EEE373 Text Book Prof DR Emin Tacer

POWER ELECTRONICS
Course Notes
2018-2019
Prof.Dr.Emin Tacer
Aydın University
Prof.Dr.M.Emin TACER
Sayfa 1
1. Introduction1,2,3,,4
The demand for control of electric power for electric motor drive systems and industrial control
exited for many years, and this led to first development of the Ward-Leonard system to obtain
a variable dc voltage for the control of dc motor drives. Power electronics have revolutionized
the concept of control for power conversion and for control of electrical motor drives.
Power electronics combine power, electronics, and control. Power deals with the static and
rotating power equipment for the generation, transmission and distribution of electric power.
The concept of power must be taken in its widest meaning; it ranges from VA to MVA.
Electronics deal with the solid-state devices and circuits for the signal processing to meet the
desired control objectives. Control deals with the steady-state and dynamic characteristics or
closed-loop system.
Power electronics may be defined as the applications of solid –state electronics for the control
and conversion of electric power. Power Electronic circuits change the character of electric
energy: from dc to ac or ac to dc, from one voltage level to another, or in some other way.
Power electronics has applications within the whole field of electrical system. The great extent
of power electronics is due to a number of advantages which electronic apparatus generally has
over its electromechanical counterparts. Power electronics equipment is cheaper
lighter and smaller, has great efficiency and more general availability.
Fig.1.1 The thread of the power electronics history is the break- through and evolution
of power electronic devices.
To change the character of electric energy, it is required the switching on and off of power
semiconductor devices. The first power semiconductor devices, which is called as thristor or
silicon controlled rectifier (SCR) was developed in the laboratories of the General Electric
Company in 1957 and became commercially available in 1960 to 1961 in ratings approximately
200 A and 1000 V. Until 1970, the conventional thyristors had been exclusively used for power
Sayfa 2
control in industrial applications. It could control power of the order of kilowatts and could
switch on and off faster than any electromechanical switch and its voltage and current ratings
were higher than any transistor.
Since 1970, various types of power semiconductor devices were developed and became
commercially available. Today, power electronics has the capability of controlling blocks of
the order of hundreds of megawatts. The historical evaluation of the power electronic devices
are given in the figure 1.1.
Semiconductor devices can be divided broadly into seven types;
1- Power Diodes
The types of the diods are;
▪ General Purpose Diode – 3000 V, 3500 A
▪ High Speed Diode – 3000 V, 1000 A
▪ Schottky Diode – 100 V, 300 A
Fig.1.2 Diodes
2- Thyristors
The types of the thyristors are;
▪ Forced-Commutated Thyristor – 6000 V, 2500 A
▪ Natural or Line-Commutated Thyristor –5000 V, 2500 A
▪ Gate-Turn-OFF Thyristor (GTO)– 2500V, 1000 A
▪ Reverse-Conducting Thyristor (RCT) – 2500 V, 1000 A
▪ Static Induction Thyristor – 2500 V, 1000 A
Sayfa 3
Fig.1.3 Thyristors
3- Triac – 1200 V, 300 A

4- Power Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs) – 400 V, 250 A
5- Power MOSFET’s (The metal Oxide-Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistor) – 1000
V, 10 A
6- IGBT (Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor) – 1500 V, 300 A
7- Static Induction Transistors (SIT)
Fig.1.4 Power MOSFET, IGBT
Devices and components that are being superseded in many applications by power electronic
circuits;
1- Thyratrons
2- Mercury-arc rectifiers
3- Saturable-core reactors
4- Relays and contactors
5- Rheostats and motor starters
6- Constant-voltage transformers
7- Autotransformers
8- Mechanical speed changers
Sayfa 4
Fig. 1.5 Thyratron, Vacum tube and Mercury arc rectifier
Some applications of power electronics are;
1- COMMERCIAL APPLICATIONS
• Heating Systems Ventilating,
• Air Conditioners,
• Central Refrigeration, Lighting,
• Computers and Office equipments,
• Uninterruptible Power Supplies (UPS),
• Elevators,
• Emergency Lamps.
2- DOMESTIC APPLICATIONS
• Cooking Equipments,
• Lighting, Heating,
• Air Conditioners,
• Refrigerators & Freezers,
• Washing machine
• Mining
• Personal Computers,
• Entertainment Equipments,
• Uninterruptible Power Supplies (UPS).
3- INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS
• Frequency changers, superseding motor-generator sets,
• Multiple drive systems for textile and paper miles,
• Motor controls and drives
• Machine tools and controls,
• Frequency changers, superseding motor-generator sets,
• Multiple drive systems for textile and paper miles,
• Chemical processing,
• Pumps,
• compressors,
• blowers and fans.
• Machine tools,
• Arc furnaces and induction furnaces,
• Lighting control circuits,
• Industrial lasers,
• Induction heating,
• Welding equipments.
4- AEROSPACE APPLICATIONS
• Space shuttle power supply systems,
• Satellite power systems,
• Aircraft power systems.
Sayfa 5
5- TELECOMMUNICATIONS
• Battery chargers,
• Power supplies (DC and UPS),
• Mobile cell phone battery chargers.
6- TRANSPORTATION
• Traction control of electric vehicles,
• Battery chargers for electric vehicles,
• Electric locomotives,
• Street cars,
• Trolley buses,
• Automobile electronics including engine controls.
7- UTILITY SYSTEMS
• High voltage DC transmission (HVDC),
• Static VAR compensation (SVC),
• Alternative energy sources (wind, photovoltaic),
• Fuel cells,
• Energy storage systems,
• Induced draft fans and boiler feed water pumps.
Advantages of the power electronic circuit are;

• Easy and flexibility in operation due to digital controls.
• Faster dynamic response compared to the electro mechanical converters.
• Lower acoustic noise when compared to electro magnetic controllers, relays and
contactors.
• High efficiency due to low losses in the Thyristors.
• Long life and reduced/minimal maintenance due to the absence of mechanical wear.
• Control equipments using Thyristors are compact in size.
Disadvantages of the power electronic circuit are;

• Generate unwanted harmonics.
• Harmonics are injected into power supply lines affecting the performance of other loads
and equipments.
• Unwanted interference with communication circuits due to electromagnetic radiation.
• Special protection circuits must be used to protect the thyristor devices.
• Thyristors must be rated for maximum loading conditions.
• Special steps are to be taken for correcting line supply power factor.
Major issues in power electronics are;

• How to meet the requirement of the load or gain better control of the load
• How to improve the efficiency
• -- for reliable operation of power semiconductor devices
• -- for energy saving
• How to realize power conversion with less volume, less weight, and less cost.
• How to reduce negative influence to other equipment in the electric power system
and to the electromagnetic environment.
Sayfa 6
1.1 Converters2,4
Power electronic circuit is principally concerned with processing energy. They convert
electrical energy from the form supplied by a source to the form required by a load. Any power
semiconductor system employed for rectifying, inverting or otherwise modulating the power
output of an ac or dc energy source is called a converter system or power conditioning system.
These system may be classified according to the function that they perform; rectifiers, dc
choppers, inverters, ac choppers and cycloconverters. A block diagram of a typical power
electronic system is shown in Fig.1.6
Power Input CONVERTER Output Load

Source Filter RE Filter
Electrical
variable
feedback
Switch
Drives
Controller
Mechanical
variable
feedback
Power electronic system
Fig. 1.6 A block diagram of a typical power electronic system
The main parts of a converter shown in the block diagram of Fig.1.6 are as follows;
1- Power–source unit is usually a constant voltage, fixed frequency, ac supply. In some

cases it is constant dc voltage. Occasionally, as aircraft, the source could be a non-
constant voltage, variable frequency, ac supply.
2- Switching creates wave-forms with harmonics that may be undesirable because they
interfere with proper operation of the load or other equipment, so filters are often
employed at the inputs and outputs of converter system to reduce harmonics level
to reduce acceptable amplitudes.
3- The system load, which may be electrical or mechanical, is controlled via the
feedback of electrical and/or electromechanical variables to a control circuit.
4- The control circuit processes the feedback signals and drives the switches in the
power circuit according to the demands of these signals.
5- The system also includes mechanical elements, such as heat sinks and structures to
support the physically large components of the power circuit.
Sayfa 7
Rectifier
Converter, which coverets the ac voltage into dc voltage is called as rectifier(Fig.1.7).
AC DC
Fig.1.7 A block diagram of the rectifier
Rectifiers can be classified into two types: uncontrolled rectifiers and controlled rectifiers.
Uncontrolled Rectifiers: Rectifiers, which have diodes convert ac voltage into fixed dc
voltage, are called uncontrolled rectifiers or diode rectifiers.
Controlled Rectifiers: Rectifiers, which have controllable semiconductor devices like
thyristor or transistor, convert ac voltage into variable dc voltage are called controlled rectifier
.
Direct Current Choppers (DC Choppers)

Converters, which convert fixed dc voltage to variable dc voltage, are called DC choppers or
switching regulator (Fig. 1.8).
Fixed DC Variable DC
Fig. 1.8 A block diagram of the dc chopper
Inverters
Converters,which convert dc voltage to ac voltage, are called AC choppers (Fig.1.9)
DC AC
Fig. 1.9 A block diagram of the DC chopper
Alternating Current Choppers (AC Choppers)
Converters, which convert fixed AC voltage to variable AC voltage, are called AC choppers or
switching regulator (Fig. 1.10).
Sayfa 8
Fixed AC Variable AC
Fig. 1.10 A block diagram of the AC chopper
Cycloconverters
Converters, which convert fixed frequency AC voltage to variable frequency AC voltage, are
called Cycloconverters (Fig. 1.11).
Fixed Frequency Variable Frequency

AC AC
Fig. 1.11 A block diagram of the Cycloconverters
1.2 Analysis of Switched Circuits2

Power semiconductor devices in a converter are used as switching elements. In the analysis of
converters, these are considered as ideal switches. In this chapter some circuits made up of ideal
switching elements to arrive at conclusions that may be applied to similar circuits when they
are switched by means of power semiconductor devices.
1.2.1 Switched DC Sources

Resistance Load Circuits
In the circuit of Fig.1.12a, the switch SW is open at t=0, when it is closed at t=0+, the current
rises instantaneously to the value
V
. i= (1.1)
R
When S is opened at t=t1, the current falls instantaneously to zero as illustrated in Fig. 1.12b.
The voltage across the open switch is V.
RC Load Circuits
In the circuit of Fig.113a, the switch S is open at t=0, when it is closed at t=0+, by Kirchhoff’s
voltage law
Sayfa 9
t
1
V=vC + vR=  idt + Ri + vco [V] (1.2)
Co
Where vco is the initial conditions and it is taken as zero, so i(t=0)=0.
Fig. 1.12 DC Source and resistive load
Solution of equation (1.2) gives an expression for the time variation current i, and also for the
voltages vC and vR. Differentiation of equation (1.2) yields
di 1
+ i=0 [A/s] (1.3)
dt RC
Sayfa 10
Fig.1.13 DC source and RC circuit
so that
−t
i = Ae RC
[A] (1.4)
where A is a constant of integration that must be determined from the initial conditions. The
capacitor is initially uncharged and therefore has zero potential difference between its plates.
The potential difference can not change instantaneously, since
q
vC = [V] (1.5)
C
where q is the charge on each plate. For vC to change instantaneously, q must change
instantaneously, and this would call for an infinite current. Thus immediately after the switch
is closed at t=0+, vC=0, and from equation (1.2),
V = vR = Ri [V] (1.6)
so that at t=0+,
V
i (0 + ) = [A] (1.7)
R
substitution of t=0 and i(0+)=V/R in equation (1.4) yields
V
A= [A] (1.8)
R
Sayfa 11
so that
V − t RC
i= e [A] (1.9)
R
and relationship is shown in Fig.(1.6b). As vR falls, vC rises, until in infinite time the capacitor
is fully charged, so that
i = 0 [A] ; vC = V [V] (1.10)
If the switch were opened at t=t1 before the capacitor was fully charged, then the voltage across
the switch would be
v S = V − vC [V] (1.11)
From equation (1.9) and from the curves of Fig. 1.13b it may be seen that if the resistance in
circuit is very low, then the initial current may be extremely high, and the flow of current will
form a pulse of very short duration. If the switch were a power semiconductor, it would be
liable to be destroyed by this high current.
RL Load Circuits
In the circuit of Fig. 1.14a, when SW is closed at t=0, by Kirchhoff’s voltage law
di
V = vL + vR = L + Ri (1.12)
dt
or
di R V
+ i= [A/s] (1.13)
dt L L
The current in the circuit may be divided into two components. The first is the forced or steady-
state component of the circuit, and this represent the condition of operation of the circuit
reached after S has been closed for infinitely long time. It is determined by the applied excitation
and is the particular integral solution of the differential equation describing the circuit. The
second component is the natural or transient component of the current and this represents a
condition of operation of the circuit that has disappeared after infinite time. It is determined by
the circuit parameters and initial conditions existing in the circuit at t=0 and is the
complementary function of the solution to the differential equation.
When the steady-state has been reached, the derivative in equation (1.13) is by definition equal
zero, so that from equation (1.13) the steady-state component of the current is,
V
iS = (1.14)
R
Sayfa 12
The transient component is obtained by the solution of the homogeneous equation formed from
equation (1.13) which is
diT R
+ iT = 0 [A/s] (1.15)
dt L
of which solution is
t
iT = Ae − ( R / L ) [A] (1.16)
where A is a constant of integration that is to be determined. The complete solution of equation

(1.13) is thus
V
i = iT + i S = Ae −( R / L ) t +
[A] (1.17)
R
At t=0, i=0, and substitution in equation (1.17) yields
V
A=− [A] (1.18)
R
thus
V
i= (1 − e −( R / L )t ) [A] (1.19)
R
and this function is shown in Fig. 1.7b
Fig. 1.14 DC source and RL circuit
Sayfa 13
The voltage across the inductance is
di
vL = L = Ve −( R / L ) t [V] (1.20)
dt
where L/R = is the time constant of an RL load. If >>L/R, the voltage across the inductor
tends to be zero and its current reaches a steady-state value of is=V/R. If the switch reopened,
the stored energy in the inductance (=0.5 Li2)is released, inducing a voltage at the terminal of
the inductance which tends to maintain the current that was flowing while the switch was
closed. The opening the switch tends to reduce the current instantaneously to zero, so that di/dt
approaches a value of minus infinity. Since the voltage across the terminals of the inductance
is vs=Ldi/dt, this voltage also approaches infinite as indicated in Fig.1.14b. In case of a simple
mechanical switch operating in atmosphere, the air between the opening contacts is ionized by
the field due to the high voltage vs and momentarily conducts, forming a high-resistance arc in
which much of energy formerly stored in the inductor is dissipated as heat. A power transistor
or other semiconductor operating as a switch would be destroyed in such a situation.
Inductance Load Circuits

In practical circuits, resistance may be very small and inductance large, so that the result
obtained by neglecting resistance in analyzing the circuit approximates closely to its actual
behavior. For such an approximate circuit shown in Fig.1.15a, equation (1.13) becomes
di V
= [A/s] (1.21)
dt L
and time variation of current is that shown in Fig.1.8b, where is S is closed at t=0, then at t=t1
V
i= t1 [A] (1.22)
L
Sayfa 14
Fig. 1.15 DC source and inductive
The problem of how to open the switch without the appearance of an infinite voltage across its
contacts remains, and one solution is shown in Fig.1.16, where an ideal diod is connected in
parallel with the inductance.
The diode D shown in Fig. 1.16a earns its name “free-wheeling diode” by its ability to permit
current to flow when the energy source has been removed by the opening of the switch at t=t1
The operation of the circuit for the interval 0<t<t1 is not change by the addition of the ideal
diode and is described by equations (1.21) and (1.22).
For negative values of v, the inductor is now short-circuited by the diode, so that immediately
after SW is opened
di
vL = L =0 [V]; t>t1 (1.23)
dt
Thus di/dt is zero, and iL=iD continues to flow at the value by given equation (1.22). The voltage
vS immediately after the switch is reopened is simply equal to the source voltage V.
In practice, the energy stored in the inductance at time t=t1 would be dissipated in whatever
resistance excited in the inductance-diode mesh of the circuit, and iD would decay exponentially
to zero. If the resistance of this mesh were extremely low, then energy would be trapped in the
inductance for an appreciable period and might be further increased by a subsequent closing of
the switch. This may be clearly seen from a consideration of the current in Fig. 1.9b, since if at
Sayfa 15
some instant t2>t1 switch SW were again closed, the current would once begin to increase at a
constant rate V/L [A/s], starting from the value i=(V/L)t1 [A].
Fig. 1.16 Circuit of Fig.1.8 with free-wheeling diode
DC Source and RLC Circuits

In the circuit of Fig. 1.17 when SW is closed at t=o
t
di 1
dt C 0
V = v L + vC + v R = L + idt + vC (0) + Ri [V] (1.45)
Sayfa 16
Fig. 1.17 DC source and RLC circuit
In equation vC=0 is the initial charge on the capacitor. From equation (1.45)
d 2 i R di 1
2
+ + i=0 [A/s2] (1.46)
dt L dt LC
The forced component (Steady-state component) of the current in the second-order system
described by equation (1.46) is zero, since when the steady state is reached, and the derivatives
are both zero, then I must zero. This is obvious also on the basis of physical reasoning from
the circuit of Fig. 1.17, since when the switch is closed, the capacitor will charge up until vC=V,
when current will cease to flow.
The natural component of the current is in this case the total current and may be determined by
solving equation (1.46). The solution is
iT = i N = A1e 11 + A2 e s2t
s t
(1.47)
where s1 and s2 are the roots of the characteristics equation
R 1
s2 + s+ =0 (1.48)
L LC
where A1 and A2 are constants of integration to be determined from the initial conditions. It is
convenient to define two properties of the circuit as
R
= = dampingfactor (1.49)
2L
1
wo = = resonantfrequncy (1.50)
LC
Equation (1.46) may now be written
d 2i di
+ 2 +  o i = 0
2
2
[A/s2] (1.51)
dt dt
Of which the solution is equation (1.47) in another form, namely,
i = e −t  A1e 
 2 − 2 o t −  2 − 2 o t
+ A2 e [A] (1.52)
 
If  2 >  o , then the current is made up of two decaying exponential components. If  2 <  o
2 2
Then equation (1.52) becomes
Sayfa 17
i = e −t B1 cos r t + B2 sin  r t  [A] (1.53)
where
r = o 2 −  2 = ringing frequency in rad/s (1.54)
and the current consists of a damped or decaying sinusoid. Once again B1 and B2 are constants
of integration to be determined from the initial conditions.
AC Sources AND RLC Circuit
In the circuit of Fig. 1.18
v(t ) = 2V sin wt (1.55)
so that after switch SW is closed at=0,
t
di 1
L +  idt + v(0) + Ri = 2V sin wt [V] (1.56)
dt C 0
and differentiation of equation (1.56) yields
d 2 t R di 1 2Vw cos wt
2
+ + i= [A/s2] (1.57)
dt L dt LC L
The natural component of the current dose not depend in any way on the source voltage, since
it is obtained from solution of the homogeneous equation,
d 2 t R di 1
2
+ + i=0 [A/s2] (1.58)
dt L dt LC
and this exactly the same as equation (1.46) for the RLC circuit with a dc source. Thus as in
equation (1.47)
iT = A1e st t + A2 e s2t [A] (1.59)
and this may be an exponential or an oscillatory component of the total current.
Sayfa 18
Fig. 1.18 AC Source and RLC circuit
The steady-state component of the response is obtained by steady-state ac circuit analysis and
is
2V sin(wt −  )
iS = 1
[A] (1.60)
 2 1 2 2
 R + ( wl − wC ) 
where
1
wL −
 = tan −1 wC [rad] (1.61)
R
The constant of integration A1 and A2 are now obtained by writing
2V sin(wt −  )
i = iT + iS iT = A1e st t + A2 e s2t + 1
(1.62)
 2 1 2 2
 R + ( wl − wC ) 
and applying the initial conditions.
1.3 Fundamental Concepts1,2,3,4

Fourier theorem
When a converter is introduced between voltage source (a sinusoidal or a dc voltage source)

and a linear load circuit, the output voltage or current is no longer a pure sinusoid or pure dc,
and the steady-state response to such excitation may no longer be determined simply by the
method of sinusoidal steady-state circuit analysis at source frequency. However, the excitation
is periodic, and any such excitation can be represented as the sum of an infinite series of
sinusoidal functions of related frequencies. The steady-state response to each significant term
of this series may then be determined by sinusoidal steady-state analysis of the appropriate
frequency, and since the load circuit is linear, the steady-state responses to all significant terms
Sayfa 19
may be combined by superposition. Fourier series is, generally, used. By using Fourier series
the periodic function is expressed as a series of sinusoidal functions (harmonics), the response
to each harmonic can be determined by superposition.
Under steady-state conditions, the output voltage of power converters is, noted above,
a periodic function of time defined by
vo (t ) = vo (t + T ) (1.63)
where T is the periodic time. If f is the frequency of the output voltage in Hz, the angular
frequency is
2
w= = 2f (1.64)
T
and (1.63) can be rewritten as
vo ( wt ) = vo ( wt + 2 ) (1.65)
The Fourier theorem states that a periodic function v(t) can be described by a constant term plus
an infinite series of sine and cosine terms of frequency nw, where n is an integer. Therefore,
v(t) can be expressed as
 
v(t ) = Vo +  an sin nwt + bn cos nwt [V] (1.66)
n =1 n =1
where Vo is the average value of the output voltage, v(t) and may be called the “dc output
voltage”. The coefficients in equation (1.66) may be expressed for the general case as
T 2 
1 1 1
Vo =  vo (t )dt = 0 vo (wt )d (wt ) = 2  vo (wt )d (wt ) (1.67)
T 0 2
T 2 
1 1 1
a n =  vo (t ) cos nwtdt =  vo (t ) cos nwtdwt =  vo ( wt ) cos nwtd ( wt ) (1.68)
T 0  0 
T 2 
1 1 1
bn = 
T 0
vo (t ) sin nwtdt =  vo (t ) sin nwtdwt =  vo ( wt ) sin wtd ( wt )
 0 
(1.69)
If v(t) can be expressed as an analytical function, these constants can be determined by a single
integration. If v(t) is discontinuous, which is the usually the case for output of converter, several
integrations (over the whole period of the output voltage) must be performed to determine the
constants, Vo, ao and bo.
Sayfa 20
The RMS value
The RMS value (often called the effective value or DC- equivalent value) of a current that varies
periodically with is an equivalent of a DC current, which has the same heat dissipation as the
real current on any resistor. That is, the periodic current and direct current produce the same
average power in an element. The RMS value is useful to determine the value of average power
in ac loads. It is also useful if the load current is direct current but the voltage and current are
not constant values.
The RMS (root-mean-square) values are denoted with uppercase letters without index.
T
1 2
T 0
VRMS = v (t )dt (1.70)
When a given wave form (a current in the case) comprises components with different frequency,
i.e., different harmonics, then its RMS value is given by the sum (The rms value of the nth
harmonic voltage)
The rms value of the nth harmonic voltage is given by
VnR =
1
2
a n
2
+ bn
2
 1
2
[V] (1.71)
The rms value of the rectified voltage

The rms value of the rectified voltage is
1 1
1 T 2   1  2  2
 
2
=   vo ( wt )d ( wt ) = Vo + VnR
1
=   v (t )dt 
2 2 2
VRI
T 0   2  
[V] (1.72)

VRI = Vo + V1 + V2 + V3 + V4 + .......Vn +
2 2 2 2 2 2

1
2
where V1 is the rms value of the fundamental component of the wafeform, V is the dc
component and the other terms represent the various harmonics.
The voltage ripple factor

The voltage ripple factor may be defined as
V RI
Kv = (1.73)
Vo
A group of equation exactly analogues to equation (1.63) to (1.73), the Fourier series describing
the current is
Sayfa 21
 
i(t ) = I o +  cn sin(nwt − n ) + d n cos(nwt − n ) [A] (1.74)
n =1 n =1
where
an bn nwL
cn = [A]; dn = [A];  n = tan −1 (1.75)
Z Z R
In equation (1.74) Z is the impedance of the load.
The rms value of the nth harmonic current

The rms value of the nth harmonic current is given by
I nR =
1
2
c n
2
+ dn
2

1
2
[A] (1.76)
and the rms value of rectified component of current is
I RI =  I  nR
2
1
2
= I R − I o 
1
2
[A] (1.77)

I RI = I1R + I 2 R + I 3R + I 4 R + ....... + I nR
2 2 2 2 2

1
2
where IR is the rms value of the rectified current. Finally the current ripple factor may be
defined as
I RI
Kv = (1.78)
Io
Total harmonic distortion (THD)

There are many applications of power converter where it is necessary to synthesize a sine wave
from discrete pulses. Figure 1.19 shows the simplest case and possibly the worst case. There
many algorithm for switching power electronics inverter to obtain close approximations to sine
wave. In order to pick the best, there must be a measure of goodness. Besides cost, there is
harmonic content of the wave form. If the overall harmonic content were of interest, because of
losses in the load, then there is better measure, it is total harmonic distortion (THD).
v
Fig. 1.19 Total harmonic distortion

Sayfa 22
The total harmonic distortion can be defined by
(THD) 2 = Vo2 + V22 + V32 + +V42 + ....... + Vn2 (1.79)
that is
(THD ) 2 = VRI2 − V12 (1.80)
As a per unit quantity
VRI2 − V12 12
puTHD = ( ) (1.81)
V12
So that the deviation of the waveform from the pure sine wave is given by how much the THD
digresses from zero.
The ideal value of the input current would comprise only a fundamental component. There
would be no harmonics. Since harmonics are present, the input current waveform is distorted.
The distortion component DC is formed from (1.77) to be

DC = I R2 − I R21 1
2  
=  I rn2  (1.82)
 n=2 
As a measure of the harmonic content of the converter input current is, total harmonic distortion
THD is defined by the ratio of the harmonic component to the fundamental component. That
isi the normalized distortion component is
THD =
I 2
R − I R21 
1
2
(1.83)
I R1
The ideal value of this harmonic factor would be zero.
The term form factor

The term form factor is applied to ac waveforms. It provides an indication of both how much
distortion a waveform has form a pure sinewave and how much loss can be expected. The
definition is
rmsvalue
formfactor = (1.84)
averagevalue
Input power factor PF and displacement power factor DPF

The power factor PF of a converter-fed load, in terms of the ac supply quantities, is defined by
averagepower
PF = (1.85)
VRI I RI
Sayfa 23
With pure sinewave excitation the power factor is the cosine of the phase angle between the
voltage and current. However, with a controlled converter, the supply current i s is not
sinusoidal, so we must use the definition above.
In most cases the supply voltage is sinusoidal ; that is, the only voltage harmonic is the
fundamental component of the currents, and the average power P from the supply is associated
with the fundamental quantities VRI and IRI in the form
P = VR1 I R1 cos1 (1.86)
Where  1 is the phase-angle difference between the fundamental component of the voltage and
current. From the definition of power factor
VR1 I R1 cos1 I R1
PF = = cos1 (1.87)
VRI I RI I RI
By definition, the input distortion factor is defined as the ratio of the rms fundamental
component of current and total rms value of the current. That is,
I R1
Input distortion factor = (1.88)
I RI
Also,
Input displacement power factor DPF = cos1 (1.89)
Rectification ratio
The rectification ratio RR is defined by the expression
Vo I o
RR = (1.90)
V RI I RI
This is known also as the converter efficiency.
Examples 1.1-
Figure E1a shows the ac source, the dc load and four switches Swa, Swb, Swc and Swd in
bridge configuration. Switching Swa and Swb on while rail A is positive and switching Swc
and Swd on while rail is positive rectifies the source voltage whose waveform is shown in
Fig.E1b. At every half cycle of the voltage waveform there is delay  before switches Swa and
Swb (or Swc and Swd) are turned on. Swa and Swb (or Swc and Swd) are turned off at the end
of the half cycle.
a- Find a general expression to describe the average load voltage and the average
power in a load that is purely for resistive at any firing angle
b- The ac source is replaced by a dc source as depicted in Fig. E2 and load be a
resistor of value R. For the output shown in Fig.E2b, determine the rms value of
the load current and Fourier series of this square wave.
Solution:
Sayfa 24
a- Assume v s (t ) = 2V sin t
 
1 1 2V
 
Therefore, Vo = v d (t ) =  2V sin td (t ) = (1 + cost )
 
s
The average power P in the load is
2 2
1 1
P=
2 0 vid (t ) = 2 
0
2V 2 I sin(t ) sin(t −  )d (t ) =VI cos
where V and I are rms values and cos is known as the power factor.
v (t )
b- The current through the load is io (t ) = l
R
1
 1 T2  2
V
Therefore, I R =  V ) 2 dt 
 T 0 R
( =
 R
 2 
vl(t) is singular function since vl(t)=V for 0<wt< and vl(t)=- V for  <wt<2. For this reason
the average value of the waveform is zero by inspection. So, ao=0 and Vo=0.
Because of the position of the origin the waveform is an odd function. That means that a=0
proved by evaluating Eq. (1.69).
For the sine terms Eq.(1.69) is evaluated in two parts,
 2
1 1
bn =
  V sin n(t )d (t ) +   (−V ) sin n(t )d (t )
0
2V
That is, bn = (1 − cos n ) . Consequently, the harmonic series is
n
4V 4V 4V 4V
vo (t ) = sin t + sin 3t + sin 5t + sin 7t +   
 3 5 7
Sayfa 25
Fig. E1 Example of E1.
Fig. E2 Example of E1.
2. Semiconductor Devices1,3,6,7
Power semiconductor devices constitute the heart of modern power electronic equipment.
They are used in power electronic converters as a switch. Switches are classified in three
groups: uncontrolled switches (diode), semi controlled switches (thyristor), and fully
controlled switches (Mosfet and IGBT). All of them are made by semiconductor materials.
Semiconductor material is classified as being between the insulating and conducting

materials, its resistance decreasing with temperature rise.
The active material in the semiconductor devices is usually silicon. Silicon is an element in
group IV of the periodic table, and has four electrons in the outer orbit of its atomic structure.
If an element from group V, that is, an element having five outer orbit electrons, for
examples antimony, arsenic and phosphors, is added, then a free electron is present in the
crystal structure. The free electrons allow greatly increased conduction, and the resistivity is
low, but it is not as low as a conductor, and as the electron is negatively charged such a
Sayfa 26
material is known as an n-type semiconductor, because of the negative charge. The electrons
in an n-type semiconductor are called majority carriers.
If to silicon is added an impurity element from group III, that is, an element having three outer
for orbit electrons, for examples aluminum, boron and gallium, then a gap or hole appears in
the crystal structure which accept an electron. This gap can be considered to provide a
positively charged carrier known as a hole, which will allow greatly increased conduction, the
material so doped being as a p-type semiconductor. The majority carriers in p-type
semiconductor are holes. These p-type semiconductors have lower resistance than the pure
instrinsic silicon but they have higher resistivities than conductors.
2.1 Power Diode1,2,3,6,7

The name diode implies two electrodes (or two terminal), anode A and cathode K. The diode
is a switch, but it is uncontrolled switch. No signals can turn the diode on or off. Its action
depends entirely on the voltages and currents of the circuit to which the diode is connected.
The diode shown in Fig. 2.1 is formed by the junction within a single crystal of p- and n-type
materials. p-n junction is formed by alloying, diffusion and epitaxial. Modern techniques in
diffusion and epitaxial processes permit desired device characteristics. At the junction, the
free electrons of n and the free holes of p combine, thus the n side becomes positively
charged and p side becomes negatively charged Hence, a potential barriers exists across the
junction having a value of order of 0.6 V.
Fig. 2.1 Diode a) Structure pn junction b) Symbol c) Simple circuit
The diods have the following advantages,

• High mechanical and thermal reliability
• High peak inverse voltage
• Low reverse current
• Low forward voltage drop
• High efficiency
• Compactness
Sayfa 27
In order to determine the characteristics of the diode, the source voltage VS is adjusted and
the diode voltage VD is recorded along with the circuit current ID . The plot of diode current
ID versus diode voltage VD represents the I-V characteristic of the diode. Figure 2.2 illustrates
the typical shape of a pn junction diode.
Fig. 2.2 Diode characteristic

a) Test circuit b) practical case c) ideal case
Refer to Fig.2.2 and consider that the initial conditions represent the diode in the off-state.
The voltage source is zero (VS=0) and the circuit current is zero (IS=0). For this condition the
space-charge potential barrier at the diode junction is about 0.6 V. If the source voltage VS is
set to a small value such that the anod A is positive with respect to cathod K, the diode is
forward bias such that the p side of the junction is at a higher potential than the n side of the
junction. Associate with the voltage there is an electric field between metallized contacts of
the electrodes. The influence of the electric field is to narrow the depletion layer and reduce
the potential barrier. At the same time the electric field accelerate the majority carriers to an
average velocity that allows diffusion across the reduced potential barriers. The result is a
small forward current ID and the diode is in the on-state.
As the source voltage VS is slowly increased, the circuit current ID increases with the diode
voltage in an exponential fashion until the potential barrier is reduced zero. At this point
VAK =VD =VDF =0.7 V. Any further increase in the value of the source voltage VS allows the
possibility of a large forward current ID, that depends mainly on the load resistance R and the
source voltage VS. The pin structure of the diode gives the on-state voltage drop VD a linear
characteristics once the potential barrier has been reduced to zero.
As an example, typical values of a practical device might be VDF =0.7 V and RD=1.0 mOhm.
In steady-state, is virtually a constant, although it does reduce as the junction temperature
increases.
Again, consider the diode to be in the off-state. With reference Fig.2.2a, this means that
VS =VAK =VD =VDF =0, ID=0 and the junction barrier is 0.6 V. If the source voltage VS is set
to a value –VS such that the cathode K is positive with respect to anode A, the diode is
reverse biased such that the n side of the junction is at a higher potential than the p side of
the junction. An electric field is created between the metalized contacts of the electrodes by
Sayfa 28
the voltage difference. This electric field draws majority carriers away from the junction to
widen depletion layer and to increase the potential barriers. That is, electric field draws
electrons from the n region towards the cathode of positive polarity and draws holes from the
p region towards the anode of negative polarity. Consequently, diffusion across the junction
by majority carriers is suppressed and there is no current by majority carrier flow.
There is a small reverse current while the diode is reverse biased. There are always some
majority carriers that are created by thermal ionization of the silicon atoms in each region.
These minority carriers are accelerated across the junction assisted by the electric field, and
constitute a small leakage current in the reverse direction to that of the on-sate current. The
value of leakage current is microamperes for diodes of low current ratings and is miliamperes
for the high current ratings. The leakage current does not vary much with reverse voltage -,
but it does vary exponentially with temperature.
The value of the reverse voltage applied across a diode can be high but is limited. In practice
it must be kept below the breakdown value.
İdeal Diode
Diods, power transistors, and thyristors each posses internal resistance and capacitance, but
these are in general so small compared with the parameters of the circuit in which the device
operate that they may be neglected for many purposes and the device considered to be ideal.
An ideal diode has zero resistance to positive anode current ID , but infinite resistance to the
inverse direction. Thus the diode conducts if the source voltage VS is positive, and the anode-
to-cathode voltage VD is then zero. In the diagram of ID versus VD shown in Fig.2.2c, the
operating point of the diode may thus lie on the positive axes of ID in the range
0  I D  2 V or on the negative axis of VD in the range 0  VD  2V .
R
Reverse Recovery Time

The current in forward bias junction diode is due to the net effect of majority and minority
carriers. Once a diode is in forward conduction mode and then its forward current is reduced
to zero (due to natural behavior of the diode circuit or by applying a reverse voltage), the
diode continues to conduct due to the minority carriers which remain stored in the pn-
junction and the bulk semiconductor material. The minority carriers require a certain time to
recombine with opposite charges and neutralized. This time is called reverse recovery time
of diode. Figure 2.3 shows two reverse recovery characteristics of junction diodes. However,
the soft recovery type is more common.
Sayfa 29
Fig. 2.3 Reverse recovery characteristics
The reverse recovery time is denoted as trr and is measured from the initial zero crossing of
the diode current to %25 of maximum (or peak) reverse current, IRR. trr consist of two
components, ta and tb. ta is due to the charge storage in the depletion region of the junction and
represents the time between the zero crossing and the peak reverse current, IRR. tb is due to
t
the charge storage in the bulk semiconductor material. The ratio b is known as the
ta
softness factor, SF. For practical purpose, one need be concerned with the total recovery
time, trr and the value of the peak reverse current, IRR.
t rr = t a + t b (2.1)
The peak reverse current can be expressed in reverse di as

dt
di
I RR = t a (2.2)
dt
The storage charge which is the area enclosed by the path of the recovery current is
approximately
1 1 1
QRR = I RR t a + I RR t b = I RR t rr (2.3)
2 2 2
or
2QRR
I RR = (2.4)
t rr
Equating Eq. (2.2) to Eq. (2.4) gives
Sayfa 30
2Q RR
t rr t a = (2.5)
di
dt
If tb is negligible as compared to ta, trr= ta
2Q RR
t rr = (2.6)
di
dt
and
di
I RR = 2QRR (2.7)
dt
It can be noticed from Eqs. (2.6) and (2.7) that the reverse recovery time and the peak reverse
current depend on the storage charge and the reverse di .
dt
Examples 2.1-
The reverse recovery time of a diode is trr=3 s and the rate of fall or the diode current is
di/dt=30 A/ s. Determine
c- Storage charge, QRR

d- Peak reverse current, IRR
Solution:
a) From Eq. (2.6),
1 di 2
Q RR = t rr = 0.5  30  3 2  10 −6 = 135C
2 dt
b) From Eq.(2.7),
di
I RR = 2QRR = 2  135  30 = 90 A
dt
Power Diods Types

Power diodes can be classified as according to the reverse recovery time,
• General purpose diodes.
• High speed (fast recovery) diodes.
• Schottky diode.
General Purpose Diods

The diodes have high reverse recovery time of about 25 microsecs (sec). They
are used in low speed (frequency) applications. e.g., line commutated converters, diode
rectifiers and converters for a low input frequency upto 1 KHz. Diode ratings cover a
very wide range with current ratings less than 1 A to several thousand amps (2000 A) and
with voltage ratings from 50 V to 5 KV. These diodes are generally manufactured by
Sayfa 31
diffusion process. Alloyed type rectifier diodes are used in welding power supplies. They
are most cost effective and rugged and their ratings can go upto 300A and 1KV.
Fast Recovery Diods

The diodes have low recovery time, generally less than 5 s. The major field of
applications is in electrical power conversion i.e., in free-wheeling ac-dc and dc-ac
converter circuits. Their current ratings is from less than 1 A to hundreds of amperes with
voltage ratings from 50 V to about 3 KV. Use of fast recovery diodes are preferable for
free-wheeling in SCR circuits because of low recovery loss, lower junction temperature
and reduced di dt . For high voltage ratings greater than 400 V they are manufactured by
diffusion process and the recovery time is controlled by platinum or gold diffusion. For
less than 400 V rating epitaxial diodes provide faster switching speeds than diffused
diodes. Epitaxial diodes have a very narrow base width resulting in a fast recovery time of
about 50 ns.
Schottky Diods
A Schottky diode has metal (aluminium) and semi-conductor junction. A layer of
metal is deposited on a thin epitaxial layer of the n-type silicon. In Schottky diode there is
a larger barrier for electron flow from metal to semi-conductor.
When Schottky diode is forward biased free electrons on n-side gain enough
energy to flow into the metal causing forward current. Since the metal does not have any
holes there is no charge storage, decreasing the recovery time. Therefore a Schottky diode
can switch-off faster than an ordinary p-n junction diode. A Schottky diode has a
relatively low forward voltage drop and reverse recovery losses. The leakage current is
higher than a p-n junction diode. The maximum allowable voltage is about 100 V.
Current ratings vary from about 1 to 300 A. They are mostly used in low voltage and high
current dc power supplies. The operating frequency may be as high 100-300 kHz as the
device is suitable for high frequency application. Schottky diode is also known as hot
carrier diode.
General Purpose Diodes are available upto 5000V, 3500A. The rating of fast recovery
diodes can go upto 3000V, 1000A. The reverse recovery time varies between
0.1 and 5sec. The fast recovery diodes are essential for high frequency switching of
power converters. Schottky diodes have low-on-state voltage drop and very small
recovery time, typically a few nanoseconds. Hence turn-off time is very low for schottky
diodes. The leakage current increases with the voltage rating and their ratings are limited
to 100V, 300A. The diode turns on and begins to conduct when it is forward biased.
When the anode voltage is greater than the cathode voltage diode conducts.
The forward voltage drop of a power diode is low typically 0.5V to 1.2V. If the
cathode voltage is higher than its anode voltage then the diode is said to be reverse
biased.
Power diodes of high current rating are available in

• Stud or stud-mounted type.
• Disk or press pack or Hockey-pack type.
In a stud mounted type, either the anode or the cathode could be the stud.
Sayfa 32
Fig. 2.4 The types of diods
Table 2.1 Comparison between different types of diods
General Purpose Diods Fast Recovery Diods Schottky Diods
Upto 5000 V and 3500 A Upto 3000 V and 1000 A Upto 100 V and 300 A
Revers recovery time - High Revers recovery time - Low Revers recovery time – Extremly
Low
trr =0,1 s to 5 s trr =a few nanoseconds
trr =25 s
Turn off time - High Turn off time - Low Turn off time - Extremly Low
Switching frequency – Low Switching frequency – High Switching frequency – Very High
Vf=0.7 V to 1.2 V Vf=0.8 V to 1.5 V Vf=0.4 V to 0.6 V
2.2 The Thyristors6,7

The word thyristor is coined from thyratron and transistor. It was invented in the year 1957 at
Bell Labs. The Different types of Thyristors are
THYTISTOR - Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR)
TRIAC
DIAC
Gate Turn Off Thyristor (GTO)
A thyristor is the most important type of power semiconductor devices. They are extensively
used in power electronic circuits. They are operated as bi-stable switches from non-
conducting to conducting state. A thyristor is a four layer, semiconductor of p-n-p-n structure
with three p-n junctions. It has three terminals, the anode, cathode and the gate as shown in
Fig.2.5.
Sayfa 33
(a)
(b) (c)
Fig. 2.5 The thyristor. a) Structure b) Symbol c) SCR/Thyristor Photograph
The characteristics of the p-n-p-n device without any external connection to the gate is shown
in Fig. 2.6. The thyristor, in this condition, may be considered as three diodes in series, with
direction such as to prevent conduction in either direction. The reverse characteristic, that is,
with the cathode positive, exhibits similar features to the diode which conducts very little
current until avalance breakdown occurs. When the anode is made positive with respect the
cathode (in the forward direction, that is, with anode the positive) junctions J1 and J3 are
forward biased and junction J2 is reverse biased. With anode to cathode voltage VAK being
small, only leakage current flows through the device. The SCR is then said to be in the
forward blocking state or off state (the high voltage and low current region). If V AK is further
increased to a large value, the reverse biased junction J2 will breakdown due to avalanche
effect resulting in a large current through the device. The voltage at which this phenomenon
occurs is called the forward breakdown voltage VBO. Since the other junctions J1 and J3 are
already forward biased, there will be free movement of carriers across all three junctions
resulting in a large forward anode current (the low voltage and high current region- which is
called on state). Once the SCR is switched on, the voltage drop across it is very small,
typically 1 to 1.5V. The anode current is limited only by the external impedance present in the
circuit.
Sayfa 34
Fig. 2.6 The thyristor characteristic with no gate current
HOLDING CURRENT IH
After an SCR has been switched to the on state a certain minimum value of anode current is
required to maintain the thyristor in this low impedance state. If the anode current is reduced
below the critical holding current value, the thyristor cannot maintain the current through it
and reverts to its off state usually IH is associated with turn off the device.
LATCHING CURRENT IL
After the SCR has switched on, there is a minimum current required to sustain conduction.
This current is called the latching current. I L associated with turn on and is usually greater
than holding current.
The forward and reverse breakover voltages are similar in magnitude, due to in the reverse
blocking state almost all the voltage appearing at anode p-n junction, the cathode p-n
junction breaking over at about 10 V.
Although an SCR can be turned on by increasing the forward voltage beyond V BO , in

practice, the forward voltage is maintained well below V BO and the SCR is turned on by
applying a positive voltage between gate and cathode (Fig.2.7). With the application of
positive gate voltage, the leakage current through the junction J2 is increased. This is because
the resulting gate current consists mainly of electron flow from cathode to gate. Since the
bottom end layer is heavily doped as compared to the p-layer, due to the applied voltage,
some of these electrons reach junction J2 and add to the minority carrier concentration in the
p-layer. This raises the reverse leakage current and results in breakdown of junction J2 even
though the applied forward voltage is less than the breakdown voltage V BO. With increase in
gate current breakdown occurs earlier.
For the forward blocking state the quantity of interest is the forward blocking voltage V BO
which is defined for zero gate current. If a positive gate current is applied to a thyristor then
the transition or break over to the on state will occur at smaller values of anode to cathode
voltage as shown Fig.2.7 Although not indicated the gate current does not have to be a dc
current but instead can be a pulse of current having some minimum time duration. This ability
Sayfa 35
to switch the thyristor by means of a current pulse is the reason for wide spread applications
of the device. Once breakover in the forward direction occurs, the centre p slice is neutralized
by the electrons from the cathode, and device acts as a conducting diodes having two
junctions giving a forward voltage drop approximately double that of the diode. In order for
the thyristor to attain and retain the on-state, the anode current must reach its latching level,
and not fall below its holding current level as shown in Fig.2.6. The latching current is
typically double the holding current, both are low, being much less that 1% of the full-load
rated value.
Fig.2.7 Thyristor characteristics with gate current
However once the thyristor is in the on state the gate cannot be used to turn the device off.
The only way to turn off the thyristor is for the external circuit to force the current through the
device to be less than the holding current for a minimum specified time period.
Fig.2.8 Thyristor V-I characteristics with gate current
The thyristor, when forward-biased (anode positive), can be switched into the on-state by
injecting current into the gate terminal relative to the negative cathode as illustrated in Fig.2.7.
The action of the gate current is to inject holes into the inner p slice, which, together with the
electrons from the cathode n layer, breakover the centre control junction, switching the
thyristor into. the on-state. Once the anode current has exceeded the latching level, the gate
Sayfa 36
current can cease, the thyristor remaining in the on-state, irrespective of conditions in the gate
circuit. To turn off the thyristor, the anode current must be reduced below the holding level,
and the relatively long time allowed to elapse for the thyristor control junction to recover its
blocking state, before a forward voltage can again be applied without conduction.
Fig. 2.9 Typical current waveform during turn-off
More typically, to turn off the thyristor, the anode current is driven into reverse by the external
circuitry, when for a very brief period a reverse current flows as shown in Fig2.9, permitting
charge movement within the pn layers, allowing the two outer junctions to block any further
reverse current after the storage charge has been recovered. The stored charge is due to the
presence of the current carriers in the junction region. The central control junction will,
however; not block the re-application of a forward voltage until a further time has elapsed,
sufficient to allow recombination of the carriers at this junction. Typically 10 to 100/lS must
elapse before the forward voltage can again be applied without breakdown. The storage charge
could typically be 20/lC for a 20 A thyristor.
As stated, the conventional thyristor can only be turned off by reduction of its anode current to
near zero, but it is worth briefly mentioning a device known as the gate turn-off thyristor in
which turn-off is possible by reverse gate Current. The gate turn-off thyristor differs in its
internal construction from the conventional thyristor, such that application of a reverse voltage
of say 70 V to the gate will divert part of the anode current into the gate and give a turn-off fall
time within less than one microsecond. Initially during turn-off, the gate current may reach one
half of the anode current value. The reverse off-state voltage rating is less than the forward off-
state voltage. Turn-on requirements are similar to those of the conventional thyristor, but the
cost, added gate circuitry, rating limitations and losses, have at present delayed the introduction
of the gate turn-off thyristor. A further device which has been developed is the combination of
a thyristor with a reverse conducting diode on one silicon wafer. This device will always
conduct in the reverse direction, but is controllable (as with the normal thyristor) in the forward
direction.
There are five methods for thyristor turn-on;

1. Thermals. If the temperature of the thyristor is high, there will be an increase in the
number of electron-hole pairs, which would increase the leakage current.
2. Light. If light is allowed to strike the junction of a thyristor, the electron-hole pairs
will increase; and the thyristor may be turned on.
Sayfa 37
3. High voltage. If the forward anode-to-cathode voltage is greater than the forward
breakdown voltage, a sufficient current will flow to infinite regenerative turn-on.
4. dv/dt. If the rate of rise of the anode-cathode current voltage is high, the charging
current of the capacitive junctions may be sufficient enough to turn on the thyristor.
5. Gate current. If a thyristor is forward based, the injection of gate current by
applying positive gate voltage between the gate and cathode terminals would turn-on
the thyristor.
To turn off the tyhristor, the anode current must be reduced below the holding level. The
process of turning off a thyristor is called as commutation. Commutation may be classified
into two categories;
1- Natural commutation
If the source voltage is ac, the thyristor current goes through a natural zero, and a reverse
voltage appears the thyristor. The device is then automatically turned off due to the natural
behavior of the source voltage
2- Forced commutation
In some thyristor circuits, the input voltage is dc and the forward current of the thyristor is
forced to zero by additional circuitry called commutation circuit to turn off the thyristor. This
is applied in dc-dc converters, dc-ac converters.
Ideal Tyhristor. The ideal thyristor has infinite resistance to positive anode current unless the
cathode –to-gate current is momentarily given a positive value (Fig.2.10).
Fig. 2.10 Ideal Thyristor
Tyhristor Gating Requirements.

The gate-cathode characteristic of a thyristor is of a rather poor p-n junction. There will be a
considerable range of characteristic within a given production batch, individual thyristors
having characteristics as shown in Fig. 2.11. All thyristors can be assumed to have a
characteristic lying somewhere between the low and high resistance limits. The minimum
level of current and voltage required to turn on the thyristor is a function of the junction
temperature; an indication of these minimum levels is shown in Fig. 2.11.a.
-
&
Sayfa 38
Fig. 2.11 Gate characteristic of the thyristor. b) Range of characteristic b) Circuit reference.
c) Limits
The current into and the voltage at the gate are both subject to maximum values, but turn-on
requirements demand they also exceed certain minimum levels. The product of gate voltage
and current gives a power level to which a maximum is set Fig 2.11c shows these limits
imposed on the gate-cathode characteristic giving the area into which must be fitted the gate
signal for certain firing into the on-state to take place.
The final stage of the gate firing (triggering) network shown in Fig. 2.11a will consist of a
transformer for isolation, a resistance R1 to limit the gate current, and a resistance R2 to limit
the gate voltage when the thyristor is in the off state.
The Thevenin equivalent circuit of the firing network, shown in Fig. 2.12b taken as a voltage
E in series with a resistance RG·
Sayfa 39
Fig. 2.12 Firing network a) Desirable network connection b) Thevenin’s equivalent circuit
for firing network c) Firing network load line
The relationship in the steady state between the gate voltage VG and the gate current IG is
defined by the values of E and R G along the load line shown in Fig.2.12c. When the firing
signal is initiated, the gate current will grow along the line of the characteristic for that
thyristor until in the steady state the load line at point P is reached. However, before point p is
reached, the thyristor will have turned on, most likely in the region of point A. The parameters
of the firing network must be so chosen that the load line is above A but within the maximum
power limit. Typically the value of E will be 5 to 10 V, having an associated maximum
current of 0.5 to 1 A.
2.3 The Triac6,7

The triac is a five-layer and three terminal device as shown in Fig. 2.13, having a p-n-p-n path
in either direction between terminals T1and T2, and can hence conduct in either direction
as the symbol clearly indicates. Electrically, the triac performs in one device that
would require two thyristors in the inverse-parallel connection shown in Fig.2.13c.
Sayfa 40
Fig.2.13 The triac a) Structure, b) Symbol c) Triac equivalent
The triac can be switched into the on-state by either positive or negative gate current, but is
most sensitive if positive current is injected when T2 is positive, and negative current when T1
is positive. However, in practice, negative gate current is always used as shown with the
characteristic in Fig. 2.14.
Fig.2.14 The triac characteristic
2.4 The Power Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs)

. 6
The transistor is a three-layer n-p-n or p-n-p and three terminals device as shown in Figs. 2.15
and 2.16. The three terminals are base, emmiter and collector. It has two junctions, collector –
base (CB) and emmiter – base (EB). The different configurations are common base, common
collector and common emitter. Common emitter configuration is generally used in switching
applications.
Transistors can be operated in 3 regions i.e., cut-off, active and saturation. In the cut-of
region transistor is OFF, both junctions (EB and CB) are reverse biased. In the cut-off state
the transistor acts as an open switch between the collector and emitter. In the active region,
transistor acts as an amplifier (CB junction is reverse biased and EB junction is forward
biased), In saturation region the transistor acts as a closed switch and both the junctions CB
and EB are forward biased.
Sayfa 41
Within the working range, the collector current IC is a function of the base current IB , a
change in base current giving a corresponding amplified change in the collector current for a
given collector-emitter voltage VCE . The ratio of these two currents is in the order of 15 to
100. Related to the circuit symbol of Fig. 2.15b, the transistor characteristic is shown in Fig.
2.17. In a similar similar manner to the other devices, a breakdown level is reached with
increasing voltage, when avalanche breakdown will occur. A reversal of the collector-emitter
voltage will breakdown the base-emitter
junction at a low voltage, say 10 V, hence the transistor is not operated in this reverse mode.
A diode in series with the transistor will enable it to be used in circuits where reverse voltages
are encountered.
Fig. 2.15 N-P-N Transistor. A) Structure. B) Symbol with current directions
The P-N-P transistor shown in Fig. 2.16 exhibits similar characteristics to the N-P-N
transistor, the current and voltage directions being reversed.
Fig.2.16 P-N-P Transistor. A) Structure. B) Symbol with current directions
The power loss in the transistor is a function of the product of the collector emitter voltage
with the collector current. With reference to Fig. 2.18, if the base current is varied to control
the load current in the collector circuit, then large voltages can appear at the transistor. For
example, if V=200 V and (say) the base current IB were adjusted to give 10 A into a load of
10 , then the transistor voltage drop 100 V. This would give the transistor a power loss of
1kW and an overall efficiency of 50%. This condition is unacceptable from both the
viewpoint of device loss and rating, as well as overall efficiency.
In practice, for power applications, the transistor is operated as a switch. With zero base
current, it is effectively an open-circuit 'condition as shown in Fig. 2.15a. With a base current
Sayfa 42
which takes the device into saturation, it'is effectively a closed switch. As the transistor is a
controlled device, it is essential to profile the base current to the collector current. In order to
retain control when in the saturated state and so avoid excessive base charge, the base current
should be just sufficient to maintain saturation. At turn-on, initially, the base current should be
high so as to give a fast turn-on. Any change in the 'collector current must be matched by a
change in base current. At turn-off, the base current should be reduced at a rate which the
collector current can follow, so as to avoid secondary breakdown . In the off-state, a small
reverse current is maintained to avoid spurious collector current. As a switch, the transistor
power losses are small, being due to the small leakage current in the open position, and the
saturation voltage (shown in Fig. 1.15) with the collector current when in the closed position.
Typically, the saturation voltage is 1.1 V for a silicon power transistor.
Fig. 2.17 Common emitter characteristics for N-P-N transistor
Fig.2.18 Transistor controlled load
To exploit the transistor fully without overheating during switching, use can be made of the
safe operating area characteristic shown m FIg. 2.19b. When switching between the two states
shown in Fig. 2.19a, it is essential that the Instantaneous voltage and current values must at
all times during the switching period be within the rectangular area shown 'in Fig. 2.19b. Only
the very shortest switching time is almost rectangular, the high instantaneous power loss
which .can be tolerated being progressively restricted for longer switching times as shown in
Fig. 2.19b, by the corner being placed outside the safe operating area. Note that the scales of
the safe operating area are logarithmic.
Sayfa 43
Fig.2.19 Transistor as switch. A) On or off states. B) Typical safe operating area
2.5 The Power MOSFET’s (The metal Oxide-

Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistor)7
Power MOSFET is a metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor. It is a voltage
controlled device requiring a small input gate voltage. It has high input impedance. MOSFET
is operated in two states viz., ON STATE and OFF STATE. Switching speed of MOSFET is
very high. Switching time is of the order of nanoseconds.
MOSFETs are of two types

Depletion MOSFETs
Enhancement MOSFETs.
MOSFET is a three terminal device. The three terminals are gate (G), drain (D) and source
(S).
Depletion MOSFET
Depletion type MOSFET can be either a n-channel or p-channel depletion type MOSFET.
A depletion type n-channel MOSFET consists of a p-type silicon substrate with two highly
doped n+ silicon for low resistance connections. A n-channel is diffused between drain and
source. Figure 2.20 shows a n-channel depletion type MOSFET. Gate is isolated from the
channel by a thin silicon dioxide layer.
Sayfa 44
Fig. 2.20 n-chanel depletion type MOSFET
Gate to source voltage (VGS) can be either positive or negative. If VGS is negative, electrons
present in the n-channel are repelled leaving positive ions. This creates a depletion.
Fig. 2.21 : P-channel depletion type MOSFET
Figure 2.21 shows a p-channel depletion type MOSFET. A p-channel depletion type
MOSFET consists of a n-type substrate into which highly doped p-regions and a p-channel
are diffused. The two p+ regions act as drain and source p-channel operation is same except
that the polarities of voltages are opposite to that of n-channel.
Enhancement MOSFET
Enhancement type MOSFET has no physical channel. Enhancement type MOSFET can be
either a n-channel or p-channel enhancement type MOSFET.
Fig. 2.22 : n-channel enhancement type MOSFET
Figure 2.22 shows a n-channel enhancement type MOSFET. The p-substrate extends upto the
silicon dioxide layer. The two highly doped n regions act as drain and source.
When gate is positive (VGS) free electrons are attracted from p-substrate and they collect near
the oxide layer. When gate to source voltage, VGS becomes greater than or equal to a value
called threshold voltage (VT). Sufficient numbers of electrons are accumulated to form a
virtual n-channel and current flows from drain to source.
Sayfa 45
Figure 2.23 shows a p-channel enhancement type of MOSFET. The n-substrate extends upto
the silicon dioxide layer. The two highly doped P regions act as drain and source. For p-
channel the polarities of voltages are opposite to that of n-channel.
Fig. 2.23 : p-channel enhancement type MOSFET
CHARACTERISTICS OF MOSFET
Depletion MOSFET
Figure below shows n-channel depletion type MOSFET with gate positive with respect to
source. DI, DSV and GSV are drain current, drain source voltage and gate-source voltage. A plot
of variation of D I with DS V for a given value of GS V gives the Drain characteristics or Output
characteristics.
Fig. 2.24 : n-channel Depletion MOSFET
n-channel Depletion type MOSFET

VGS& VDS are positive. I D is positive for n channel MOSFET . VGS is negative for depletion
mode. VGS is positive for enhancement mode.
Figure below shows the drain characteristic. MOSFET can be operated in three regions Cut-
off region, Saturation region (pinch-off region) and Linear region.
In the linear region ID varies linearly with VDS i.e., increases with increase in VDS . Power
MOSFETs are operated in the linear region for switching actions. In saturation region I D
almost remains constant for any increase in VDS
Sayfa 46
Fig.2.25 Drain Characteristic
Fig. 2,26 shows the transfer characteristic. Transfer characteristic gives the variation
of D I with GS V for a given value of DS V . DSS I is the drain current with shorted gate. As
curve extends on both sides GS V can be negative as well as positive.
Fig.2.26 Transfer characteristic
Enhancement MOSFET
Sayfa 47
Fig:2.27 n-channel Enhancement MOSFET
Enhancement type MOSFET
V GS is positive for a n-channel enhancement MOSFET. VDS & ID are also positive for n
channel enhancement MOSFET
Fig. 2.28 shows circuit to obtain characteristic of n channel enhancement type

MOSFET. Figure below shows the drain characteristic. Drain characteristic gives the
variation of D I with DS V for a given value of GS V .
Fig.2.29 shows the transfer characteristic which gives the variation of D I with GS V
for a given value of VDS .
Fig2.28 Transfer Characteristic
Sayfa 48
Fig. 2.29 Drain Characteristic
MOSFET PARAMETERS
The parameters of MOSFET can be obtained from the graph as follows.
Power MOSFETs are generally of enhancement type. Power MOSFETs are used in switched
mode power supplies.
Power MOSFET’s are used in high speed power converters and are available at a relatively
low power rating in the range of 1000V, 50A at a frequency range of several tens of KHz .
max 100f KHz
SWITCHING CHARACTERISTICS OF MOSFET
Power MOSFETs are often used as switching devices. The switching characteristic of a
power MOSFET depends on the capacitances between gate to source GS C , gate to drain
GD C and drain to source GS C . It also depends on the impedance of the gate drive circuit.
During turn-on there is a turn-on delay d on t , which is the time required for the input
Sayfa 49
capacitance GS C to charge to threshold voltage level T V . During the rise time r t , GS C
charges to full gate voltage GSP V and the device operate in the linear region (ON state).
During rise time r t drain current D I rises from zero to full on state current D I .
MOSFET can be turned off by discharging capacitance CGS . Tdoff is the turn-off delay
time required for input capacitance CGS to discharge from V1 to VGSP . Fall time tf is the
time required for input capacitance to discharge from VGSP to threshold voltage VT
During fall time t f drain current falls from ID to zero. Fig. 2.30 shows the switching
waveforms of power MOSFET
Fig. 2.30 shows the switching waveforms of power MOSFET
Sayfa 50
2.6 The IGBT (Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor)
IGBT is voltage controlled device. It has high input impedance like a mosfet and low on state
conduction losses like a bjt.
IGBT has three terminals gate, collector, and emitter. With collector and gate voltage positive
with respect to emitter the device is in forward blocking mode. When gate to emitter voltage
becomes greater than the threshold voltage of IGBT, a n channel is formed in the p region.
Now device is in forward conducting state. In this state, p+ substrate inject holes into the
epitaxial n- layer. Increase in collector to emitter voltage will result in inrease of injected hole
concentration and finally a forward current is established.
CHARACTERISTIC OF IGBT
Controlling parameter is the gate emitter voltage Vge in IGBT. If Vge is less than the
threshold voltage Vr then IGBT is in OFF state. If Vge is greater than the threshold voltage
Vr then the IGBT is in ON state.
IGBTs are used in medium power applications such as ac and dc motor drives, power supplies
and solid state relays.
SWITCHING CHARACTERISTIC OF IGBT

Turn on time consists of delay time tdon and rise time tr.
The IGBT is a recent component, so its performance improves regularly as technology
evolves. It has already completely replaced the bipolar transistor in power applications, and
the availability of power modules (in which several IGBT dice are connected in parallel)
makes it attractive for power levels up to several megawatts, pushing further the limit where
thyristors and GTOs become the only option. Basically, an IGBT is a bipolar transistor driven
by a power MOSFET: it has the advantages of being a minority carrier device (good
performance in on-state, even for high voltage devices), with the high input impedance of a
MOSFET (it can be driven on or off with a very low amount of power).
The major limitation of the IGBT for low voltage applications is the high voltage drop it
exhibits in on-state (2 to 4 V). Compared to the MOSFET, the operating frequency of the
IGBT is relatively low (few devices are rated over 50 kHz), mainly because of a so-called
'current-tail' problem during turn-off. This problem is caused by the slow decay of the
conduction current during turn-off resulting from slow recombination of large number of
carriers, which flood the thick 'drift' region of the IGBT during conduction. The net result is
that the turn-off switching loss of an IGBT is considerably higher than its turn-on loss.
Generally, in datasheets, turn-off energy is mentioned as a measured parameter and one has to
multiply that number with the switching frequency of the intended application to estimate the
turn-off loss.
Sayfa 51
IGBTS HAVE BEEN PREFERRED DEVICE UNDER THESE CONDITIONS
1. Low duty cycle
2. Low frequency (<20kHZ)
3. Narrow or small line or load variations
4. High voltage applications (>1000V)
5. Operation at high junction temperature is allowed
6. >5kW output power
TYPICAL IGBT APPLICATIONS INCLUDE

1. Motor control: frequency<20kHz, short circuit / in rush limit protection
2. UPS (uninterruptible power supply): constant load, typically low frequency
3. Welding: high average current, but frequency (<50kHz)
4. Low power lighting: low frequency (<100kHz)
Sayfa 52
2. Rectifiers1,2,3,4,6
Some electrical equipment can use alternating current (a.c.) directly. E.g. lamps, space and
water heating, cookers, fans, drills, vacuum clenears etc. Other applications require that a.c. is
changed to direct current (d.c.). These include radio and TV sets, computers, battery changers,
TTL and CMOS logic circuits, laboratory power suppşies, public transport traction drives,
high voltage d.c.links, etc.
Many d.c. levels are required depending on the applications, e.g.;

• 5 V for TTL and CMOS logic
• ∓ 15 V for operantional amplifiers
• 5, 12, 15, 24, 30 and 60 V for laboratuary power supplies
• 12,14,48 and increase of 100 V for batery changing
• 220 V for d.c. motors
• 750 V for underground trains
• 1900 V fort he Channel Tunels
• 25 kV fort he EHT cathoda ray tubes
• ∓ 250 kV fort he high voltage d.c. link
The process of changing a.c. into d.c. is called rectifiers. Rectifiers convert an alternating
voltage supply to a direct voltage. Rectifiers are classified in to two groups, half-wave and,
full wave rectifiers.
The half-wave converters having a rectifying device in each line of the a.c. supply, all
cathodes of the varying devices being connected to a common connection to feed the d.c.
load, the return from the load being to the a.c. supply neutral. The expression half-wave
describes the fact that the current in each a.c. supply line is unidirectional. An alternative to
the description half-wave is to use expression single-way in descriptions these circuits.
The full-wave rectifiers are those which are in effect two half-wave rectifiers in series, one
feeding into the load, the other returning load current directly to the a.c. lines, eliminating the
need to employ the a.c. supply neutral. The expression full-wave is used because the current
in each a.c. supply line, although not necessarily symmetrical, is in fact alternating. The full-
wave rectifiers are more commonly called bridge rectifiers, but alternatively are also known
as double-way circuits.
Their control characteristics may be placed broadly into one of three categories: uncontrolled,
fully controlled and half controlled.
The uncontrolled rectifiers contain only diodes, giving a d.c load voltage fixed in magnitude
relative to the a.c. supply voltage magnitude. The half wave-controlled and –uncontrolled
rectifiers are often describes as unidirectional converters, as they permit power flow only
from the a.c. supply into d.c load.
Sayfa 53
3.1 Single-Phase Half-Wave Uncontrolled Rectifiers
The uncontrolled rectifiers contain only diodes, giving a d.c load voltage fixed in magnitude
relative to the a.c. supply voltage magnitude. The half wave-controlled and –uncontrolled
rectifiers are often describes as unidirectional converters, as they permit power flow only
from the a.c. supply into d.c load.
Resistive Load
In power electronics converters the angle  is used as the firing angle which defines the
semiconductor switch commence to conduct,  is used as extinction angle which it ceases to
conduct and the magnitude of  depends of the nature of the load circuit. Then the angle 
is defined as conduction angle, so =  − 
From a main supply transformer to provide the desired ac supply voltage to the diod
converter depending on the out put dc voltage required. The input ac supply is obtained for
the circuit of Fig. 3.1a with switch SW closed negative half cycle of the secondary of the
transformer voltage, =0, and  =  , so that  = . During the positive half cycle of input
supply when the upper end of the transformer secondary is positive with respect to the lower
end, the diod anode is positive with respect to its cathode and diod is in forward biased state.
The diod conducts and assuming ideal diod, the diod behaves as a closed switch and input
supply voltage appears across the load when the diod conducts from wt to  radians. Output
voltage vo=v, when the diod conducts from wt to . Consequently,
v(t ) Vm sin wt
i(t ) = = [A], for 0< wt<  rad (3.1)
R R
i(t)=0 [A], for  < wt< 2 rad (3.2)
From equation (1.67) the dc output voltage is

1 2
Vo =
2 
0
2V sin td (t ) =

V [V] (3.3)
From Equation (1.70) the rms rectified voltage is
1

 1  2
V
VR = 
 2

0
2V sin td (t )

=
2
[V] (3.4)
Sayfa 54
Fig. 3.1 Half-wave rectifier with resistive load converter
From equation 1.71 the ripple voltage is
1
 2 
 
1 2
VRI = V − V R
2
o
2 2
= Vo  − 1 = 1.211Vo [V] (3.5)
 4 
and the ripple factor

VRI
Kv = = 1.211 (3.6)
Vo
Since this is a resistive circuit, the current values may be obtained directly corresponding
voltage values. Thus
Vo
I0 = [A] (3.7)
R
VR V
IR = = [A] (3.8)
R 2R
Sayfa 55
and since the waveforms of output current and voltage are identical
K v = K I = 1.211 (3.9)
RC Load
Fig. 3.2 Half-wave rectifier with RC load circuit
When switch SW in the circuit of Fig.3.2a is closed, and the diode is conducting, then
vC (t ) + v R (t ) = vo = v(t ) (3.10)
or
t
1
C 0
idt + vC (0) + Ri = 2V sin t [V] (3.11)
The steady-state component of the current is
2
iS (t ) = V sin(t +  ) [A] (3.12)
Z
where
Sayfa 56
1
 = tan −1 [rad] (3.13)
CR
1
 1 2 2
Z = R 2 + ( ) [] (3.14)
 C 
.
The transient component of the current is of the form
−t
iT (t ) = Ae RC
[A] (3.15)
so that
2 −t
i(t ) = V sin(wt +  ) + Ae RC [A] (3.16)
Z
If switch SW is closed during the negative half cycle of v and the capacitance has no initial
charge, then at t=0, the beginning of the first conducting period, vC=0, and i=0, so that
substitution of these initial conditions in equation (3.16) gives
2 
V sin(wt +  ) − e RC sin  
−t
i(t ) = [A] (3.17)
Z  
and the time variation of current is indicated in Fig. 3.2b. The voltage across the capacitance
is
t
vC (t ) =  idt = 2V sin  cose RC − cos(wt +  )
1 −t
(3.18)
C0  
At the end of the pulse of the current, when,

t =   [rad] (3.19)
2
vC is the necessarily positive, so that the capacitor is positively charge at the beginning of the
next pulse of current, which commences when v= vC . During succeeding cycles, the diode
can only conduct when v> vC , and eventually
vC ) = 2V [V] (3.20)
and conduction ceases completely. If R is zero, this condition is reached at the end of the
first current pulse.
RL Load
When switch SW in the circuit of Fig 3.3a is closed and the diode is conducting
Sayfa 57
v L (t ) + v R (t ) = vo = v(t ) [V] (3.21)
or
di
L + Ri = 2V sin t [V] (3.22)
dt
If SW is closed during the negative half-cycle of v, then by sinusoidal steady-state circuit

analysis the steady-state current is
2V
iS = sin(wt −  ) [A] (3.23)
R 2
+ ( wL) 2  1
2
where
wL
 = tan −1 [rad] (3.25)
R
The transient response of such a circuit has already been determined in Section 1.2.1 and is
−( R )t
iT = Ae L
[A] (3.26)
Thus,
2
i(t ) = iT + iS = V sin(wt −  ) + Ae −( R / L )t (3.27)
Z
where

Z = R 2 + (wL) 2 1
2
[] (3.28)
The constant A is determined by substitution in equation (3.27) of initial condition i=0 at t=0,
giving
2
A= V sin  (3.29)
Z
thus
i(t ) = iT + iS =
Z
2

V sin(wt −  ) + e −( R / L )t  [A]; 0<wt<  (3.30)
Also
i=0;  <wt<  [rad] (3.31)
Sayfa 58
The waveform of the circuit variables are shown in Fig.3.3b. At the end of the conduction
period, i=0 and wt=. Substitution of these values in equation (2.39) gives
Z
2
 
V sin( −  ) + e −( R / L ) sin  = 0 (3.32)
And this transcendental equation may be solved numerically for given values of w, L and R.
The average value of the rectified current is conveniently obtained by starting from the
equation
di
v−L − Ri = 0 (3.33)
dt
from which
v L di 2 wL di
i= − = V sin wt − [A] (3.34)
R R dt R R d ( wt )
Then

1
2 0
Io = id ( wt )

1  2 wL di 
Io =  
2 0  R
V sin wt −  d ( wt )
R d ( wt ) 
(3.35)
The second term under this integral vanishes, and

2V
Io = (1 − cos  ) [A] (3.36)
2 R
Sayfa 59
Fig. 3.3 Half-wave rectifier with RL load circuit
Since no average value of rectified voltage can appear across the inductance, it follows that
2
Vo = RI o = V (1 − cos  ) [V] (3.37)
2
At this point, several quantities required to determined whether or not a circuit design is
satisfactory are unknown. These include the ripple voltage, the ripple current, the rms value of
the rectified current and the voltage and current ripple factors. These may be obtained by
Fundamental Concepts in Section 1.3.1.
If the resistance in the circuit is negligibly small, so that L  R , then from equation (3.25),
(3.28) and (3.30),
2
i= V (1 − cos wt ) [A] (3.38)
wL
Sayfa 60
and the waveform of the current is as shown in Fig. 3.4.
Fig. 3.4 Current in circuit of Fig 3.3a when L  R
From equation (3.38) or Fig.3.4 it may be seen that
2
Io = 2 V [A] (3.39)
wL
and that the only harmonic present in this current is the first or fundamental, of which the rms
value is
V I
I 1R = = o [A] (3.40)
wL 2
The rms value of the rectified current is then

I R = I o2 + I 12R 
1
2
= 1.225I o [A] (3.41)
The voltage across the inductance is vL=v for the entire cycle, so that Vo = 0 and ripple factor
are
V1R I 1R
Kv = =; KI = = 0.707 (3.42)
Vo Io
RL Load Circuit with Free-wheeling Diode

Half-wave rectifiers with a load consisting of resistance and inductance in series are
characterized by discontinuous current and high ripple content. The first of these
characteristics can be eliminated and the second much reduced by means of a free-wheeling
diode shown as D2 in Fig. 3.5. At this point it is necessary to make a distinction that has not
been needed in any of previous analysis. Care has always been taken to stipulate that switch
SW in the circuit shall be closed during the negative half-cycle of the voltage source. This
Sayfa 61
was done to avoid the need to analyze the special case of switching on the circuit at appositive
value of source voltage which would give a “transient” response applying to the first cycle of
operation only. In this way, the response which was in fact determine for the first cycle of
operation was that which was repeated in each subsequent cycle and could therefore be called
the “steady-state” response of the circuit.
Transient Analysis
If switch is closed during the negative half cycle of v, then during the first half cycle of v, has
no effect on the operation of the circuit, and from equation (3.30)
io (t ) = i(t ) =
Z
2

V sin(wt −  ) + e −( R / L )t  [A]; 0<wt<  (3.43)
also
vAK=0, vo=v : 0<wt<  ()
where
wt’=wt-0 rad; I O = i wt = = i wt =0' (3.45)
also
vAK=v, vo=0 : 0<wt’<  ()
Sayfa 62
Fig. 3.5 Half-wave rectifier with-free-wheeling diode
At wt=2 wt’= v goes positive and since v0=0, D1 once more commence to conduct.
At this instant, the current in the load circuit is
− ( R / L )
I O 2 = I O = e 
(3.47)
Steady-State Analysis
Let
wt’’=wt-n rad (3.48)
where n/2 is the number of cycles of response that have been completed since switch SW was
closed and is very large. From equation (3.30)
io (t ) = i(t ) =
Z
2

V sin(wt '' −  ) + Ae −( R / L )t
''
 (3.49)
Also
I O = t '' = I O' 2 (3.50)
Substitution of the initial conditions of equation (3.50) in equation (3.49) yields
io (t ) =
Z
2

V sin(wt '' −  ) + ( I O' 2 + I O' 2 sin  )e −( R / L ) t
'' ''
 (3.51)
At wt’’=, diode D2 begins to conduct; i falls instantaneously to zero; and from

equation (3.51)
2  2 −( R / L ) '' ( L ) t '' 
''
I w = I O'  = V sin  + ( I O' 2 + sin  )e R

 (3.52)
O = t '' Z Z
  
at wt’’=2, and v and hence v become positive, and
 − ( R / L ) '' ( L )  '' 
''
I = I O  e
' R 
 = I O' 2 (3.53)
 
w
O = t ''

 
Sayfa 63
3.2 Single-Phase Half-Wave Controlled Rectifiers1,7
Controlled rectifiers are line commutated ac to dc power converters which are used to convert a
fixed voltage, fixed frequency ac power supply into variable dc output voltage.
Type of input: Fixed voltage, fixed frequency ac power supply.

Type of output: Variable dc output voltage
We have seen in Chapter 3.1 that diode rectifiers provide a fixed output voltage only. To
obtain controlled output voltages phase control thyristors are used instead of diodes. The input
supply fed to a controlled rectifier is ac supply at a fixed rms voltage and at a fixed frequency.
We can obtain variable dc output voltage by using controlled rectifiers. The output voltage of
thyristor rectifiers is varied by controlling the delay or firing angle of thyristors.
The thyristor remains reverse biased during the negative half cycle of input supply. The type
of commutation used in controlled rectifier circuits is referred to AC line commutation or
Natural commutation or AC phase commutation.
When the input ac supply voltage reverses and becomes negative during the negative half
cycle, the thyristor becomes reverse biased and hence turns off. There are several types of
power converters which use ac line commutation. These are referred to as line commutated
converters.
Different types of line commutated converters are

• Phase controlled rectifiers which are AC to DC converters.
• AC to AC converters
▪ AC voltage controllers, which convert input ac voltage into variable ac output
voltage at the same frequency.
▪ Cyclo converters, which give low output frequencies.
The diode rectifiers are referred to as uncontrolled rectifiers which make use of power
semiconductor diodes to carry the load current. The diode rectifiers give a fixed dc output
voltage (fixed average output voltage) and each diode rectifying element conducts for one half
cycle duration (T/2 seconds), that is the diode conduction angle = 1800 or  radians.
A single phase half wave diode rectifier gives (under ideal conditions) an average dc output
voltage Vodc=Vm/ and single phase full wave diode rectifier gives (under ideal conditions)
Sayfa 64
an average dc output voltage Vodc=2Vm/ , where Vmximum value of the available ac supply
voltage.
Thus we note that we can not control (we can not vary) the dc output voltage or the average
dc load current in a diode rectifier circuit.
In a phase controlled rectifier circuit, a high current and a high power thyristor device (silicon
controlled rectifier; SCR) are used for conversion of ac input power into dc output power.
Phase controlled rectifier circuits are used to provide a variable voltage output dc and a
variable dc (average) load current. We can control (we can vary) the average value (dc value)
of the output load voltage (and hence the average dc load current) by varying the thyristor
trigger angle.
We can control the thyristor conduction angle from 1800 to 00 by varying the trigger angle
from 00 to 1800, where thyristor conduction angle
Application of Phase Controlled Rectifiers

These phase-controlled rectifiers are simple and less expensive; and the efficiency of these
rectifiers are, in general, above 95%. Since these rectifiers convert from ac to dc, these
controlled rectifiers are also called ac-dc converters and are used extensively in industrial
applications, especially in variable-speed drives, ranging from fractional horsepower to
megawatl power level.
DC motor control in steel mills, paper and textile mills employing dc motor drives.
AC fed traction system using dc traction motor.
Electro-chemical and electro-metallurgical processes.
Magnet power supplies.
Reactor controls.
Portable hand tool drives.
Variable speed industrial drives.
Battery charges.
High voltage DC transmission.
Uninterruptible power supply systems (UPS).
Some years back ac to dc power conversion was achieved using motor generator sets, mercury
arc rectifiers, and thyratorn tubes. The modern ac to dc power converters are designed using
high power, high current thyristors and presently most of the ac-dc power converters are
thyristorised power converters. The thyristor devices are phase controlled to obtain a variable
dc output voltage across the output load terminals.
Sayfa 65
The phase controlled thyristor converter uses ac line commutation (natural commutation) for
commutating (turning off) the thyristors that have been turned ON.
The phase controlled converters are simple and less expensive and are widely used in
industrial applications for industrial dc drives. These converters are classified as two quadrant
converters if the output voltage can be made either positive or negative for a given polarity of
output load current. There are also single quadrant ac-dc converters where the output voltage
is only positive and cannot be made negative for a given polarity of output current. Of course
single quadrant converters can also be designed to provide only negative dc output voltage.
The two quadrant converter operation can be achieved by using fully controlled bridge
converter circuit and for single quadrant operation we use a half controlled bridge converter.
Classification of Phase Controlled Rectifiers

The phase controlled rectifiers can be classified based on the type of input power supply as
• Single Phase Controlled Rectifiers which operate from single phase ac input power
supply.
• Three Phase Controlled Rectifiers which operate from three phase ac input power
supply.
Different Types of Single Phase Controlled Rectifiers

Single Phase Controlled Rectifiers are further subdivided into different types
• Half wave controlled rectifier which uses a single thyristor device (which provides
output control only in one half cycle of input ac supply, and it provides low dc output).
• Full wave controlled rectifiers (which provide higher dc output)
o Full wave controlled rectifier using a center tapped transformer (which requires
two thyristors).
o Full wave bridge controlled rectifiers (which do not require a center tapped
transformer)
▪ Single phase semi-converter (half controlled bridge converter, using two
SCR’s and two diodes, to provide single quadrant operation).
▪ Single phase full converter (fully controlled bridge converter which requires
four SCR’s, to provide two quadrant operation).
Three Phase Controlled Rectifiers are of different types

• Three phase half wave controlled rectifiers.
• Three phase full wave controlled rectiriers.
o Semi converter (half controlled bridge converter). A semiconverter is a one-
quadrant converter and it has one polarity of output voltage and current.
o Full converter (fully controlled bridge converter).
o Dual converter. A dual converter can operate:in four quadrants; and both the
output voltage and current can be either positive or negative. In some applications,
converters are connected in series to operate at higher voltages and to improve the
input power factor.
PRINCIPLE OF PHASE CONTROLLED RECTIFIER OPERATION

The basic principle of operation of a phase controlled rectifier circuit is explained with
reference to a single phase half wave phase controlled rectifier circuit with a resistive load
shown in the figure 3.6.
Sayfa 66
All these power converters operate from ac power supply at a fixed rms input supply voltage
and at a fixed input supply frequency. Hence they use ac line commutation for turning off the
thyristors after they have been triggered ON by the gating signals. A phase-control thyristor is
turned on by applying a short pulse to its gate and turned off due to natural or line
commutation; and in case of a highly inductive load, it is turned off by firing another thyristor
of the rectifier during the negative half-cycle of input voltage.
Resistive Load1,7
Let us consider the circuit in Fig. 3.6a with a resistive load. During the positive half-cycle of
input voltage, the thyristor anode is positive with respect to its cathode and the thyristor is
said to be forward biased. When thyristor T1 is fired at a delay angle of wt=, by applying a
suitable gate trigger pulse to the gate of thyristor, thyristor T1 conducts and assuming an ideal
thyristror, thyristor behaves as closed switch and the input voltage appears across the load.
When the input voltage starts to be negative at wt=, the thyristor anode is negative with
respect to its cathode and thyristor T1 is said to be reverse biased; and it is turned off. The
time after the input voltage starts to go positive until the thyristor is fired at wt= is called
the delay or firing angle,  as indefined in the above section.
Figure 3.6b shows the region of converter operation, where the output voltage and current
have one polarity. Figure 3.6c shows the waveforms for input voltage, output voltage, load
current, and voltage across T1. This converter is not normally used in industrial applications
because it has high ripple content and low ripple frequency. If fs is the frequency of input
supply, the lowest frequency of output ripple voltage is fs.
If Vm = 2V is the peak input voltage, the average output voltage can be found from

V m sin td (t ) = m − cos t  = m (1 + cos )
1 V V


Vo = V dc = (3.54)
2  2 2
and Vo = Vdc can be varied from Vm/ to 0 by varying  from 0 to . The average
output voltage becomes maximum when  = 0 and the maximum voltage, Vdm, is
Vm
Vdm, = (3.55)

Normalizing the output voltage with respect to Vdm the normalized voltage,
Vo
Vn = = 0.5(1 + cos ) (3.56)
Vdm
The rms output voltage is given by
Sayfa 67
1 1 1
 1   2
V2  2
1 sin 2 
 1 − cos 2td (t )
V 2
VR = Vrms =   Vm2 sin 2 td (t ) = m = m   ( −  + 2 
 2   4  2

(3.57)
Fig. 3.6 Controlled half-wave rectifier with resistive load circuit
Performance Parameters of Phase Controlled Rectifiers

Output dc power (average or dc output power delivered to the load)
POdc = Vdc x Idc
where
Vdc = average or dc value of output(load) voltage

Idc = average or dc value of output(load) current
Output ac power
POac = VR x IR
Efficiency of rectification (Reftication Ratio)

Sayfa 68
Efficiency = POdc/ POac
The output voltage can be considered as being composed of two componenets
• The dc componenet VOdc=DC or average value of output voltage

• The ac component or ripple componenet Vac=VR = RMS value of all the ac ripple
component
Transformer Utilization Factor (TUF)
TUF= POdc /Vs x Is
where
Vs = RMS value of transformer secondary output voltage
Is = RMS value of transformer secondary current
Example 3.1
If the converter of Figure 3.6a has a purely resistive load of R and the delay angle is
 =  /2, determine the (a) rectification efficiency; (b) form faclor, FF; (c) ripple
factor, RF; (d) transformer utilization factor, TUF; and (e) peak inverse voltage,
PIV, of thyristor T1
Solution
The delay angle,  =  /2. From Eq. (3.54),
Vm V 
Vo = Vdc = (1 + cos ) = m (1 + cos ) = 0.1592Vm
2 2 2
and
Vdc
Io =Idc = =0.1592 Vm /R.
R
Normalizing the output voltage with respect to Vdm the normalized voltage (From Eq. (3.56)),
Vo
Vn = = 0.5(1 + cos ) =0.5 pu
Vdm
From Eq. (3.57),

1
V 1 sin 2  2
VR = Vrms m   ( −  + =Vrms = 0.3536Vm
2 2 
and Irms = 0.3536Vm/R .
Sayfa 69
The output dc power is defined as
Podc = Vdc Idc = (0.1592Vm )2/R
and the input ac power is defined as
Pac = Vrms Irms = (0.3536Vm )2/R
a) The efficiency (or rectification ratio) of a rectifier, which is a figure of merit and
permits us to compare the effectiveness, is defined as
Pdc (0,1592Vm ) 2
= = = 20,27%
Pac (0.3536Vm ) 2
b) The form factor, which is a measure of the shape ourput voltage, is
VR = Vrms 0.3536Vm
FF = = = 2.221 or 222.1 %
Vo = Vdc 0.1592Vm
c) The ripple factor, which is a measure of the ripple content, is
VR = Vrms 2 1
RF = ( ) − 1 = (2.22 2 − 1) 2 = 1.983 or 198.3 %
Vo = Vdc
Vm
d) The rms voltage of transformer secondery, Vs = =0.707 Vm. The rms value of
2
the transformer secondery current is the same as that of the load, I s = 0.3536Vm / R .
The volt-ampere rating (VA) of the transformer ,
VA = Vs I s = 0.707Vm x0.3536Vm
Transformer utilization factor is defined as,
Pdc
TUF =
Vs I s
where Vs and Is are the rms voltage and rms current of the transformer secondery,
respectively. So that,
Pdc 0.15922 1
TUF = = = 0.1014 and = 9.86
Vs I s 0.707x0.3536 TUF
e) The peak inverse voltage, PIV=Vm
Sayfa 70
RL Load
As in the case of the diode half-wave rectifier discussed in Section 3.1, it must be assumed
that the controlled half-wave rectifier, in which the diode is replaced by a thyristor, is supplied
from an ideal alternating voltage source. The discussion of Fourier analysis in Section 1.3 is
applicable here also, but in the case of the thyristor the angle  of equations 1.67 to 1.69 is no
longer zero, since the instant at which the thyristor commences to conduct is that in the
positive half cycle of the source voltage v at which gate current iG is given a positive value.
After each pulse of gate current iG , while thyristor T1 in Fig. 3.7 is conducting The method of
Fourier series similar to that
of diode rectifiers can be applied to analyze the performances of phase-controlled converters
with RL loads. However, to simplify the analysis, it is assumed in this chapter that the load
inductance is sufficiently high; and the load current is continuous and has negligible ripple.
The thyristor T1 is forward biased during the positive half cycle of input supply. Let us
assume that T1 is triggered at wt= , by applying a suitable gate trigger pulse to T1 during the
positive half cycle of input supply. The output voltage across the load follows the input
supply voltage when T1 is ON. The load current io flows through the thyristor T1 and through
the load in the downward direction. This load current pulse flowing through T1 can be
considered as the positive current pulse. Due to the inductance in the load, the load current io
flowing through T1 would not fall to zero at t , when the input supply voltage starts to become
negative. A phase shift appears between the load voltage and the load current waveforms, due
to the load inductance.
The thyristor T1 will continue to conduct the load current until all the inductive energy stored
in the load inductor L is completely utilized and the load current through T1 falls to zero at
wt= , where is referred to as the Extinction angle, (the value of wt ) at which the load
current falls to zero. The extinction angle  is measured from the point of the beginning of the
positive half cycle of input supply to the point where the load current falls to zero.
The thyristor T1 conducts from wt to . The conduction angle of T1 is d= −, which depends
on the delay angle and the load impedance angle  . The waveforms of the input supply
voltage, the gate trigger pulse of T1 , the thyristor current, the load current and the load
voltage waveforms appear as shown in the figure 2.7.
(a)
Sayfa 71
(b)
(c)
Fig. 3.7 Controlled half-wave rectifier with RL load circuit
From  to 2 , the thyristor remains cut-off as it is reverse biased and behaves as

an open switch. The thyristor current and the load current are zero and the output voltage
also remains at zero during the non conduction time interval between  to 2 . In the
next cycle the thyristor is triggered again at a phase angle of 2+ , and the same
operation repeats.
To derive an expression for the output (inductive load) current, during wt= to  when
thristor T1 conducts. Considering sinusoidal input supply voltage we can write the expression
for the
supply voltage as
vs=Vm sinwt = instantaneous value of the input supply voltage.
Let us assume that the thyristor T1 is triggered by applying the gating signal to T1 at wt=a .
The load current which flows through the thyristor T1 during wt= to  wt= to  to can be
found from the equation
v L (t ) + v R (t ) = vo = v(t ) [V] (3.58)
or
di
L + Ri = Vm sin wt = 2V sin t [V] (3.59)
dt
Sayfa 72
The solution of equation (3.59) is of form
2
VI! i(t ) = iT + iS = V sin(wt −  ) + Ae −( R / L )t [A] (3.60)
Z
where

Z = R 2 + (wL) 2 1
2
=Load impedance [] (3.61)
The constant A is determined by substitution in equation (3.60) of initial condition i=0

at wt= , yields

2  ( R / L )( −t ) 
i (t ) = iT + i S = V sin(wt −  ) − sin( −  )e 
 [A] (3.62)
Z  
Also wt= , i is again zero, so that from equation (3.62)
sin( −  ) = sin( −  )e ( R / L )( −  ) /   (3.63)
and  may be determined by the solution of this transcendental equation by using the iterative
method of solution (trial and error method). The time variation of the circuit variables are
shown in Fig.3.7b, in which the conduction angle is
 =  − (3.64)
From equation (3.62) the average rectified current is given by
 + 
1 2  ( R / L )( −t ) 
Io =
2  V sin(wt −  ) − sin( −  )e
Z 

 d ( wt ) (3.65)
 
Also from equation (3.62) the rms output current is given by,
 +  2
1 2  ( R / L )( −t )  1
I R = I rms =(
2  V sin(wt −  ) − sin( −  )e
Z 

 d ( wt )) 2 (3.66)
 
. Inductive Load2

For an inductive load circuit, Z=wL, and  = , so that from equation (3.62)
2
Sayfa 73
2
i= V (cos − cost ) [A] (3.67)
L
and the time variations of the circuit variables are shown In Fig. 3.8,
where it seen that
 = 2 −  rad (3.68)
and this may be confirmed by substitution in equation 3.63.
From equation (3.67) the average rectified current is given by
2 −
1 2
Io =
2 
 L
V (cos − cost )d ( wt )
V ( −  ) cos + sin  

1 2
Io = (3.69)
 wL
Also from equation (3.67) the rms output current is given by
1
 1 2 −
2  2
I R = I rms =
 2

 L
V (cos − cost )d ( wt )

(3.70)
and the rms output voltage is
1
 1 2 −
2  2
VR = Vrms =
 2

 L
V sin 2 wtd ( wt )

(3.71)
Sayfa 74
Fig. 3.8 Controlled half-wave rectifier with inductive load circuit
Single Phase Half Wave Controlled Rectifier with RL Load and

Free Wheeling Diode (FWD)
Fig. 3.9 Single Phase Half Wave Controlled Rectifier with RL Load and Free Wheeling Diode
FWD
With a RL load it was observed that the average output voltage reduces. This disadvantage can be
overcome by connecting a diode across the load as shown in figure. The diode is called as a Free
Wheeling Diode (FWD). The waveforms are shown Figure 3.10.
Sayfa 75
Fig.3.10 Wave forms
At wt= , the source voltage vs falls to zero and as vs becomes negative, the free wheeling
diode is forward biased. The stored energy in the inductance maintains the load current flow
through R, L, and the FWD. Also, as soon as the FWD is forward biased, at wt= , the SCR
becomes reverse biased, the current through it becomes zero and the SCR turns off. During
the period wt= to  , the load current flows through FWD (free wheeling load current) and
decreases exponentially towards zero at wt=.
Also during this free wheeling time period the load is shorted by the conducting FWD and the
load voltage is almost zero, if the forward voltage drop across the conducting FWD is
neglected. Thus t here is no negative region in the load voltage wave form. This improves the
average output voltage.
V
The average output voltage Vdc = m (1 + cos ) , which is the same as that of a purely
2
resistive load. The output voltage across the load appears similar to the output voltage of a
purely resistive load.
The following points are to be noted.
• If the inductance value is not very large, the energy stored in the
inductance is able to maintain the load current only upto wt=, where    , well
before the next gate pulse and the load current tends to
become discontinuous.
• During the conduction period to , the load current is carried by the SCR and during the
free wheeling period to , the load current is
carried by the free wheeling diode.
Sayfa 76
• The value of  depends on the value of R and L and the forward resistance of the
FWD. Generally    .
If the value of the inductance is very large, the load current does not decrease to zero during
the free wheeling time interval and the load current waveform appears as
shown in the figure 3.11.
Fig. 3.11 Waveform of Load Current in Single Phase Half Wave Controlled Rectifier with
a
Large and FWD
During the periods t1, t3…..the SCR carries the load current and during the periods t2, t4 ………..
the FWD carries the load current.
It is to be noted that
• The load current becomes continuous and the load current does not fall to zero for large
value of load inductance.
• The ripple in the load current waveform (the amount of variation in the output load
current) decreases.
Single Phase Half Wave Controlled Rectifier With A General

Load
A general load consists of R, L and a DC source ‘E’ in the load circuit.
Fig. 3.12 Half wave controlled rectifier circuit with the load circuit
consists of a dc source ‘E’
In the half wave controlled rectifier circuit shown in the figure 3.12, the load circuit
consists of a dc source ‘E’ in addition to resistance and inductance. When the thyristor is
in the cut-off state, the current in the circuit is zero and the cathode will be at a voltage
equal to the dc voltage in the load circuit i.e. the cathode potential will be equal to ‘E’.
Sayfa 77
The thyristor will be forward biased for anode supply voltage greater than the load dc
voltage.
When the supply voltage is less than the dc voltage ‘E’ in the circuit the thyristor is reverse
biased and hence the thyristor cannot conduct for supply voltage less than the load circuit dc
voltage.
The value of wt at which the supply voltage increases and becomes equal to the
load circuit dc voltage can be calculated by using the equation Vm sinwt =E . If we assume
the value of wt is equal to  then we can write Vm sin =E. Therefore  is calculated as
 =sin-1 (E/Vm).
For trigger angle  , the thyristor conducts only from wt=  to  .
For trigger angle  , the thyristor conducts only from wt=  to  .
The wave forms appear as shown in the figure 3.13.
Fig. 3.13 Wave form of half wave controlled rectifier circuit with the load
circuit
consists of a dc source ‘E’
Equations
3.72
3.73
3.74
Expression for the Load Current

When the thyristor is triggered at a delay angle of  , the equation for the circuit can be written as
3.75
Sayfa 78
The general expression for the output load current can be written as
3.76
3.77
The general expression for the output load current can be written as
3.78
To find the value of the constant ‘A’ apply the initial condition at wt= , load
current io=0 . Equating the general expression for the load current to zero at wt= , we get
3.79
We obtain the value of constant A as
3.80
Substituting the value of the constant ‘A’ in the expression for the load current, we get the
complete expression for the output load current as
3.81
The Extinction angle  can be calculated from the final condition that the output current io=0
at wt=  . By using the above expression we get,
3.82
Sayfa 79
To derive an expression for the average or dc load voltage
3.83
3.84
3.85
Sayfa 80
RC Load2
After the first pulse of gate current iG has been applied, and thyristor Q in Fig. 3.14 a is
conducting, then
vC (t ) + v R (t ) = vo = v(t ) (3.86)
and from equation (3.26) the current is
2 −t
i(t ) = V sin(wt +  ) + Ae RC (3.87)
Z
If the capacitor has no initial charge, then at wt = , the beginning of the first conducting
period, vC=0, and i=( 2 Vsin)/ R so that substitution or these initial conditions in equation
(3.87) yields
2 Z  ( 1 )( /  −t )
i= V sin(t +  ) +  sin  − sin( +  )e RC (3.88)
Z R 
As in the case of the uncontrolled rectifier, vC has a positive value at the end of the conduction
period, and this value is increased with each successive pulse of rectified current until
conduction ceases when

vC = 2 V V:   rad
2
(3.89)

vC = 2 V sin   rad
2
If R is zero, the condition described in equation (3.89) is reached at the end of the first
current pulse. However, if   0 , then an infinite pulse of current will flow at the instant wt =
 to make vC = 2 V sin  and such a pulse would destroy a thyristor.
Sayfa 81
Fig. 3.14 Controlled half-wave rectifier with RC load circuit
3.4 Single-Phase Full-Wave Controlled Rectifiers

A half-wave rectifier provides only one pulse of load current during each cycle of the voltage
source. An alternative classification for this circuit is therefore a “one-pulse” rectifier. In the
half-wave rectifiers, the source current equals to the load current. Due to the load current is
asymmetric wave-form, the source current that is transformer secondary current will be
asymmetric too and has dc component. Single phase half wave rectifier gives
• The input supply current waveform has a dc component which can result in dc saturation
of the transformer core.
• Low dc output voltage.
• Low dc output power and lower efficiency.
• Higher ripple voltage and ripple current.
• Higher ripple factor.
• Low transformer utilization factor.
Sayfa 82
Single phase half wave controlled rectifiers are rarely used in practice as they give low dc output
and low dc output power. They are only of theoretical interest.
The above disadvantages of a single phase half wave controlled rectifier can be over come by
using a full wave controlled rectifier circuit. Most of the practical converter circuits use full wave
controlled rectifiers.
Single phase full wave controlled rectifier circuit combines two half wave controlled rectifiers in
one single circuit so as to provide two pulse output across the load. Both the half cycles of the
input supply are utilized and converted into a uni-directional output current through the load so as
to produce a two pulse output waveform. Hence a full wave controlled rectifier circuit is also
referred to as a two pulse converter.
Single phase full wave controlled rectifiers are of various types

• Single phase full wave controlled rectifier using a center tapped transformer (two pulse
converter with mid point configuration).
• Single phase full wave bridge controlled rectifier
▪ Half controlled bridge converter (semi converter).
▪ Fully controlled bridge converter (full converter).
3.3 Single-Phase Full-wave Rectifier With Centre-Tapped

Transformer6
A full-wave rectifier circuit with a center-tapped transformer is shown in Fig.3.15
vs = Supply Voltage across the upper half of the transformer secondary winding
vs = vao=Vm sinwt
vbo =- vao=-Vm sinwt = supply voltage across the lower half of the transformer
secondary winding.
This type of full wave controlled rectifier requires a center tapped transformer and
two thyristors T1 and T2 The input supply is fed through the mains supply transformer,
the primary side of the transformer is connected to the ac line voltage which is available
(normally the primary supply voltage is 220V RMS ac supply voltage at 50Hz supply
frequency in Turkey). The secondary side of the transformer has three lines and the center
point of the transformer (center line-) is used as the reference point to measure the input
and output voltages.
Sayfa 83
Fig. 3.15 Full-wave rectifier with centre-tapped transformer
The upper half of the secondary winding and the thyristor T1 along with the load act as a half
wave controlled rectifier, the lower half of the secondary winding and the thyristor T2 with
the common load act as the second half wave controlled rectifier so as to produce a full wave
load voltage waveform.
There are two types of operations possible.

▪ Discontinuous load current operation, which occurs for a purely resistive load
or an RL load with low inductance value.
▪ Continuous load current operation which occurs for an RL type of load with
large load inductance.
Discontinuous Load Current Operation (for low value of load inductance)

Generally the load current is discontinuous when the load is purely resistive or when the RL
load has a low value of inductance.
During the positive half cycle of input supply, when the upper line of the secondary winding
is at a positive potential with respect to the center(neutral) point ‘O’ the thyristor T1 is
forward biased and it is triggered at a delay angle of . The load current flows through the
thyristor T1, through the load and through the upper part of the secondary winding, during the
period  to , when the thyristor T1 conducts (Fig. 3.16).
The output voltage across the load follows the input supply voltage that appears across the
upper part of the secondary winding from wt= to  . The load current through the thyristor
T1 decreases and drops to zero at wt= , where  for RL type of load and the thyristor T1
naturally turns off at wt= (Fig. 3.16)
Sayfa 84
Fig.3.16 Waveform for Discontinuous Load Current Operation without FWD
During the negative half cycle of the input supply the voltage at the supply line ‘A’ becomes
negative whereas the voltage at line ‘B’ (at the lower side of the secondary winding) becomes
positive with respect to the center point ‘O’. The thyristor T is forward biased during the
negative half cycle and it is triggered at a delay angle of +. The current flows through the
thyristor T , through the load, and through the lower part of the secondary winding when T
conducts during the negative half cycle the load is connected to the lower half of the
secondary winding when T conducts.
For purely resistive loads when L = 0, the extinction angle = . The load current falls to zero
at wt== , when the input supply voltage falls to zero at wt= . The load current and the
load voltage waveforms are in phase and there is no phase shift between the load voltage and
the load current waveform in the case of a purely resistive load.
For low values of load inductance the load current would be discontinuous and the
extinction angle  but + .
For large values of load inductance the load current would be continuous and does not fall to
zero. The thyristor T1 conducts from  to +, until the next thyristor T2 is triggered. When
T2 is triggered at t=+ , the thyristor T1 will be reverse biased and hence T1 turns off.
The average or dc output voltage of a full-wave controlled rectifier can be calculated by

finding the average value of the output voltage waveform over one output cycle (i.e., radians)
and note that the output pulse repetition time is 2/T seconds where T represents the input
supply time period and T=1/f ; where f = input supply frequency.
Sayfa 85
Assuming the load inductance to be small so that  + , we obtain discontinuous load
current operation. The load current flows through T1 form t= to  , where is the trigger
angle of thyristor T1 and is the extinction angle where the load current through T1 falls to zero
at t= . Therefore the average or dc output voltage can be obtained by using the expression
3.90
Therefore Vodc= Vm (cos –cos )/ , for discontinuous load current operation,
+
When the load inductance is small and negligible that is L=0 , the extinction
angle = radians. Hence the average or dc output voltage for resistive load is obtained as
THE EFFECT OF LOAD INDUCTANCE

Due to the presence of load inductance the output voltage reverses and becomes negative
during the time period wt= to  . This reduces the dc output voltage. To prevent this
reduction of dc output voltage due to the negative region in the output load voltage waveform,
we can connect a free wheeling diode across the load. The output voltage waveform and the
Sayfa 86
dc output voltage obtained would be the same as that for a full wave controlled rectifier with
resistive load.
When the Free wheeling diode (FWD) is connected across the load
When T1 is triggered at wt= , during the positive half cycle of the input supply the FWD is
reverse biased during the time period wt= to  . FWD remains reverse biased and cut-off
from wt= to  . The load current flows through the conducting thyristor T , through the RL
1
load and through upper half of the transformer secondary winding during the time period  to
.
At wt= , when the input supply voltage across the upper half of the secondary winding
reverses and becomes negative the FWD turns-on. The load current continues to flow through
the FWD from wt= to  (Figure 3.17).
Fig. 3.17 Waveform for Discontinuous Load Current Operation with FWD
Expression fort he DC output voltage of a single phase full wave controlled rectifier with
RL load and FWD
3.91
Thyristor T1 is triggered at t= . T1 conducts from t= to 
Sayfa 87
Output voltage vo= sinwt ; for t= to 
FWD conducts from t= to  and vo= during discontinuous load current. Therefore
3.92
The DC output voltage V dc is same as the DC output voltage of a single phase full wave
controlled rectifier with resistive load. Note that the dc output voltage of a single phase full
wave controlled rectifier is two times the dc output voltage of a half wave controlled rectifier.
CONTINUOUS LOAD CURRENT OPERATION (WITHOUT FWD)

For large values of load inductance the load current flows continuously without decreasing and
falling to zero and there is always a load current flowing at any point of time. This type of
operation is referred to as continuous current operation.
Generally the load current is continuous for large load inductance and for low trigger angles.
The load current is discontinuous for low values of load inductance and for large values of trigger
angles. The waveforms for continuous current operation are as shown in Figure 3.18.
Sayfa 88
Fig.3.18 Load voltage and load current waveform of a single phase full wave controlled
rectifier with RL load & without FWD for continuous load current operation
In the case of continuous current operation the thyristor T1 which is triggered at a delay angle
of , conducts from wt= to + . Output voltage follows the input supply voltage across the
upper half of the transformer secondary winding v0=vA0=Vmsin wt .
Sayfa 89
The next thyristor T2 is triggered at wt=+ , during the negative half cycle input supply. As
soon as T2 is triggered at wt= to+ , the thyristor T1 wil be reverse biased and T1 turns off
due to natural commutation (ac line commutation). The load current flows through the
thyristor T2 from wt=+ to 2+ . Output voltage across the load follows the input supply
voltage across the lower half of the transformer secondary winding v0=vB0=-Vmsin wt . Each
thyristor conducts for 0 radians 180 in the case of continuous current operation.
The average or DC outpu voltage
3.93
The above equation can be plotted to obtain the control characteristic of a single phase full
wave controlled rectifier with RL load assuming continuous load current operation.
Normalizing the dc output voltage with respect to its maximum value, the normalized dc
output voltage is given by
3.94
Sayfa 90
We notice from the control characteristic that by varying the trigger angle  we can vary the
output dc voltage across the load. Thus it is possible to control the dc output voltage by
changing the trigger angle  . For trigger angle in the range of 0 to 90 degrees i.e., 0   <
90 , Vdc is positive and the circuit operates as a controlled rectifier to convert ac supply
voltage into dc output power which is fed to the load.
For trigger angle > 90o , cos becomes negative and as a result the average dc output voltage
Vdc Vdc becomes negative, but the load current flows in the same positive direction. Hence the
output power becomes negative. This means that the power flows from the load circuit to the
input ac source. This is referred to as line commutated inverter operation. During the inverter
mode operation for >90o the load energy can be fed back from the load circuit to the input
ac source.
To derive an expression for RMS output voltage

The rms value of the output voltage is calculated by using the equation
Sayfa 91
3.95
Therefore
3.4 Single-Phase Full-wave Bridge Rectifier6

The bridge (full-wave or double-way) connection can be arranged to be either uncontrolled,
Sayfa 92
fully-controlled, or half-controlled configurations, and this section will describe each
connection in turn.
Uncontrolled
The single-phase bridge circuit connection is shown in Fig. 3.18 in its simplest diagrammatic
layout. This layout, whilst almost self-explanatory and widely used in electronic circuit
layouts, does not at a glance demonstrate that it is two half-wave circuits in series, nor is it
possible to draw a similar layout for the three-phase circuits.
Fig. 3.19 Single-phase bridge circuit a) – d) Connection

drawn to differing diagram layouts e) Waveforms
The same circuit drawn to a different diagrammatic layout as in Fig. 3.19b shows
clearly the concept of two half-wave circuits in series making the fulf-wave connection, two
diodes with common cathodes feeding into the load, two diodes with common anodes
returning the load current to the other supply line. However, the layout of Fig. 3.19b is rather
cumbersome, and for power applications the layout of Fig. 3.19c is used.
Sayfa 93
In constructing the voltage wavefonns, some circuit reference must be used, and in this
respect one can construct the supply wavefonns with reference to a mid point neutral N as
shown in Fig. 3.19d, thus enabling a comparison to be made to the half-wave circuit of Fig.
3.10. As only a simple two·winding transfomer is required, the mid point is neither required
nor available in practice, and in this respect it is useful to look at Fig. 3.19c where the supply
is given two labels vx and vy shown in the wave forns of Fig. 3.19d.
The load voltage shown in Fig. 3.19e can be constructed either by taking the
wavefonns of vx and vy when each is positive, or by constructing the voltages on each side of
the load relative to the neutral N, the difference between them being the load voltage vL . The
use of the neutral N does demonstrate that the load voltage is the addition of two half-wave
circuit voltages in series, making a full-wave connection. The diode voltage vD1 has a peak
reverse value of the maximum value of the supply voltage, this being only half the value in
the half·wave connection of
Fig:. 3.19e for the same load voltage; however, two diodes are always conducting at any
given instant, giving a double volt-drop.
The diode and supply current wavefonns shown in Fig. 3.19e are identical in shape to
the half-wave connection of Fig. 3.10. The output characteristic is two pulse, hence as regards
the load response and supply requirements the bridge connection is similar to the bi-phase
half·wave circuit.
Fully controlled6
The circuit diagram of a single phase fully controlled bridge converter is shown in the
figure 3.120 with a highly inductive load and a dc source in the load circuit so that the load
current is continuous and ripple free (constant load current operation).
Fig. 3.20. A single phase fully controlled bridge converter
The fully controlled bridge converter consists of four thyristors T1 , T2 , T3 and T4

connected in the form of full wave bridge configuration as shown in the figure. 3.20. Each
thyristor is controlled and turned on by its gating signal and naturally turns off when a reverse
voltage appears across it. Let’s explain the analysis first, by taking E=0, during the positive
half cycle when the upper line of the transformer secondary winding is at a positive potential
with respect to the lower end the thyristors T1 and T2 are forward biased during the time
interval wt=0 to  The thyristors T1 and T2 are triggered simultaneously wt= , 0<wt <  ,
the load is connected to the input supply through the conducting thyristors T1 and T2 . The
output voltage across the load follows the input supply voltage and hence output voltage Vm
Sayfa 94
sinwt. Due to the inductive load T1 and T2 will continue to conduct beyond t, even though the
input voltage becomes negative. T1 and T2 conduct together during the time period  to +,
for a time duration of radians (conduction angle of each thyristor = 180 )
0
During the negative half cycle of input supply voltage for wt= , to  the
thyristors T3 and T4 are forward biased. T3 and T4 are triggered at wt= + . As soon as the
thyristors T3 and T4 T are triggered a reverse voltage appears across the thyristors T1 and T2
and they naturally turn-off and the load current is transferred from T1 and T2 to the thyristors
T3 and T4. The output voltage across the load follows the supply voltage and vo=-Vm sinwt
during the time period , to 2+ . In the next positive half cycle when T1 and T2 are
triggered, T3 and T4 are reverse biased and they turn-off. The figure 3.21 shows the
waveforms of the input supply voltage, the output load voltage, the constant load current with
negligible ripple and the input supply current.
Figure 3.21 The waveforms of the input supply voltage, the output load voltage, the constant
load
current with negligible ripple and the input supply current.
During the time period wt= to , the input supply voltage vS and the input supply
current iS are both positive and the power flows from the supply to the load. The converter
operates in the rectification mode during wt= to  .
Sayfa 95
During the time period wt= to + , the input supply voltage vS is negative and the
input supply current iS is positive and there will be reverse power flow from the load circuit to
the input supply.
The converter operates in the inversion mode during the time period wt= to + and
the load energy is fed back to the input source.
The single phase full converter is extensively used in industrial applications up to

about 15kW of output power. Depending on the value of trigger angle , the average output
voltage may be either positive or negative and two quadrant operation is possible.
The load voltage is the same as that described for the bi-phase half-wave connection
with a mean value as for Eq. (3.93) of
2Vmax
Vo = cosα (3.96)
π
less in this case by two thyristor volt·drops. This equation will not apply if the load current is
not continuous.
The ripple effect to the output voltage and current, and thyristors, supply current and thyristor
voltage are shown in the Fig.3.22 .
Sayfa 96
Fig.3.22 Fully-controlled single-phase bridge a) Connection b) Waveforms
Single –Phase Semiconverters7
Single phase semi-converter circuit is a full wave half controlled bridge converter
which uses two thyristors and two diodes connected in the form of a full wave bridge
configuration.
The two thyristors are controlled power switches which are turned on one after the
other by applying suitable gating signals (gate trigger pulses). The two diodes are
uncontrolled power switches which turn-on and conduct one after the other as and when they
are forward biased.
Sayfa 97
Fig.3.23 A single phase semi-converter (half controlled bridge converter)
The circuit diagram of a single phase semi-converter (half controlled bridge

converter) is shown in Figure 3.23 with highly inductive load and a dc source in the load
circuit. When the load inductance is large the load current flows continuously and we can
consider the continuous load current operation assuming constant load current, with negligible
current ripple (i.e., constant and ripple free load current operation).
The ac supply to the semiconverter is normally fed through a mains supply transformer
having suitable turns ratio. The transformer is suitably designed to supply the required ac
supply voltage (secondary output voltage) to the converter.
During the positive half cycle of input ac supply voltage, when the transformer
secondary output line ‘A’ is positive with respect to the line ‘B’ the thyristor T1 and the diode
D2 are both forward biased. The thyristor T1 is triggered at t=   by applying an
appropriate gate trigger signal to the gate of T1 . The current in the circuit flows through the
secondary line ‘A’, through T1, through the load in the downward direction, through diode D2
back to the secondary line ‘B’.
T1 and D2 conduct together from t= to  and the load is connected to the input ac
supply. The output load voltage follows the input supply voltage (the secondary output
voltage of the transformer) during the period t= to  . At t= , the input supply voltage
decreases to zero and becomes negative during the period t= to + . The free wheeling
diode Dm across the load becomes forward biased and conducts during the period t= to
+ .
The load current is transferred from T1 and D2 to the FWD D . T1 and D2 are turned
off. The load current continues to flow through the FWD Dm . The load current free wheels
(flows continuously) through the FWD during the free wheeling time period  to + .
Sayfa 98
During the negative half cycle of input supply voltage the secondary line ‘A’ becomes
negative with respect to line ‘B’. The thyristor T2 and the diode D1 are both forward biased.
T2 is triggered at + , during the negative half cycle. The FWD is reverse biased and turns-
off as soon as T2 is triggered. The load current continues to flow through T2 and D1 during
the period wt= + to 2 (Fig.3.24).
Sayfa 99
Sayfa 100
Fig.3.24 Waveforms of single phase semi-converter for RLE load and constant load current for
> 900
Control Characteristic of Single Phase Full Converter
The dc output control characteristic can be obtained by plotting the average or dc output
voltage Vdc versus the trigger angle .
For a single phase full converter the average dc output voltage is given by the equation
Vodc= 2Vm cos /
Fig.3.25 Control Characteristics
We notice from the control characteristic that by varying the trigger angle we can vary
the output dc voltage across the load. Thus it is possible to control the dc output voltage by
changing the trigger angle . For trigger angle in the range of 0o to 90o degrees i e, 0o<<90o
is positive and the average dc load current Idc is also positive. The average or dc output power
Pdc is positive, hence the circuit operates as a controlled rectifier to convert ac supply voltage
into dc output power which is fed to the load.
For trigger angle >900, cos  becomes negative and as a result the average dc output
voltage V dc becomes negative, but the load current flows in the same positive direction i.e., I
dc is positive . Hence the output power becomes negative. This means that the power flows
from the load circuit to the input ac source. This is referred to as line commutated inverter
Sayfa 101
operation. During the inverter mode operation for >900 the load energy can be fed back
from the load circuit to the input ac source.
The Figure 3.26 shows the two regions of single phase full converter operation in the
V dc versus I dc plane. In the first quadrant when the trigger angle is less than 900, and VdcIdc are
both positive and the converter operates as a controlled rectifier and converts the ac input
power into dc output power. The power flows from the input source to the load circuit. This is
the normal controlled rectifier operation where P dc is positive (Fig. 3.26) .
When the trigger angle is increased above 900 , V dc becomes negative but I dc is positive
and the average output power (dc output power) Pdc becomes negative and the power flows
from the load circuit to the input source. The operation occurs in the fourth quadrant where V
dc is negative and I dc is positive. The converter operates as a line commutated inverter (Fig.
3.20) .
Figure 3.26 Two quadrant operation
3.6 Three-Phase Half-Wave Rectifiers6

Single phase half controlled bridge converters and fully controlled bridge converters are used
extensively in industrial applications up to about 15 kW of output power. The single phase
controlled rectifiers provide a maximum dc output of . Vomax=2Vm/
The output ripple frequency is equal to the twice the ac supply frequency. The single phase
full wave controlled rectifiers provide two output pulses during every input supply cycle and
hence are referred to as two pulse converters.
Three phase converters are 3-phase uncontrolled and controlled rectifiers which are used to
convert ac input power supply into dc output power across the load.
Features of 3-phase controlled rectifiers are

Operate from 3 phase ac supply voltage.
They provide higher dc output voltage and higher dc output power.
Higher output voltage ripple frequency.
Filtering requirements are simplified for smoothing out load voltage and load
current
Three phase controlled rectifiers are extensively used in high power variable speed industrial
dc drives.
Sayfa 102
Uncontrolled
The three-phase half-wave connection is the basic element in most of the polyphase
rectifier circuits, although its use in its own right is limited, due in part to it requiring
a supply transformer having an interconnected-star (zig-zag) secondary. However, to ease the
explanation, the supply will initially be assumed as a simple star-eonnected winding.
With the polyphase connections, the time intervals between the repetitions in the d.c.
load wavefonns are shorter than for single-phase connections, and also in practice they will be
supplying larger loads having heavier inductance. The net result is for the ripple content of the
load current to be less, and it is reasonable to assume the current to be continuous and level.
Hence, in developing the current waveforms for the polyphase circuits, it will be assumed that
the load current is continuous and level, that is, it has negligible ripple.
Fig. 3.27 Three-phase uncontrolled half-wave rectifier a)Connection,

b) Waveforms
The connection of the three-phase half-wave circuit is shown in Fig. 3.27, each supply
phase being connected to the load via a diode and, as in all half-wave connections, the load
current being returned to the supply neutral. The circuit functions in a manner such that only
one diode is conducting at any given instant, that one which is connected to the phase having
the highest instantaneous value. This results in the load voltage vL having the waveform
shown in Fig. 3.27b, which is the top of the successive phase voltages. While vL is the most
positive phase, diode D1 conducts but, directly v2 becomes more positive than v1 , the load
current commutates (transfers) from diode D1 to diode D2• Confirmation of the instant of
commutation can be seen by examining the diode voltage waveform vD, it going negative
directly v1 has an instantaneous value below v2 ,hencediode D1 turns off.
Sayfa 103
The instantaneous d.c. load voltage varies between the maximum value of the phase
voltage and half this value, and it also repeats itself three times per cycle, thus having a three-
pulse characteristic. Comparison of the load voltage in Fig.3.22b to the two-pulse load voltage
of Figs. 3.21 or 3.22, shows the three-pulse connection has a much smaller ripple.
The mean value of the load voltage is given by
1 5π 3 3
Vo = Vmean =  Vmax sinwtd(wt) =
6
Vmax (3.97)
2π π
6 2
3
less by the single diode volt-drop.
Assuming level d.c. load current iL, the diode currents shown in Fig. 3.27b are each blocks
one third of a cycle in duration. Using the rms. value of the diode current for the required
rating purposes for each diode,
IL
I r = I rms = (3.98)
3
an expression which can be calculated by using calculus, or more simply by taking the square
root of the mean of the sum of the (current)2 over three equal intervals in the cycle is,
I 2LL + 0 2 + 0 2 1
I r = I rms = ( ) 2
(3.99)
3
Examination of the diode voltage waveform shows the peak reverse voltage to 3Vmax , which
is the maximum value of the voltage between any two phases, that is, the maximum value of
the line voltage.
Fig. 3.28 Interconnected-star connection of secondery. a) Transformer circuit. b) Current

waveform
Sayfa 104
It was stated earlier that the simple star connection of the supply was not appropriate, the
reason being that the unidirectional current in each phase will lead to possible d.c.
magnetization of the transfonner core. To avoid this problem the interconnected-star
(sometimes called zig-zag) winding shown in Fig. 3.28a is used as the secondary of the supply
transformer. The current which is reflected into the primary is now a.c. as shown in Fig.
3.28b, being as much positive as negative, hence avoiding any d.c. component in the core
m.m.f.
Controlled
When the diodes of Fig. 3.27 are replaced by thyristors as shown in Fig. 3.29a, the circuit
becomes fully controllable, with the mean load voltage being adjustable by control of the
firing delay angle . Again the firing circuits are not shown, but it may be assumed that each
thyristor has a firing circuit connected to its gate and cathode, producing a firing pulse relative
in position to its own phase voltage. A master control will ensure that the three gate pulses are
displaced by 1200 relative to each other, giving the same firing delay angle to each thyristor.
Sayfa 105
(e)
Fig. 3.29 Three-phase half-wave controlled rectifier a) Connection. b) Waveforms with small
delay angle. c) and d) Load voltage waveform with firing delay angle e) Quadrant
The load voltage waveforms of Fig. 3.29c and d show the effect of larger delay angle, the
voltage having instantaneous negative periods after the firing delay angle =30o. The mean
load voltage is given by
5
1 + 3 3
Vo = Vmean =
2π 
6
6
+
Vmax sinwtd(wt) =
2
Vmax cos (3.100)
3
3.7 Three-Phase Full-Wave Rectifiers6

Uncontrolled
The three-phase bridge connection is most readily seen as a full·wave or double-way
connection by reference to the circuit layout shown in Fig. 3.30. The load is fed via a three-
phase half-wave connection, the return current path being via another half-wave connection to
one of the three supply lines, no neutral being required. However, the circuit connection
layout is more usually drawn as shown in Fig. 3.31a.
Fig. 3.30 Three-phase full-wave circuit
The derivation of the load-voltage waveform for the all·diode connection of Fig. 3.31 can be
made in two ways. Firstly, one can consider the load voltage to be the addition of the two
three-phase half·wave voltages, relative to the supply neutral N, appearing at the positive and
negative sides of the load respectively. As the voltage waveforms of Fig. 3.31b show, the
resultant load voltage is six-pulse in characteristic, having as its maximum instantaneous
value that of the line voltage. An alternative approach to deriving the load-voltage waveform
Sayfa 106
is to consider that the two diodes which are conducting are those connected to the two lines
with the highest voltage between them at that instant. This means that when va is the .most
positive phase diode D1 conducts, and during this period first vb is the most negative with
diode D6 conducting, until vc becomes more negative when the current in diode D6
commutates to diode D2. The load voltage follows in turn six sinusoidal voltages during one
cycle these being va - vb, va - vc, vb - vc, vb -.va, vc - va, vc - vb , all having the maximum value
of the line voltage, that is 3 times the phase voltage. Although the supply is shown as star-
connected in Fig.3.31, a delta connection can equally well be used.
The mean value of the load voltage can either be calculated from the sum of the two
three·pulse waveforms which, using Eq. (3.97) gives
3 3 3
Vo = Vmean = 2 x Vph(max) = Vline(max) (3.101)
2 
As two diodes are in series with the load, the mean value is reduced by two diode volt-drops.
The diode current waveforms shown in Fig. 3.31b reveal that each diode conducts the full-
load current for one third of a cycle, the order of commutation determining the numbering of
the diodes in the circuit. The diode voltage vD1 wavefom can be determined as the difference
between the phase voltage va and the voltage at the top of the load relative to the supply
neutral N. The peak reverse voltage appearing across the diode is the maximum value of the
line voltage.
Sayfa 107
Fig.3.31 Three-phase bridge circuit. a) Connection. b) Waveforms
Figure 3.31b shows the a.c. supply current to be symmetrical, but of a quasisquare shape.
However, the current waveforms are closer to a sinusoidal shape than those in the single-
phase bridge connection.
Controlled
The three-phase bridge can be made into a fully-controlled connection by making all six
rectifying elements thyristors, as shown in Fig. 3.32. As in previous circuits, the mean load
voltage is now controllable by delaying the commutation of the thyristors by the firing delay
angle .
With a small firing delay angle as shown in Fig. 3.32b, the waveshapes can be readily
understood by reference to earlier circuits. The two three-pulse waveforms add to give the six-
pulse load-voltage waveform. The current-waveform shapes are similar to the diode case,
except they are delayed by the angle .
A problem does arise with the bridge circuit that was not present in the earlier circuits, and
that is the one of starting. When connected to the a.c. supply, firing gate pulses will be
Sayfa 108
delivered to the thyristors in the correct sequence but, if only a single firing gate pulse is used,
no current will flow, as the other thyristor in the current path will be in the off-state. Hence, in
order to start the circuit functioning, two thyristors must be fired at the same time in order to
commence current flow.
With reference to Fig. 3.32b (say), the supply is connected when va is at its peak value, the
next firing pulse will be to thyristor T2 . However, thyristor T2 will not conduct unless at the
same time thyristor T1 is pulsed, as reference to the waveforms shows these are the two
thyristors conducting at that instant. Hence, for starting purposes, the firing circuit must
produce a firing pulse 60° after its first pulse. Once the circuit is running normally, the second
pulse will have' no effect, as the thyristor will already be in the on-state.
The starting pulse can be fed to the thyristor by each firing circuit having two isolated outputs,
one to its own thyristor and the other to the previous thyristor. Alternatively, the firing circuits
can be electronically linked so that, when each firing circuit initiates a pulse to its own
thyristor, it also does likewise to the previous firing circuit.
Fig. 3.32 Fully –controlled three-phase bridge. a) Connection. b) Waveforms with small firing
angle. c) Voltage waveforms with large firing delay angle.
When,the firing delay is large, with the load voltage having negative periods, it is difficult to
visualize the load-voltage waveform from the two three-pulse pictures; hence, as shown in
Sayfa 109
Fig. 3.32c, the six line voltages va - vb. va -vc, vb - vc, vb – va, vc - va. vc - vb give a direct
picture of the load-voltage waveform and clearly show that zero mean voltage is reached
when the firing delay angle is 90°.
The value of the mean load voltage is given by
3
Vo = Vmean = Vline(max) cos (3.102)

less by the two thyristor volt-drops.
Reference to Fig. 3.30 would indicate quite correctly that control of the load voltage is
possible if three thyristors were used in the half-wave connection feeding the load, and diodes
only used to return the current to the supply. Such a connection is shown in Fig. 3.33, with
the addition of a commutating diode whose function is similar to that in the single-phase half-
controlled bridge.
The action of the circuit is most clearly explained by the two three-pulse voltage waveforms
shown in Fig. 3.33b, where the upper waveform shows a slllall firing delay, whereas the lower
waveform is that of the diode case. The adition of these two waveforms gives the load voltage
vL, with only three notches of voltage removed per cycle, not the six notches of the fully-
controlled circuit. The waveform is now three-pulse, having a higher-harmonic ripple
component than the fully-controlJed connection.
The current waveforms of Fig. 3.33b show that the thyristor current i1 is delayed, but i4
remains in phase with its voltage, resulting in an unsymmetrical a.e. supply-line current which
will contain even harmonics.
Figure 3.33c shows a firing delay angle above 90°, making the upper waveform more
negative than positive [to get to (c) from (b) think of the vertical line at the firing position
moving to the right]. The load voltage now has periods of zero voltage, the commutating
diode taking the freewheeling load current in preference to the series arm (of a thyristor plus
diode) in a like manner to that described for tlie single-phase half-controlJed bridge.
Inspection of the load-voltage waveforms in Fig. 3.33 show that zero mean load voltage is
reached when the firing delay angle a reaches 180°. The mean voltage can be considered as
the addition of the two half-wave three-pulse voltages giving from Eqs. (3.97) and (3.100)
3 3 3
Vmean = Vph(max) (1 + cos ) = Vline(max) (1 + cos ) (3.103)
2 2
Compared to the fully-controlled circuit, the half-controlled circuit is cheaper, has no starting
problems, but has a higher harmonic content in its load-voltage and supply-current
waveforms.
Sayfa 110
Fig. 3.33 Half-controlled three-phase bridge. (a) Connection. (b) Waveforms with small
firing delay angle. (c) Waveforms with larger firing delay angle.
Overlap
In the above chapters, the assumption was made that the transfer or commutation of the
current from one diode (or thyristor) to the next took place instantaneously. In practice,
inductance and resistance must be present in the supply source, and time is required for a
current change to take place. The net result is that the current commutation is delayed, as it
takes a fmite time for the current to decay to zero in the outgoing diode (or thyristor), whilst
the current will rise at the same rate in the incoming diode .
Sayfa 111
The inductive reactance of the a.c. supply is normally much greater than its resistance and, as
it is the inductance which delays the current change, it is reasonable to neglect the supply
resistance. The a.c. supply may be represented by its Thevenin equivalent circuit, each phase
being a voltage source in series with its inductance. The major contributor to the supply
impedance is thetransformer leakage reactance.
Fig.3.34 Overlap in the three-phase half-wave rectifier. a) Circuit reference b) waveforms
To explain the phenomenon associated with the current transfer, the three phase half-wave
rectifier connection will be used, as once the explanation with this circuit has been
understood, it can be readily transferred to the other connections. Figure 3.34a shows the
three-phase supply to be three voltages, each in series with an inductance L. Reference to the
waveforms in Fig. 3.34b shows that at commutation there is an angular period  during which
both the outgoing diode and incoming diode are conducting. This period is known as the
overlap period, and  is defined as the commutation angle or alternatively the angle of
overlap. During the overlap period, the load current is the addition of the two diode currents,
the assumption being made that the load is inductive enough to give a sensibly level load
curren. The load voltage is the mean of the two conducting phases, the effect of overlap being
to reduce the mean level.
Sayfa 112
Fig. 3.35 Conditions during the overlap period
The overlap is complete when the current level in the incoming diode reaches the load-current
value. To deternline the factors on which the overlap depends, and to derive an expression for
the diode current, a circulating current i can be considered to flow in the closed path formed
by the two conducting diodes D1 and D2 as shown In Fig. 3.35. Ignoring the diode volt-drops,
v2 – v1 = L di/dt + L di/dt (3.104)
The voltage v2 – v1 is the difference between the two phases, having a zero value at t = 0, the
time at which commutation commences. The voltage difference between two phases is the
line voltage having a maximum value 3 Vmax , where Vmax is of the phase voltage.
Using Eq. (3.104),
di
3Vmax sinω = 2L (3.105)
dt
3
di = Vmax sinω (3.106)
2L
Integrating both sides,
3 cost
i= Vmax (− )+C (3.107)
2L ω
3
at t = 0, i= 0, .. C = Vmax
2L
Sayfa 113
3
i= Vmax (1 − cost ) (3.108)
2L
It is worth noting that for commutation involving two phases of a three-phase group,
conditions during overlap are as a line-line short-circuit fault. As the positive and negative
phase sequence reactance values of a transformer are equal, then the commutating reactance
value is the normal short-circuit reactance.
To detemline the mean voltage of the waveform shown in Fig. 3.34a, one can use calculus to
fined the area under the two sections of the curve, one based on the sinewave shape after
overlap is complete, and the other during overlap. During ovetlap, the load voltage is the
mean between two sinewaves, that is, the shape is sinusoidal, but if we consider the curve as a
cosine wave, then the integration limits will be 0 to  on a cosine wave of peak value

V max sin giving
6
1  6 
5
  3 3
2  6 + 0
Vmean =   V sin d + V sin cosd = V (1 + cos  )  (3.109)
4
max max max
6 
3
If one neglects overlap, that is, let = 0, then Eq. (3.109) is identical to Eq. (3.97).
Sayfa 114
3. DC Choppers(DC-TO-DC CONVERTERS)1,2,6
Direct Current Choppers (DC Choppers)
In many industrial applications, it is required to convert a fixed-voltage dc source

İnto a variable voltage dc source. Converters, which convert fixed dc voltage to variable dc
voltage, are called DC-TO-DC converter or DC choppers or Switching Regulator (Fig. 4.1).
DC-to-dc converters commonly called choppers because of their principle of operation, are
employed to vary the average value of the direct voltage applied to a load circuit by
introducing one or more controlled semiconductor devices between the load circuit and a dc
source.
Fixed DC Variable DC
Fig. 4.1 A block diagram of the dc chopper
A chopper can be considered as dc equivalent to an ac transformer with a continuously

variable turns ratio. Like a transformer, it could be used to step-down or step-up a dc voltage
source.
Choppers are employed in variable –speed dc drives, where are widely used for traction motor
control in electric automobiles, trolley cars, marine hoists, forklift trucks, and mine haulers.
They provide smooth acceleration control, high efficiency, and fast dynamic response.
Choppers can be used in regenerative braking of de motors to return energy back into the
supply, and this feature results in energy savings for transportation systems with frequent
stops. Choppers are also used in dc voltage regulators.
Principle of Step-Down Operation
The principle of operation can be explained by Fig. 4.2a. When switch SW is

closed for a time t1= tON, the input voltage V appears across the load. If the switch
remains off for a time t2 the voltage across the load is zero. The waveforms for
the output voltage and load current are also shown in Fig. 4.2b.
The chopper switch can be implemented by using a (1) power BJT. (2) power MOSFET, (3)
GTO, or (4) forced·commutated thyristor. The practical devices have a finite voltage drop
ranging from 0.5 to 2 V, and for the sake of simplicity the voltage drops of these power
semiconductor devices are neglected.
Sayfa 115
Fig.4.2 Function of a DC choppers
The average output voltage is given by
t
1 1 t
Vo =  vdt = 1 V = ft1V = kV (4.1)
T T
0
where T is the chopping period, k = t1/T is the duty cycle of chopper, and f is the chopping
frequency. The rms value of output voltage is found from
t
1 1 2 12
Vr = Vrms = (  v dt) = k V (4.2)
T
0
The duty cycle, k, can be varied from 0 to 1 by varying t1=tON, T, or f. Therefore,

the output voltage Vo can be varied from 0 to V, by conlrolling k and the power
flow can be controlled. Load voltage Vo may be varied in one of the three ways,
1. Pulse-width modulation Control(Constant-frequency operalion). The chopping

frequency, f (or chopping period T, is kept constant and the on-time, t1=tON, is varied.
The width of the pulse is varied and this type of control is known.as pulse-width
modulation (PWM) control.
2. Frequncy modulation (Variable frequency operation). The chopping frequncy f, is
varİed. Either on-time, t1=tON or t2=tOFF , is kept constant .This is called frequency
modulation.The frequency has to be varied over a wide range to obtain the full output
voltage range. This type of control would generate harmonics at unpredictable
frequencies and the filter design would be difficult.
3. Combined pulse-width and frequency modulation.
Example 4-1
The de chopper in Fig. 4-2a has a resistive load of R = 10  and the input voltage
is Vs= 220 V. When the chopper switch remains on, its voltage drop is vch = 2 V
and the chopping frequency is f = 1 kHz. If the duty cycle is 50%, determine the
Sayfa 116
(a) average output voltage, Vo; (b) rms output voltage, Vrms; (c) chopper efficiency; (d)
effective input resistance of the chopper, Ri; and (e) rms value of the fundamental
component of output harmonic voltage.
Solution
Vs = 220 V, k = 0.5, R = 10 , and vch == 2 V.
(a) From Eq. (4.1). Vo =0.5 x (220 - 2) =109 V.
(b) From Eq. (4.2), Vr=Vrms = 0,5 x (220 - 2) = 154.15 V.
(c) The output power can be found from
kT 2 kT
1 v0 1 (Vs − v ch ) 2 (Vs − v ch ) 2 (220 − 2)2
Po =
T  R
dt =
T  R
dt = k
R
= 0,5
10
= 2376,2 W
o 0
The input power to the chopper can be found from
kT kT
1 1 (V − v ch ) (V − v ch ) 2 (220 − 2)
Pi =
T  Vs idt = T  Vs
R
dt = kVs s
R
= 0,5x220
10
= 2398W
o 0
The chopper efficiency is
Po 2376,2
= = 99,09%
Pi 2398
(d) The effective input resistance seen by the source is
V Vs R 10
Ri = s = = = = 20
I o kVs k 0,5
R
(e) The output voltage as shown in Fig.4.2b can be expressed in a Fourier series as
V  V 
vo (t ) = kVs + s  sin 2nk cos 2nft + s  (1 − cos 2nk ) sin 2nft
n n =1 n n =1
From this the fundamental component (for n=1) of output voltage harmonic can be
determined as
v1 (t ) = s sin 2k cos 2ft + (1 − cos 2k ) sin 2ft  = 
V 220x 2
sin(2x1000t ) = 140,06 sin(6283,2t )

and its rms is Vr=Vrms =140,06/ 2 =99,04 V
Note. The efficiency calculation, which includes the conduction loss of the chopper.
does not take inlo account the switching loss due to turn-on and turn-off of the chopper.
Step-Down DC Choppers with RL Load

Step-down choppers can be classified into three types whihch depend on the region of
converter operation,
i- Type A Choppers
Sayfa 117
ii- Type B Choppers
iii- Type C Choppedrs
Type A Choppers
Figure 4.3a illustrates the basic principles of a type A chopper, in which both Vo and Io can
only be positive. In that circuit diagram, the thyristor symbol enclosed in a circle represents a
thyristor that may be turned on and commutated by means of circuit elements not included in
the diagram; Dm is a free-wheeling diode. Two possible conditions of operation illustrated
in Figs, 4.3b and c, where it is assumed that the control is by means of frequency modulation.
In Fig.4.b the load current io current is discontinuous, so that during the interval for which io
is zero, vo =VC . In Fig.4, the periodic time has been reduced to such an extent that io has not
ceased to flow before Q1 is again turned on.
Sayfa 118
Fig.4.3 Basic principle of a type A chopper
It is convenient to start by considering the continous-current operation illistrated in Fig. 4.3c
The operation of the chopper can be divided into two modes. During mode 1, the chopper is
switched on and the current flows from the supply to the load. During mode 2, the chopper is
switched off and the load current continues to flow through freewheeling diode
D1 =Dm. The equivalent circuits for these modes are. shown in Fig. 4.4a. The load
current and output voltage waveforms are shown Fig. 4.4b.
Sayfa 119
Vs
Vc
Vc
Fig. 4.4 Equivalent circuits and waveforms of RL loads
The load current for mode 1 can be found from
di
Vs = Ri1 + L 1 + VC (4.3)
dt
The solution of Eq. (4.3) with initial current i1(t = 0) = I1 gives the load current as
− tR V − VC − tR
i1 (t) = I1e L + s (1 − e L) (4.4)
R
This mode is valid 0  t  t1 (= kT) and at the end of this mode, the load current becomes
i1 (t = t1 = kT) = I 2 (4.5)
The load current for mode 2 can be found from
di
0 = Ri1 + L 1 + VC (4.6)
dt
With initial current i2(t=t1)=I2 and redefining the time origin at the beginning of mode 2, we
have
− tR V − tR
i 2 (t) = I 2 e L − C (1 − e L) (4.7)
R
Sayfa 120
This mode is valid t1  t  t 2 (= 1 − kT) and at the end of this mode, the load current
becomes
i 2 (t = t 2 ) = I 3 (4.8)
At the end of mode 2, the chopper is turned on again in the next cycle after time, T=t1+t2
Under steady-state conditions, I1=I3. The peak-to-peak load ripple current can be determined
from Eq. (4.4), (4.5), (4.7) and (4.8). From Eqs.(4.4), I2 is given by
− kTR V − VC − kTR
I 2 = I1e L + s (1 − e L) (4.9)
R
From Eqs. (4.7) and (4.8), I3 is given by
−(1- k)TR V −(1- k)TR

I 3 = I1 = I 2 e L − C (1 − e L) (4.10)
R
The peak-to-peak ripple current is
ΔI = I 2 − I1 (4.11)
The condition for maximum ripple,
d(Δ(Δ
=0 (4.12)
dt
Gives k=0,5. The maximum peak-to-peak ripple current is
V R
ΔI max = s tanh (4.13)
R 4fL
For 4fL>>R, tanh  =  and the maximum ripple current can be approximated to
Vs
ΔI max = (4.14)
4fL
Equatiuns (4.3) to (4.14) are valid only for continuous curcent flow.
For a large off·time, parriculary at low frequency and low output voltage, the load
current may be discontinuous. The load current would be continuous if LIR »
T or Lf »R. In case of discontinuous load current, I1 = 0 and Eq. (4.5)
becomes
Vs − VC − tR
i1 (t) = (1 − e L)
R
and Eq. (4.9) is valid for 0<<t<<t2 such that i2(t = t2) = I3 = I1 = 0.
Sayfa 121
Figure 4.5 illustrates a type B chopper, in which Io may be either positive or negative, but Vo
can only be positive. A converter of this type may be employed with a load circuit that is
capable of regenerating and returning energy to source V. Here there are two thyristors that
can be turned on and commutated. For operation with positive output current,
thyristor Q1 and diode D1 are controlled and function in exactly the same way as do the
thyristor and diode of Fig. 4.4a. For operation with negative output current elements Q2 and
D2 are employed, while Q1 is turned off. If Vc >0, and Q2 is turned on, then a negative io will
flow and, energy from source Vc will be stored in inductance L. If Q2 is then commutated, a
positive value of vL will result and, in conjunction with source voltage Vc, will drive current
io through diode D2 and the source V, in this way supplying the energy stored in inductance L
to source V.
Fig. 4.5 B type DC Chopper
Figure 4.6illustrates a chopper circuit in which both load current and voltage may be made
positive or negative, separetely or simulateleously.
Fig. 4.6 C type DC Chopper
Sayfa 122
5. INVERTERS1,2,6
Inverters convert dc power to ac power at some desired output voltage and frequency.
Applications of inverters include the following:
1. Stand-by power supplies.

2. Uninterruptible power supplies for computers.
3. Variable-speed ac motor drives.
4. Aircraft power supplies.
5. Induction heating.
6. Output of de transmission lines.
In most inverter applications, it is necessary to be able to control both output voltage and the
output frequency. The controllable-voltage requirement may arise out of the need to overcome
regulation in the connected ac equipment or to maintain constant flux in ac motors driven
variable speed by variation of their supply frequency .. If the dc input voltage is controllable,
then an inverter with a fixed ratio of de input voltage to ac output voltage may be satisfactory.
If the de input voltage is controllable, then control of the output voltage must be obtained by
employing pulse-width modulation. already discussed in connection with dc-to-dc converters
at the beginning of Chapter 4.
The output-voltage waveform of an inverter is non sinusoidal, and in most applications the
voltage harmonics have a significant effect on the overall system performance. These
harmonics may be reduced at the cost of increasing the complexity of the inverter circuit, and
an economic
decision must be made on the degree to which this should be done.
The types of inverter circuit

Types of the inverters, which are used in the applications are given below.
i- Single-phase half bridge inverter
Fig. 5.1 Single-phase half bridge inverter
Sayfa 123
ii- Single-phase centre-tapped inverter
Fig.5.2 Single-phase centre-tapped inverter
iii- Single-phase centre-tapped inverter with feedback diodes
Fig. 5.3 Single-phase centre-tapped inverter with feedback diodes
iv- Single-phase bridge inverter
Fig. 5.4 Single-phase bridge inverter
v- Three-phase bridge inverter
Sayfa 124
Fig. 5.5 Three-phase bridge inverter
vi- Constant – current source inverter
Fig. 5.6 Three-phase bridge inverter
5.1 Single-phase bridge inverter
The basic circuit for the single-phase bridge inverter without the commutating elements is
shown in Fig. 5.3. The commutation circuit and its action wiil be given in the end of this
section, where with (say) reference to Fig. 5.8 the turning-off of thyristor T1 is initiated by the
firing of the complementary thyristor T4. If, as is the case with an inductive load,the load
current does not immediately reverse, then once commutation is complete, thyristor T4 will
cease to conduct with the load current being transferred to diode D4. Typically, the
commutation period is very short relalive to the inverter load frequency period, and in this
section commutation is assumed to be ideal, and hence neglected in developing the
waveforms of Figs. 5.7b and c.
If the load of Fig. 5.7a were pure resistance, then the alternate firing of thyristors T1 T2 and
T3T4 will place the d.c. source in alternate senses across theload, giving a square wave.
However, with an inductive load, the current waveform is delayed, although the voltage wave
is still square.
Sayfa 125
The generation of a square-wave load voltage with an inductive load is shown in the
waveforms of Fig. 5.7b. The thyristors are fired by a continuous train of gate pulses for 1800
of the inverter output voltage. Looking at the latter end of the positive half cycle, the load
current is positive and growing exponentially; however, when thyristors T3 and T4 are gated to
turn off thyristors T1, and T2, the load voltage reverses but not the load current. The only path
for the load current is via diodes D3 and D4, which connects the d.c. source to the load, giving
a reverse voltage with
the stored inductive energy of the load being returned to the d.c. source untill the load current
falls to zero. Once the load current ceases, thyristors T3 and T4 conduct so as to feed power
into the load, the load current now growing exponentially. Because the thyristors require re-
firing at the instant of the load current zero, a train of firing pulses is required at the gates, as
this instant can be at any time in the half cycle.
Fig. 5.7 Basic single-phase bridge inverter. (a) Circuit. (b) Square wave output. (c) Quosi-
square wave output
Voltage Control
i. Phase- advancing the firing of thyristors T1T4 thyristors T2 T3
The quasi·square wave can be generated by phase-advancing the firing of the complementary
pair of thyristors T1T4 compared thyristors T2 T3 . this advance is shown as an angle , that
Sayfa 126
is, the firing pulse train start of thyristor T1, (and T4) is advanced ) degrees before that of
thyristor T22 (and T3)
Taking the instant in the load-voltage waveform of Fig. 5.7c where thyristor T4 is fired to
turn off thyristor T1, the load current transfers to diode D4 but, as thyristor T2 is still on, the
load current follows a path via D4 and T2, effectively short-circuiting the load, giving zero
load voltage. Now when thyristor T3 is fired to turn off thyristor T2, the only path for the load
current is via diode D3, connecting the d.c. source to the load in the negative sense, with
thyristors T3 and T4 taking up conduction immeadiatly after zero load current.
ii. Combine (add) the outputs of two phase-shifted square wave inverters
An alternative way of producing a quasi-square wave of controllable width is to combine
(add) the outputs of two phase-shifted square wave inverters as shown in Fig. 5.8. By phase-
shifting inverter 2 an angle  compared to inverter 1I, the combined output has zero periods
of length .
Fig. 5.8 Combine (add) the outputs of phased inverters
iii. Reduction of the d.c. source voltage
The voltage level of the quasi-square wave of fixed width can be controlled by a reduction of
the d.c. source voltage .
iv. Pulse-width modulo/ion
Another form of voltage control is by notching, as shown by the waveform of Fig. 5.9 ,where
the thyristors in the inverter circuit are turned on and off so as to produce zero periods of
equal length, the d.c. source being a fIxed level of voltage E.
Fig. 5.9 Inverter controlled to give notched waveform
Sayfa 127
An improvement ta"ihe notched waveform is to vary the on/off periods such that the pn-
periods are longest at the peak of the wave as shown in Fig. 5.10. This form of control is
known as pulse-width modulo/ion, and it can be observed that the area of each pulse
corresponds approximately to the area under the sinewave between the adjacent midpoints of
the off-periods. The pulse-width modulated wave has a much lower low-order harmonic
content than the other waveforms.
Fig. 5.10 Inverter controlled to give pulse-width modulated waveform
To determine the fIring instants required to synthesize correctly the pulsewidth modulated
wave, a method which can be used is to generate a reference sinewave of the desired
frequency within the control circuits, and to then compare this sinewave to an offset triangular
wave as shown in
Fig. 5.11. The crossover points of the two waves determine the firing instants. Figure 5-240
shows a maximum output, a reduction to half this v-dlue being made by simply reducing the
reference sinewave to half value as shown in Fig. 5.11b. Figure 5.11c shows how
a reduction in frequency of the reference sine wave increases the number of pulses
within each half cycle.
Sayfa 128
Fig. 5.11 Formation of firing instants for pulse- width modulated wave. a) At maximum
output voltage. b) At half maximum output voltage. c) At half voltage and half
frequency
5.2 Three-phase bridge inverter

The basic circuit of the three-phase biridge inverter is shown in Fig.5.12. The commutation
circuits are omitted from this figure.
Sayfa 129
Fig.5.12. Basic three-phase bridge inverter
Similar to the three-phase rectifier bridge, the inverter can be controlled so that each thyristor
conducts for 120o of the output cycle. The waveforms shown in Fig. 5.13 to the circuit
reference of Fig. 5.12 relate to a pure resistance load. It is assumed that at the end of the 120o
period a commutation circuit is initiated to turn off the appropriate thyristor.
The waveforms in Fig. 5.13b show that the load currents are quasi-square wave, with each
thyristor conducting the load current for one-third cycle. By reference to the circuit in Fig.
5.13a, considering the thyristors as switches, the d.c. source is switched in six steps to
synthesize the three-phase output. The rate at which the thyristors are switched determines the
load frequency. The stepped waveform shown for the line voltage will be modified if any
inductance is present in the load, as the transfer of the load current into the diodes will
effectively maintain the
switches (shown in Fig. 5.13a) closed for a longer period than 120°.
Sayfa 130
Figure 5.13 Three-phase bridge inverter with 120o firing and resistive load. a) To illustrate
Switching sequence, Thyristors T1, and T2, on., b) Waveforms.
It is more usual to operate the inverter so that each thyristor can conduct over 180°. In this
manner, the d.c. source is connected to the load via one thyristor on one side with two in
parallel on the other side.
Thee waveforms of Fig. 5.14 show 180° conduction, the line voltage being quasi-square
wave. The load currents are stepped and each thyristor conducts over 180°.
Figure 5.14 Three-phase bridge inverter with 180o firing and resistive load. a) To illustrate
switching sequence, with thyristors T1,. T2, and T3, on. b) Waveforms.
If the load being supplied by the inverter contains inductance, then the current in each arm of
the load will be delayed to its voltage as shown in Fig. 5.15. When thyristor T1 is fired,
thyristor T4 is turned off but, because the load current cannot reverse, the only path for this
'current is through diode D1 (see Fig. 5.12). Hence the load phase is connected to the positive
end of the d.c. source but, until the load current reverses at t1, thyristor T1 will not take up
conduction. Similar arguments
Sayfa 131
apply in the reverse half cycle at t2.
Voltage control of the three-phase inverter can be implemented by adding two single-phase
inverter outputs, one phase delayed to the other, the combined outputs of three such circuits
being linked via transformers to give a three-phase output.
Fig. 5.15 Waveforms for 180 firing with an induced load
Sayfa 132
6. AC CHOPPERS1,2,6
If a thyristor switch is connected between ac supply and load, the power flow can be
controlled
by varying the rms value of ac voltage applied to the load; and this type of power circuit is
known as an ac chopper or an ac voltage controller. The most common applications of ac
choppers are: industrial heating, on-load transformer tap chilnging, light controls, speed
control of polyphase induction motors, and ac magnet controls.
For power transfer, two types of control are normally used:
1. On-off control
2. Phase-angle control
In on-off control, thyristor switches connect the load to the ac source for a few cycles of input
voltage and then disconnect it for another few cycles. In phase control, thyristor switches
connect the load to ac source for a portion of each cycle of input vollage.
The ac voltage controllers can be classified into two types: (1) single-phase controllers and
(2) three-phase controllers. Each type can be subdivided into (a) unidirectional or half-wave
control and (b) bidirectional or full-wave control. There are various configurations of three-
phase controllers depending on the connections of thyristor switches.
Since the input voltage is ac, thyristors are nature or line commutated; and phase-control
thyristors, which are relatively inexpensive and slower than fast-switching thyristors,
are normally used. For applications up to 400 Hz, if TRIACs are available to
meet the voltage and current ratings of a particular application, TRIACs are more
commonly used.
Due to line or natural commutation, there is no need of extra commutation

circuitry and the circuits for ac voltage controllers are very simple. Due to the nature of output
waveforms, the analysis for the derivations of explicit expressions for the performance
parameters of circuits are not simple. especially for phaseangle-controlled converters with RL
loads. For the sake of simplicity, resistive loads are considered in this chapter to compare the
performances of various configurations.
Principle of on-off control

The principle of on-off control can be explained with a single-phase full-wave controller as
shown in Fig. 6.1a. The thyristor switch connects the ac supply to load for a time tn; the
switch is turned off by a gate pulse inhibiting for time to.The on-time. tn, usually consists of
an integral number of cycles. The thyristors are turned on at the zero-voltage crossings of ac
input voltage. The gate pulses for thyristors T1, and T2 and the waveforms for input and
output voltages are shown
in Fig. 6.lb.
Sayfa 133
This type of control is applied in applications, which have a high mechanical inertia and high
thermal time constant (e.g., industrial heating and speed control of motors). Due to zero
voltage switching of thyristors, the harmonics generated by switching actions are reduced.
Fig. 6.1 On-off control
For a sinusoidal input voltage, vs = Vm sin wt = 2 Vs sin wt. If the input voltage is
connected to load for n cycles and is disconnected for m cycles. the rms output (or load)
voltage can be found from
1
 1
2ππ
 2
n
Vrms = 
 2 (n + m) 0
2Vs2 sin 2 ωtd(ωt)

= Vs
n+m
= Vs k (6.1)
where k = n/(m + n) and k is called the duly cycle. Vs is the rms phase voltage. The circuit
configurations for on-off control are similar to those of phase control and the performance
analysis is also similar. For these reasons, the phase-control techniques are only discussed and
analyzed in this chapter.
Example 6.1
A ac voltage controller in Fig. 6.1a has a resistive load of R = 10 Ohm and the rms
input voltage is Vs = 120 V, 60 Hz. The thyristors switch is on for n = 25 cycles and is off for
m= 75 cycles. Determine the (a) rms output voltage, Vs (b) input power factor, PF; and
(c) average and rms current of thyristors.
Solution R = 10 Ohm. Vs = 120 V, Vm = 2 x 120 = 169.7 V, and k = n/(n+m)= 25/100 =

0.25.
(a) From Eq. (6.1), the rms value of output vollage is
n 25
Vrms == Vs k = = 120 = 60V
n+m 100
and the rms load current is Irms = Vrms/R = 60/10 = 6.0 A.
Sayfa 134
(b) The load power is Po = I 2rms R = 6 2 x10 = 360W . Since the input current is the same as the
load current, the input volt-amperes is
VA = Vrms I rms = 120x6 = 720 W
The power factor is
P n 360
PF = o = = k = 0,25 = = 0,5 (lagging)
VA n + m 720
(c) The peak thyristor current is Im = Vm/R = 169.7/10=16,97 A. The average current of
thyristors is,
 1
2ππ  Imn kI 16,97
Io =  
 2ππ( + m) 0
I m sin ωtd(ωt) =
  ( n + m)
= m =
 
x0,25 = 1,35A
The rms current of thyristors is,
1
 1
2ππ
 2
Im n I
I rms = 
 2ππ( + m) 0
2Is2 sin 2 ωtd(ωt)

=
2 n+m
= m
2
k = 4,24A
Principle of phase control

The principle of phase control can be explained with reference to Fig. 6.2a. The power flow to
the load is controlled by delaying the firing angle of thyristor T1.Figure 6.2b illustrates the gate
pulses of thyristor T1 and the waveforms for the input and output voltages. Due to the presence
of diode D1, the control range is limited and the effective rms output voltage can only be varied
between 70.7 and 100%. The output voltage and input current are asymmetrical and contain a
dc component. If there is an input transformer, it may be saturated. This circuit is a single-phase
half wave controller and is suitable only for low-power resistive loads, such as heating and
lighting. Since the power flow is controlled during the positive half-cycle of input voltage. this
type of controller is also known as a
unidirectional conlroller.
Sayfa 135
Fig. 6.2 Single-phase angle control
If vs= Vm sin wt= 2 Vs sin wt is the input voltage and the delay angle of thyristor is wt =
, the rms output voltage is found from thyristor
1
 
 2 1
1  sin 2 
2
  1 2
Vrms =   2Vs sin ωtd(ωt) +  2Vs2 sin 2 ωtd(ωt) 
2 2
= Vs  (2 −  +
 2 
    2 2 
The average value of output voltage is
1  2  
 2
Vo =    2Vs sinωinωtd( +  2Vs sinωinωtd(  = Vs (cosα − 1)
 2  0  
 
2π
Vs − 2Vs
If  is varied from 0 to  , Vrms varies from Vs, to and Vo varied from 0 to
2 π
Sayfa 136

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POWER ELECTRONICS

Semiconductor devices can be divided broadly into seven types;

3- Triac – 1200 V, 300 A

Fig.1.4 Power MOSFET, IGBT

Some applications of power electronics are;

Advantages of the power electronic circuit are;

Disadvantages of the power electronic circuit are;

Major issues in power electronics are;

Power Input CONVERTER Output Load

Power electronic system

Fig. 1.6 A block diagram of a typical power electronic system

1- Power–source unit is usually a constant voltage, fixed frequency, ac supply. In some

Fig.1.7 A block diagram of the rectifier

Direct Current Choppers (DC Choppers)

Fig. 1.8 A block diagram of the dc chopper

Converters,which convert dc voltage to ac voltage, are called AC choppers (Fig.1.9)

Fig. 1.9 A block diagram of the DC chopper

Alternating Current Choppers (AC Choppers)

Fig. 1.10 A block diagram of the AC chopper

Fixed Frequency Variable Frequency

Fig. 1.11 A block diagram of the Cycloconverters

1.2 Analysis of Switched Circuits2

1.2.1 Switched DC Sources

Fig. 1.12 DC Source and resistive load

substitution of t=0 and i(0+)=V/R in equation (1.4) yields

i = 0 [A] ; vC = V [V] (1.10)

where A is a constant of integration that is to be determined. The complete solution of equation

and this function is shown in Fig. 1.7b

Fig. 1.14 DC source and RL circuit

Inductance Load Circuits

Fig. 1.16 Circuit of Fig.1.8 with free-wheeling diode

DC Source and RLC Circuits

where s1 and s2 are the roots of the characteristics equation

Equation (1.46) may now be written

Of which the solution is equation (1.47) in another form, namely,

Then equation (1.52) becomes

r = o 2 −  2 = ringing frequency in rad/s (1.54)

AC Sources AND RLC Circuit

In the circuit of Fig. 1.18

v(t ) = 2V sin wt (1.55)

so that after switch SW is closed at=0,

and differentiation of equation (1.56) yields

iT = A1e st t + A2 e s2t [A] (1.59)

and this may be an exponential or an oscillatory component of the total current.

The constant of integration A1 and A2 are now obtained by writing

and applying the initial conditions.

1.3 Fundamental Concepts1,2,3,4

When a converter is introduced between voltage source (a sinusoidal or a dc voltage source)

and (1.63) can be rewritten as

The rms value of the rectified voltage

The voltage ripple factor

In equation (1.74) Z is the impedance of the load.

The rms value of the nth harmonic current

and the rms value of rectified component of current is

Total harmonic distortion (THD)

Fig. 1.19 Total harmonic distortion

(THD) 2 = Vo2 + V22 + V32 + +V42 + ....... + Vn2 (1.79)

(THD ) 2 = VRI2 − V12 (1.80)

As a per unit quantity