Introduction to Electronic frequency mixers, frequency

Communication synthesizers, and other circuits.

Communication - is the process of communication channel - is the medium

exchanging information. by which the electronic signal is sent from
one place to another.
Main barriers:
1. language
2. distance Types of media include:
▪ Electrical conductors
Methods of communication: ▪ Optical media
1. Face to face ▪ Free space
2. Signals ▪ System-specific media (e.g., water
3. Written word (letters) is the medium for sonar).
4. Electrical innovations:
▪ Telegraph Receiver - a collection of electronic
▪ Telephone components and circuits that accepts the
▪ Radio transmitted message from the channel and
▪ Television converts it back into a form understandable
▪ Internet (computer) by humans.

Communication Systems ● contain amplifiers, oscillators,

▪ Transmitter mixers, tuned circuits and filters, and
▪ Channel or medium a demodulator or detector that
▪ Receiver recovers the original intelligence
signal from the modulated carrier.
Noise - degrades or interferes with
transmitted information. Transceiver - an electronic unit that
incorporates circuits that both send and
● random, undesirable electronic receive signals.
energy that enters the
communication system via the Examples are:
communicating medium and • Telephones
interferes with the transmitted • Fax machines
message. • Handheld CB radios
• Cell phones
Transmitter - a collection of electronic • Computer modems
components and circuits that converts the
electrical signal into a signal suitable for Attenuation - exists in all media
transmission over a given medium. of wireless transmission. It is proportional to
the square of the distance between the
● made up of oscillators, amplifiers, transmitter and receiver.
tuned circuits and filters, modulators,
Types of Electronic Communication Digital signals - change in steps or in
discrete increments.
1. One-way (simplex) or two-way (full
duplex or half duplex) transmissions ● Most digital signals use binary or
two-state codes.
2. Analog or digital signals.
Examples are:
Simplex - The simplest method of ● Telegraph (Morse code)
electronic communication. ● Continuous wave (CW) code
● Serial binary code (used in
Examples are: computers)
● Radio
● TV broadcasting ● Many transmissions are of signals
● Beeper (personal receiver) that originate in digital form but must
be converted to analog form to
Duplex - match the transmission medium.

● Digital data over the telephone

Full Duplex - When people can talk and network.
listen simultaneously.
Analog signals -
Example: ● They are first digitized with an
Telephone analog-to-digital (A/D) converter.

Half Duplex - The form of two-way ● The data can then be transmitted
communication in which only one party and processed by computers and
transmits at a time other digital circuits.

Examples are:
● Police, military, etc. radio
transmissions
● Citizen band (CB)
● Family radio
● Amateur radio

Analog Signal - a smoothly and

continuously varying voltage or current.

Examples are:
● Sine wave
● Voice
● Video (TV)
Modulation and Multiplexing ● Carrier - a high frequency signal
that is modulated by audio, video, or
● Electronic techniques for data.
transmitting information efficiently
from one place to another. ● Radio-frequency (RF) wave - an
electromagnetic signal that is able to
Modulation - makes the information signal travel long distances through space.
more compatible with the medium.

Multiplexing - allows more than one signal ● Frequency-shift keying (FSK) -

to be transmitted concurrently over a single takes place when data is converted
medium. to frequency-varying tones.

Baseband Transmission ● Modems (modulator-demodulator)

- translate the data from digital to
● Baseband information - can be analog and back again.
sent directly and unmodified over the
medium or can be used to modulate ● Demodulation - or detection takes
a carrier of transmission over the place in the receiver when the
medium. original baseband (e.g. audio) signal
is extracted.
● In telephone or intercom systems,
the voice is placed on the wires and Multiplexing - the process of allowing two
transmitted. or more signals to share the same medium
or channel.
● In some computer networks, the
digital signals are applied directly to 3 basic types of multiplexing are:
coaxial or twisted-pair cables for 1. Frequency division
transmission. 2. Time division
3. Code division
Broadband Transmission
Electromagnetic spectrum - The range of
● takes place when a carrier signal is electromagnetic signals encompassing
modulated, amplified, and sent to all frequencies.
the antenna for transmission.
Frequency and Wavelength:
2 most common methods of modulation:
Frequency - the number of cycles of a
1. Amplitude Modulation (AM) repetitive wave that occur in a given period
2. Frequency Modulation (FM) of time.
Another : ● measured in cycles per second
3. Phase modulation (PM) - in which (cps).
the phase angle of the sine wave is ● The unit of frequency is the hertz
varied. (Hz).
Wavelength - the distance occupied by one
Very High 30–300 MHz
cycle of a wave and is usually expressed in
Frequencies (VHF)
meters.
FM radio
● also the distance traveled by an
broadcasting
electromagnetic wave during the time of one
(88–108
cycle.
MHz), television
channels 2–13.
● the wavelength of a signal is
represented by the Greek letter Ultra High 300–3000 MHz
lambda (λ). Frequencies (UHF)

Frequency Ranges from 30 Hz to 300 GHz TV channels

The electromagnetic spectrum is divided 14–67, cellular
phones, military
into segments:
communication.

Microwaves and 1–30 GHz

Extremely Low 30–300 Hz Super High
Frequencies (ELF) Frequencies (SHF)

Voice Frequencies 300–3000 Hz. Satellite

(VF) communication,
radar, wireless
Very Low include the higher LANs, microwave
Frequencies (VLF) end of the human ovens
hearing range up to
about 20 kHz.
Extremely High 30–300 GHz
Frequencies (EHF)
Low Frequencies 30–300 kHz
(LF) Satellite
communication,
Medium 300–3000 kHz computer data,
Frequencies (MF) radar

AM radio 535–1605 kHz.

High Frequencies 3–30 MHz

(HF)

(short waves; VOA,

BBC broadcasts;
government and
military two-way
communication;am
ateur radio, CB.
Optical Spectrum - exists directly above and the National Telecommunications
the millimeter wave region. and Information Administration (NTIA)
are two agencies that deal in spectrum
3 types of light waves are: management.
▪ Infrared ▪ Standards are specifications and
▪ Visible spectrum guidelines necessary to ensure compatibility
▪ Ultraviolet between transmitting and receiving
equipment.
Infrared - Infrared radiation is produced by
any physical equipment that generates heat,
including our bodies. 4 major specializations of electronics
industry:
The Visible Spectrum- Just above the 1. Communications (largest in terms
infrared region is the visible spectrum we of people employed and the dollar
refer to as light. value of equipment purchased)
▪ Red is low-frequency or long-wavelength 2. Computers (second largest).
light 3. Industrial controls.
4. Instrumentation.
▪ Violet is high-frequency or
short-wavelength light. Types of Jobs
▪ Engineers design communication
▪ Light waves’ very high frequency enables equipment and systems.
them to handle a tremendous amount of
information (the bandwidth of the baseband ▪ Technicians install, troubleshoot,
signals can be very wide). repair, calibrate, and maintain
equipment.
Ultraviolet - not used for communication
▪ Its primary use is medical. ▪ Engineering Technicians assist in
equipment design, testing, and
▪ Bandwidth (BW) - is that portion of the assembly.
electromagnetic spectrum occupied by a
signal. Technical sales representatives
determine customer needs and
▪ Channel bandwidth - refers to the range related specifications, write
of frequencies required to transmit the proposals and sell equipment.
desired information.
▪ Technical writers generate
Spectrum management - is provided by technical documentation for
agencies set up by the United States and equipment and systems.
other countries to control spectrum use.
▪ Trainers develop programs,
▪ The Federal Communications generate training and presentation
Commission (FCC) materials, and conduct classroom training.
2-1: Gain, Attenuation, and Decibels dBc
All signal processing circuits involve: - decibel gain attenuation figure where
the reference is the carrier
● Gain
● Attenuation
2.2 Tuned Circuits
Gain tuned circuits
- Means amplification - made up of inductors and capacitors
- ratio of a circuit’s output to its input that resonate at specific frequencies
- frequency-selective and respond
best at their resonant frequency.
An amplifier is cascaded when two or
Reactive Components
more stages are connected together.
- all tuned circuits and many filters are
made up of inductive and capacitive
Attenuation elements.

- Attenuation refers to a loss Reactance

introduced by a circuit or component - the opposition to alternating-current
- If the output signal is lower in flow offered by coils and capacitors
amplitude than the input, the circuit - expressed in ohms (Ω)
has loss or attenuation.
- Circuits that introduce attenuation Capacitors
have a gain that is less than 1.
- used in an ac circuit charges and
Decibels discharges
- tend to oppose voltage changes
- The decibel (dB) is a unit of across them
measure used to express the gain or
loss of a circuit capacitive reactance (𝑋𝐶)
- originally created to express
hearing response - the opposition to alternating current
- one-tenth of a bel offered by a capacitor
- inversely proportional to the value
Antilog of capacitance (C) and operating
- number obtained when the base is frequency (f).
raised to the logarithm which is the Inductors
exponent
- the base 10 raised to the dB/10 - also called a coil or choke, is a
power winding of multiple turns of wire.

dBm Inductance

- result of decibel value being - process which has the effect of

computed by comparing a power opposing current changes in the coil.
value to 1mW - The basic unit of inductance is the
henry (H).
Inductive Reactance(𝑋𝐿)

- the opposition to alternating current Series Resonant Circuit

offered by inductors - made up of inductance, capacitance
- it is continuous and constant and resistance connected in series
- directly proportional to frequency - often referred to as LCR or RLC
and inductance circuit
Resonance
Resistors - occurs when inductive and
capacitive reactances are equal.
- At low frequencies, a standard
resistor offers nearly +pure Resonant frequency (𝑓𝑟)
resistance.
- At high frequencies, a resistor’s - inversely proportional to inductance
leads have inductance. and capacitance
- A resistor’s lead inductance and
stray capacitance Bandwidth (BW)
cause the resistor to act like a - narrow frequency range over which
complex RLC circuit. the current is highest
Tiny resistor chips Half-power points
- used in surface mount circuits - current levels at which the frequency
minimize inductance and stray response is 70.7% of the peak value
capacitance. of resonance.
Film resistors quality (Q)
- minimize thermal effect noise. - ratio of the inductive reactance to
Skin Effect the total circuit resistance.

- is the tendency of electrons flowing Selectivity

in a conductor to flow near and on - how a circuit responds to varying
the outer surface of the conductor frequencies
frequencies in the VHF, UHF, and
microwave regions. Parallel Resonant Circuit
- increases the resistance of the
- formed when the inductor and
conductor and greatly affects the
capacitor of a tuned circuit are
performance of the circuit.
connected in parallel with the
Resonant Frequency applied voltage

- a specific frequency where a tuned

circuit resonate Tank Circuit
Tuned Circuits and Resonance
- as a kind of storage vessel for
The terms tuned circuit and resonant electric energy
circuit are used interchangeably.
filter resistor while DC voltage is blocked
by a capacitor.
- frequency-selective circuit
- pass certain frequencies and reject Basic high-pass filter
others
- is a voltage divider with the capacitor
Passive filters serving as the frequency-sensitive
component
- are created using components such
as: resistors, capacitors, and RC Notch filter
inductors that do not amplify
- also called bandstop or band-reject
Active filters filters
- attenuate a narrow range of
- use amplifying devices such as
frequencies around a center point
transistors and operational amplifiers
parallel-T or twin-T filter
5 Basic kinds of filter circuits - A simple notch filter implemented
with resistors and capacitors
1. Low-pass filters - only pass
LC filters
frequencies below a critical (cutoff)
frequency. - use combinations of inductors and
2. High-pass filters - only pass capacitors to achieve a desired
frequencies above the cutoff frequency response
frequency. - typically used with radio frequency
3. Bandpass filters - pass frequencies (RF) applications.
over a narrow range between lower
and upper cutoff frequencies.
Passband
4. Band-reject filters - reject or stop
frequencies over a narrow range - the frequency range over which the
between lower and upper cutoff filter passes signals
frequencies.
Stopband
5. All-pass filters - pass all
frequencies over a desired range but - is the range of frequencies outside
have a predictable phase shift the passband
characteristic.

Attenuation
RC filters
- the amount by which undesired
- use combinations of resistors and frequencies in the stop band are
capacitors to achieve a desired reduced
frequency response
RC Coupling circuit
Insertion Loss
- high-pass filter because the AC input
- is the loss the filter introduces to the
component is developed across the
signals in the passband
Impedance a constant time delay in the
passband.
- is the resistive value of the load and
source terminations of the filter Mechanical Filter
Ripple - Uses resonant vibrations of
mechanical disks to provide the
- is a term used to describe the
selectivity
amplitude variation with frequency in
the passband Variable -state filter
Shape factor - special form of active filter which can
simultaneously provide low-pass,
- the ratio of the stop bandwidth to the
high-pass, and bandpass operation
pass bandwidth of a bandpass filter
from one circuit
pole
Crystal and ceramic filters
- frequency at which there is a high
- are made of thin slivers of quartz
impedance in the circuit
crystal or certain other types of
Zero ceramic materials

- is a term used to refer to a frequency Crystal and ceramic elements

at which there is zero impedance in
- elements are widely used in
the circuit
oscillators to set frequency of
Envelope Delay / time delay operation to a precise value
- are also used as circuit elements to
- is the time it takes for a specific point form filters, specifically bandpass
on an input waveform to pass filters
through the filter
surface acoustic wave (SAW) filter
Roll off / attenuation rate
- is a special form of a crystal filter
- is the rate of change of amplitude designed to provide the exact
with frequency in a filter selectivity required by a given
Type of Filters application
- normally used at very high radio
1. Butterworth – has maximum flatness frequencies where selectivity is
in response in the passband and a difficult to obtain
uniform attenuation with frequency - they are widely used in modern TV
2. Chebyshev - Has extremely good receivers, radar receivers, wireless
selectivity, and attenuation just LANs, and cell phones
outside the passband is very high,
but has ripple in the passband. Switched Capacitor Filters
3. Cauer (Elliptical) - Produces greater - also known as analog sampled data
attenuation out of the passband, but filters or commutating filters
with higher ripple within and outside - are active IC filters made of op
of the passband. amps, capacitors, and transistor
4. Bessel (Thomson) - Provides the switches
desired frequency response but has
 - provide a way to make tuned or - plots amplitude variations with
selective circuits in an IC without the respect to frequency
use of discrete inductors, capacitors,
or resistors

The secret to the SCF is that all resistors

are replaced by capacitors that are
switched by MOSFET switches.
Fourier analysis
- used to determine the characteristics
and performance of a
communication circuit or system,
specifically for non-sine wave
approach
Series Modulator
- produces high-level modulation
without a large and expensive
modulation transformer used in
collector modulators
-
Fourier Theory
- states that a square wave is made
up of a sine wave at the fundamental
frequency of the square wave plus
an infinite number of odd harmonics
- allows us to determine not only
sine-wave components in a complex
signal but also a signal’s bandwidth
- gives us a new and different way to
express and illustrate complex
signals, that is, with respect to
frequency
Time Domain Versus Frequency Domain
Time Domain
- analysis of variations of voltage,
current, or power with respect to
time
Frequency Domain
Chapter 3 Distortion of voice transmissions
produces garbled, harsh, or unnatural
Amplitude Modulation Fundamentals
sounds in the speaker.
Distortion of video signals produces a
AM Concepts scrambled and inaccurate picture on a TV
screen.
- In the modulation process, the voice,
video, or digital signal modifies
another signal called the carrier
Side Frequencies or sidebands
- The instantaneous value of the
carrier amplitude changes in - generated as part of the modulation
accordance with the amplitude and process and occur in the frequency
frequency variations of the spectrum directly above and below
modulating signal. the carrier frequency
Amplitude Modulation (AM) Single-frequency sine-wave modulation
generates two sidebands.
- the information signal varies the
amplitude of the carrier sine wave Complex wave modulation generates a
range of sidebands.
Distortion
frequency-domain display
- occurs when the amplitude of the
modulating signal is greater than the - a plot of signal amplitude versus
amplitude of the carrier frequency
Modulator spectrum analyzer
- is a circuit used to produce AM - used to display the frequency
- compute the product of the carrier domain as a signal
and modulating signals
bandwidth
modulation index (m)
- the difference between the upper
- is a value that describes the and lower sideband frequencies
relationship between the amplitude
Pulse Modulation
of the modulating signal and the
amplitude of the carrier signal - When complex signals such as
- should be a number between 0 and pulses or rectangular waves
1 modulate a carrier, a broad spectrum
- commonly computed from of sidebands is produced.
measurements taken on the - A modulating square wave will
composite modulated waveform produce sidebands based on the
fundamental sine wave as well as
This index is also known as the modulating
the third, fifth, seventh, etc.
factor or coefficient, or the degree of
harmonics.
modulation.

Overmodulation and Distortion

Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK) - is not widely used because the
signal is difficult to demodulate
- Amplitude modulation by square
(recover) at the receiver
waves or rectangular pulses
Balanced modulator
Continuous-wave (CW)
- circuit used to produce the sum and
- transmission can be achieved by
difference frequencies of a DSSC
turning the carrier off and on, as in
signal but to cancel or balance out
Morse code transmission
the carrier.
- Continuous wave transmission is
sometimes referred to as On-Off SSB Signals
keying (OOK).
- One sideband is all that is necessary
Splatter to convey information in a signal

- harmonic sideband interference Single-sideband suppressed carrier

(SSSC)
Power Amplifier
- signal is generated by suppressing
- amplifies the AM Signal in a radio the carrier and one sideband
transmission
pilot carrier
radio antenna
- sometimes transmitted along with
- has a characteristic impedance that sidebands in order to more easily
is ideally almost pure resistance recover the signal at the receiver
AM Signal
- composite of the carrier and Signal Power Considerations
sideband signal voltages
peak envelope power (PEP)
Signal information is contained within the
sidebands. - maximum power produced on voice
amplitude peaks
Single-sideband (SSB)
vestigial sideband signal
- form of AM where the carrier is
suppressed and one sideband is - is produced by partially suppressing
eliminated the lower sideband

DSB Signals International Telecommunications Union

(ITU)
- the first step in generating an SSB
signal is to suppress the carrier, - a standards organization, uses a
leaving the upper and lower code to describe signal
sidebands
- This type of signal is called a
double-sideband suppressed
carrier (DSSC) signal. No power is
wasted on the carrier
Chapter 4
Amplitude Modulator and Demodulator LC tuned circuit
Circuits
- oscillates (rings) to generate the
missing half cycle
AM in the Time Domain Low-Level AM: PIN Diode Modulator
Amplitude modulation PIN diodes
- produced by a circuit that can - produce AM at VHF, UHF, and
multiply the carrier by the modulating microwave frequencies
signal and then add the carrier
Low-Level AM: Differential Amplifier
AM in the Frequency Domain
Differential amplifier modulators
Square-law function
- they have a high gain, good linearity
- one that varies in proportion to the and can be 100 percent modulated
square of the input signals
single-ended output
Intermodulation products
- produced when the output is taken
- Diodes and transistors whose from the output of either collector to
function is not a pure square-law ground
function produce third-, fourth-, and
modulating signal
higher-order harmonics
- applied to the base of a
Two types of amplitude modulators
constant-current source transistor
1. Low-level - varies the emitter current and
2. High-level therefore the gain of the circuit
Diode Modulation High-level modulation
- consists of a resistive mixing - the modulator varies the voltage and
network, a diode rectifier, and an LC power in the final RF amplifier stage
tuned circuit of the transmitter
- causes the two signals to be linearly
collector modulation
mixed
- linear power amplifier that takes the
Low-Level AM: Transistor Modulator
low-level modulating signals and
Transition modulation amplifies them to a high-power level
- consists of a resistive mixing modulating output signal
network, a transistor, and an LC
- coupled through a modulation
tuned circuit.
transformer to a class C amplifier
Modulation and Amplification
- occur as base current controls a
larger collector current
series modulator - A popular and widely used balanced
modulator
- produces high-level modulation
- consists of an input transformer, an
without a large and expensive
output transformer and four diodes
modulation transformer used in
connected in a bridge circuit
collector modulators
- replaces the modulation transformer analog multiplier
with an emitter follower - is a type of integrated circuit that can
- The modulating signal is applied to be used as a balanced modulator
the emitter follower - often used to generate DSB signals
- The emitter follower is in series - is not a switching circuit like the
with the collector supply voltage balanced modulator
- The collector voltage changes with - uses differential amplifiers operating
variations in the amplified audio in the linear mode
modulating signal. filter method
Demodulators or detectors - is the simplest and most widely used
- are circuits that accept modulated method of generating SSB signals
signals and recover the original crystal oscillator
modulating information
- provides the carrier signal which is
Diode detector also applied to the balanced
modulator
- Because the diode detector recovers
the envelope of the AM (modulating) double-sideband (DSB) signal
signal, the circuit is sometimes
- the output of the balanced modulator
called an envelope detector.
- Referred to as diagonal distortion SSB signal

Synchronous Detectors - produced by passing the DSB signal

through a highly selective bandpass
- use an internal clock signal at the filter
carrier frequency in the receiver to
switch the AM signal off and on, phasing method
producing rectification similar to that
- uses a phase-shift technique that
in a standard diode detector
causes one of the sidebands to be
- also called as coherent detectors canceled out
balanced modulator phase shifting
- is a circuit that generates a DSB - causes one sideband to be canceled
signal, suppressing the carrier and out when the two modulator outputs
leaving only the sum and difference are added together
frequencies at the output
product detector
lattice modulator
- a balanced modulator used in a
- also known as diode ring receiver to recover the modulating
signal.