BASIC CONCEPTS OF

THERMAL PROCESSING
Heat: Kills microorganisms by denaturing their
enzymes and other proteins. Heat resistance varies
widely among microbes.

Thermal Death Point (TDP): Lowest temperature at

which all of the microbes in a liquid suspension will be
killed in ten minutes.
Thermal Death Time (TDT): Minimal length of time in
which all bacteria will be killed at a given temperature.
Decimal Reduction Time (DRT): Time in minutes at
which 90% of bacteria at a given temperature will be
killed. Used in canning industry.
Control of Microbial Growth by Heat

Sterilization: Killing or removing all forms of microbial

life (including endospores) in a material or an object.
Heating is the most commonly used method of
sterilization.

Commercial Sterilization: Heat treatment that kills

endospores of Clostridium botulinum the causative
agent of botulism, in canned food.
Does not kill endospores of thermophiles.
Sepsis: Comes from Greek for decay or putrid.
Indicates bacterial contamination.

Asepsis: Absence of significant contamination.

Aseptic techniques are used to prevent
contamination of surgical instruments, medical
personnel, and the patient during surgery.
Aseptic techniques are also used to prevent
bacterial contamination in food industry.
Moist Heat: Kills microorganisms by coagulating
their proteins.
In general, moist heat is much more effective than dry
heat.
Boiling: Heat to 100oC or more at sea level. Kills vegetative
forms of bacterial pathogens, almost all viruses, and fungi
and their spores within 10 minutes or less. Endospores and
some viruses are not destroyed this quickly. However brief
boiling will kill most pathogens.
Hepatitis virus: Can survive up to 30 minutes of
boiling.
Endospores: Can survive up to 20 hours or more of
boiling.
Moist Heat (Continued):
Reliable sterilization with moist heat requires
temperatures above that of boiling water.

Autoclave: Chamber which is filled with hot steam under

pressure. Preferred method of sterilization, unless material
is damaged by heat, moisture, or high pressure.
Temperature of steam reaches 121oC at twice atmospheric pressure.
Most effective when organisms contact steam directly or are contained
in a small volume of liquid.
All organisms and endospores are killed within 15 minutes.
Require more time to reach center of solid or large volumes of liquid.
Autoclave: Closed Chamber with High
Temperature and Pressure
Moist Heat (Continued):

Pasteurization: Developed by Louis Pasteur to prevent the

spoilage of beverages. Used to reduce microbes responsible
for spoilage of beer, milk, wine, juices, etc.

• Classic Method of Pasteurization: Milk was exposed to 65oC for 30

minutes.
• High Temperature Short Time Pasteurization (HTST): Used today.
Milk is exposed to 72oC for 15 seconds.
• Ultra High Temperature Pasteurization (UHT): Milk is treated at
140oC for 3 seconds and then cooled very quickly in a vacuum chamber.
Advantage: Milk can be stored at room temperature for several months.
Dry Heat: Kills by oxidation effects.
Direct Flaming: Used to sterilize inoculating loops
and needles. Heat metal until it has a red glow.
Incineration: Effective way to sterilize disposable
items (paper cups, dressings) and biological waste.

Hot Air Sterilization: Place objects in an oven.

Require 2 hours at 170oC for sterilization. Dry heat
transfers heat less effectively to a cool body, than moist
heat.
HEAT
CHARACTERISTICS
OF FOOD
HEAT EFFECTS TO FOODS

1. Proteins
2. Carbohydrates
3. Fats
4. fiber
5. Minerals and Vitamins
PROTEINS

Coagulation – exposure of proteins to excessive heat

toughens them and makes them dry. Most proteins
complete coagulations or are “cooked" at 71oC to 85oC.

By cooking properly, tough meat can be made tender.

Acids like lemon juice, vinegar and tomato products

do two things to proteins:
 speed coagulation
 help dissolve some connective tissue
CARBOHYDRATES
1. Caramelization
It is the oxidation of sugar, a process used extensively in
cooking for the resulting nutty flavor and brown color. The
reaction involves the removal of water (as steam) and the break
down of the sugar. The caramelization reaction depends on the
type of sugar. Sucrose and glucose caramelize around 160 o C
(320F) and fructose caramelizes at 110 o C (230F).
SUGAR TEMPERATURE

Fructose 110° C, 230° F

Galactose 160° C, 320° F

Glucose 160° C, 320° F

Lactose 203° C, 397° F

Sucrose 160° C, 320° F

2. Gelatinization
Starch gelatinization is the disruption of molecular
orderliness within the starch granule. It results in granular
swelling, crystallite melting, loss of birefringence,
viscosity development, and solubilization.

Scott R. Bean, Lijia Zhu, Brennan M. Smith, Jeff D. Wilson, Brian P. Ioerger, Michael Tilley,
Chapter 6 - Starch and Protein Chemistry and Functional Properties∗,
Editor(s): John R.N. Taylor, Kwaku G. Duodu,
Sorghum and Millets (Second Edition),
AACC International Press,
2019,
 FIBER
A study conducted to asses the effects of heat treatment
on dietary fiber available in foods by Ming-Cheng
Chang in 1989 concluded that processing treatments
applied decreases the soluble dietary fiber of food
samples dependent upon the fiber source.

Sugar makes fiber firmer while baking soda, a food

additive makes fiber softer.

Chang, Ming-Cheng, "The Effect of Heat Treatments on Dietary Fiber As Assessed by

Chemical Analysis
and Scanning Electron Microscopy. " Master's Thesis, University of Tennessee, 1989.
https://trace.tennessee.edu/utk_gradthes/3724
FATS
The effects of heat in fats showed the following results:
• Formation of trans fatty acids (TFA) occurs during
frying/heating of fats/oil.
• Heating/frying also increased the saturated fatty acids
(solid FA) and decreased cis-unsaturated fatty acids
(liquid FA)
Trans-fatty acids are manufactured fats created during a process called
hydrogenation, which is aimed at stabilizing polyunsaturated oils to prevent
them from becoming rancid and to keep them solid at room temperature.
They may be particularly dangerous for heart health and may pose a risk for
certain cancers
Swati Bhardwaj, Santosh Jain Passi, Anoop Misra, Kamal K. Pant, Khalid Anwar, R.M. Pandey, Vikas
Kardam,
Effect of heating/reheating of fats/oils, as used by Asian Indians, on trans fatty acid formation,
Food Chemistry,
Volume 212,
2016,
Pages 663-670,
ISSN 0308-8146,
MINERALS AND VITAMINS

Mineral components may be leashed out, or dissolved

away from foods during cooking.

Vitamins and pigments may also be destroyed by

heat, by long cooking and by other elements present
during cooking.
What is sterilization?
 Food Sterilization
What is sterilization?
Sterilization is the complete destruction or elimination of all viable organisms in/on
object being sterilized. The process destroys yeasts, molds, vegetative bacteria, and
spore formers, and allows the food processor to store and distribute the products at
ambient temperatures, thus extending the shelf-life. Sterilization procedures
involve the use of heat, radiation, or chemicals, or physical removal of cells.

The process involves four distinct stages:

I. The product must be heated at 110-125 degrees Celsius.
II. After this, the product requires a few minutes to equilibrate, since the surface
will be hotter, and the central portion of the container will still be cool. The
equilibration stage allows a reduction in the temperature gradient.
III. Next, the product must be held at this temperature for a certain period of
time to ensure a predetermined sterilization value designated by the F0 value.
IV. Finally, the product has to be cooled down mainly to arrest further heat
treatment and to avoid bursting of the container at hot conditions.
 “In practice, commercial sterility is defined as a product that has been processed so that,
under normal conditions, the product will neither spoil nor endanger the health of the
consumer.”

Methods of Sterilization
Thermal vs. Non-Thermal
Sterilization
 Non-thermal processing is considered an effective method that does not
cause any deterioration of quality, in contrast with thermal processing.
For example, thermally processed milk may have a cooked flavor
accompanied by a loss of vitamins, essential nutrients, and flavors.

 During non-thermal processing, the temperature of the food is held

below the temperature normally used in thermal processing.

 In addition, non-thermal processes use less energy than thermal

processes.
Aseptic Processing
DEFINITION
- Is a process by which a sterile product is
packaged in a sterile container in a way that
maintains sterility.
The sterility is achieved with a flash-heating process
temperature between 195oF – 295oF(91oC – 140oC)
which retains more nutrients and uses less energy than
conventional sterilization techniques.
- Is a HTST process which results in products with
improved texture, color, flavor and nutritional value
compared to conventional canning
 HISTORY
- 1940’s > Development of process in which empty metal cans were
sterilized by treatment with superheated steam at 210oC prior to be
filled with cold, sterile product

- End of 1940 > a dairy enterprise and machinery manufacturer in

Switzerland combined to develop UHT-sterilized asseptically
canned milk, which was marketed in Switzerland in 1953
- Was not economical because of the cost of the cans

- 1950 > Dole Company bought the first commercial aseptic filling
plant on the market
- October 1961 > long shelf-life milk packaged in this manned was first
sold

- 1995 > “the sterile cans were filled with sterile product and the ends
sealed on in a closed chamber, which was kept pressurized with
steam or a mixture of steam and air”; three commercial plants were
built and operated on this principle.
PRINCIPLES
- Continuous flow
- Very short come up time
- Attain commercial sterility
EFFECT ON FLAVOR AND
AROMA

- Less severe

- Natural flavors and aromas of mlk, juices and

vegetables are better maintained
EFFECT ON NUTRITION
- Minimal nutritional losses

- Meat and vegetables lose thiamin and

pyridoxine(other vitamins are not really
affected)
COMMONLY USED
FOR:
Packaging of:
- Milk
- Fruits
- Juices
- Liquid whole eggs
- Gravies and
- Tomatoes > aseptically processed and packaged
for year-round remanufacture into various food
products
Pasteurization of
Food Products
Pasteurization
The process of pasteurization was named after Louis Pasteur (1960s) who
discovered that spoilage organisms could be inactivated in wine by applying heat
at temperatures below its boiling point. The process was later applied to milk and
remains the most important operation in the processing of milk.
Pasteurization made milk safer and the United State Food and drug
Administration or FDA in the 1906-2006.

Wine Louis Pasteur

Pasteurization
 What is Pasteurization

• Pasteurization involves heating food to a temperature that

kills disease causing microorganism and substantially
reduces the levels of spoilage organisms.
• Pasteurization is not intended to kill all micro-organisms
in the food. Instead pasteurization aims to reduce the
number of viable pathogens so they are unlikely to cause
disease (assuming the pasteurized product is stored as
indicated and consumed before its expiration date).
• Heat also destroy enzymes that make milk spoil, so
pasteurized milk drinkable for longer time.
 Methods of pasteurization

 Low temperature holding pasteurisation (LTH) Low

Temperature Long Time (LTLT), or batch
 High-temperature, short time (HTST) or continuous
flow
 Ultra heat treatment or ultrahigh temperature (UHT)
Low temperature holding pasteurisation (LTH) or Batch
 In the batch method, fluid milk is placed in a vat pasteurizer, which consists of a
vat surrounded by either circulating water, steam or heating coils of water or
steam. To cool the milk, either the milk is allowed to cool in the vat or the milk is
removed from the vat.
 The batch or low-temp-long-time or holder pasteurization (LTLT) process is the
traditional method of pasteurizing milk
 In the vat the milk is heated to 62.8 C and held for 30 minutes followed by rapid
cooling.
High-temperature, short time or continuous flow

In the continuous flow, flash-heating milk is forced between metal plates or through
pipes heated on the outside by hot water. While flowing under pressure, the milk is
held at 72°C for at least 15 seconds. Before being chilled back to 4°C or cooler, it
flows through a heat exchanger to pre-warm cold milk just entering the system.
(HTST) pasteurized milk typically has a refrigerated shelf of two to three weeks
(HTST) cause less damage to the nutrient composition and sensory characteristics of
foods than the low-temperature, long-time treatments.
This is better than the old way at preserving the nutrients and quality of foods.
This Pasteurizer is a plate pasteurizer for pasteurizing milk, juice, and egg products.
HTST plate pasteurizer from 72°C (162°F) to 95°C (203°F) For 15 seconds.

Use:
Milk pasteurization by fast heating, 80% regeneration and precise heating to
required temperature, delay, quick cooling by regeneration and milk cooling
section.
Ultraheat treatment or ultrahigh temperature (UHT)

• UHT is a continuous process and the product is packaged after

sterilisation into sterile containers.
• Typical temperatures and times specified for UHT treatment of milk are
130º C –150º C for 1-3 seconds.
• Sterilizes food by heating it above 130°C (275°F), the temperature
required to kill spores in milk, for 1 to 3 seconds. UHT is most commonly
used in milk production, but the process is also used for fruit juices,
cream, soy milk, yogurt, wine, soups, honey.
• UHT milk has a typical shelf life of six to nine months, until opened.
• Thereafter the milk is cooled to 7 C or lower.
• The products have a better keeping quality and longer shelf life.
• Liquid that have been treated in this way can stay unfrigerated for several
months if they packed right.
 Different types of pasteurized foods

• The yolk and whole-egg products are pasteurized in their raw

form. The egg white is pasteurized in its raw form if it is sold as a
liquid or frozen product.
• Dried Eggs - If eggs are sold dried, the egg white with the glucose
removed is normally heat-treated in the container by holding it for
7 days in a hot room at a minimum temperature of 130°F (54°C).
• Whole Eggs Pasteurized in the Shell - Traditionally, eggs sold to
customers in the shell have not been pasteurized. Egg whites
coagulate at 140°F (60°C). Therefore, heating an egg above 140°F
would cook the egg, so processors pasteurize the egg in the shell at
a low temperature, 130°F (54°C), for a long time, 45 minutes.
Pasteurizing eggs reduces the risk of contamination from
pathogenic bacteria, such as Salmonella, which can cause severe
illness and even death.
• Milk - Pasteurization improves the quality of milk and
milk products and gives them a longer shelf life by
destroying undesirable enzymes and spoilage bacteria.
For example, the liquid is heated to 145°F (63°C) for at
least 30 minutes or at least 161°F (72°C) for 15 seconds.

• Today, many foods, such as eggs, milk, juices, spices

and ice cream are pasteurized. The temperatures and
times are determined by what is necessary to destroy
pathogenic bacteria and other more heat-resistant
disease-causing microorganisms that may be found in
milk. The liquid is then quickly cooled to 40°F (4°C).
Other liquids, such as juices, are heat-processed in a
similar manner. Temperatures and times vary, depending
on the product and the target organism.
Hot Filling
Hot Filling Process

Generally, a hot-fill process can be safely performed on

liquid foods with a pH of 4.0 or lower.

 Vital For Maintaining Shelf Life and Nutrition Value

Intact
 Hot filling process is necessary for hot as well as cold
drinks. Extends their life without preservatives.
 There are numerous liquid
packing machineries available
in the market nowadays. To
make the beverages Production
Company perfectly established
these are required. These
machines come in varied
brands and sizes with specific
technology. Some of them also
have good engineering
constructional design.
Good engineering construction design are creating aseptic filling machines
those are durable and in a position to offer the best filling service. These run
of special technology that is really necessary in beverages production is the
aseptic filling technology. This technology is best known as hot filling
process.
Therefore, the food products that can be processed by a
conventional hot fill process without any modification (acidification) are
fruits, fruit drinks such as various nectars, ice-tea and isotonic.
Many foods lend themselves to
a hot-fill-hold process. Sauces,
salsa and other foods with a
smooth consistency and a
pre-cook process can often be
effectively hot-filled.
1) food is heated (very hot),
2) hot food is placed into
containers (often pre-warmed),
3) a closure or lid is applied. The
sealed container is most often
inverted to ensure pasteurization of the
container headspace.

After inversion for a short period of time, the

container is turned right side up and allowed
to cool prior to labelling.

F. Breidt, K.P. Sandeep, and F.M. Arritt. 2010. Use of linear models for thermal processing of acidified
foods. Food Protection Trends 30:268-272.

F. Breidt, K. Kay, J. Osborne, B. Ingham, and F. Arritt. 2014. Thermal processing of acidified foods with pH
4.1 to 4.6. Food Protection Trends 34:132-138