Unit 2

PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF LEARNER-CENTERED FACILITATION

Psychology plays a very important role in understanding the teaching and learning
process. Many innovations in the learning process have been made possible because of
the contributions of psychology. A branch of science, psychology is the study of human
behavior, and it helps educators and teachers understand the nature of a diversity of
learners. Teachers are now more confident and competent to teach because of a deep
understanding of their learners. Teachers can facilitate learning according to the learner's
needs. History is a witness that concepts, information, and researches in psychology
helped immensely in understanding the nature of the human person. They are bases for
innovations and reforms in teaching. Teaching strategies are made more appropriate for
every learner. Part of human nature is learning, which has been made interesting
because of the application of knowledge obtained from psychology. Researches are
continuously undertaken to enhance knowledge about the teaching and learning
process.

In this Unit, you are expected to:

 explain learner-centered psychological principles; metacognition and its

components;
 discuss implications of the learner-centered psychological principles and
metacognition to teachers;
 analyze specific classroom situations where the learner-centered psychological
principles and metacognitive teaching strategies are utilized; and
 suggest teaching strategies derived from the psychological foundations that
make learning easier to the learners.

Learner-Centered Psychological Principles

Learning Competencies

At the end of the lesson, you will be able to:

 explain the cognitive, metacognitive, motivational and affective factors

of teaching and learning;
 summarize learning using graphic organizers; and
 cite classroom strategies that manifest applications of the principles.
 Effective teaching and learning is crucial to the attainment of the desired learning
outcomes in any teaching act. As a would-be teacher, you are expected to possess the
essential concepts, principles, and practices to manage a class that results to effective
learning. One important requirement for you to achieve this success in teaching or
facilitating learning is to understand the learner-centered psychological principles that
provide prospective teachers guidance on how to proceed with the planning and the act
of facilitating learning. These principles suggest facilitation strategies for “promoting
teacher reflection and knowledge construction, offering students choices, encouraging
collaboration, and accommodating individual differences through criterion-referenced
mastery grading. Facilitation of learning is making learners assimilate the lesson with
understanding so that they may integrate it in their day-to-day activities (Bulusan et al,
2018).

Go over the photograph

Photo Credits: https://www.kwentongofw.com
and accompanying
news excerpt to answer
Iah Bantang Seraspi 1.
the questions that
graduated Valedictorian in
follow.
High School and Cum 1.
Laude in College. But her
success didn’t end with 1.
that. Seraspi garnered 2nd
place during the
1.
Secondary School

1. What do you think made Iah succeed in school in spite of family poverty? What
does it mean to you as a learner? Explain in not more than 200 words.
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 2. There is a saying “It is not the kind of school you go to, but the determination you
have in succeeding in your study.” Whether or not you agree to this statement,
explain in not more than 200 words.
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Now, read and

understand the In the early 1990s, the American Psychological
concepts and principles Association (APA) has appointed a group, a Task Force on
presented below, and Psychology in Education, to conduct further studies and
try to relate them with researches in both psychology and education.
the initial activity you
underwent. The purpose of this group was to conduct studies
that could further enhance the current understanding of
educators on the nature of the learners about the teaching and learning process. The end
goal was to improve the existing school practices so that learning becomes more
meaningful to all kinds of learners.

The 14 Learner-Centered Psychological Principles are categorized as follows: (1)

cognitive and metacognitive factors; (2) motivational and affective; (3) developmental
and social; and (4) individual difference factors. All these principles influence the
teaching and learning process (APA, 1997).

Cognitive and Metacognitive Factors

Cognitive factors refer to the mental processes the learners undergo as they
process information. The way learners think about their thinking as they engage in
mental tasks is the concern of the metacognitive factors.

1. The learning of complicated subject matter is most effective when it is an

intentional process of constructing meaning from information and experience.
Teachers play a significant role in guiding their learners to become active,
goal-directed, self-regulating and to assume personal responsibility for their
learning. The learning activities and opportunities provided by the teacher are
very important situations where learners can integrate knowledge and concepts
to their own experiences. Whenever teachers plan their lessons and topics, they
 always need to consider how they can bring reality in the classroom. Learners
need to have a clear and concrete understanding of knowledge and concepts
presented so that they would also know in what particular situations they have to
apply them. Learning through experience is the most effective way of teaching.
An intentional learning environment is one which fosters activity and feedback
and creates a culture that promotes metacognition, i.e., one in which the learner
becomes aware of his or her learning process and can use tools to enhance this
learning process (Bereiter & Scardamalia, 1989).

2. The successful learner, over time and with support and instructional guidance,
can create meaningful, coherent representations of knowledge.

Learners need to be goal-directed because their goals will drive them on

what they are supposed to do and achieve. Part of this is having their own.
Teachers have to guide learners in terms of determining their personal goals. They
need to set their own goals, not dictated by others to ensure their willingness to
achieve them. Meaningful learning takes place when what is presented to them is
very much related to their needs and interests. The way that teachers and the
learners’ families motivate them is very critical because it is a means of filling in
gaps. When learners have a good understanding of the concepts discussed in
school, most likely they can reach long-term goals. Indeed, it is challenging to
motivate learners to succeed.

3. The successful learner can link new information with existing knowledge in
meaningful ways.

In planning a new lesson to be presented, teachers would usually find it

more effective when they connect the learners' existing knowledge to new
information. Integration of prior experiences to a new concept to be learned is a
way of making connections between what is new and what is already known. This
is the very heart of constructivism – that new knowledge is created from old
knowledge. Teachers should initiate more opportunities for learners to share
ideas, experiences, observations, readings as the need arises. Sharing prior
knowledge can be done in creative strategies like concept mapping, group
activities and other collaborative techniques where learners are also able to learn
from each other's experiences.
4. The successful learner can create and use a repertoire of thinking and reasoning
strategies to achieve complex learning goals.

Strategic thinking is a person's ability to use knowledge in different ways to

solve problems, address concerns and issues, decrease difficulties in certain
 situations and make sound decisions and judgments in varied conditions. A
strategic thinker does not easily give up even in difficult situations. They are more
challenged to find ways to solve a problem no matter how many times they
already failed. They are not afraid to commit mistakes because they perceive
them as meaningful learning experiences to continuously discover other ways of
arriving at solutions. Teachers are supposed to give them as many opportunities
to learn, experiment, solve and explore new ideas and concepts. Thus, motivating
and encouraging the learners to be more creative and innovative in their ideas,
opinions and responses are musts for teachers.

5. Higher order strategies for selecting and monitoring mental operations facilitate
creative and critical thinking.

One of the most challenging teachers’ roles is to develop among their

learners' higher order thinking skills (HOTS). This means that their learners can do
evaluation, synthesis, analysis, and interpretation of varied concepts, information,
and knowledge. As previously mentioned, learners develop their thinking skills
when they are provided with opportunities and learning experiences to process
varied events and situations, specifically if given real problems. This context
means that aside from mastering information, discovery, problem-solving,
creation and evaluation should also be integrated into their learning experiences.
Assessment tools in school should be authentic. Students can make inferences,
make sound judgments' make relevant conclusions and use their learned
knowledge to varied situations. HOTS are very much needed in a fast-changing
world.

6. Learning is influenced by environmental factors, including culture, technology,

and instructional practices.

Learning does not only take place inside the classroom. Much of what they
have learned in the classroom with their teachers can only have meaning once
they see them concretely in their everyday life. Examples given should be a
reflection of their actual life experiences. The digital tools and instructional
practices must be carefully selected to facilitate a motivating, stimulating and
encouraging learning environment geared towards the effective acquisition of
knowledge, concepts, and skills among learners.
Motivational and Affective Factors
 How the learners push themselves to learn and how they value learning are the
concerns of the motivational factors. Finally, the affective factors relate to the attitude,
feelings, and emotions of learners they put into the learning task.

1. What and how much is learned is influenced by the learner’s motivation.

Motivation to learn is influenced by the individual’s emotional states,

beliefs, interests and goals, and habits of thinking. Motivation plays a very
important role in learning. This pertains to an individual's inner drive to do
something, to accomplish something, to pursue a goal, to learn and master a skill
or just to discover without necessarily being forced or pushed by somebody. The
level of one's motivation would also determine the extent of one's ability to
accomplish his desired tasks. The way teachers motivate their learners is then
crucial to make them actively engaged in the learning process.

Teachers as well as parents' encouragements, praises and rewards can

boost the learners' confidence. They can also establish in individual positive
emotional states and good habits of thinking. Learners will always feel that
mistakes and errors are normal parts of learning. Teachers should also utilize
learning materials and strategies that would eradicate learners' anxiety, panic, and
even insecurities.

2. The learner’s creativity, higher order thinking, and natural curiosity all contribute to
motivation to learn.

There are two kinds of motivation—intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.

Intrinsic motivation is manifested when an individual engages in an activity or
task that is personally gratifying. It is personally rewarding, and there is no
expectation for any external or tangible reward. Extrinsic motivation, on the
other hand, is its direct opposite. A person engages in a task or activity to earn
external rewards or to avoid punishments in some situations.

Intrinsic motivation is stimulated by tasks of optimal novelty and difficulty,

relevant to personal interests, and providing for personal choice and control. As
teachers and mentors, the most important way to motivate the students to learn
is to present to them the value of that knowledge or concept to their life.
Learning is not only about getting good grades or complying with requirements,
but it is more of knowing why they need to learn such and to what specific
instances in their life they would be able to utilize them. Teaching strategies that
allow learners for personal choice and control, collaboration and creation all
contribute to a more heightened intrinsic motivation for learning.
3. Acquisition of sophisticated knowledge and skills requires extensive learner's effort
and guided practice.

The learners’ motivation to learn is also partnered by their extended

efforts. Teachers facilitate learning opportunities and experiences that encourage
learners to exert time and effort and at the same time commitment and
enthusiasm towards a task they have to do and a concept they have to learn. It is
through the teachers’ encouragement that they will have to do tasks with quality
and not just for compliance’s sake.

Teachers can do praises for works well done. They can also acknowledge
every little achievement a person can show. Teachers can use their errors or
mistakes as opportunities for mentoring. All these raise a person's motivation to
learn. Positive emotions established in the classroom as well as with the others
make learning in general for everybody interesting. The learning environment can
also foster positive emotions when there is no competition between and among
learners, and numeric grades are just secondary considerations as pieces of
evidence of learning.

Development, Social, and Individual Differences

Development and social factors, as well as individual differences, are considered

critical factors in the capacity of learners to engage in learning. Development refers to
the way that people grow and change as they age. Social factors pertain to the influence
of other people and the community to the learner’s acquisition of knowledge, skills, and
attitudes. On the other hand, individual differences relate to the “extent and type of
distinctions among individuals on some of the significant psychological traits, personal
characteristics, cognitive and emotional components.”

1. As individuals develop, there are different opportunities and constraints for

learning.

Learning is most effective when differential development within and across

physical, intellectual, emotional, and social domains is taken into account.
Knowledge on the physical, intellectual, emotional and social domains of the
learners is an excellent springboard for planning learning activities, materials, and
assessment. A lot of times, some learners are not learning well because there is a
mismatch between the learning activity and the learners' developmental stage.
Teachers are persons and professionals who should be very knowledgeable
about the various developmental milestones of learners. They should not be
 working alone along instructional planning. They should always collaborate with
the school administrators, the guidance counselors, the learners' parents,
guardians, and even the family. Specifically, teachers should always look into the
readiness of the learners by keen observations, diagnostic tools, authentic
assessments and the like. All of these will help create optimal learning contexts
and environment.

2. Learning is influenced by social interactions, interpersonal relations, and

communication with others.

Collaboration is a 21st Century skill. All learners should be able to learn the
skill of working with others in an instructional setting. This scheme will prepare
them to the actual world where they should be able to interact effectively to a
community of diverse people. Collaborative skills encompass social interactions,
interpersonal relations, and communication. Learning activities in the classroom
should offer opportunities for such collaborative skills. Group works, group
dynamics, as well as group tasks, are outstanding examples of situations where
such can be developed.

When learners work with their peers and classmates, they learn to
appreciate and respect diversity. They practice their listening skills while at the
same time considering each other's perspectives and contributions to the task to
be completed. When adequately facilitated by the teacher, this contributes to
positive and healthy learning such as respect for each other's opinions, give and
take relationships, and taking responsibility for assigned tasks to develop the
interpersonal relationships of the learners.

3. Learners have different strategies, approaches, and capabilities for learning that are
a function of prior experience and heredity.

Diversity is a natural part of life. The learning environment is the best

example where diversity is manifested between and among learners. Each learner
has his or her learning style, intelligence, potential, skills, talents, learning
preferences as well as cognitive abilities which are effects of both experience and
heredity. Theories on multiple intelligences, learning styles, and differentiated
instructions are all to be considered when planning the delivery of lessons.
Teachers assist and support their learners in terms of identifying their most
effective learning style, their dominant intelligence, skills, and potentials and help
them identify ways and means on how they can utilize them to maximize learning.
Current trends in teaching encourage teachers to apply concepts on
multicultural teaching, differentiated instruction (DI) and the Universal Design for
 Learning (UDL). All these principles support the premise that teachers should be
creative, innovative and supportive of the individual differences of their learners.
These trends in teaching offer various ideas, options and ways by which diversity
can best be utilized for meaningful teaching and learning.

4. Learning is most effective when differences in learners’ linguistic, cultural, and social
backgrounds are taken into account.

Multicultural teaching encourages teachers to consider their learners'

linguistic, cultural and social backgrounds. Language can be a barrier in learning
when learners are not able to properly express themselves and when the learning
material is not also related to their social context. Examples given may be too
vague or abstract because they cannot find its most specific application when
they are outside of the school. Cases and situations should be contextualized and
localized. When learners find that their lessons are also concretely seen in their
places and are closely related to their environment, the more they will be able to
appreciate learning.

Culture makes one person distinct from other people. Students manifest
differences in language, values, belief systems and way of life. An inclusive
classroom is one that welcomes and respects differences among students along
language, values, belief systems and way of life. These differences are
incorporated into their learning activities. They are also used as actual examples
of concepts being presented during discussions. Students do not feel
discriminated and ridiculed because of their uniqueness as an individual. When
each learner feels valued, accepted and appreciated for what he or she is, this
contributes to a positive learning environment.

5. Setting appropriately high and challenging standards and assessing the learner as
well as learning progress – including diagnostic, process, and outcome assessment –
are integral parts of the learning process.

Assessment and evaluation are essential parts of the teaching and learning
process. Learners are challenged to work on tasks assigned to them if teachers
make them useful in terms of rationalizing the importance of such tasks to them
as a person and to their lives. Results of assessments conducted are used to
gauge their strengths, weaknesses, limitations, and areas of difficulties. Teachers
will also be able to determine what kind of support and scaffold the learner needs.
This also includes knowing which instructional material would best assist a learner
for better school performance.
 Assessment should be an ongoing process. Whether it was formative or
summative, results should be used as a means of improving the teachers'
strategies and techniques in teaching. Low results may not always be attributed to
students' negligence and difficulties but may also be because the teacher's
strategy was not that effective during the delivery of the lesson. Assessment,
therefore, is for both teacher and learner.

To check how you

understood what you Activity 1. Guided by the graphic organizer below, list in
read, try to perform the your own words the major concepts or actions to follow in
following activities. facilitating learning. Make a textual discussion of the
graphic organizer.

Feature/concept
Feature/concept
Feature/concept
C&MF Feature/concept

Feature/concept
Feature/concept
Feature/concept
M&AF Feature/concept

Feature/concept
Feature/concept
D,S&ID Feature/concept
Feature/concept
F

Activity 2. Guided by the graphic organizer below, cite classroom practices or teaching
strategies related to your area of specialization that illustrates the application of the
learner-centered principles. Give at least two practices/strategies for every category of
factors cited in this lesson.
 Classroom
Practice

Classroom Factor Classroom

Practice
s Practice

Classroom
Practice

ou
Activity 1. “Variety is a spice of life.” How is this statement applicable in the selection of
les instructional strategies? Explain.

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Activity 2. “This subject is my Waterloo” – a statement most learners attribute to

subjects they find difficult. If you were the teacher, what motivation and affective
strategies would you use to alter this perception and attitude? Explain in not more than
300 words.
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Activity 3. Interview a seasoned teacher nearest you. List their practices in terms of
implementing the learner-centered principles of learning. Which among their practices
do you believe is the best or is most effective? Make a five-page report of your findings.

Set A

Read and analyze the statements. If True, write YES before the item; if False, write NO.

___1. Differentiated instruction attempts to resolve the diversity of learners in the

classroom.

___2. The motivation of a learner from the urban community is similar to that from the
rural area.

___3. Development of higher order thinking skills is attainable among the lower years.

___4. Making learning alive and active initiates students’ positive love for the subject.

___5. Verbal reinforcements, as they seem to fit for the elementary level, are avoided in
the senior high school level.

___6. The practice of unlocking difficulties for a difficult lesson provides a scaffold to the
learners.

___7. The assistance of a more advanced student to a slow learner in explaining the
lesson is defeating the purpose of active engagement of the learner.

___9. Praising a slow learner for a little effort exerted is a stepping stone for his
progress.
___10. Using new technologies in the classroom has more disadvantages and advantages,
as learners are overwhelmed.

Set B

Put a check mark before each item if the teaching practice satisfies the development and
social factors, and individual differences of learning; put an X mark if not.

____1. Teacher varies the level of difficulty of the same task for bright and slow
learners.
____2. Teacher allows a learner in Social Science to explain the answer to the
question in the dialect in which the learner is fluent and the class understands.
____3. Mr. Ramos asks far-sighted learners to be seated in front.
____4. Mrs. Jurado tolerates minor misbehavior of a learner.
____5. Miss Renante discourages the use of local materials in the Arts projects of her
learners.
____6. Teacher cites cultural practices of the students as examples for learning.
____7. Mr. Ruma asks the fast learners to coach or mentor the learners needing
assistance.
____8. Miss Pascual tells Rema, the class singer, to enroll in the Special Program for
the Arts track.
____9. Girlie was told by the teacher to concentrate on academics, not in the school
paper assignment.
___10. The Science teacher asks the help of the school nurse to explain fertilization.

This far, you have worked hard to study about the learner-centered psychological
principles of teaching and learning. You are now asked to summarize and reflect
about what you learned and how you learned.

1. Fill up the information required in the Exit Ticket below. There is no right and
wrong answer here, so be sincere about your skills and feelings.
 I am certain that I I think I still have to I could apply what I
learned about learn more about learned by:
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________________ ________________ ________________
________________ ________________ ________________
________________ ________________ ________________
________________ ________________ ________________
________________ ________________ ________________

2. What three aspects and features of the lesson did you find helpful in your study
of this lesson?
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 METACOGNITION: THINKING ABOUT THINKING

Learning Competencies

In this Lesson, you are expected to:

 explain metacognition and its components
 delineate the relationship between metacognitive knowledge and
metacognitive processes
 identify effective metacognitive teaching strategies to facilitate learning

Today, facilitating learning is aimed at assisting learners in acquiring expected

competencies (Bulusan et al., 2018). Also, the facilitation of learning addresses the
expected competencies to help them understand their learning and thinking. Research
findings have shown that metacognitive thinking operates as a vital skill to other skills
like problem-solving, creative thinking, and critical thinking. The good news is
metacognition can be taught. In this chapter, you will discover the nature of
metacognition, its components, and how metacognitive processes work in the classroom.

Answer the short

version of Approaches Directions: This questionnaire has been designed to allow
and Study Skills you to describe, in a systematic way, how you go about
Inventory for Students learning and studying. Please respond truthfully, so that
(ASSIST) to determine your answers accurately describe your actual ways of
how you learn and studying, and work your way through the questionnaire
study. quite quickly, making sure that you give a response to
every item. Check the cell that corresponds to your
agreement to the statements.

SA means Strongly Agree, A means Agree; D means Disagree; and SD means Strongly
Disagree

Statements SA A D SD
1. I often have trouble making sense of the things I have to
 remember.
2. When I’m reading an article or book, I try to find out for
myself exactly what the author means.
3. I organize my study time carefully to make the best use of it.
4. There’s not much of the work here that I find interesting or
relevant.
5. I work steadily through the term or semester, rather than
leave it all until the last minute.
6. Before tackling a problem or assignment, I first try to work
out what lies behind it.
7. I’m pretty good at getting down to work whenever I need
to.
8. Much of what I’m studying makes little sense: it's like
unrelated bits and pieces.
9. I put a lot of effort into studying because I'm determined to
do well.
10. When I'm working on a new topic, I try to see in my mind
how all the ideas fit together.
11. I don't find it at all difficult to motivate myself.
12. Often I find myself questioning things I hear in lectures or
read in books.
13. I think I'm quite systematic and organized when it comes
to revising for exams.
14. Often I feel I'm drowning in the sheer amount of material
we have to cope with.
15. Ideas in course books or articles often set me off on long
chains of thought of my own.
16. I'm not sure what's important in lectures, so I try to get
down all I can.
17. When I read, I examine the details carefully to see how
they fit in with what’s being said.
18. I often worry about whether I'll ever be able to cope with
the work properly.
Source: Entwistle, Noel & Tait, Hilary. 2013. Approaches and Study Skills Inventory for
Students (ASSIST) (incorporating the Revised Approaches to Studying Inventory - RASI)

Interpreting the Results

To determine your approach of study, follow the Scoring Procedure: Add your scores for
Deep Approach: Items 2, 6, 10, 12, 15, 17; add your scores for Strategic Approach: Items
3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13; and add your scores for Surface Approach: Items 1, 4, 8, 14, 16, 18. The
approach where you scored highest is the dominant approach you use in studying and
learning.

If you belong to the Deep Approach of Learning, you tend to focus on significant issues
in a particular topic, and relate their previous knowledge to new knowledge. You try to
relate the ideas with another subject; examine logic and arguments carefully and
critically; then, check evidence and relating it to conclusion.

When your study skills are classified as Surface Approach of Learning, you are engaged
in the rote learning process, focusing only on key words and covering many facts by
memorisation.

Your study skills are categorized as Strategic Approach of Learning when you employ
both Deep and Surface Approach. You organise your time and working space efficiently
and choose appropriate readings or tasks that you think will enable you to get the best
grade. You also try to find out what a teacher wants, and you prepare and try to provide
all the information or answers required.

To understand better
your study habit as you Metacognition Defined
identified earlier, read
and understand the The term metacognition is attributed to Flavell. He
following materials: described it as "one's knowledge concerning one's cognitive
processes and products or anything related to them, e.g.,
the learning-relevant properties of information and data." Furthermore, he referred to it
as "the active monitoring and consequent regulation and orchestration of these
processes concerning the cognitive objects or data on which they bear, usually in the
service of some concrete goal or objective" Flavell (1976). Simply stated, metacognition
is "knowledge and cognition about cognitive phenomena” (Flavell, 1979). The meaning
metamorphosed into “thinking about thinking,” “knowing about knowing,” and “cognition
about cognition.”

Components of Metacognition

The elements of metacognition are metacognitive knowledge and metacognitive

regulation (Flavell, 2004). These two elements are interrelated; the presence of the first
one enhances the second element.
 Metacognitive knowledge (also called knowledge of cognition) refers to "what
individuals know about their cognition or cognition in general" (Schraw, 2002). It
involves three kinds of metacognitive awareness, namely: declarative knowledge,
procedural knowledge, and conditional knowledge (Fig. 1).

Declarative Procedural Conditional

Knowledge Knowledge Knowledge
Knowledge about things Knowledge on how to do Knowledge when and why
things to apply cognitive acts
Knowledge about own
abilities Knowledge how to execute Knowledge when a
skills strategy is appropriate
Knowledge about factors
affecting own performance

Fig. 1. Components of Metacognitive Knowledge.

Declarative knowledge or personal knowledge is the learner's knowledge about

things. It also refers to the learner's understanding of own abilities, the knowledge about
oneself as a learner and of the factors that moderate one's performance. This type of
knowledge is not always accurate as the learner's evaluation of its capabilities may be
unreliable. For instance, that Manila is the capital of the Philippines and that the word
“oases” is the plural form of oasis are examples of declarative knowledge. That a learner
has limited information as to the semantic rules is also a declarative knowledge.

Procedural knowledge or task knowledge involves the knowledge of how to do

things, how skills or competencies are executed. The assessment on the learner’s task
knowledge includes what knowledge is needed (content) and the space available to
communicate what is known (length). A learner given a problem-solving task, for
instance, knows that the prerequisite information and prior skills are necessary to be
recalled and readily executed at the given time to solve the problem. Such knowledge
gives confidence in working with the problem.

Conditional knowledge or strategy knowledge refers to the ability to know when

and why to apply various cognitive acts. It involves using strategies to learn information
(knowing how to know) as well as adapting them to novel contexts (knowing when a
strategy is appropriate). This knowledge is evident in a learner’s seeking the help from
the school nurse to make a report on the communicable diseases prevalent in the
community as well as the learner’s knowledge that the best way to gather the
information is to interview a nurse and to go over the health records of the Municipal
Health Office of the town.

Metacognitive knowledge is the result of an individual’s metacognitive

experiences. Flavell (1979) explained them as experiences "an individual has through
which knowledge is attained, or through regulation occurs." A learner who obtained low
scores in knowledge and skills test becomes aware that he or she has low declarative
and procedural knowledge. In contrast, a learner who has always scored highest in both
the content and skills tests has strong confidence in his adequacy of knowledge in the
subject.

Similarly, metacognitive knowledge depends so much on the learner’s

metamemory, the knowledge of what memory is, how it works, and how to remember
things. Through instruction and individual effort, metamemory develops over time. For
instance, a learner who has been taught how to organize information and use rehearsal
strategies has richer metamemory. They can retrieve declarative, procedural, and
condition knowledge when required by the task.

Metacognitive Regulation

Metacognitive regulation is the second element of metacognition. While

metacognitive knowledge refers to the learners’ knowledge or beliefs about the factors
that affect cognitive skills, metacognitive regulation pertains to their ability to keep track
of (monitor) and assess their knowledge or learning. It includes their ability to know as to
what, when, and how to use a particular skill to a given task. In this manner, they can
control their learning. Self-regulation is essential in metacognition.

To illustrate metacognitive regulation, as a student in a Speech class knows when

a word is mispronounced as it sounds unpleasant to hear, thus, he or she consults an
electronic dictionary to listen to how the word should be pronounced. Following the
model, the pronunciation is improved.

Metacognitive regulation involves three processes: setting goals and planning;

monitoring and controlling learning and evaluating own regulation (Fig.2).
 PLANNING
Metacognitive Experiences Metamemory

MONITORING
Metacognitive Experiences Metamemory

EVALUATING
Metacognitive Experiences Metamemory
Fig
. 2. Metacognitive Regulation and Control Processes.

Planning involves the selection of appropriate strategies and the allocation of

resources that affect performance (Schraw, 2002). Together with setting goals, planning
is considered a central part of students' ability to control their learning processes and to
learn outcomes through deliberate self-regulatory decisions and actions. Goals are
dichotomized as mastery goals and performance goals (Paulson & Bauer, 2011). Mastery
goals are related to process, learning, and development. In contrast, performance goals
are usually associated with product orientations and demonstrating competence or
social comparisons to the peer group. For example, a student who desires to get high
grade (performance goal) in a Science class portfolio determines how best to make all
entries in the portfolio exemplary in all criteria as described in the scoring rubric
(performance goal).

At this point of metacognitive regulation, the learner’s questions include: What

am I asked to learn or do here? What do I already know about this lesson or task? What
should be my pacing to be able to complete this task? What should I focus on when
learning or solving this task?

Monitoring refers to one's on-going awareness of comprehension and task

performance (Schraw, 2002). Referred to as metacognitive monitoring and controlling
learning, it also involves the monitoring of a person's thinking processes and the current
state of knowledge. Given a task, it involves the awareness of the person that the
prerequisite knowledge and process to manage the task is sufficient to succeed in it. It
also involves the ability to consider the accuracy of the knowledge and procedure to
solve the task. If ever inadequacy is felt, the person can control the processes
undertaken to be able to still succeed in the resolution of the task.
 A student who solves a word problem in Mathematics is aware of the steps to
follow to solve the task. In the process, the person monitors from metamemory if
procedural knowledge is adequate and could be executed. Along the way, the person
monitors his or her thinking and then revises the process if found ineffective in solving
the problem.

At this stage, some questions asked by the learners include: Do I have adequate
knowledge to solve the problem? Are my prior knowledge and skills appropriate for this
task? Are my strategies appropriate for this task? What can I do to get additional
information for this task?

The last step is evaluating, assessing knowledge or learning. It refers to

appraising the products and efficiency of one's learning (Schraw, 2002). It involves the
person's ability to evaluate how well strategies used to lead to the solution of the
problem or completion of the task. It tells whether or not the procedure resulted in the
correct answer or a different answer.

In the Mathematics word problem-solving task situation above, the person comes
to a realization that the equation formulated to solve what is asked in the problem was
indeed correct based on the cross-checking process done. If the answer is wrong, the
learner surmises what went wrong along the way.

Sample questions asked by the learner in this phase of metacognitive regulation

are: What new learning was achieved? What universal understanding should I
remember? Was the correct answer obtained? Were the goals set achieved? How could I
have done to make my work better? What should I do next time I encounter a similar
situation later?

Principles of Metacognitive Instruction

Developing metacognitive thinking among students needs the creativity of the

teacher. Using metacognitive strategies facilitates learners on how to learn. As
researches have proven, metacognitive teaching practices enhance the learners’
capabilities to transfer their competencies in learning new tasks in new contexts
(Palinscar & Brown, 1984; and Schoenfeld, 1991).

Moreover, metacognitive teaching practices make learners aware of their

strengths and weaknesses as they learn. Knowing their strengths give them the
confidence to pursue a task. Knowing their weaknesses lead them to strategies on how
to overcome their limited knowledge and how to source out the needed information for
the task.
 To effectively develop metacognitive skills among learners, Veenman et al. (2012)
recommend three fundamental principles (Fig. 3).

Metacognitive instruction should be embedded in the context of the task at hand in order
to allow for connecting task-specific condition knowledge (the IF-side) to the procedural
knowledge of “How” the skill is applied in the context of the task (the THEN-side of
1 production rules).

Learners should be informed about the benefit of applying metacognitive skills in order to
make them exert the initial extra effort.
2
Instruction and training should be stretched over time, thus allowing for the formation of
production rules and ensuring the smooth and maintained application of metacognitive
3 skills.

Fig. 3. Principles for Effective Metacognitive Instruction.

Let’ check how you

understood the 1. Use the Frayer vocabulary definition model to define
concepts and principles the three metacognitive knowledge (e.g., declarative
presented in the knowledge as shown below). With this as a guide,
readings. Perform the explain to the class your definition.
tasks presented.
Definition: Characteristics:
Declarative
Knowledge

Examples: Non-examples:

2. With a partner, fill up the needed details in the graphic organizer. Use it to
explain metacognition regulation and control to other groups in the class.
 Metacognitive Regulation
and Control
Define
Provide a Situation

Planning Monitoring Evaluating

Define Define Define
Raise Questions Raise Questions Raise Questions

3. Why is metacognition important to a teacher and a learner? Cite at least two

points in your explanation.
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4. Is prior knowledge essential in developing metacognitive knowledge? Justify your

answer.
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5. What is the importance of metacognitive experiences and metamemory in

metacognitive regulation and control?
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Hey, you are

progressing alright! For 1. Using available search tools, read about
more appreciation of organization, rehearsal, and elaboration strategies as
the concepts and learners’ tools to enhance the content of the
principles you learned, metamemory. With the diverse types of learners in
perform the activities to the classroom, how would you use these strategies
determine facilitation to benefit your learners?
strategies in the
classroom.
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2. Using your search tools, read about the differences between novice and expert
learners? With this knowledge, identify facilitating strategies to scaffold the
novice learners?
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There is a saying, “The

test of the pudding is Set A
the tasting.” In teaching,
the test of knowing Directions: Identify if the following thoughts are more a
whether or not students declarative, procedural, or conditional knowledge. Write
learned is to give them your answer on a separate sheet of paper.
assessment tools.
Answer the following 1. The context of this problem is not suited to the
test items well so that theory I know.
you can claim Victory in 2. There are three ways to solve this problem.
this lesson. 3. This fact is essential to recall for the situation
presented.
4. ROYGBIV makes it easy to remember the colors of the rainbow.
5. This is an irregular verb, thus, adding -ed to the word to make it past tense does
not apply.
6.
Set B

Directions: Classify the following questions/statements if the learner is engaged in

planning, monitoring, or evaluating phases of metacognitive regulation and control.
Write your answer on a separate sheet.
1. Is this strategy leading me to the correct answer?
2. My answer does not meet the standards in this scoring rubric?
3. What strategy is best for this type of problem?
4. What is this task expect me to produce?
5. The teacher is nodding as I speak. I am right in organizing my answer.
You have learned that while you are at study, you think about how you think.
Metacognition is part and parcel of any learning activity. Thus, you as a teacher have
to facilitate the lesson by assisting learners monitor their thoughts as they are
engaged in the lesson. Try to reflect on your learning experience and determine your
realizations about the lesson and how you learned.

1. Fill up the information required in the Exit Ticket below. There is no right and
wrong answer here, so be sincere about your skills and feelings.

I am certain that I I think I still have to I could apply what I

learned about learn more about learned by:
________________ ________________ ________________
________________ ________________ ________________
________________ ________________ ________________
________________ ________________ ________________
________________ ________________ ________________
________________ ________________ ________________
________________ ________________ ________________
________________ ________________ ________________

2. What three aspects and features of the lesson did you find helpful in your study
of this lesson?
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Congratulations! You have completed the two lessons of this Unit. Remember
that the psychological foundations of learner have a significant contribution as to how
best to facilitate learners’ assimilation of knowledge. In this Unit, you have learned that
–

 Varied factors – cognitive, metacognitive, motivation, affective, development, and

social factors as well as individual differences – significantly influence learners’
success in learning knowledge, skills, and attitudes.
 Teachers’ comprehensive understanding of the cognitive and metacognitive
factors of learning is essential in facilitating learning.
 The potentials, skills, talents, and abilities of learners would not be well enhanced
if learning opportunities and experiences are minimal.
 The teachers' strategies and techniques in delivering information and concepts
would highly determine the extent of how these potentials, skills, talents, and
abilities of learners can be fully developed.
 Metacognition is recognized as a regulatory system that makes a learner fully
aware of his or her cognitive performance.
 Through the help of the teachers, learners can he assisted in monitoring and
controlling their learning. As a learner undertakes a task, he or she is made aware
of his metacognitive knowledge which is essential during the metacognitive
processing. The joint operation of these two significant components of
metacognition spells out a novice from an expert learner.

Instructions: Read the statements

and decide which of the given choices would answer the question correctly or complete
the statement. Encircle the letter of your answer.

1. When Mary ponders on whether or not she knows the answer to the teacher’s
questions, and then realizes that she has no idea at all to the question. She is in
the process of –
a. Strategic thinking c. Problem solving
b. Metacognition d. creative thinking
2. Which of the following best describes an intentional learning environment?
a. The school is complete with modern day facilities and equipment.
b. Learners are aware of the learning process and use tools to enhance it.
c. The teachers are experts in their fields and finished post-graduate studies.
d. Teachers utilize technology in lesson presentations and activities.
3. Which is the very heart of Constructivism?
a. New knowledge is created from old knowledge.
b. Social interaction creates meaningful learning experiences.
 c. Use of contrived experiences creates meaningful learning situations.
d. Group activities mean more active engagement of everybody.
4. Ruben is reading a selection. He finds some words that he does not understand,
which hinders his comprehension of the story. If you were Ruben, in what way
would find a way to get the meaning of ambiguous words?
a. use contextual clues to the meaning c. call a friend to help clarify
b. repeatedly read the word aloud d. look for configuration clues

5. Which is NOT a characteristic of a strategic thinker?

a. does not easily give up even in difficult situations
b. uses knowledge in different ways to solve problems and address concerns
c. uses experiments and trial and error methods to find the best solution to a
problem
d. asks the others for possible solutions to problems before thinking of his
solution
6. Which is NOT an intrinsic motivation?
a. to make one’s parents happy c. personal gratification
b. avoidance of punishment d. to prepare for one’s future
7. Kenneth is aware that he is hard up in Math, but he motivates himself to strive by
not going out at night to have enough time to read his lessons. Such action
demonstrates the concept of -
a. self-regulation c. metamemory
b. meta-attention d. metacomprehension
8. Which statement best fits the concept of metacognition?
a. Knowing how to solve problems presented in novel ways
b. The awareness of what is known and how to use it appropriately.
c. The ability to manipulate knowledge to arrive at the correct answer.
d. Sufficient knowledge about facts, procedures, and conditions to use them.
9. Which is NOT a part of the modes to address diversity of learners?
a. Multiple Intelligences c. Learning Styles
b. Differentiated Instruction d. Dale’s Cone of Experience
10. As Kenneth multiples a binomial term, he was initially confused. Suddenly, he
remembers the acronym FOIL (First Outer-Inner Last). What is in operation at
that instance?
a. declarative c. conditional
b. procedural d. contextual
11. Which is the best purpose of assessment?
 a. School leaders use assessment results as a basis for the re-hiring of
teachers.
b. Assessment results improve students’ learning and teachers’ teaching
strategies and techniques.
c. Assessment results help determine the number of students to be retained
and promoted in a particular grade level.
d. Assessment results are used for school planning and teacher support
systems.

12. Cognition is involved in metacognition. In what way does cognition work during
metacognition?
a. memorizing concepts and rules c. solving the problem cautiously
b. monitoring the progress of work d. recalling rules to apply
13. According to research, learning is best developed when the ____.
a. learners are pressured to do their tasks
b. expectation for success is set high
c. learners compete with each other
d. teacher reprimands those with low scores
14. Who among the students is a novice learner?
a. Rose uses tries out a strategy; revises it when it does not fit to the problem.
b. Jose reads through the difficult problem and solves it right away.
c. Edna tries to recall information and procedures related to the problem.
d. Dexter recalls the procedure he used previously to a similar problem.
15. Which of the following teacher prompts indicates that the learner is engaged in
the planning stage of metacognition process??
a. Is my classification of the plants correct?
b. Do I have to take this plant out of this group?
c. Do I know the differences of all these plants to classify them?
d. Am I consistent in using the same criteria to classify all these plants?

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