Electrical and optical control of single spins integrated in scalable semiconductor devices

Christopher P. Anderson1,2,*, Alexandre Bourassa1,*, Kevin C. Miao1, Gary Wolfowicz1, Peter J.

Mintun1, Alexander L. Crook1,2, Hiroshi Abe3, Jawad Ul Hassan4, Nguyen T. Son4, Takeshi
Ohshima3, David D. Awschalom1,2,5,†

1
Pritzker School of Molecular Engineering, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60637, USA
2
Department of Physics, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60637, USA
3
National Institutes for Quantum and Radiological Science and Technology, 1233 Watanuki,
Takasaki, Gunma 370-1292, Japan
4
Department of Physics, Chemistry and Biology, Linköping University, SE-581 83 Linköping,
Sweden
5
Center for Molecular Engineering and Materials Science Division, Argonne National
Laboratory, Lemont, IL 60439, USA
* These authors contributed equally to this work.
† email:[email protected]

Spin defects in silicon carbide have exceptional electron spin coherence with a near-
infrared spin-photon interface in a material amenable to modern semiconductor fabrication.
Leveraging these advantages, we successfully integrate highly coherent single neutral
divacancy spins in commercially available p-i-n structures and fabricate diodes to modulate
the local electrical environment of the defects. These devices enable deterministic charge
state control and broad Stark shift tuning exceeding 850 GHz. Surprisingly, we show that
charge depletion results in a narrowing of the optical linewidths by over 50 fold, approaching
the lifetime limit. These results demonstrate a method for mitigating the ubiquitous problem
of spectral diffusion in solid-state emitters by engineering the electrical environment while
utilizing classical semiconductor devices to control scalable spin-based quantum systems.

1
Introduction

Solid-state defects have enabled many proof-of-principle quantum technologies in quantum

sensing(1), computation(2) and communications(3). These defects exhibit atom-like transitions
that have been used to generate spin-photon entanglement and high-fidelity single-shot
readout(4) enabling demonstrations of long-distance quantum teleportation, entanglement
distillation and loophole-free tests of Bell’s inequalities(3).

However, fluctuating electric fields and uncontrolled charge dynamics have limited many of
these technologies(1, 4–7). For example, charge stability and photon indistinguishability are
major problems that reduce entanglement rates and fidelities in quantum communication
experiments(4–6). In particular, indistinguishable and spectrally narrow photon emission is
required in order to achieve high-contrast Hong-Ou-Mandel interference(8). This
indistinguishability has been achieved with some quantum emitters through dc Stark tuning the
optical lines into mutual resonance(9, 10). Meanwhile, a variety of strategies(1, 6, 11–13) have
been proposed to reduce spectral diffusion(14) and blinking(15), but consistently achieving
narrow and photostable spectral lines remains an outstanding challenge(16). In addition, studies
of charge dynamics(17, 18) have enabled quantum sensing improvements(1, 7) and spin-to-
charge conversion(19) allowing electrical readout of single spin defects(20). However, these
experiments have largely been realized in materials such as diamond where scalable
nanofabrication and doping techniques are difficult to achieve.

In contrast, the neutral divacancy (VV0) defect in silicon carbide (SiC) presents itself as a
candidate spin qubit in a technologically mature host, allowing for flexible fabrication, doping
control, and availability on the wafer scale. These defects display many attractive properties
including all-optical spin initialization and readout(21), long coherence times(22), nuclear spin
control(23), as well as a near-infrared high-fidelity spin-photon interface(24). However, VV0
have suffered from relatively broad optical lines(24), charge instability(18) and relatively small
Stark shifts(10). Furthermore, the promise of integration into classical semiconducting devices
remains largely unexplored.

Here, we utilize the mature semiconductor technology that SiC provides to create a p-i-n
structure that allows tuning of the electric field and charge environment of the defect. First, we
isolate and perform high fidelity control on highly coherent single spins in the device. We then

2
show that these devices enable wide dc Stark tuning while maintaining defect symmetry.
Interestingly, we also demonstrate that charge depletion in the device mitigates spectral diffusion
thus greatly narrowing the linewidths in the optical fine structure. Finally, we use this device as a
testbed to study the photoionization dynamics of single VV0, resulting in a method for
deterministic optical control of the defect charge state.

The effects presented here suggest that doped SiC structures are flexible and scalable quantum
platforms hosting long-lived single spin qubits with an electrically-tunable high-quality optical
interface. The demonstrated reduction in electric field noise may lead to increased spin
coherence(25), electrical tuning of ‘dark’ spins in quantum sensing(26), while charge control
may potentially extend the memory time of nuclear spins(27). Additionally, this platform opens
unique avenues for spin-to-charge conversion, electrically-driven single photon emission(28),
electrical control(29) and readout(20, 30, 31) of single spins in SiC semiconductor devices.

Isolated single defects in a semiconductor device

We first isolate and control single VV0 in a SiC p-i-n diode created through commercial
growth of doped SiC epilayers. After growth, electron irradiation and subsequent annealing
creates single, isolated VV0 defects. We fabricate microwave striplines and Ohmic contact pads
allowing for spin manipulation and electrical gating (Fig. 1A) (32). In contrast to other defects in
SiC such as the isolated silicon vacancy(33), the divacancy is stable above 1600 ͦ C (34) making
it compatible with device processing and high temperature annealing to form Ohmic contacts.

Spatial photoluminescence (PL) scans of the device show isolated emitters corresponding to
single VV0 (Fig. 1B), as confirmed by second-order correlation (g(2)) measurements (Fig. 1B,
inset)(32). The location in depth of the observed defects is consistent with isolation to the i-type
layer, as expected from formation energy calculations(35) and the local Fermi level(36). This
depth localization provides an alternative to delta-doping(37), which is not possible with intrinsic
defects, facilitating positioning and control in fabricated devices (Fig. S1). Additionally, due to
the diode’s highly rectifying behavior at low temperature, large reverse biases are possible with
low current (Fig. 1c)(32).

Sweeping the frequency of a narrow-line laser, we obtain photoluminescence excitation (PLE)

spectra of the optical fine structure of these single defects (Fig. 1D). Using the observed
transitions for resonant readout and preparation, we perform high-contrast Rabi oscillations of

3
isolated VV0 in the p-i-n structure (Fig. 1E)(32). The contrast exceeds 98%, improving on
previous demonstrations through the use of resonant spin polarization(24). Additionally, a single
spin Hahn-echo decay time of 1.0±0.1 ms is measured for spins in the device (Fig. 1F),
consistent with previous ensemble measurements(22). The long Hahn-echo times and high-
fidelity control demonstrate that integration into semiconductor structures does not degrade the
spin properties of VV0. This isolation and control of highly coherent spin qubits achieved in
these functioning semiconductor devices unlocks the potential for integration with a wide range
of classical electronic technologies.

Large Stark shifts in a p-i-n diode

Since the (hh) and (kk) divacancies(32) in SiC are nominally symmetric along the c-axis
(growth axis), the geometry of the diode allows for large electric fields which mostly conserve
the symmetry of the defect. Therefore, wide tuning of the VV0 optical structure is possible, while
reducing unwanted mixing from transverse or symmetry-breaking components of the excited
state Hamiltonian(9, 24, 38). Because the i-type region can be relatively thin (10 µm here), the
applied voltage is dropped over a much smaller region than if a bulk sample were used(10),
leading to significantly larger Stark shifts for a given applied voltage. In principle, this region
can be reduced to a thickness that exceeds limitations from optical access with metal planar gates
(limited by the optical spot size of ~1 µm). Furthermore, it is possible to use doped layers as in-
situ transparent native contacts to Stark tune and control localized defects in suspended photonic
or phononic structures(39) enabling complex hybrid electrical, photonic and phononic devices.

In our p-i-n junction device, we apply up to -420 V in reverse bias. Our results show Stark
tuning of several hundreds of GHz on different defects of the same type and on inequivalent
lattice sites where the Stark shift is between 0.4-3.5 GHz/V after a threshold is passed (Fig. 2A).
For example, we observe a (hh) divacancy shifted by more than 850 GHz (2.5 meV) at -420 V
and a (kh) divacancy shifted by more than 760 GHz at -210 V (Fig. 2B). These shifts are among
the largest reported for any single spin defect to date and were only limited by the voltage output
of our source. We expect that due to the high dielectric breakdown field of SiC, even higher
shifts of a few THz are possible. The high-field limit of these shifts correspond to estimated
dipole moments (d||) of 11 GHz m/MV and 4.5 GHz m/MV for (hh) and (kk) divacancies
respectively, consistent with previous reports(10, 40). For the (kh) basal divacancy observed, the

4
estimated transverse dipole moment is around d┴ = 35 GHz m/MV. Furthermore, since the Stark
shift represents a measure of the local electric field, we conclude that negligible field is applied
to the VV0 before a certain threshold voltage where the depletion region reaches the defect(41).
This results from non-uniform electric fields in the diode caused by residual n-type dopants in
the intrinsic region (Fig. 2C, see supplemental text).

Overall, our system could be used as a widely frequency-tunable, spectrally narrow source of
single photons. To our knowledge, this represents one of the highest Stark shift to linewidth
ratios (>40,000) obtained in any single photon source (Table S1). These characteristics make our
system ideally suited for tuning remote defects into mutual resonance and for frequency
multiplexing of entanglement channels(42). Interestingly, the tunability range is so wide that it
could even enable the tuning of a (hh) divacancy into resonance with a (kk) divacancy, allowing
for interference and entanglement between different species of defects. This wide tunability
stems from the rectification behavior of the diode which allows large electric fields without
driving appreciable currents, which can degrade spin and optical properties. Furthermore, the
observed sensitivity of the optical structure of single VV0 defects could serve as a nanoscale
electric field sensor enabling field mapping in these working devices with sensitivities of
approximately 100 (V / m) / Hz or better, which is competitive with state of the art spin and
charge based electrometry techniques (see supplemental text)(43–46).

Reducing spectral diffusion using charge depletion

Uncontrolled fluctuating electrical environments are a common problem in spin systems

where they can cause dephasing(25), as well as in quantum emitters where they result in spectral
diffusion of the optical structure and lead to large inhomogeneous broadening. For example,
adding and removing just a single electron charge 100 nm away causes shifts on the order of 100
MHz for the optical fine structure of VV0 (Fig. S2). Previous work(24) has shown that by doing
an exhaustive search through many defects in a specially grown material, one can find defects
with lines as narrow as 80 MHz (typically 100-200 MHz or larger), however, this is still much
larger than the Fourier lifetime-limit of ~11 MHz(24). In bulk intrinsic commercial material, the
narrowest linewidths are significantly broadened to around or above 130-200 MHz(24) (Fig. S3).
Overall, spectral diffusion has been a notoriously difficult outstanding challenge for nearly all
quantum emitters in the solid-state.

5
 Here, we present a novel technique for mitigating spectral diffusion. We demonstrate that by
applying electric fields in our device we deplete the charge environment of our defect and obtain
single scan linewidths of 20±1 MHz (Fig. 3A) without the need for an exhaustive search. Using
the Stark shift (Fig. 2B) to estimate the electric field, we observe this narrowing occurs with a
characteristic field strength E0~1.0 MV/m. This reduction in PLE linewidth has a different
voltage dependence than the transverse asymmetry in the defect, thus eliminating reduced
mixing as a possible mechanism for narrowing (Fig. 3B). The temperature dependence of the
linewidth is roughly consistent with a T3 scaling at these low temperatures(47) (fitted exponent
3.2±0.3, discussion in supplemental text). From the fit, a zero-temperature linewidth of 11±5
MHz is extracted (Fig. 3C). Our results are therefore consistent with a lifetime-limited line (11
MHz) that is broadened by temperature. Furthermore, the observed line is extremely stable, with
a fitted inhomogeneous broadening of 31±0.4 MHz averaged for over 3 hours (Fig 3A). This
stability over time, narrowness, tunability, and photostability demonstrate the effectiveness of
engineering the charge environment with doped semiconductor structures for creating ideal and
indistinguishable quantum emitters.

It is worth noting that at zero bias the linewidth in our samples is much higher than in bulk
material (around 1 GHz, Fig. 2A). We attribute this to a greater presence of traps and free
carriers (under illumination). Thus, in these samples, the observed narrowing corresponds to an
improvement in the linewidth by a factor of more than 50. We speculate that a combination of
this charge depletion technique with lower sample temperatures, a lower impurity material, and
further annealing could enable measurement of consistent transform-limited linewidths(13, 48).
This use of charge depletion for creating spectrally narrow optical interfaces (Fig. 3D) could be
widely applicable to other experiments in SiC, or to other solid-state emitters such as quantum
dots(49, 50). Indeed, by applying the same techniques developed here to intrinsic SiC materials,
lines as narrow as ~21 MHz are observed(40). Crucially, these results demonstrate that depleting
local charge environments can transform a very noisy electric environment into a clean one,
turning materials containing unwanted impurities into ideal hosts for quantum emitters.

Charge gating and photodynamics of single defects

Our observation of large Stark shifts and linewidth narrowing relies on understanding and
controlling charge dynamics under electric fields. To achieve this, we study the stability of the

6
observed single defects under electrical bias. This allows a careful investigation of the charge
dynamics of single VV0 under illumination, from which we develop an efficient charge reset
protocol. In our experiments, we observe that with 975 nm off-resonant light, the
photoluminescence (PL) drops dramatically once a threshold voltage is reached (Fig. 4A). This
threshold varies between defects, which is expected given differences in the local electric field
experienced due to variations in position, depth, and local charge trap density. We attribute the
PL reduction to photoionization to an optically ‘dark’ charge state(18). We use this effect to
create an electrically gated single photon source(51–53), where emission is modulated in time
with a gate voltage (Fig. 4B)(10). The threshold voltage has a slight hysteresis (Fig. S4) and laser
power dependence (Fig. 4A) suggesting that trapped charges may play a role(9, 54). We note that
the electric field dependence of the photoionization could also be used to extend sensitive
electrometry techniques(46) to the single defect regime, while controlled ionization of the spin
may extend the coherence of nuclear registers(27). The threshold for Stark shifts (Fig. 2A)
corresponds approximately to the same voltage where significant photobleaching occurs when
using off-resonant excitation. This links the sharp photoionization threshold in Fig. 4A to the
presence of moderate electric fields and the onset of carrier depletion.

A possible explanation for this voltage-dependent PL is that at zero electric field, illumination
constantly photoionizes the VV0 and other nearby traps. However, the divacancy rapidly captures
available free carriers returning it to the neutral charge state. Under applied field, carrier drift
depletes the illuminated region of charges. Thus, when a VV0 photoionization event occurs in
this depleted environment, no charges are available for fast recapture, resulting in a long-lived
dark state (Fig. 4C).

Past works have shown that PL is enhanced in ensembles by repumping the charge with
higher energy laser colors(18, 55, 56). We extend this work to the single defect regime by
applying various illumination energies and studying single defect photodynamics past the
threshold voltage (-90 V for this defect). We observe under resonant illumination the PL quickly
drops to zero and does not recover, indicating that while 1131 nm (1.09 eV) light (resonant with
the ZPL of a (kk) VV0 ) ionizes the defect, it does not reset the charge state. However, after
applying higher energy light (688 nm, for example) the charge is returned to a bright state even
with <1 nW of applied power. This ‘repump’ of the defect charge state is vital for restoring PL

7
for ionized or charge unstable VV0 in SiC (Fig. 4A) and is essential to observe the effects
discussed in the previous sections (Fig. 4C).

When both NIR resonant (1131 nm) and red (688 nm, 1.8 eV) light is applied to the defect,
hopping between the bright (VV0) and dark (VV+ or VV-) charge states results in a blinking
behavior. From this blinking (Fig. S5), we can extract photoionization and repumping rates of
the defect(57). We first examine the ionization rate of a single VV0 (Fig. 5A) and observe that
the power dependence is quadratic below defect saturation (exponent m=2.05±0.2) and linear at
higher powers (m=0.99±0.07). We note that our observed data provide evidence for a two-
photon process to VV- (see supplemental text) suggested in previous ensemble studies(18, 56),
while it is less consistent with a recently proposed three-photon model converting to VV+ (35,
55). Further study of the spin dependence of this ionization may lead to the demonstration of
spin-to-charge conversion in VV0.

Similarly, we study the charge reset kinetics by varying the power of the repumping laser. We
find a near-linear power law with m= 0.98±0.05 (Fig. 5B). This linear dependence of the
repumping rate can be described by two potential models. One possibility is that the dark charge
state is directly one-photon ionized by repump laser. The other possible explanation is that
nearby traps are photoionized by this color and the freed charges are captured by the divacancy
to convert back to the bright state. By varying the color of this reset laser, we find repumping to
be most efficient around 710 nm (1.75 eV), suggesting a particular trap state energy or a possible
defect absorption resonance(58, 59) (Fig. 5C). Overall, we observe negligible ionization from the
optimal red repump laser and no observable reset rate from the resonant laser. This results in
fully deterministic optical control of the defect charge state (discussion in supplemental text),
allowing for high-fidelity charge state initialization for quantum sensing and communications
protocols.

Conclusions and outlook

In summary, we isolate and control highly coherent single defect spin qubits in a
technologically mature semiconductor device, leveraging the advantages of SiC as a host for
quantum systems. Notably, the high electric fields enabled by the diode’s rectifying behavior
result in large Stark shifts of these quantum emitters (>850 GHz). Unexpectedly, we also
demonstrate that the charge depletion region created in the device decreases the fluctuating

8
electric noise in the defect’s local environment, thus greatly narrowing the optical fine structure
to linewidths approaching the lifetime limit. Combining these two results, this system displays
one of the largest linewidth to tuning range ratios (>40,000 linewidths) in any single photon
source which may allow for spectral multiplexing of many quantum channels(42). This electrical
tuning of the environment constitutes a general method which could be applicable to various
quantum emitters in semiconductors where spectral diffusion or charge stability is an issue(60) ,
or where electric field fluctuations limit spin coherence(25). Furthermore, using our p-i-n diode
as a testbed to study charge dynamics, we develop a technique to perform deterministic optical
control of the charge state of single divacancies under electric fields

The techniques presented will be vital to achieving single-shot readout and entanglement in
VV0 by enabling charge control and enhancing photon indistinguishability, suggesting doped
semiconductor structures as ideal quantum platforms for defects. This work also enables high-
sensitivity measurement of nanoscale electric fields and charge distributions in working
devices(43) and facilitates spin-to-charge conversion(19) for enhanced quantum sensing and
electrical readout protocols(20). Finally, the introduction of VV0 into classical SiC
semiconductor devices such as diodes, MOSFETs and APDs, for example, may enable the next
generation of quantum devices.

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Acknowledgments
We thank E. O. Glen, S. Bayliss, D. J. Christle, P. V. Klimov, P. J. Duda for experimental
suggestions and assistance and A. Gali, G. Galli, M. E. Flatté, D. R. Candido, B. Magnusson for
insightful discussions and theoretical understanding. Careful reading by F. J. Heremans
supported manuscript preparation. We thank Quantum Opus for their assistance with SNSPDs.
Funding: This work made use of the UChicago MRSEC (NSF DMR-1420709) and Pritzker
Nanofabrication Facility, which receives support from the SHyNE, a node of the NSF’s National
Nanotechnology Coordinated Infrastructure (NSF ECCS-1542205). C.P.A., A.B., K.C.M., G.
W., P. J. M., A.L.C., and D.D.A. were supported by AFOSR FA9550-14-1-0231 and FA9550-
15-1-0029, DARPA D18AC00015KK1932, NSF EFRI EFMA-1641099, and ONR N00014-17-
1-3026. C.P. A. was supported by the Department of Defense through the NDSEG Program, and
T.O was supported by KAKENHI (17H01056 and 18H03770). J. U. H was supported by the
Swedish Energy Agency (43611-1). N. T. S. received support from the Swedish Research
Council (VR 2016-04068), the Carl Tryggers Stiftelse för Vetenskaplig Forskning (CTS 15:339).
J. U. H. and N. T. S. were also supported by the Knut and Alice Wallenberg Foundation (KAW
2018.0071). Author contributions: C.P.A and A. B conceived the experiments, fabricated the
devices, performed the measurements and analyzed the data. A. B. and K. C. M developed the
experimental setup. A. C. assisted in device fabrication. H. A and T. O. performed the electron
irradiation. J. U. H and N. T. S. assisted in growth and sample preparation of test devices. G. W.
and P. J. M. measured initial devices. D. D. A. advised on all efforts. All authors contributed to
the data analysis and manuscript preparation. Competing interests: The authors declare no
competing financial interests. Data and materials availability: All data are available upon
request to the corresponding author.

15
Fig. 1. Isolation of single VV0 in a commercially grown semiconductor device. (A) Schematic
of the device geometry. (B) Spatial photoluminescence (PL) scan of an example device, showing
isolated emitters (example circled in red) confirmed by autocorrelation (inset) showing g2(0)<0.5
(red line). Extracted emitter lifetime is 14.7±0.4 ns (green arrows). Gate and microwave stripline
features are drawn and color coded as in (A). (C) I-V curves of the device at various
temperatures. (D) Photoluminescence excitation (PLE) spectrum of a single (kk) divacancy at -
270 V (E) Optically detected Rabi oscillations of a single (kk) VV0 with >98% contrast (fit in
blue) using resonant initialization and readout. (F) Hahn-echo decay of a single (kk) VV0 in the
diode. Rabi, Hahn and g2 data are taken at -270 V and at approximately 240 Gauss at T=5 K.

16
Fig. 2. Stark shifts in p-i-n diode. (A) Low field Stark tuning of a single (kk) defect, showing a
turn-on behavior for the Stark shifts and narrowing with voltage. This threshold is the same as in
Fig. 4A. These scans contain the lower branch (E1,E2,Ey) where the linewidth of Ey is
approximately 1 GHz and E1 and E2 are unresolved. The PLE lines show no shifting down to
zero bias. (B) High field Stark shifts of multiple example defects (located at various depths and
positions in the junction), showing >100 GHz shifts. (C) Schematic electric field distribution in
the diode. Location in the junction can determine the local field experienced by the defects in
(B). The electric field distribution also represents the width (Wd) of a depletion region in the
diode. The error bars in (B) are smaller than the point size.

17
Fig. 3. Optical linewidth narrowing by tuning the electrical environment of a solid state
emitter. (A) Multiple PLE sweeps taken over 3.5 hours of the Ex line, showing small residual
spectral diffusion (fitted inhomogeneous linewidth of 31±0.4 MHz). The red arrow corresponds
to the single scan shown with a fitted linewidth of ~20 MHz. (B) Comparison of the average
linewidth (blue) and defect transverse asymmetry (red) with respect to an estimated field (x-
axis). The transverse asymmetry is defined as the differece between the Ex and Ey frequencies.
The estimate is obtained by combining the measured Stark shifts with an estimated dipole of
d=4.5 GHz m/MV for the (kk) divacancy. The yellow line is the lifetime limit. (C) Temperature
dependence of the linewidth. A free power law fit gives an exponent of 3.2±0.3. Constraining the
fit to a T3 relation, we extract a zero temperature linewidth of 11±5 MHz (yellow line),
consistent with the lifetime limit. Errors on the plot represent a 95% confidence interval. (D)
Model for the effect of charge depletion on spectral diffusion in the illuminated volume (yellow).
To the left of each diagram is a schematic band diagram with the relevant transitions. Errors for
the fits values in (A) and (C) represent one standard deviation. All data is from a single (kk) VV0.
In (B), the laser power is slightly higher than in (A), causing some broadening. For (A) and (C)
the Ex line is shown at a voltage of -270 V (corresponding to ~30 MV/m).

18
Fig. 4. Electrical and optical charge control of a single VV0. (A) Voltage and power
dependence of the photoluminescence of a single (kk) VV0 with 975 nm excitation, and with 188
µW of 675 nm illumination, showing a sharp threshold under reverse bias. With high 975 nm
power, the two-photon ionization process dominates and the PL signal is low. (B) By controlling
the voltage in time (blue) the emission from the single (kk) defect is switched on and off (red).
(C) Model of rapid ionization and recapture at zero electric field (top). Two photon ionization
and formation of a depletion region under reverse bias (middle). Charge reset under applied
electric field using red light (bottom).

19
Fig. 5. Ionization and charge reset rates for VV0. (A) Dependence of the ionization rate on
resonant laser power. Low and high power regime fits (black dotted lines) and their power laws
(m=2.05±0.2 and m=0.99±0.07, respectively). The solid black line shows a full model fit. (B)
Repump power dependence of the 688 nm laser, showing a linear exponent of m=0.98±0.2.
Fluctuations in the polarization or power of the laser may limit the true error. (A) and (B) were
taken at -90 V bias. (C) Repumping rate as a function of illumination wavelength at -270 V with
a Lorentzian fit centered around 710 nm. Higher than 905 nm (and at these powers) no PL is
observed. All error bars represent 95% confidence intervals from the fit of the raw data from a
single (kk) VV0.

20