AERODYNAMICS

Fundamentals of ρ=ρo
( e
1.68
−5
4.805∗10 h )
Aerodynamics ρ=ρo
( e
1.68
−4
1.578∗10 h )
Sea Level up to Tropopause
T =T o +ah
Mass Conservation (Law of Continuity)
T
θ= , Temperature Ratio m=ρAV , m is for mass flow rate
To
Q= AV , Q is for rate flow (Volumetric Flow Rate)

( )
5.26
ah
P=P o 1+  Incompressible Fluid
To
AV = AV
P dV −dA
δ= , Pressure Ratio =
Po V A
 Compressible Fluid

( )
4.26
ah ρAV = ρAV
ρ=ρ o 1+ dρ dV dA
To + + =0
ρ V A
ρ
σ= , Density Ratio
ρo
Bernoulli’s Principle
 Incompressible Fluid
Above Tropopause up to Stratopause 2
V 1 P1 V 2 P2
2
+ = +
T =390.15 ° R 2 ρ 2 ρ
 Compressible Fluid

( 1.26
)
2 2
P=P o
e
4.805∗10 h
−5
V1
2
+ ( )
γ P1 V 2
= +
γ −1 ρ1 2
γ P2
γ −1 ρ1 ( )
P=P o
( 1.26
1.578∗10 h
e
−4
) ρgh=P1 −P 2
ρsubs
spc . gr .=
ρH 2 O

1|Page
AERODYNAMICS
√
2 γP Ve 2(Pt −P)
Va = V= =
ρ
√σ ρ
 Stagnation Point (V =0), Dynamic Pressure
1 2
q=Pt −P= ρ V
2 Mach Number
V
M=
Va
 Stagnation Point
Thermodynamic Parameters (Isentropic)
[( ) ]
γ −1
2 2 Pt−P γ
P M = +1 −1
=constant γ −1 P
ργ
 For Calibrated Airspeed

( )( ) ( )( )
2γ
P 2 ρ2 γ T 2 γ
w2 γ V a γ−1

{[ }
γ −1
= = = =

( )]
2
γ
P 1 ρ1 T1 w1 Va γ −1 V c
2
γ −1
Pt −P=Po 1+ −1
1

2 Va o

[( ) ]
Speed of Sound
{[ ( )] }
γ γ −1
2
γ −1 V c γ −1 γ
Po 1+ −1
V a=
γP
ρ√ M 2=
2
γ −1
2 Va
P
o

+1 −1
V a =√ γgRT =20.05 √ T =49.02 √ T

Kutta-Joukowski Theorem (Circular Cylinder)

Airspeed
V =2V ∞ sin θ , steady flow
 Equivalent Airspeed (Airspeed at Dynamic Pressure)
Γ

√ 2( Pt−P) V =2V ∞ sin θ+ , rotating flow

V e= 2 πr
ρo 2
2
V P V ∞ P∞
 True Airspeed (Airspeed at Density Variation) + = +
2 ρ∞ 2 ρ∞

2|Page
AERODYNAMICS
L lb Flat Plates
= ρ∞ V ∞ Γ =
d ft
1.28
ft 2 F= ρA V 2
Γ =2 πrV = 2
s
F H = ρAV 2 ¿
ft
V =2 πrN =
s F V =ρA V sin ϵ
2

N=rotational speed= per second F=√ F H + F V

2 2

Laminar Boundary Layer

5.2 X
δ= Aerodynamic Forces
√RNX
 Lift
Df 2.656
Cf = = 1
1 2
ρV S √ RN l=C l ρ V 2 c=C l q c
2
2
 Drag
Turbulent Boundary Layer
1 2
0.37 X d=Cd ρV c
δ= 2
1
RNX 5  Pitching Moment

Df 0.910 1 2 2
Cf = = m=C m ρV c
1 ¿¿¿¿ 2
ρV2S
2

Reynolds Number
Airfoil Pressure Distribution
ρVx
R N=
( )
μ P−P∞ V 2
C p= =1−
3 3
q∞ V∞
−6 2 −8 2
1.458∗10 T 2.329∗10 T  Critical Velocity
μ= =
T +110.4 T + 216

3|Page
AERODYNAMICS
[ ]
0.5
( γ−1 ) M ∞2 +2  Drag
V cr =V a ∞
γ+1 1 2
D=C d ρV S
2
 Critical Pressure
 Pitching Moment

[ ]
γ
( γ −1 ) M ∞2+ 2 γ−1
Pcr =P∞ 1 2
γ +1 M =C m ρV Sc
2
 Critical Pressure Coefficient

[ ]
γ
( γ −1 ) M ∞2+ 2 γ−1 Total Drag Coefficient
P∞ −P ∞
γ +1
C pcr = C D =C D +C D
1 2 o i
γ P∞ M ∞
2 C L2
CD =
πAe
SUBSONIC
i

Wing Theory e=Oswal d ' s Efficiency Factor

b b S
2 e=1 , Ellipse
A= = =
S c c2
ct Correction of Airfoil Characteristics
λ=
cr

( )
CL 1 1
∝1=∝2+ −
( )
2
2 λ + λ+ 1 π Ae1 Ae2
c= c r
3 λ+1
C L2 1
C D =C D +
1 2
( −
1
π Ae1 Ae 2 )
Aerodynamic Forces
 Lift
Slope of Lift Curve
1 2
L=C l ρ V S=C l q S
2

4|Page
AERODYNAMICS
a2 Steady Symmetrical Flight
a 1=
( )
a2 1 1
1+ − R . C .=V sin γ
π Ae 1 Ae2
TV =DV +W (R . C .)
a∞
a ∞= TV =Power Available
a∞
1+
πAe DV =Power Required
W ( R .C . )=Climb Power( Excess Power)

Clean Airplane
C L2
Glide
C D =C D +
πAe o

CL
 , Minimum Drag, Minimum Path Angle, Best Range
C D max

C L =√ πAe C D o

C D =2C D o

√
CL 1 πAe
=  Glide Angle
C D max 2 C D o

CD
C L3 tan γ =
 , Minimum RD, Minimum Preq’d, Maximum Endurance CL
C D2 max
L=W cos γ
C L =√ 3 πAe C D

√ W 2 1
o

V= cos γ
C D =4 C D o
S ρ CL

√
√
3
CL 3 3 πAe W 2 1
= πAe RD=V sin γ= cos γ 3
CD
2
max
16 CD o
S ρ C L3
CD2

5|Page
AERODYNAMICS
Stalling Speed (Minimum Speed)

V min =
√ W 2 1
S ρ C Lmax
cos γ
Preq ' d min. drag =2W
√ √ W 2 CD
S ρ ( πAe ) 3
C
=W D
CL
o

( )√ W 2 1
S ρ √ πAe C D
,
o

Minimum Power Required

Level Flight
( )√ √ √
3
CD W 2 1 4 W 2 3 CD CL
TV =DV Preq ' d min =W = W , for o

CL S ρ CL 3 S ρ ( πAe ) 3
C D 2 ma

√
√
W 2 1
V= W W 2 1
S ρ CL THP req' d =
550 S ρ C L3
 Minimum Drag 2
CD

D min =2 Do=W
( )
CD
CL
=2 W
CD
πAe√ o

THP req' d = o
THP ℜ q d
√σ
'

( )√
√
CD W 2 1 W 2 1
Preq ' d =DV =W =W Speed at Minimum Power Required
CL S ρ CL S ρ C L3

√ √
3
CD
2 W 2 1 W 2 1 C
VP = = , for L 2
req ' d
S ρ √ 3 πAe C D S ρ CL C D max
o

Speed at Minimum Drag

Drag at Minimum Power Required
√ √
W 2 1 W 2 1 C
, for L

√ √
V min .drag = =
( )
C L3
S ρ √ πAe C D S ρ CL C D max CD 3 CD CD
o DP =W o
+W =W o
, for 2
req' dmin
3 πAe πAe CL C D max

Power Required at Minimum Drag

Power Available
THP av =η p BHP
6|Page
AERODYNAMICS
Endurance for Best Range
Rate of Climb
)( )
3

E ( hrs )=778 (ηp

BSFC
C L2
CD
√ ρS ( 1
−
1
√ W 1 √W 0 )
, for
CL
C D max

Centripetal Force
F=ma
W
m=
g
2
V 2
a= =ω R
R
( )
ft THP av −THPreq ' d
R.C. = ∗33,000 , for W =lbs
min W W V2
C . F .=
ft −lb gR
1 hp=33,000
min
R . C .=RD=V sin γ
Banking

Time to Climb
t=
H
R .C . 0(ln
H
H−h )
Range

R ( miles )=375 ( ηp
BSFC )( ) ( )
CL
CD
ln
W0
W1
C
, for L
C D max tan β=
C. F. V
W
=
2

gR

7|Page
AERODYNAMICS
W Load Factor Due to Gusts
L=
cos β

[ ( )]
KUVm
n=1+
W
575
Minimum Speed in Turns S
Vs
( ) , WS <16 psf
1
'
V s= 1 W
K= 4
√cos β 2 S

V s=
√ W 2 1
S ρ C Lmax
K=1.33−
2.67 W

( )
W 4 S
S
3
, >16 psf

U =gusts velocity ( fts )

Minimum Range V =airplane velocity(mph)

R=
26.15 ( WS ) = 23.56 ( WS ) m=
CL
α −α 0
σ C L sin β σ

Time for 360 ° Turn

2
d 2 πR 2 π V
t= = =
V V g tan β

Load Factor

( )
2
L V
n= =sec β=
W Vs

8|Page
AERODYNAMICS
Mach Line, Angle and Number

Normal Shock Wave

SUPERSONIC V 2 (γ −1)M 12+ 2

V1
=
( γ +1) M 12
Thermodynamic Parameters (Isentropic)
[ ]
2 1
(γ −1) M 1 +2 2
M 2=
P 2
2 γ M 1 −(γ −1)
γ
=constant
ρ 2
ρ2 ( γ +1) M 1

[ ]
=
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
γ γ γ 2γ γ
P 2 ρ2 T2 γ −1 w2 Va γ−1 ( γ−1 ) M 12+ 2 γ−1 ρ1 (γ −1)M 12+ 2
= = = = 2
=
P 1 ρ1 T1 w1 Va 1
( γ−1 ) M 22+ 2 2
P 2 2 γ M 1 −(γ −1)
=

[ ]
γ +1
A 2 M 1 ( γ −1 ) M 22+2 2 (γ −1) P1 γ +1
=

[ ][ ]
A 1 M 2 ( γ −1 ) M 12+2 2
T 2 2 γ M 1 −( γ −1 ) ( γ −1 ) M 12 +2
=
Cp T1 γ +1 ( γ +1 ) M 12
γ=
Cv
 Stagnation Pressure

9|Page
AERODYNAMICS
[ ]
P 0 ( γ −1 ) M 1 +2
2 γ
( bhp ) 33,000
=
γ −1
BMEP=
P 2 LANK
792,000 (bhp)

[ ] [ ]
γ
P 02 ( γ +1 )
1
(γ +1) M 1
2
γ −1 BMEP=
=
γ −1
displacement ( rpm )
P01
2
2 γ M 1 −(γ−1)
2
( γ−1) M 1 +2

Engine Efficiency
Oblique Shock Wave BHP∗33,000
BTE=
M N 1=M 1 sin θ w , change M 1 Normal Shockwave Weight Fuel Burned
∗Heat Value ( BTU )∗(778)
min
IHP∗33,000
ITE=
Weight Fuel Burned
∗Heat Value ( BTU )∗(778)
min
Volume of Charge at Atmospheric Pressure
Vol Eff =
Piston Displacement
POWERPLANT
Engine Power Mechanical Efficiency
output BHP
( ) =
1.3
BHP ρ
= input IHP
BHP 0 ρ0

PLANK
IHP= =BHP + FHP
33,000 Compression Ratio
BHP= ( 85 %−90 % ) IHP Vol . BDC
CR=
Vol. TDC
ft−lb
1 HP=33,000
min

Thermodynamics
Mean Effective Pressure  Gas Laws

10 | P a g e
AERODYNAMICS
P1V 1 P2V 2  Heat Addition
=
T1 T2 V2
Q A =m RT 1 ln
PV =nRT V1
 Fluids at Rest  Heat Reduction
V4
ρsubs Q R=m RT 3 ln
spc . gr .= V1
ρH 2 O
Work =Q A−Q R
spc . wg .= ρg
 Impulse and Momentum
Momentum=mV Diesel Cycle
Impulse=mV final −mV initial  Heat Addition

 Energy Q A =mC p (T 3−T 2)

PE=mgh  Heat Reduction
1 2 Q R=m C v (T 1−T 4 )
KE= m V
2
Work =Q A−Q R

Otto Cycle
 Heat Addition
Q A =mC v (T 3−T 2)
 Heat Reduction
Q R=m C v (T 1−T 4 )
Work =Q A−Q R

Carnot Cycle
11 | P a g e