METAL AND METAL ALLOYS

Unit-1:
Characteristics, Properties and types of following materials and their application in
buildings.
b) Metal & Metal alloys
a. Different metals and there alloys having application in building.
b. Ferrous metal; cast iron, wrought iron, mild steel, high carbon steel, stainless steel
c. Non-ferrous metal; Copper, aluminum, alloys of copper and aluminum

• Various forms of steel available in market

• Concept of cold rolled and hot rolled steel
• Connection details of various metals

Introduction –

There are five separate families of metals as Alkali metals, Alkaline earth metals, First
transition metals, Second transition metals, Third transition metals in Periodic table.
Among the group first transition metals: known for hardness and strength, are used as
alloying agents.

Second transition metals: iron is major

architectural element of this group. Nickel is
alloyed with copper to produce monel and with
iron and steel to produce the stainless steels.

Third transition metals: included here is copper,

silver, zinc. All of these play an architectural
role. Zinc and copper are sought for their
superior stability in atmospheric conditions.
METAL

A metal may be defined as a chemical element that possesses ‘Metallic properties’

Metallic properties’ are defined as:
• Luster,
• good thermal and electrical conductivity and the
• Capability of being permanently shaped or deformed at room temperature and
which, in electrolysis, carries a positive charge that is liberated at the cathode.(-)
This is use for plating of metals.
METAL ALLOYS

An alloy is a metal (parent metal) combined with other substances (alloying agents),
resulting in superior properties such as; strength, hardness, durability, ductility, tensile
strength and toughness. Alloying agent may consist of one or more metals and non-
metal. Examples of alloys are: Iron and Carbon forming Steel and great variety of
copper alloys such as brass and bronze.

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 Properties of Metal and Alloys
• Physical properties - relate to color, density, weight and heat conductivity
• Chemical properties - behavior of the metal when placed in contact with the
atmosphere, salt water, or other substances.
• Electrical properties - conductivity, resistance, and magnetic qualities of the metal.
• Mechanical properties – carrying ability, wear resistance, hardness and elasticity.
• Corrosion resistance - ability to withstand attacks from atmospheric, chemical, or
electrochemical conditions.
• Among all above categories of properties of metal and metal alloys , mechanical
properties plays major role in application of metal and their products in building
industry.
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES –
The internal reactions of a metal to external forces are known as mechanical properties.
A change in one property usually causes a change in one or more additional properties.

1. Strength – Strength is the property that enables a metal to resist deformation under
load. The ultimate strength is the maximum strain a material can withstand. Tensile
strength is the ability of a metal to resist being pulled apart by opposing forces
acting in a straight line.
2. Shear strength
3. Compressive strength
4. Fatigue strength is the ability of material to resist various kinds of rapidly changing
stresses
5. Impact strength is the ability of a metal to resist suddenly applied loads
6. Toughness is the property that enables a material to withstand shock and the ability
of a metal to resist fracture.
7. Hardness is the property of a material to resist permanent indentation or ability of a
metal to resist penetration and wear by another metal or material.
8. Elasticity or plasticity - This property is the opposite of strength. By careful alloying
of metals, the combination of plasticity and strength is used to manufacture large
structural members.
9. Brittleness is the opposite of the property of plasticity. A brittle metal is one that
breaks or shatters. Generally, brittle metals are high in compressive strength but low
in tensile strength.
10. Ductility is the property that enables a material to stretch, bend or twist without
cracking or breaking.
11. Malleability is the property that enables a material to deform by compres-sive forces
without developing defects.
FERROUS METAL AND NON FERROUS METAL –
Ferrous is an adjective used to indicate the presence of iron.

Ferrous Metal – Non Ferrous Metal –

• Ferrous metals are metals that consist • Non-ferrous metals are metals that do
mostly of iron and small amounts of not have any iron in them at all.
other elements. • Non – magnetic
• Magnetic • Do not rust in the same way when

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 Prone to rusting if exposed to moisture. Exposed to moisture.
Examples: Examples:
1. Cast Iron.
1. Aluminum and alloys
2. Wrought Iron
2. Copper and alloys
3. Mild Steel
4. High Carbon Steel.
5. Stainless Steel.

Ferrous Metals and Alloys – contain iron as the base metal

The properties of ferrous metals may be changed by adding various alloying elements.

The chemical and mechanical properties need to be combined to produce a metal to

serve specific purpose. The basic ferrous metal form is pig iron.
IRON

Iron is produced by reducing iron ore to pig iron

through the use of a blast furnace. From pig iron many
other types of iron and steel are produced by the
addition or deletion of carbon and alloys.
PIG IRON

• Composed of about 93% iron, from 3% to 5%

carbon, and various amounts of other elements.
• comparatively weak and brittle having limited use
CAST IRON

It is an alloy of iron, carbon and silicon and it is hard and brittle. It contains 1.7% to 3%
carbon in the form of graphite and Alloys with this carbon content melt at lower
temperatures than steels i.e. they are responsive to casting. Hence casting is the most
used fabrication technique for these alloys. It has high-compressive strength, good wear
resistance. Cast iron is brittle and weak in tension. It lacks ductility, malleability, and
impact strength. Alloy-ing it with other metals improves toughness, tensile strength, and
hardness.

Based on the form of carbon present, cast irons are categorized as grey, white, nodular
and malleable cast irons. Among these categories Malleable cast iron has application in
railroad, connecting roads, marine and other heavy duty services

Because it is cast, (i.e. shaped by pouring the hot liquid metal into a mold and as a
consequence of its high liquidity in the molten state, cast iron is well-suited to the
production of components, both structural and decorative, of intricate shape.
Application –
• used in construction for as compression member - beams, decorative panels (grey Iron),
• Various types of cast irons are widely used for soil, waste and rainwater pipes,
valves, pumps, lids (manhole lids)
• Foundation for big machines (White Iron),

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 • Hinges, catches, step iron and similar casting of limited size and decorative panels
of fragile design.
WROUGHT IRON

This is a very pure iron where the iron content is of the order of 99.5%. i.e. negligible
amount (0.02 to 0.03 percent) of carbon. It is produced by re-melting pig iron and some
small amount of silicon, sulphur, or phosphorus may be present.

It is tough, moderately strong in tension, malleable and ductile and can easily be forged
or welded. It cannot however take sudden shock. Its pure iron, the presence of slag
enables wrought iron to resist corrosion and oxidation.
Application -

• Wrought iron is used mostly in ornamental ironwork, such as fences and handrails,
because it is welded or painted easily and it rusts very slowly.
• Wrought iron is rolled in the final stage of production so it usually occurs in simple
shapes of constant section - plates, tees, angles, bars etc
• In bridges and buildings e.g. original chain encircling dome of St Paul’s Cathedral,
London and suspension chains for Telford’s Menai Straits bridge and Eiffel Tower
in Paris.
STEEL

When steel was developed, it revolutionized the American iron industry. Construction
is one of the most important steel-using industries, accounting for more than 50% of
world steel production.

Steel is basically an alloy of iron and carbon in which the carbon content can be less
than 1.7%. Steels are notable for both their high strength: cost relationship and poor
performance in fire. Mechanical properties of steels are very sensitive to carbon
content. As well as properties and specification of steel is changed as per application in
various fields by alloying it. So classification of steel is based on two parameters one as
plain carbon steel and alloy steel.
A. Plain Carbon steel

Properties of plain carbon steel depend mainly on the carbon percentages and other
alloying elements are not usually present in more than 0.5 to 1%.
Following categorization of these steels is sometimes made for convenience:
• Dead mild steel- upto 0.15% C
• Low carbon steel or mild steel- 0.15 to 0.46% C
• Medium carbon steel- 0.45 to 0.8% C.
• High carbon steel- 0.8 to 1.5% C
Source: Module1, Fundamentals of machine design, Version 2 ME, IIT Kharagpur
LOW CARBON STEEL OR MILD STEEL

This steel is relatively soft, ductile combined with high toughness. It can be rolled,
punched, sheared, and worked when either hot or cold. It is easily machined and can be
readily welded by all methods. It cannot be casted.

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 It does not harden to any great amount; however, it can be easily case- or surface-hardened.
Applications –

• Weldable Structural steel as Hot rolled steel section universal beam, column and
bearing piles I sections, T sections in buildings
• cold rolled structural sections channel, equal angles, unequal angles, tees
• Reinforcing bars and wire and mesh
• Window frames, office furniture an sundries.
• Tin cans, automobile body components, etc.
MEDIUM – CARBON STEEL

These steels are strong and hard but cannot be welded or worked as easily as the low-
carbon steels. These alloys can be heat treated to improve their strength. They are used
for crane, hooks, axles, shafts, setscrews, and so on.
HIGH - CARBON STEEL

These are strongest and hardest of carbon steels. This steel has tensile strength due
increased carbon content. This strength can be further increased by heat treatment.
Their ductility is very limited and these are too brittle for structural work. They possess
very high wear resistance, and capable of holding sharp edges.
Applications –
• Used for tool application such as knives, razors, hacksaw blades, etc.
• These steels are used for dies, cutting tools, mill tools, and railroad car wheels.
Cor-ten Steel –

Corrosion resistance steels are used for weathering condition and exposed sections. This
steel has up to 0.5% of copper and up to 0.8% of chromium which gives increased
resistance to corrosion and high strength.

B. ALLOY STEEL

These are steels in which elements other than carbon are added in sufficient quantities
to impart desired properties, such as wear resistance, corrosion resistance, electric or
magnetic properties. Chief alloying elements added are usually
• nickel for strength and toughness,
• chromium for hardness and strength,
• tungsten for hardness at elevated temperature,
• vanadium for tensile strength,
• manganese for high strength in hot rolled and heat treated condition,
• silicon for high elastic limit,
• cobalt for hardness
• Molybdenum for extra tensile strength.
The resulting metals are known as alloy steels.

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 STAINLESS STEEL

Stainless steel is iron alloy and is manufactured by adding minimum 10% chromium as
alloying agent along with Ni and Mo. These agents’ gives highly corrosion resistant
steel i.e. stain-less (rust less) steel. Chromium produces a thin layer of oxide on the
surface of the steel known as the 'passive layer'. This prevents any further corrosion of
the surface. Increasing the amount of Chromium gives an increased resistance to
corrosion. Chromium is also responsible for the luster and the hardness of stainless
steels. Other alloying elements are added to enhance their structure.
General Properties of Stainless Steel –
• Very hard, strong and good appearance
• High corrosion resistance
• High temperature resistance and having low thermal movement
• High resistance to organic and weak mineral acids.
• fire-resistant
• Electrical Resistivity - Surface & bulk resistance is higher than that for plain-
carbon steels
• Thermal Conductivity - About 40 to 50 percent that of plain-carbon steel
• Available in rolled, extruded and drawn forms. They can be forged, cast and
fabricated by normal methods including soldering, brazing and welding.
• Available in variety of surface finishes
• With regular maintenance, anything made of stain-less steel will have a long life.
• Stainless steel’s unique aesthetic qualities offer architectural rich possibilities
Four main groups of stainless steels –
Group Constituents characteristic Application
Principally Fe-Cr-C alloys
Ferritic with Hardened and Automotive
stainless 12-14% Cr. contain small strengthened by components, valves
Additions of Mo, V, Nb, and
steel Ni. cold work and
not heat treatable.
magnetic
contain 18% Cr and 8% Ni
Austenitic plus Hardened and Chemical, food
stainless minor alloying elements, strengthened by processing equipment
steel non-magnetic cold work. and welding
non-magnetic construction

Martensitic alloying elements are: Cr, Mn heat treatable. Cutlery, bearings and
Stainless and Mo. Magnetic. surgical tools
Steels
Precipitation- Ultra high strength due to precipitation
hardening. Springs, knives and
Hardening pressure vessel
SS

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 Application –

• Use in making of ranges of kitchen utensils, dishes, cutlery and pots to sinks,
bins microwaves, robots, washing machines, dish washers, irons and so on
accessories.
• Stainless steel tubes for plumbing and hot water heating fittings.
• Use of steel for sanitary accessories and fittings i.e. urinals and WCs
• Used for cladding of structure , sandwich panels and foils and as street furniture,
dustbins, benches etc.
• Stainless steel makes thinner and more durable structures possible. For example,
stainless window or door uprights are of much thinner gauge than those made of
other materials.
• Sheathing material on wood or aluminum cores.
• Used as structural cold rolled sections, reinforcement bars
• As fitting materials screws, cramps, dowels, wall ties and cladding frames. Sole
plate anchors.
NON FERROUS METAL

Non-ferrous materials have specific advantages over ferrous materials. They can be
fabricated with ease, high relatively low density, and high electrical and thermal
conductivities. However different materials have distinct characteristics, and are used
for specific purposes.
ALUMINIUM AND ALLOYS

Aluminum is third most common element. 1/12 of the earth’s crust is composed of
aluminum ore (found in bauxite), twice that of iron ore. Aluminum is second to steel in
commercial production. Building construction products account for almost one third of
the total production of aluminum.
Aluminum Alloys

Aluminum alloys contains about 2-2.5% elements as silicon, magnesium, manganese,

copper together number of minor addition which increase strength. Further strength can
be increased by cold working or by heat treatment. In building industries aluminum
alloys are mostly used and refer as aluminum only.
Properties –
• Low weight, Low density about one third that of steel
• high thermal & electrical conductivities
• good corrosion resistant
• More ductile than steel can be cast, rolled, stamped, drawn, spun, roll-formed,
hammered, extruded and forged into many shapes.
• This material can be milled, sawn and drilled.
• Aluminum surface prone to attack by alkali constituents of other material need to
have sheeting.
• Aluminum may suffer electrolytic corrosion in damp or wet conditions and
contact must be avoided with copper, copper alloys and bare mild steel.
• Great limitation of these alloys is their low melting point (660 degree C), which
restricts their use at elevated temperatures.
• Low maintenance

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 • Hundreds of surface finishes: Aluminum can be anodized or painted in any color,
to any optical effect, using any number of surface touches, in order to meet a
designer’s decorative need.
Available Market forms –
The common forms are castings, sheet, plate, bar, rod, channels,
Types of Alloys and Their application
1. Wrought Al alloys –

Suitable for rolling, pressing and extrusion by two methods a) heat treatable and b) not
heat treatable.
Heat treatable alloys –
• Increased tensile strength by heat treatment contains Mg and Si.
• Largely used for extruded sections of window frames and for supporting
frameworks, post and rail façade.
Non-Heat treatable alloys –
• Increased tensile strength by cold working
• Used for extrusion of material in variety of profiles
• Glazing bars to support glass over long span.
• Plain and profiled sheets for façade and roofs
• Curtain walling- Curtain walls are like huge curtains that hang from the building
frame and help to maintain a weather-tight envelope around the building.
• Perforated sheets for false ceiling
• Members for partitions.
• Aluminum foil for waterproofing and Al foams for sound insulation.
2. Cast Al alloys –
• Used in building mainly for door and window furniture, rainwater pipes and fittings
Other Applications –
• Widely used in aerospace and automotive applications where weight savings are needed

COPPER AND ALLOYS

Copper is oldest metal to be used continuously. It was discovered in Europe and central
Asia during the Stone Age about 8,000 years ago. Copper is now third most commonly
used metal in construction (behind aluminum and iron.
Properties –
• Shiny red color and hardwearing.
• Easy to work, easily shaped, soldered, and welded but difficult to cast.
• Good heat and electric conductor.

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 • Resistant corrosive agents.
• Soft, ductile thus hard to machine but its strength improves considerably in form of
alloys.
• In ordinary atmosphere and water copper develops a protective skin of green color
known as Patina. And can be obtain more rapidly by chemical methods.
Application –
• Sheet copper is used for façade and roofs.
• Copper pipes for heating systems in domestic plumbing
• Widely used in electrical conductors.
COPPER ALLOYS –
Common properties –
• High resistance to corrosion and good electrical and thermal conductivities
• Good mechanical properties and cane be forged, pressed and easily machined.
• Can be joined by welding, brazing and soldering.
• Darkening with exposure can be preserved by washing and coating with wax.
Brass –
• Alloy of 65% of copper and 35% zinc.
• Highly resistant to corrosion
• Has shiny gold appearance after working and polishing
Application –
• Used for hinges in good quality joinery, for screws and nuts
• Pipe fitting and hardware
• Polished brass as fashionable lighting fittings, door accessories as handle,
• Decorative balustrades
• In architectural use, it used as in form of woven metal mesh in Synagogue in
Dresden.
Bronze –
• Alloy of 80-90% copper and 10-20% tin
• Hard than copper and brass
• Extremely durable and weather resistant
• Good resistance to corrosion
• Rich brown color has good aesthetic value
Application –
• Broze is used mostly for sculpture and objects in public areas
• Pipe coupling, hardware
• Gas ,water and steam fittings
• Used for casting bells and artistic objects
• Bronze window, door and accessories are used in prestigious contemporary buildings

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PROCESSING OF METAL AND ALLOYS
How the gears in your automobile work for years without any breakdown? Or
How a drill is able to make a hole in steel even after numerous holes are made?

These are basically due to the composition of the material and to the structural and
physical alteration of its properties. The art of controlling the metallurgical (structural
and physical) properties of steel or any ferrous material is termed "heat treatment. “
Through this process the material structure of the metal is altered in order to meet the
requirements of a specific application.
MECHANICAL FORMING PROCESSES

Practically all metals, which are not used in cast form, are reduced to some standard
shapes for subsequent processing. Manufacturing companies producing metals supply
metals in form of ingots which are obtained by casting liquid metal into a square cross
section.
• Slab (500-1800 mm wide and 50 to 300 mm thick)
• Billets (40 to 150 sq mm)
• Blooms (150 to 400 sq mm)

These shapes are further processed through hot rolling, forging or extrusion, to produce
materials in standard form such as plates, sheets, rods, tubes and structural sections.

Shaping process of metal in which ingots or continuously cast materials are converted
into shapes and sizes. Another purpose of this process is to alter and modify
microstructure and properties of products.
Rolling –

This is widely used process. It can be done hot or cold. A wide range of cross sectional
shapes can be produced. They are two methods of rolling as hot rolling and cold rolling.

Basic difference is that, in cold working geometry of atomic metal microstructure is

altered mechanically. In hot working which is not carried out at absolute temperatures
(for steel 900-1300◦ C, for lead 20◦C) make possible rearrangement of crystal lattice of
material. This process occurs during the hardening and tempering of steel. Therefore
rolling, pressing and forging can be used for both hot working and cold working
depending on the material.

Process of is to heat the steel to around 1,200°C in a reheat furnace and roll the steel,
squeezing it between sets of cylinders or rolls. Rolls are arranged in pairs and housed in
a 'stand'. The material to be rolled is drawn by means of friction into the two revolving
roll gap. The compressive forces applied by the rolls reduce the thickness of the
material or changes its cross sectional area.
Hot rolling process –

• The initial breakdown of ingots into blooms and billets is generally done by hot-
rolling. This is followed by further hot- rolling into plate, sheet, rod, bar, pipe, rail.
• Hot rolling is a mill process which involves rolling the steel at a high temperature
(typically at a temperature over 1700° F), which is above the steel’s recrystallization
temperature. When steel is above the recrystallization temperature, it can be shaped and
formed easily, and the steel can be made in much larger sizes.

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 • When the steel cools off it will shrink slightly thus giving less control on the size
and shape of the finished product when compared to cold rolled.
• All constructional steels are hot rolled in beginning for many products with large
metal thickness.
• To give very fine grain sizes having good combination of strength and toughness
controlled rolling is required.
Cold rolling process -

• Cold rolling cannot be used to same degrees as hot working for shaping purposes,
because of increased strength of cold product. Cold rolled steel is essentially hot
rolled steel that has had further processing.
• In this process material is cooled (at room temperature) followed by annealing or
tempers rolling. This process will produce steel with closer dimensional tolerances
and a wider range of surface finishes.
• It is mainly used for light weight sections.
• All cold products provide a superior surface finish, and are superior in tolerance,
concentricity, and straightness when compared to hot rolled
Extrusion process –

• In extrusion, the material is compressed in a chamber and the deformed material is

forced to flow through the die.
• The die opening corresponds to the cross section of the required product.
• It is basically a hot working process; however, for softer materials cold extrusion is
also performed.
• Aluminum alloys profile sections are produced by this process.
HEAT TREATMENT – as finishing process.

Heat treatment is processing of controlled heating and cooling operations used to bring
about a desired change in the physical properties of a metal.

Its purpose is to improve the structural and physical properties for some particular use
or for future work of the metal.
Types of Heat Treatment Processes
1. Hardening,
2. Case hardening,
3. Annealing,
4. Normalizing,
5. Tempering.
All heat-treating operations involve the heating and cooling of metals.
Hardening –

Metal is normally hardened by heating the metal to the required temperature and then
cooling it rapidly by plunging into a medium, such as oil, water, or brine. Most steels
must be cooled rapidly to harden them. The hardening process increases the hardness
and strength of metal, but also increases its brittleness.

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 Tempering –

Steel is usually harder than necessary and too brittle for practical use after being
hardened. Severe internal stresses are set up during the rapid cooling of the metal and
make it brittle. Steel is tempered after being hardened to relieve the internal stresses and
reduce its brittleness. Tempering consists of heating the metal to a specified
temperature and then permitting the metal to cool in still air. The rate of cooling usually
has no effect on the metal structure during tempering.
Annealing –

Metals are annealed to relieve internal stresses, soften them, make them more ductile,
and refine their grain structures. Metal is annealed by heating it to a prescribed
temperature, holding it at that temperature for the required time, and then cooling it
back to room temperature. Steel must be cooled very slowly to produce maximum
softness, by burying the hot part in sand, ashes, or some other substance that does not
conduct heat readily.
Normalizing –

This process is used to relieve the internal stresses produced by machining, forging, or
welding. Parts that will be subjected to impact and parts that require maximum
toughness and resistance to external stresses are usually normalized.
Normalized steels are harder and stronger than annealed steels.

Normalizing is achieved by heating the metal to a specified temperature (which is

higher than either the hardening or annealing temperatures), soaking the metal until it is
uniformly heated, and cooling it in still air.
Case Hardening –

Used when it require wear resistant and tough core of metal for particular use. E.g. gear,
cylinder sleeves.

During the case-hardening process, low-carbon steel is heated to a specific temperature

in the presence of a material (solid, liquid, or gas) which decomposes and deposits more
carbon into the surface of a steel. Then, when the part is cooled rapidly the outer surface
or case becomes hard, leaving the inside of the piece soft but very tough.

VARIOUS FORMS OF STEEL AVAILABLE IN MARKET

Ingot - Raw form of steel which are obtained by casting liquid metal into a square cross
section.
Slab (500-1800 mm wide and 50 to 300 mm thick)
Billets (40 to 150 sq mm)
Blooms (150 to 400 sq mm)

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 Basic product types –
Flat products - sheets or strips of uniform thickness,
Long products - lengths of a particular cross section
1. Flat products –
Plates - wide range of grades and sizes.

• Normal plate sizes range from 6mm to 150mm thick, with widths up to 3.75m
and lengths up to 18.3m
• Supplied in either the as rolled, normalized or
normalized rolled condition.
• For use in building construction plate will
normally be welded into fabricated sections
Strip – available in three main forms.
• Hot rolled
• Cold rolled
• Hot-dipped galvanized coil.
The most common form of strip steel used in construction is hot-dip galvanized coil.

The typical thickness used in construction is 0.4 to 3.2 mm. It is generally available in
coiled form in widths from 900 to 1,800mm.

Strip steel is used to produce many different products and in many applications. Hot-dip
galvanized coil is used to form many different construction products including: Wall
and roof cladding products, Floor decking products, Secondary structural products
including roof purlins and side rails, Light steel framing, Lintels.

In the final production process, the coils of steel are

uncoiled, slit into appropriate widths and then cold, roll-
formed into the final product form. Some smaller more
complex products, such as lintels, are formed using a
press brake. The image shows a purlin being roll-formed
from hot-dip galvanized strip steel

Open sections – includes range from large beams and

piles, which are mainly used in construction, down to
smaller products including rails, rods and bars.

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 Standard open sections –

British, European and International standards define dimensions for a wide variety of
open section shapes, notably I and H shaped sections, angle sections and channels. The
sizes of 'universal beams' (UB) and 'universal' columns' (UC) are defined in BS 4 along
with dimensions for parallel flange channel sections (PFC).

Hollow sections –

• Basic method of producing

hollow sections is seamless
process.
• Welded process - electric welding
method - the electric current
produces enough local heat to melt
the strip edges as they are forged
together.
• Pipes of wall thicknesses above 16
mm and with diameters above 400
mm are produced by several
consecutive forming processes and
electrically welded.
• After welding, circular sections are

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 reduced in diameter to the required size through a series of rolls. Rectangular
sections are 'squared up' by passing them through a suitable series that
progressively changes the shape.
Steel Rebar –

• Reinforcing bar, also known as reinforcing steel, reinforcement steel, or a

deformed bar.
• Used as a tensioning device in reinforced concrete and reinforced masonry
structures holding the concrete in compression.
• Usually formed from carbon steel, and is given ridges for better mechanical
anchoring into the concrete
• Available in different grades and specifications that vary in yield strength,
ultimate tensile strength, chemical composition, and percentage of elongation
• They are produced by hot rolling process with subsequent superficial
hardening by heat treatment
Fabricated Products (Built up sections) –

• Modern plate girders are fabricated

by welding together two flanges and
a web plate.
• Plate girders are used where standard
rolled sections are inadequate in
terms of load carrying capacity or
stiffness.
• Typical uses include long-span floors
in buildings, bridges and crane
girders in industrial buildings.
Cellular beams (Castellated universal
section)

• Cellular beams, with regularly spaced holes in the web of an I-section beam, are
created by cutting along the web of a beam section (usually a universal beam) to a
particular profile, separating the two parts and then welding these Tee sections to
form a deeper beam section.
'Light steel' sections -

• A very wide range of lightweight structural sections is produced by cold forming thin
gauge strip material to specific section profiles.
• Light steel sections are widely used as secondary structural steelwork in single-story
buildings.
• Thicknesses typically vary from 1.2 to 3.2 mm.
• Light steel sections are manufactured by many different companies and the profile
shapes and section sizes vary.

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BTM VI- Unit I AY-2021-22
CONNECTION DETAILS OF METALS
Common two ways of joining metals –
• Detachable joint – by screws, bolts, nails, rivets and pins
• Non –detachable joints - welding, soldering, brazing and bonding with adhesives.
Structural steel connection –

Connections are depend on type of loading, Strength and stiffness, Economy, Difficulty
or ease of erection. Steel connections have a direct influence on the cost of the framing
system. Most connections have the connecting material (plates, angles etc.) attached to
one member in the fabrication shop and to the other members in the field. It is a
common practice to have weld connection at shop and bolt connection at field. End-
plate connections are always shop welded.
a. Bolted connections –
• Bolting is the preferred method of connecting members on the site.
• Staggered bolt layout allows easier access for tightening with a pneumatic wrench
when a connection is all bolted.
• Hexagonal headed black bolts turned and fitted bolts and high strength friction grip
bolts are used for this connection according to required strength of connections.

BTM VI- Unit I AY-2021-22

b. Welded connections –
• Welding is basically operation of running molten weld into heated junction of
steel plates or member so that when weld metal has cooled and solidified it
strongly binds together.
• The edge of member to be joined are cleaned and also shaped for certain
types of weld.
• Welding can be carried out more quickly and accurately in workshop where
members can be manipulated more conveniently for welding than on site.
• Welding is most used in prefabrication of built up beams, trusses and lattice frames.
• Fusion welding and arc welding are two common methods of welding
used for structural steel framework.
• Arc welding can be done with manual metal arc welding (MMA), strength based
on skilled labor. Advanced metal inert gas (MIG) and metal active gas (MAG)
welding is used.
• Welded connections used for built up beams, built up columns, joinig of column
bases and foundation, column base plate etc.

Connection of structural steel sections in framework –

Connections between members in frame are made by angle sections seating or shelf
cleat to support beam end bearings on column with top angle cleat, Side cleat for beam
to beam connection, Spice connections between column lengths as shown in fig.

These connections are made from short lengths angle or tee section and plate that are
fixed with bolt or by welding.
References –
Books –
• The construction of buildings – volume 4 by Barry
• Construction Material Reference book, edited by D K Doron
• Mitchell’s Materials, fifth edition by Alan Everett
• Construction materials Manual

Lecture notes - Material Science, Chapter 9. Applications and Processing of Metals and
Alloys, Prof. Satish V. Kailas
NPTEL – Module1 - Fundamentals of machine design, Version 2 ME, IIT Kharagpur
https://engineering.purdue.edu/~jliu/courses/CE470/PPT_PDF/AISC_ConnectionsJL.pdf

BTM VI- Unit I AY-2021-22