

At one of the four points c = ±1, ± k1 , with respect to the complex-analytic

Derivative of Elliptic Sine, Cosine and Delta Amplitude Functions. By

clear that they can be defined to be global meromorphic functions on all of

so that each can be defined as the inverse function of an indefinite integral

to define the meromorphic function on C. From

we can use the inverse function of the infinite integral

to define the meromorphic function on C.

Use of Addition Theorem for Trigonometric Sine Function to Introduce

sin(z + w) = sin z cos w + cos z sin w.

We are going to use its proof by differentiation to introduce the addition

sin C = sin z cos(C − z) + cos z sin(C − z)

for all z ∈ C. To prove it by differentiation, it suffices to check that

(i) the value of the right-hand side is sin C at z = 0 and

(ii) the first-order derivative of the right-hand side with respect to z is

sin z cos(C − z) + cos z sin(C − z)

We already know the first-order differential equations

ξ 00 = −(1 + k 2 )ξ + 2k 2 ξ 3 and η 00 = −(1 + k 2 )η + 2k 2 η 3

we get the expression

for the numerator of

It means that the derivative of

with respect to z is identically zero.

we obtain the constancy of

and upon exponentiating, we obtain the constancy of