Jbiet r20 Physics Lab Manual-2020

J.
B INSTITUTEOF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
J.B INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING &TECHNOLOGY

(UGC-AUTONOMOUS)
(Accredited by NAAC, Approved by AICTE, Permanently affiliated to JNTUH,HYD.)
Bhaskar Nagar ,Yenkapally(vill),Moinabad (M), Himayathnagar Post ,
R.R.(Dt) Hyderabad- 500075,T.S.
Phone:08413-235753
I YEAR B. TECH(R20)-(I&II)SEMESTER
LABORATORY MANUAL OF PHYSICS
(Common to EEE,ECE,CSE,IT&ECM)
NAME:……………………………………….
BRANCH:…………………………………….
ROOL.NO:……………………………………..
J.V.REDDY 1 PHYSICS LAB

J.B INSTITUTEOF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
2019-20
J.B.INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
(UGC-AUTONOMOUS)
B.Tech (R18)
I Year-I&II Semester L T-P-D C
0 0-3-0 1.5
APPLIED PHYSICS LAB

(Common to EEE,ECE,CSE,IT&ECM)
List of Experiments:
S.NO NAME OF THE EXPRIMENT PAGE.NO
1 R-C circuit. 5
2 L-C-R circuit. 9
3 Light emitting diode (LED) characteristics 17
4 Energy gap of semiconductor 20
5 Optical fibers – Numerical Aperture measurement. 24
6 Dielectric constant of a material. 29
7 Solar cell 32
8 Wavelength of LASER sources. 35
9 Hall Effect 39
10 Photoelectric Effect 44
Out of syllabus:
11 Optical fibers-study of losses 50
12 Tensional Pendulum 55
NOTE: Minimum eight Experiments must be performed.

SCHEME OF EVALUATION - PRACTICAL EXAMINATION (INTERNAL):
Details of Evaluation Max. Marks

1.Experimental Setup, measurement and conduction of experiment, 5+10+5=20
day to day evaluation( each one experiment)
2.Formula with units, circuit diagram and tabular column. 2+1+2=5
3.Calculation, graph and result 2+1=3
4.Viva –voice 2
Total marks
30
SCHEME OF EVALUATION - PRACTICAL EXAMINATION (EXTERNAL):
Details of Evaluation Max. Marks

1.Lab Record 10
2.Experiment Writing 25
3 conduction of experiment,. Calculation, graph and result 20
4.Viva –voice 15
Total marks
70
Faculty In-charge:
Dr. Hajee Baba
Mr. J.Venkat Reddy

INSTRUCTIONS FOR LABORATORY
1. Students should report to the concerned lab as per the time-table schedule.
2. Students who turn up late to the labs will in no case be permitted to perform the experiment
scheduled for the day.
3. After completion of the experiment, certification of the concerned staff in charge in the
observation book is necessary.
4.Students should bring a note book of about 100 pages and should enter the readings /
observations into the note book while performing the experiment.
5. The record of observations along with the detailed experimental procedure of the experiment
performed in the immediate last session should be submitted and certified by the staff member
in-charge.
6. The group-wise division made in the beginning should be adhered to, and no mix up of
students among different groups will be permitted later.
7. The components required pertaining to the experiment should be collected from stores in-
charge after duly filling in the requisition form.
8. When the experiment is completed, students should disconnect the setup made by them, and
should return all the components/instruments taken for the purpose.
9. Any damage to apparatus that occurs during the experimentation, should be brought to the
notice of lab in-charge, consequently, the cost of the repair or new apparatus should be
brought by the students.
10. Students should be present in the labs for the total scheduled duration.
11. Students are required to prepare thoroughly to perform the experiment before coming to
Laboratory.
12. Procedure sheets/data sheets provided to the students’ groups should be maintained neatly
and to be returned after the experiment.
13. Use of cell phones and IPODs is forbidden.
14.Students should strictly maintain the dress code.
15.Absolutely no eating or drinking in the laboratory at anytime.
16.Tie back long hair.
17. Students should strictly maintain silence during lab classes.
18.If any of the students is absent for the lab class for genuine reasons, he/she will be permitted
to do the experiment during the repetition class only.
19.Class assessment marks for each experiment is based only on their performance in the
Laboratory.
20.Data enter in the record book must be by pen only.
J.Venkat Reddy Dr.B.V. Swarnalatha

Asst. Professor of Physics Head. S&H

1.R.C. Circuit Date:
Aim: To study the growth and decay of charge in a R.C. Circuit and determine the value of time
constant.
Apparatus: Battery, resistors, capacitors, voltmeter, stop clock, tap key, connecting wires.
Theory: When a condenser “C” is charged through a resistor R, the charge in condenser
increases with time as an exponential function if q is the instantaneous charge at time t, We have
q = q0 (1-e-t/RC)
When condenser is discharged through a resistance, the charge falls in accordance with the
formula
q = q0 e-t/RC
The product of RC is called time constant.
We can observe that, smaller is the time constant, more rapid is the discharge of the capacitor.
Procedure: The circuit is connected as shown in fig taking one set of R and C. the capacitor
“C” is charged for a short till the deflection in the voltmeter is maximum but with in the scale.
The deflections are noted for every five seconds. The tap key is the released. The capacitor now
start discharged through the resistor R. the deflection decreases steadily the stop clock is started
and readings are noted down for every five seconds. The experiment is repeated for the other set
of R and C and observations are tabulated in the table.
Circuit diagram:

Observations:
R1C1 combination
S.No. Time (sec) Charging(v) Discharging(v)
1
2
3
4
5
6
R2C2 combination
S.No. Time (sec) Charging Discharging
1
2
3
4
5
6
R3C3 combination
S.No. Time (sec) Charging Discharging

Graph: The graph is drawn between time t on X-axis and deflections Y-axis.
Calculation:
R1=........ C1=.......
R2=........ C2=.......
R3=........ C3=.....
Applications:
1. When a capacitor is charged by a DC voltage, the accumulation of charge on its plates is
a method of storing energy which may be released at different rates. An example of the
energy storage application is the photoflash capacitor used in flashguns of photographic
cameras.
2. The charging time and discharging time is calculated for a RC circuit and is connected to a
series of decorative bulbs. Accordingly the bulbs glow for a known time and switches off.
3.
Result: The time constant of R.C. circuit is …………………….

Viva questions :
1.State the meaning of “charging time of capacitor”?
2.why a resistance of low value is not acceptablein charging process?
3.define between resistance and capacitance?
4.what is an electrolytic capacitor?how is it different from an ordinary capacitor?
5.what is meant by reactance ,impedance and phase lag?
6.what happends in a R.C circuit ,if R is made equal to zero?
7.state four types of capacitors?
Signature of the Lecturer.

2. LCR circuit Date: …
Aim: To study frequency response characteristics of LCR series and parallel circuits and to
determine quality factor (Q).
Apparatus: Set of resistors, capacitors, inductors, Function generator, AC ammeter and
connecting wires.
Description: the circuit containing a capacitor ‘C’ inductor ‘L’ and resistor ‘R’ connected in
series or parallel as shown in figures 1 and 2 respectively. When an alternating emf is applied to
the circuit, an alternating current flows in the circuit. The impedance of the circuit is given by
………………… (1)
The effective reactance is inductive or capacitive depends upon XL > XC or XL < XC. the
inductive reactance is proportional to the frequency and increases as the frequency increases from
zero onwards. The capacitive reactance is inversely proportional to the frequency, decreases from
an infinite value to downwards.
At certain frequency both reactances become equal and this frequency is called the
resonant frequency. At resonance the impedance is minimum and is equal to the resistance.
In a parallel resonant circuit, at resonance, the circuit does not allow the current to flow and works
as a perfect choke for AC. Such a circuit is called tank circuit or rejector circuit.
Theory: In a series LCR circuit, the impedances of an inductor and capacitor are equal in
magnitude and are opposite in directions. Hence, the impedance of the circuit is only the
resistance. Therefore the current is maximum at the resonant frequency.
………………… (2)
F.G
Figure 1.

In a parallel circuit, the impedance is maximum at the resonant frequency and the current
is minimum. The resonant frequency is given by
………………… (3)
F.G
Figure 2.
The band width (Δf) of the circuit is defined as the difference in half power frequencies. These
can be determined by drawing a half power line on the characteristic curve at 70.7% of the
resonant or maximum value of the curve.
Procedure:
(a) Series resonance: The circuit is c
connected as shown in figure 1. A fixed amplitude is

applied to the circuit through a frequency generator. By
changing the frequency in steps of 100 Hz, the current in
the circuit is noted. The readings are tabulated in table 1.
A graph is drawn between frequency on X-axis and
current on Y-axis. The shape of the curve is as shown in
figure 3.
fr = frequency at which the current is maximum(I0)
The frequencies f1 and f2 corresponds to I=0.707I0 then
f2 – f1 = Δf called bandwidth and Figure 3.
fr / f2 – f1 = Q called the Quality factor of the circuit.

Observations: Table 1.
S.No. Frequency (Hz) Current (mA) S.No. Frequency (Hz) Current (mA)
Calculation:

(b).Parallel resonance:
Connect the circuit as per figure 2. A constant amplitude of voltage at all frequencies is to
be applied to the circuit through the function generator. By changing the frequency in
steps of 100 Hz, the current in the circuit is noted. The readings are tabulated in table 2
and graph is drawn between frequency on X-axis and current on Y-axis. The shape of the
curve is as shown in figure 4.
f2 – f1 = Δf (bandwidth) and
fr/ f2 – f1 = Q (Quality factor)
figure:4

Observations: Table 2.
S.No. Frequency (Hz) Current (mA) Current

S.NO Frequency (Hz) (mA)
Calculations:

Applications: Electrical resonance plays an important role in modern living. The running of a
TV set or a wireless set for the selection of a particular station is an example of electrical
resonance.
Results: The characteristic curves of LCR series and parallel resonance are drawn.
The resonance frequency of series LCR resonance circuit is …………………..
The Quality factor of series LCR resonance circuit is …………………..
The resonance frequency of parallel LCR resonance circuit is …………………..
The Quality factor of parallel LCR resonance circuit is …………………..

Viva questions :
1. what is meant by the “Bandwidth” of a resonant circuit?
2. what are half power frequencies?
3. why a series resonant circuit is called an acceptorcircuit?
4. why a parallel resonant circuit is called a rejector circuit?
5. why air filled capacitors (gang condensers) are used for tuning in radios?
6. what is the physical significance of the LCR?
7. why does the series circuit give a power maximum at resonance while the parallel
circuitlead to a power minimum?
8. what is role of the inductance in LCR circuit ? what are the units of inductance ?
9.paraller resonance circuit is rejected circuit and series resonant circuit is an accepter circuit
.explain why ?
Signature of the Lecturer..

3. Light emitting diode (LED) characteristics Date: …

Aim: To study the V/I characteristics of light emitting diode.
Apparatus: Light emitting diode, 0-5V variable Supply, 20mW Digital Optical power meter,
20V Digital Voltmeter, 200mA DC Digital Ammeter.
Theory: In a PN junction charge carrier recombination takes place when the electrons cross
from the N-layer to the P-layer. The electrons are in the conduction band on the P-side while holes
are in the valence band on the N-side. The conduction band has a higher energy level compared to
the valence band and so when the electrons recombine with a hole the difference in energy is
given out in the form of heat or light. In case of silicon or germanium, the energy dissipation is in
the form of heat, whereas in case of gallium-arsenide and gallium phosphide, it is in the form of
light. But this light is in the invisible region & so this material cannot be used in the manufacture
of LED. Hence gallium – arsenide phosphide which emits light in the visible region is used to
manufacture an LED.
Procedure for V/I characteristics:
1. Connect the Light emitting diode

circuit as shown in figure 1.
2. Slowly increase supply voltage

using variable Power supply using
coarse and fine knobs.
3. Note down current through the Light

emitting diode at increasing values
of Light emitting diode voltage of
0.5V, 1.0V, 1.5V, 2.5 V.
4. Do not exceed current limit of

30mA else the Light emitting diode
may get damaged.
5. Plot a graph of Light emitting diode

voltage V/s Light emitting diode current. Figure 1.

Observations: Graph:
S.No. LED LED
Voltage (V) Current (mA)
Figure:2

Applications:
1. Infra red LEDS are used in burglar alarms.
2. Used in the field of optical communication.
3. Used in image sensing circuits.
4. Used in numerical displays like watches, pocket calculators.
Results: The V/I characteristics of LED has been studied.

The Threshold voltage of LED is ………………………

Viva questions :
1.Explain by what mechanism an LED emits light.
2.What are characteristics an LED?
3.What are the uses of led?
4.What is threshold current?
5.Different coloured LEDs are Available. Why not different coloured LASER sourses?
6.State some important applications of LED and LASER?
7.How is the distance between earth and moon estimated using LASER beam?
8.Differentiate between LED and LASER?
9.What are the applications of LED? is it similar to p-n junction diode?explain?
Signature of the lecturer.

4. Energy gap of a semiconductor : Date: ………

Aim: To determine the energy gap of a semiconductor diode.
Apparatus: Germanium diode , thermometer, copper vessel, regulated DC power supply, micro
ammeter, heater and Bakelite lid.
Theory: The energy gap Eg of a material is defined as a minimum amount of energy required by
an electron to get excited from the top of valence band to the bottom of conduction band. The
energy gap in case of a metal is zero and in case of insulator it is very high in few eV. The energy
gap of a semiconductor is less and lies in between of metals and insulators. The variation of
resistance of a semiconductor with temperature is given by
R = R0 exp Eg / kT
Where ‘R0’ is the resistance of the semiconductor at absolute zero, ‘k’ is the Boltzmann constant
and ‘T’ is the absolute temperature of the material
Formula:
Where Eg is the band gap energy

‘k’ is the Boltzmann constant = 1.38 x 10-23J/K
Slope is obtained from the graph between log10R and 1/T.
Circuit diagram:
`
Fig: Energy gap of semi conductor

Procedure: Connections are made as per the circuit diagram. Pour some oil in the copper
vessel. Fix the diode to the Bakelite lid such that it is reversed biased. Bakelite lid is fixed to the
copper vessel, a hole is provided on the lid through which the thermometer is inserted into the
vessel. With the help of heater, heat the copper vessel till the temperature reaches upto 800C. Note
the current reading at 800C, apply suitable voltage say 1.5 V and note the corresponding current
with every 50C fall of temperature, till the temperature reaches the room temperature.
Observations:
S.No. Temperature T = t + 273 K Current R=V/I Ω Log 10R 103/T K
(0C) (μA)

Calculations:
Graph:
Slope = AB/BC
Results: The energy gap of a given semiconductor is …………………….

.
Viva Questions:
1.What is a semiconductor? how many types of semiconductors are available?

2.Why germanium specimen is preferred over silicon specimen? why?
3. Define energy gap? what are the units of energy gap?
4.Defferentiate between conductors, semiconductors and insulators?
5.What is meant by doping ?
6.What happens if the temperature of oil bath exceeds 900C?
7.What type of oil can be used in this experiment? why water can not be used in this place of oil?
explain?
8.why the p-n junction diode is reverse biased in the present experiment?

5. Optical fibers – Numerical Aperture measurement Date: ……
Aim: To determine the numerical aperture of the given optical fibre.
Apparatus: Step index fiber optic cable 1 or 2m, digital multimeter, adaptors, connectors, DC
power supply, fiber optic trainer module, N.A. measurement jig.
Description: the schematic diagram of the fibre optic trainer module is shown in figure 1.
The circuit comprises of three parts (i) Electrical to optical (E/O) converter (ii) Optical to
electrical (O/E) converter and (iii) Optical power meter.
The E/O converter converts an input voltage to an optical output, P0, by driving the fibre
optic light emitting diode (F0-LED) current linearly using a negative feedback operational
amplifier circuit. Direct current LED (DC-LED) current setting is done by rotating the knob
SET/P0 The optical power is coupled to the optical fibre through the connector. The LED
current can be measured by monitoring the voltage with digital multimeter. AC input is given to
the Vin (Vr/100) gives the LED current in milliampers.
The optical to electrical converter accepts the input optical power (Pin) from the optical
fibre connected through the connector and provides an output voltage (V0). For DC
measurements, a multimeter is used. The optical power meter converts the optical power coupled
to it through an SMA terminated optical fibre and facilitates display of the optical power P0 in dB
The optical power in dB, is given by the (multimeter reading/10) in dB referred to 1mw.

Theory: The numerical aperture of an optical system is a measure of the light collected by an
optical system. It is the product of the refractive index of the incident medium and the sine of the
maximum angle.
Numerical Aperture (NA) = ni sinθmax ……………….. (1)
For air ni = 1
For a step index fibre, the N.A. is given by: N.A. = ( n2core - n2cladding )1/2 ……………….. (2)
For small differences in refractive indices between the core and cladding, equation (2) reduces to
N.A. = ncore (2Δ)1/2 ……………….. (3)
Where Δ is the fractional difference in the refractive indices of the core and the cladding i.e.
Δ = [ncore - ncladding ]/ ncore
Light from the fibre end ‘A’ falls on the screen BD. Let the diameter of the light falling on the
screen = BD = W
Let the distance between the fibre end and the screen = AO = L
From geometry
BD = W, AO = L, BO = OD = W/2
Therefore AB = [ L2 + W2/4 ]1/2
= ( 4L2 + W2 )1/2 /2
N.A. = W/(4L2 + W2)1/2 ……………….. (4)
Knowing W and L, the N.A. can be calculated.
Substituting this value of N.A. in equation (1), the
acceptance angle θ can be calculated.
Procedure:

The twists or the microbends on the fiber, if any are to be removed first. In order to
remove the twists, the optical fiber is wound on a mandrel. An adhesive tape may be used to hold
the winding on the mandrel in the proper position. The experimental set up for the NA
measurement is shown in figure 2.
One end of the optical fiber is connected to the NA jig through the connector, and the
other end of the fiber is connected to the power out P0 of the NA module. The AC mains is
switched ON and the light passing through the cable at the other end of (coming to the NA jig) the
fibre is observed to ensure proper coupling is made or not. The ‘SET P0’ knob is turned in the
clockwise direction to get maximum intensity of light through the fibre. The ‘SET P 0’ is to be left
free at this stage.
A screen with concentric circles of known diameter is kept vertically at a distance (L)
from the fiber end and the red spot is seen on the screen. The diameter (W) of the red spot is made
exactly equal to the first concentric circle and the corresponding distance (L) from the fibre end to
the screen is noted. The diameter of the red spot can be varied by varying the distance (L)
The experiment is repeated for the subsequent diameter or the circles by adjusting the
length L. the diameter of the circle is determined using a travelling microscope. For each set of
observations, the NA is calculated using the equation (4). Using the value of NA from equation
(4) in equation (1), the acceptance angle θ is calculated. The results are tabulated in Table
Observations:
S.No. L (mm) W (mm) N.A.= θ (degrees)
W/(4L2+W2)1/2

Calculations:
Applications:
1. Optical fibers may be used for accurate sensing of physical parameters and fields like
pressure, temperature and liquid level.
2. For military applications like fibre optic hydrophones for submarine and underwater sea
application and gyroscopes for applications in ships, missiles and air crafts.
Results: The NA of the optical fiber is ………………………..

The acceptance angle θ is ……………………..

Viva Questions:
1.What is optical fiber.
2.Definr core and cladding?explain the role of core and cladding in the optical fiber
communication?
3.Explain total internal reflection?
4.what is reflection and refraction?
5.How do you measure the losses in an optical fiber?
6.I n what units do you indicate the losses?
7.What is the significance of finding the losses?
8.W hat is numerical aperture(NA) of an optical fiber?
9.I n fining NA, which technique are you using?
10. What are the applications of optical fibers in various fields?
Signature of the Lecturer

6. DIELECTYRIC CONSTANT APPARATUS Date:
Aim : measurement of dielectric constant K of a substance by resonance method.
Apparatus required : dielectric constant apparatus, variable gang capacitor, parallel plate
capacitor ( test capacitor), dielectric material, connecting leads and instructions manual.
Formula used dielectric constant, K is given by
(𝐶1 − 𝐶2
K=1+ 𝐶0
Where 𝐶0 = Capacity of test capacitor without dielectric ( it is given)
𝐶1 = Capacity of variable gang capacitor for maximum deflection in micro
ammeter when test capacitor is without dielectric.
𝐶2 = Capacity of variable gang capacitor for maximum deflection in micro
ammeter when test capacitor is filled with dielectric.
Procedure:
1. Connect the variable capacitor with the terminals marked variable capacitor on the
front panel of the instrument. (adjust the knob of variable capacitor at 10 Pf)
2. Switch on the instrument and wait for at least 1-2 minute and then set the sensitivity of
meter at 50 (full) by the sensitivity control knob.
3. Now connect another capacitor (test capacitor) with the second terminals marked test
capacitor.
4. Keep the test capacitor without dielectric and vary the capacity of variable capacitor so
that the deflection in micro ammeter is maximum. Note this value of variable capacitor
as 𝐶1 .
5. Now fill the test capacitor with dielectric (deflection in the meter will change) and then
again adjust the capacity of variable capacitor so that the deflection in micro ammeter
is maximum. Note this value of variable capacitor as 𝐶2 .
6. Calculate the value of dielectric constant K using above formula.
Observations:
Capacity of test capacitor (it is given) 𝐶0 = 8.625 pf
Capacity of variable capacitor (without dielectric) 𝐶1 = 93.75 pf
Capacity of test capacitor (with dielectric) 𝐶2 = 78.75 pf

Fig. Dielectric constant
𝐶0 approximate
(a) 1/8” or 3 mm 12 pf
(b) 3/16” or 4.5 mm 9.5 pf
(c) 1/4” or 6 mm 8 pf
(d) 8/16” or 7.5” mm 5 pf
Sl.No. approximate approximate

Gap with plates Test capacity without Test capacity with
dielecric dielecric
(a) 1/8” or 3 mm
(b) 3/16” or 4.5 mm
(c) 1/4” or 6 mm
(d) 8/16” or 7.5” mm
Precautions:
1. Test capacitor plates should be tight when filled with dielectric material.
2. Three sheets are provided are provided are provided for solid dielectric one sheet is 1.5
mm thick and other two are 3mm each.
Result : the value of dielectric material K= …………..

Viva Questions:
1) What are dielectrics?
Dielectrics are insulators. They do not have free electrons and hence do not conduct electricity.
The dielectric materials shows the polarization of charges. Ex: air, glass, plastic, mica, dry wood,
water etc.,
2) Name the two types of molecules of a dielectric.
Polar molecules and non-polar molecules.
3) What are polar molecules?
The molecules of a dielectric which act like tiny electric dipoles and possess a permanent dipole
moment but get induced with dipole moment are called polar molecules.
4) What are non-polar molecules?
The molecules of a dielectric which do not possess a permanent dipole moment but get induced
with dipole moment in an electric field are called non polar molecules.
5) Name the two polar molecules?
Water (H2O) & carbon monoxide (CO) are polar molecules.
6) Name the two non-polar molecules.
Oxygen (O2) & carbon dioxide (CO2) are non-polar molecules.
7) What is polarization of charges?
When a dielectric slab is placed in an electric field, the positive & negative charges induced on the
opposite faces of a dielectric due to the electric polarization is called polarization of charges.
8) What is the effect of dielectric when it is placed in an electric field?
The net field inside the dielectric gets reduced.
9) What is dielectric break down?
The phenomenon due to which dielectric loses its insulating property and behaves like a
conductor is called dielectric break down.
10) Define dielectric strength of a dielectric.
The maximum value of applied electric field above which dielectric break down occurs is called
the dielectric strength of a dielectric.
11) How is dielectric strength expressed?
It is expressed in kilo volt per millimeter.
12) What do you understand by the statement that dielectric strength of air is 3 KV /mm?
The maximum field that air at one atmosphere can with stand is 3 KV/mm or 3 x 106 V/m.
Beyond this field air starts conducting.
13) What is the average electric dipole moment per unit volume of a dielectric with polar
molecules?
It is zero due to the random orientation of dipoles.
14) When can a dielectric be strongly polarized?
A dielectric can be strongly polarized at lower temperature with stronger applied electric field.

7.SOLAR CELL EXPRIMENT Date:

Aim:To study the V-I and V-R characteristics of a solar cell.
Apparatus Required
Solar cell, voltmeter, milli ammeter, a dial type resistance box, Keys, illuminating lamps, connecting wires
etc.
Procedure: A solar cell (photovoltaic cell) essentially consists of a p-n junction diode, in which electrons
and holes are generated by the incident photons. When an external circuit is connected through the p-n
junction device, a current passes through the circuit. Therefore, the device generates power when the
electromagnetic radiation is incident on it.
The schematic representation of a solar cell and the circuit connections are as shown in Fig. 6.21.
Fig.6.21 Schematic representation and circuit of Solar Cell
The voltmeter is connected in parallel with the given solar cell through a plug key. A milliammeter and a variable
resistor are connected in series to the solar cell through a key as shown in the Fig.6.21.
The solar cell can be irradiated by sun’s radiation. Instead, it can also be irradiated by a filament bulb. In the present
experiment light sources of different intensities are used. It is found that for a given intensity, there is a variation in
the voltage and current values. The resistance values are adjusted by a dial type resistance box and the variation of
voltage and current are noted.
The readings are tabulated as shown in Table 6.17. From the tabulation (i) the graph is drawn between voltage (V)
along the x-axis and the current (I) along the y-axis (ii) the graph is drawn with voltage V along the x-axis and the
resistance (R) along the y-axis.
The experiment can be repeated with different intensities of light by the adjusting the distance of the solar cell from
the source of light.
Readings are tabulated as follows:

Y
Current (I)
Voltage (V)

Fig.6.22 V-I Characteristics
Table 6.17 Variation of V, I and R with intensity of the light
Reading of
Resistance (R)
Intensity Voltmeter Ammeter Power(W)
Ohms
V(volts) I (A)
Y
`
Resistance (R)
Voltage (V)
Fig.6.23 V-R Characteristics
PRECAUTIONS:
1. The solar cell should be exposed to sun light before using it in the experiment.
2. Light from the lamp should fall normally on the cell.
3. A resistance in the cell circuit should be introduced so that the current does not exceed the safe
operating limit.
Result:
The V-I and V-R Characteristics of the solar cell are plotted.

VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. What is the difference between solar cell and a photodiode?
2. What are the types of semiconductor materials used for solar cell?
3. What is Dark current?
4. What is the difference between solar photovoltaic and solar hot water system?
5. What is the response time of photo cell?

8.LASER Date:………..
Aim:: - To determine the wavelength of the Laser source by using a single slit diffraction
experiment.
Apparatus: - Single slit, screen, magnifying glass, microscope and LASER sources.
Description:
The laser consists of a mixture of in the ration of about 10:1, placed inside a long narrow
discharge tube. The pressure inside the tube is about 1 mm of Hg.
The gas system is enclosed between a pair of plane mirror or pair of concave mirror so that a
resonator system is formed. One of the mirrors is of very high reflectivity while the other is
partially transparent so that energy may be coupled out of the System. The 6328 A˚ transition of
beam corresponds to the well-known red light of laser. Lasers are light amplification by
stimulated emission of radiations.
Theory:
The single slit may be treated as a large number of equally spaced point sources and each point on
the slit is source of Huygens’s secondary wavelets, which interfere with the wavelets emanating
from other points. The secondary wavelets traveling with the wavelets traveling in the direction
parallel to the slit comes to focus on the screen at a point. Since all the rays are in the same phase,
diffraction pattern is a point of maximum intensity. The secondary waves traveling in a direction
making an angle θ converge to some other point on the screen. The intensity of this point will be
maximum or minimum depending upon the path difference between the secondary waves
orienting from the corresponding wave fronts.
The path difference is given by---------------
a sin θ = n λ
Where n is the order of diffraction (n= ±1, ±2, ±3-------)

λ is the wavelength of the source
a is the slit width
θ is the angle of diffraction. A sin

a sin θ = (2n+1) λ
Where n = 1, 2, 3………….
The formula given above is derived using the small angle approximation.
If the path difference is odd multiple of wavelength then it is given by--------
a is the slit width
θ is the angle of diffraction.
a sin θ = (2n+1) λ
where n = 1,2,3………….
Where n is the order of diffraction (n= ±1, ±2, ±3-------)
λ is the wavelength of the source
a is the slit width
θ is the angle of diffraction.
a sin θ = (2n+1) λ
where n = 1,2,3………….
For the experiment fig shown above this means that sin θ ≈ y/L
Figure:
source

Procedure: -
Place the single slit parallel to the laser source such that the rays are incident on the slit
width. Adjust the slit width such that we see clear diffraction of the slit on screen or wall.
Measure the distance of slit from wall (screen) let it be L and the distance between the
maxima is y. Take the readings on left and right side. Vary the slit distance from the screen
i.e. take the reading at different L. The corresponding y is to be measured. Measure the slit.
width (a) by microscope.
Observation : -
Slit width (a)= cm
Table:
Calculations:

Precautions:
1.The laser beam should not be looked at either directly or indirectly as this may penetrate into the
eyes and damages the eyes permanently.
2.T he photodiode should be as away from the slit as possible.
Result:
The wavelength of the given laser is (λ)…………….
Viva Questions:
1.What is diffraction of light?
2.How is the diffraction pattern formed?
3.What is Fresnel diffraction?
4.what is the difference b/n the interference pattern and the diffraction pattern?
5.in which light do you observe wider diffraction bands?blue or red?
6.What is Fraunhofer diffraction?
7.What is the difference between Fresnel’s and Fraunhofer classes ofdiffraction.

9. HALL EFEECT EXPRIMENT Date:
AIM: To study the Hall Effect and to calculate:

1) The Hall Coefficient RH
2) The carrier concentration (n) of a given semiconducting sample.
APPARATUS:
Power Supply for the electromagnet (0 – 16 Volts, 5 Amps),Constant Current Power Supply (0 –
50 mA, Ideally 0 – 20 mA) Gauss meter with Hall Probe ,Semiconducting sample (Ge single
crystal) mounted on PCB. (p-type/n-type Ge crystal)
THEORY:
The Hall Effect is due to the nature of the current in a conductor. Current consists of the
movement of many small charge carriers, typically electrons, holes, ions or all three. When a
magnetic field is present, these charges experience a force, called the Lorentz force. When such a
magnetic field is absent, the charges follow approximately straight, 'line of sight' paths between
collisions with impurities, phonons, etc. However, when a magnetic field with a perpendicular
component is applied, their paths between collisions are curved so that moving charges
accumulate on one face of the material. This leaves equal and opposite charges exposed on the
other face, where there is a scarcity of mobile charges. The result is an asymmetric distribution of
charge density across the Hall element, arising from a force that is perpendicular to both the 'line
of sight' path and the applied magnetic field. The separation of charge establishes an electric field
that opposes the migration of further charge, so a steady electrical potential is established for as
long as the charge is flowing.
If an electric current flows through a conductor in a magnetic field, the magnetic field exerts a
transverse force on the moving charge carriers which tends to push them to one side of the
conductor. This is most evident in a thin flat conductor as illustrated.

A buildup of charge at the sides of the conductors will balance this magnetic influence,
producing a measurable voltage between the two sides of the conductor. The presence of this
measurable transverse voltage is called the Hall Effect after E. H. Hall who discovered it in
1879. Note that the direction of the current I in the diagram is that of conventional current, so
that the motion of electrons is in the opposite direction. This effect is very useful in
determining-
1) The nature of charge carries e.g. whether semiconductor is on n-type or p-type
2) Carrier concentration or the number density of charge carries
3) Mobility of charge carriers
BLACK DIAGRAM OF EXPERIMENTAL SETUP:
PROCEDURE:
1. Switch on the power supply of electromagnet and measure the magnetic flux density in
between the pole faces using Gauss probe.
2. Place the specimen in between the pole faces such that the magnetic field is
perpendicular to the strip.
3. Connect one pair of contacts of specimen on the opposite faces to the current source
and other pair to the multi-meter of Hall Effect setup.
4. Using current source, Pass the current (mA) through the specimen and measure the
resulting Hall voltage in the multi-meter.
5. Increase the current through the specimen gradually and measure the corresponding
Hall voltages.

FORMULAE:
Power Supply for Electromagnet: 1.5 Amp

i) Hall Coefficient: RH =VH × t
I B
Where VH= Hall Voltage (mV)
I = Current through the specimen (mA)

t = thickness of specimen in meters (t = 0.5mm)
B = Magnetic flex density (Tesla)
SOURCE OF ERROR:
1. Before starting the experiment, check if the gauss meter is showing zero value or not.
For this place the probe at somewhere and adjust offset zero knob until you see zero on
display.
2. Ensure that the specimen is located at the centre of the pole faces and is exactly
perpendicular to the magnetic field.
3. To measure the magnetic flux density, the hall probe should be placed at the center the
pole faces.
4. Check the direction of electromagnet coils so that it generates the maximum magnetic
field, this can be check by placing the soft iron near the generated magnetic field, and
observing if it strongly or weekly attracted to the magnetic poles.

OBSERVATION TABLE:
TABLE: CURRENT-HALL VOLTAGE
S. No.
Hall Voltage
Current I (mA) VH (mV)
TABLE: CURRENT-MAGNETIC FLUX DENSITY
S. No.
Current I (mA) Magnetic flux density(B)

MODEL GRAPH:
RESULT:
Hall Coefficient RH = …………… Ω-m/tesla

Carrier Concentration n =………………………… /m3

Viva questions:
1.What is Hall effect?
A.When a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field mutually perpendicular to the
direction of current a potential difference is developed at right angle to both the magnetic and
electric field.This phenomenon is called Hall effect.
2.Define hall co-efficient.
A.It is numerically equal to Hall electric field induced in the specimen crystal by unit current
when it is placed perpendicular in a magnetic field of 1 weber/(meter*meter).
3.Define mobility.
A.It is the ratio of average drift velocity of charge carriers to applied electric field.
4.Why is Hall potential developed?
A.When a current carrying conductor is placed in a transverse magnetic field the magnetic field
exerts a deflecting force(Lorentz Force) in the direction perpendicular to both magnetic field and
drift velocity this causes charges to shift from one surface to another thus creating a potential
difference.
5.What is Fleming’s Left Hand Rule?
A.Stretch thumb,first finger,middle finger at right angles to each other such that fore finger points
in the direction of magnetic field,middle finger in the direction of current then thumb will point in
the direction of the force acting on it.
6.How does mobility depend on electrical conductivity?
A.It is directly proportional to conductivity.
7.Define Hall angle.
A.It is the angle made with the x direction by the drift velocity of charge carrier is known as hall
angle.
8.Which type of charge has greater mobility?
A.In semiconductors,electron has greater mobility than holes.

9.What happens to the hall coefficient when number of charge carriers is decreased?
A.Hall coefficient increases with decrease in number of charge carriers per unit volume.
10.Name one practical use.
A.It is used to verify if a substance is a semiconductor,conductor or insulator.Nature of charge
carriers can be measured.

10. The Photoelectric Effect Date:

Aim:
1.To determine Planck’s constant ‘h’ from the stopping voltages measured at different
frequencies (wavelengths) of light.
2.To determine the work function “f” of a metal.
Apparatus: Plank’s constant measuring instrument, CS-type vacuum tube, Receptor, Tungsten-
Halogen lamp.
Theory
With this apparatus, you will be able to repeat the essential part of the experiment that served to
establish the quantum theory of radiation. The photocathode is irradiated by light of
approximately only one wavelength or colour (quasi-monochromatic light), and a voltage is
applied between the anode (where the current is measured) and cathode so that it opposes the
energy of the emitted photoelectrons. The potential energy gained (or kinetic energy lost) is eV
where e is the charge of the electron and V is the potential difference or voltage between the anode
and cathode. The voltage required to “just” stop the current flow Vs will thus be proportional to
the maximum kinetic energy of the emitted photoelectron (like a roller coaster just coming to a
stop at the top of a hill; you are changing the height of the hill as you change the voltage).
KE max = eV s
Making use of Planck’s quantum ideas (from his description of blackbody radiation), Einstein
postulated that light consists of a stream of discrete bundles of energy, called photons1. He
suggested that each photon possesses an energy, E, given by
hc
E = h = (1)

where h is Planck’s constant,  is the frequency of the light, λ is the wavelength of the light, and c
is the velocity of light in vacuum. Following this assumption, the photoelectric effect is then the
result of each photon transferring its entire energy to an electron in the metal. [It is possible for
only part of the energy to be transferred (Compton effect) or for multiple photons to be transferred
but not under these experimental conditions.] Some of the energy is used to tear the electron
loose from the metal (known as the work function, ), while any excess is used to give kinetic
energy (motion) to the ejected electron. Using our previous results for the maximum kinetic
energy and accounting for the energies
hc
eVs = − (2)

The work function varies from material to material and is smallest for alkali metals (this apparatus
uses potassium). We must have light such that h >  in order to see the photoelectric effect

(known as the threshold frequency). The alkali metals have work functions such that the
photoelectric effect is seen at the frequencies (or wavelengths) of visible light.
For accurate results, the measurement of very small photocurrents is required. The electronics
and ammeter to do this are all contained in the “Photoelectric Effect” apparatus by Daedelon
Corp.
Experimental Set up:
The present experimental set-up (see Fig. 3) comprises of a tungsten-halogen light source with
five different colour filters, a Cesium-type vacuum phototube, a built-in power supply and a
current multiplier. The base of the phototube is built into a dark room and in front of it a receptor
(pipe) is installed to mount filters.
Figure : Experimental set up
Procedure:
1. Plug in and switch on the apparatus using the red button at the bottom right corner of the set up.
2. Before the lamp is switched on, put the toggle switch in current mode and check that the dark
current is zero.
3. Turn on the lamp source (it may take 5-10 mins. to warm up). Set the light intensity near to
maximum. Note that the intensity should be such that the value of current should not exceed the
display range. In case it happens, you need to reduce the intensity. You should not change
intensity while taking data.
4. Insert one of the five specified filters into the drawtube of the receptor.

5. Set the voltage direction switch to “+ve” polarity. Adjust the voltage knob at minimum and
current knob at “X 0.1” position which means the resolution is up to one decimal point. Vary the
voltage and record the current till the value of current
becomes relatively constant. Use the display mode switch to record the values of
voltage and the corresponding current each time.
6. Now, set the voltage direction switch to “-ve” polarity. Adjust the voltage knob at minimum
and current knob at “X 0.001” (we need higher resolution since current will be less here). Vary
the voltage and record the current till the value of current becomes 0. Use the display mode switch
to record the values of voltage and the corresponding current each time.
7. The above steps 5 and 6 provides data to plot the I-V characteristics of the phototube for the
wavelength (or frequency) selected by the filter.
8. Repeat the steps 5-7 for all the filters provided.
9. Fill up the observation tables and draw necessary plots. Determine the values of planck’s
constant and work function of the metal used in the phototube.
Observations:
Specification of Filters:
Colour Blue Green Yellow Orange Red
Wavelength 438 565 578 598 633

(nm)
Table 1: For I-V characteristics
Voltage (+ ve
polarity)
Current (μA)
Voltage (- ve
polarity)
Current (μA)

Table 2: Data for stopping potential ~ wavelength
Filters name Stopping Wavelength Frequency

potential(V) λ (nm) V=𝝀
𝑪
Blue V1=
Yellow V2=
Orange V3=
Red V4=
Green V5=
Graph:
1. Plot I~ V characteristics for different wavelengths.
2. Plot Stopping potential ~ (1/wavelength) and calculate slope and intercept using Eq.
4. A sample graph is shown in Fig:
Figure 1: Example of how to find Planck's constant. Dashed lines in the above graph indicate estimated max
and min slopes.

Calculation and estimation of error: Determine h and f and estimate error.
Precautions:
1. Rotate all the knobs very slowly.
2. Handle the filters with utmost care and avoid touching their surfaces.
Result:
Viva Questions:
What is a perfect black body?
A perfect black body is one which absorbs completely the radiations of all wavelength incidents on it.
Absorbance is equal to 1.
3) What is black body radiation?
A perfect black body is heated to a high temperature it emits radiation consisting of all possible
wavelengths. The radiation thus emitted is called the black body radiation. It is also called full or total
radiation.
4) Define emissive power of a body.
Emissive power of a body at a particular temperature is defined as the total energy radiated per
second.
5) Define Emissivity.
Emissivity is defined as the ratio of the emissive power of a body to the emissive power of a black
body at the same temperature.
6) Can a perfect black body realized in practice?
A perfect black body cannot be realized in practice.
7) Name the black body generally used for accurate experiment work.
Ferry black body designed by Ferry.
8) What is radiation of heat?
The process of transfer of heat from one place to another along a straight line without affecting an
intervening medium is called radiation.
9) What is thermal radiation?
The energy emitted by body in the form of radiation by virtue of its temperature is called thermal
radiation of energy.
10) What is the speed with which thermal radiation travels?
Thermal radiation travels with a speed of light i.e, 3 x 108m/s.
11) What is Photoelectric effect?

12) What is Work function?
13) Define Threshold frequency and Threshold wavelength.
14) What is stopping potential?
15) Can the work function depend on wavelength of the incident light?
16) 1Joule = ______________ eV
17)In explaining the photoelectric effect which nature of light is considered. (particle or wave)
18)Which type of materials are used in Photoelectric effect? What are they?
19)Why alkali metals are used in photoelectric effect?

11.Optical fibers – Study of losses Date: ……
Aim: To determine the losses in optical fibers due to (a) macrobending of the fiber and (b) to the
connectors between the fibers.
Apparatus: Step index fiber optic cable (a) 1m (b) 2m and (c) 5m, digital multimeters,
adaptors, connectors, DC power supply, fiber optic trainer module.
Description: the schematic diagram of the fibre optic trainer module is shown in figure 1.
The circuit comprises of three parts (i) Electrical to optical (E/O) converter (ii) Optical to
electrical (O/E) converter and (iii) Optical power meter.
The E/O converter converts an input voltage to an optical output, P0, by driving the
fibre optic light emitting diode (F0-LED) current linearly using a negative feedback operational
amplifier circuit. Direct current LED (DC-LED) current setting is done by rotating the knob
SET/P0 The optical power is coupled to the optical fibre through the connector. The LED
current can be measured by monitoring the voltage with digital multimeter. AC input is given to
the Vin (Vr/100) gives the LED current in milliampers.
The optical to electrical converter accepts the input optical power (Pin) from the
optical fibre connected through the connector and provides an output voltage (V0). For DC
measurements, a multimeter is used. The optical power meter converts the optical power coupled

to it through an SMA terminated optical fibre and facilitates display of the optical power P 0 in dB
The optical power in dB, is given by the (multimeter reading/10) in dB referred to 1mw.
Theory: As in the case of any transmission medium, an optical fiber also suffers from
transmission loss as signal propagates through it. Losses in an optical fibre is a result of a number
of effects, like fiber to fiber joints, splicing due to axial displacement of fibers, angular
displacement of fibers, mismatch of core diameters of fibers, mismatch of N.A.s., improper
cleaving and cleaning at the ends of the fibers, macro and micro bending losses, connector losses
etc.
If ‘P0’ represents the power launched at the input of a fibre of length ‘L’, then the power at
the output end of the fibre is given by
PL = P0 e-αt …………………….. (1)
Where ‘α’ is the attenuation coefficient in nepers per unit length. In practice the attenuation is
expressed in dB/km and is defined as
…………………….. (2)
…………………….. (3)
The typical attenuation coefficient value for a step index fibre used in the experiment is 0.3dB per
meter for light at a wave length of 660nm.
Loss in the fibre expressed I decibel is given by:
…………………….. (4)
Where P0 = power launched
PF = power at the far end of the fibre
The loss at each connector junction may vary from 0.3dB to 0.8dB.
Procedure: the schematic diagram of the optical fibre loss measurement is shown in figure 2.
One end of the one meter fibre optic cable is connected to the P0 and the other end is connected to
the Pin of the loss measurement module. The output power is calibrated in terms of the millivolts.

Hence, the two wires of the power output is connected to the digital multimeter (DMM). The
DMM is set into 2000 mV output range. The input of the device is now connected to the AC
mains. The SET P0 knob is set to a suitable value, say -15dBm (the DMM is calibrated to read
150mv) this value is noted as P01.
The fibre is next wound on the mandrel, and the reading of the power meter is noted as P02. Thus
the loss due to bending and strain on the fibre is (P01- P02) dB.
The one meter optic cable is taken out of the mandrel and the experiment is repeated using
4m and 5m cable on the mandrel, and the loss is again noted. Next, the mandrel is removed and all the
twists and strains on the cable are relieved. Using the in-line SMA adaptor, two cables are connected
in series and the reading P03 in the DMM is noted.
(P03- P01) gives the loss in the second cable plus the loss due to the in-line adaptor.
(P03- P02) gives the loss in the first cable plus the loss due to the in-line adaptor.
A loss of 1 dB for each in-line adaptor can be assumed and thus the loss in each cable can be
calculated.
The experiment is repeated for the next value of P0. The results are tabulated in Table 1 and the
losses are calculated.

Observations:
S.No. P01 (dBm) P02 (dBm) P03 (dBm) Loss in cable 1 Loss in cable 2
(dB) (dB)
Calculations:

Applications:
1. One of the important applications of an optical fibre is for information transmission.
2. Fiber optic sensors – optical endoscopes are playing an important role in medicine and
surgery.
Results:
1. Loss in cable 1 is ……………………. dB.
2. Loss in cable 2 is ……………………. dB.

12.Torsional Pendulum Date:
Aim: To determine the rigidity modulus (η) of the material of the given wire using a torsional
pendulum
Apparatus: Torsional pendulum (a circular metal disc provided with a chuck and nut at it’s
centre, suspended by a steel or brass or copper wire), stop watch, meter scale,
screw gauge and venrier calipers.
Description: Torsional pendulum consists of a uniform circular metal disc of about 8 to 10 cm

diameter with 1 or 2 cm thickness, suspended by a wire at the centre of the disc as
shown in figure 1. The lower end of the wire is gripped into the chuck at the
centre of the disc and upper end is gripped into another chuck, which is fixed to a
wall bracket.
Fig 1: Torsional Pendulum

Theory: At the equilibrium position of the disc a radial line is drawn from the centre to ‘P’, as
shown in figure 1. When the disc is rotated through a small angle in horizontal plane to
the radial position ‘Q’, the wire gets twisted. The twisted wire will exert a torque on the
disc tending to return to its original position ‘P’. This is the restoring torque. For small
twists, the restoring torque is proportional to the amount or twist or the angular
displacement (Hooke’s law) so that
τ = - Cθ -------------- (1)
Where C is called torsional constant. The negative sign shows that the torque is directed opposite
to the angular displacement θ.
When the disc is turned through a small angle in horizontal plane, it makes oscillations
about the axis of the wire. The time period of oscillations is given by
-------------- (2)
Where ‘I’ is moment of inertia of the disc about the axis of rotation and
‘C' is couple per unit twist of the wire.
If ‘a’ is the radius of the wire, ‘l’ is the length of wire between chucks and ‘η’ is the rigidity
modulus of the material of the wire,
Then the couple ‘C’ per unit twist of wire is given by
-------------- (3)
Squaring equation (2) we get
or
-------------- (4)
From equations (3) & (4) we have
or
-------------- (5)

The moment of inertia, ‘I’ of a circular disc whose geometric axis coincides with the axis of
rotation is given by
-------------- (6)
where ‘M’ is mass of the disc

‘R’ is radius of the disc
Substituting the value of I from equation (6) in (5) we get
-------------- (7)
Procedure:
1. The disc is set to oscillate slowly by turning the disc through a small angle.
2. When the disc is oscillating, the time taken for 20 oscillations is noted with the help of stop
watch and recorded in the observation table in trail 1.
3. This procedure is repeated for the same length of the wire and again time taken for 20
oscillations is noted and recorded in the observation table in trail 2.
4. From trail 1 and trail 2, the mean time for 20 oscillations is obtained. The time period (T), i.e.
the time taken for one oscillation is calculated.
5. The experiment is repeated by decreasing the length of the wire in steps of 10 cm and the
results are tabulated in table.
6. The radius of the wire ‘a’ is to be found accurately with the help of a screw gauge since it
occurs as the fourth power in equation (7).
7. The radius and the mass of the disc are found with a vernier calipers and a rough balance.
8. The mean value of l/T2 is substituted in equation (7) and η is calculated.

Observations:
Table2: To measure the radius of the wire with Screw gauge
Pitch scale Head scale HSR± HSR± Error Diameter of the

S.No reading(PSR) reading(HSR) Error correction*L.C wire
(A) correction (B) 2a=A+B

Calculations:
Mass of the disc (M) = ……………gm
Radius of the disc (R) = …………..cm
Radius of the wire (a) = …………..cm
Graph: A graph is also drawn with ‘l’ on the X-axis and T2 on the Y-axis. It will be linear as
shown in figure 2.
Fig 2: A Graph b/w l & T2

Precautions:
1. The wire should be free from kinks.

2. The disc should not be wobble.
Applications:
1. Galvanometer is an example of making use of the torsional oscillations.

2. The balance wheel of a watch is an example of angular harmonic motion.
Results: The rigidity modulus of the material of the given wire (η) is
…………………dynes/sq.cm.

Viva questions:
1.Define rigidity modules? And How many types of modules are there?
2.state and explain hooks law?
3.Difine torque? What are the units of torque in the MKS system?
4.what are the differences b/n the young modules and bulk modules?
5.what are the main differences b/n the simple pendulum and torsional pendulum?
6.what is time constant?And what is formula of η?
7.which is the most important quantity to be determined in this experiment?why?

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J.

B INSTITUTEOF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

J.B INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING &TECHNOLOGY

J.V.REDDY 1 PHYSICS LAB

APPLIED PHYSICS LAB

3 Light emitting diode (LED) characteristics 17

4 Energy gap of semiconductor 20

5 Optical fibers – Numerical Aperture measurement. 24

6 Dielectric constant of a material. 29

8 Wavelength of LASER sources. 35

NOTE: Minimum eight Experiments must be performed.

J.V.REDDY 2 PHYSICS LAB

Details of Evaluation Max. Marks

2.Formula with units, circuit diagram and tabular column. 2+1+2=5

3.Calculation, graph and result 2+1=3

Details of Evaluation Max. Marks

J.V.REDDY 3 PHYSICS LAB

J.Venkat Reddy Dr.B.V. Swarnalatha

J.V.REDDY 4 PHYSICS LAB

J.V.REDDY 5 PHYSICS LAB

J.V.REDDY 6 PHYSICS LAB

Result: The time constant of R.C. circuit is …………………….

J.V.REDDY 7 PHYSICS LAB

1.State the meaning of “charging time of capacitor”?

2.why a resistance of low value is not acceptablein charging process?

3.define between resistance and capacitance?

4.what is an electrolytic capacitor?how is it different from an ordinary capacitor?

5.what is meant by reactance ,impedance and phase lag?

6.what happends in a R.C circuit ,if R is made equal to zero?

7.state four types of capacitors?

Signature of the Lecturer.

J.V.REDDY 8 PHYSICS LAB

2. LCR circuit Date: …

J.V.REDDY 9 PHYSICS LAB

connected as shown in figure 1. A fixed amplitude is

fr / f2 – f1 = Q called the Quality factor of the circuit.

J.V.REDDY 10 PHYSICS LAB

J.V.REDDY 11 PHYSICS LAB

J.V.REDDY 12 PHYSICS LAB

S.No. Frequency (Hz) Current (mA) Current

J.V.REDDY 13 PHYSICS LAB

The Quality factor of series LCR resonance circuit is …………………..

The resonance frequency of parallel LCR resonance circuit is …………………..

The Quality factor of parallel LCR resonance circuit is …………………..

J.V.REDDY 14 PHYSICS LAB

2. what are half power frequencies?

3. why a series resonant circuit is called an acceptorcircuit?

4. why a parallel resonant circuit is called a rejector circuit?

6. what is the physical significance of the LCR?

Signature of the Lecturer..

J.V.REDDY 15 PHYSICS LAB

3. Light emitting diode (LED) characteristics Date: …

Procedure for V/I characteristics:

1. Connect the Light emitting diode

2. Slowly increase supply voltage

3. Note down current through the Light

4. Do not exceed current limit of

5. Plot a graph of Light emitting diode

J.V.REDDY 16 PHYSICS LAB

J.V.REDDY 17 PHYSICS LAB