International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer: Ngoctan Tran, Uzair Sajjad, Rick Lin, Chi-Chuan Wang
International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer: Ngoctan Tran, Uzair Sajjad, Rick Lin, Chi-Chuan Wang
International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer: Ngoctan Tran, Uzair Sajjad, Rick Lin, Chi-Chuan Wang
a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
Article history: In the present work, the effects of surface roughness (including roughness from machined roughness and
Received 18 August 2019 sandblasted roughness), surface inclinations, and heat fluxes on the nucleate pool boiling heat transfer
Revised 3 November 2019
of HFE-7200 dielectric liquid at a working pressure of 1 atm. are examined in detail. Five aluminum
Accepted 6 November 2019
surfaces, with different roughness from 0.45 μm to 9 μm, are employed as test samples. The nucleate
Available online 15 November 2019
boiling phenomenon is examined with the wall-superheat temperature ranging from 5 °C to 30 °C, and
Keywords: surface inclinations of 0°, 90°, and 180°, respectively. SEM images and nucleate boiling bubbles captured
Nucleate pool boiling by a high-speed camera are utilized for further analyses. For all cases in this study, it is found that the
Dielectric fluid nucleate boiling heat transfer of the sandblasted rough surfaces is superior to those of the polished and
Surface roughness machined rough surfaces. For instance, at a wall-superheat temperature of 30 °C and inclination angle of
Inclinations 0°, the heat flux is augmented up to 69.7%, and 139.3% when compared to the polished surface for the
sandblasted surfaces with the roughness of 6.2 μm, and 9 μm, respectively. In addition, novel correlations
are also proposed for predicting the nucleate pool boiling heat transfer coefficient of HEF-7200 dielectric
fluid with different surface roughness, inclinations and heat fluxes.
© 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction coatings [13,14]. The techniques employed for the surface modi-
fication entail various machining processes [15–17], sintering [18],
The utilization of high heat flux surfaces is quite common in a and electrodeposition [19,20], and chemical vapor deposition [21],
lot of industries, e.g., HVAC (heating, ventilation, and air condition- etc. Various refrigerants have been tested and reported includ-
ing), microelectronic chip cooling, nuclear power plants, boilers, ing ethanol [8], n-pentane [11], R-1234ze and R-134a [22], water
etc. [1–5]. Cooling is a major concern in these applications for en- [7,8,10–13, 15,16,19], and dielectric fluids [8,17,23].
suring safe operation. Appreciable measures to tailor the high-flux For concerns in direct contact of electronic heat devices with
applications had been made available, including jet impingement the working fluids, dielectric fluids like hydrofluoroethers (HFE-
cooling, single-phase cooling, spray cooling, cooling with phase 70 0 0, HFE-710 0, HFE-720 0, and HFE-730 0) and fluorocarbons (PF-
change materials, heat pipes, pool boiling, convective evaporation 5060, FC-87, and FC-72) are the best choices because of their high
and the like [6]. Among these cooling schemes, pool boiling is a dielectric strength, better chemical compatibility, and electrical in-
promising method because it can well tackle the issue of high-flux ertness. Besides, these working fluids can well maintain the junc-
heat dissipation with a very low wall superheat. tion temperature for electronic devices below the threshold value
The proficiency of the pool boiling process mainly depends on (typically in the range 80 °C to 130 °C). A short summary of the lit-
the interaction between liquid (wettability) and surface (rough- erature regarding the modified surfaces for dielectric fluids subject
ness). In line with this, significant efforts for surface modifica- to nucleate boiling performance is listed in Table 1.
tion to augment pool boiling were depicted in the literature. Based on the aforementioned reviewed literature, it is found
These surface modifications include micro-pillars [7], micro pin- that the two-phase immersion cooling using dielectric fluid is a
fins [8,9], microchannels [10], metal foams [11,12], and porous promising method for high-flux electronic devices. Among these
dielectric fluids, HFE-7200 not only contains zero ozone depletion
potential and low global warming potential but also has chemi-
∗
Corresponding authors. cal and thermal stability, non-flammability, and low toxicity [24].
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (N. Tran), energyengineer01@ Moreover, the studies on nucleate pool boiling of HFE-7200 dielec-
gmail.com (U. Sajjad), [email protected] (R. Lin), [email protected] (C.-
C. Wang).
tric fluid are limited. Hence, further investigation of HFE-7200 di-
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2019.119015
0017-9310/© 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
2 N. Tran, U. Sajjad and R. Lin et al. / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 147 (2020) 119015
Table 1
A summary of pool boiling studies of modified surfaces and dielectric fluids.
El-Genk and Suszko [36], Mechanically Roughness value: 0.039 to 1.79 μm Saturated pool boiling PF-5060 150% enhancement in HTC
Suszko and El-Genk roughened at 1 atm (1.72 W/cm2 K), and 37%
[37] enhancement in CHF (21.5 W/cm2 )
Yu et al. [38] MEMS/NEMS Cylindrical cavity arrays Saturated pool boiling FC-72 HTC value 11,000 W/m2 K CHF value
at 1 atm 30,000 W/m2 (2.5 times)
El-Genk and Parker [23] Open cell foams Pores and re-entrant cavities Saturated and HFE-7100 CHF is enhanced up to 60%.
subcooled pool
boiling at 1 atm
Jones et al. [39] Electrical discharge Roughness value: 1.08 to 10.00 μm Saturated pool boiling FC-77 HTC enhancement is up to 120%,
machining at 1 atm while CHF is enhanced up to 40%.
Sahu et al. [40] Spray coating Copper nanofiber of 15–20 μm Saturated pool boiling HFE-7300 CHF is enhanced up to 33%.
at 1 atm
El-Genk and Ali [14] Electrochemical Thickness ranging from 95–220 μm Saturated pool boiling PF-5060 HTC increased up to 17 times, while
deposition at 1 atm CHF up to 70%
Kim et al. [41] Particle sintering Particles ranging from 20 nm to Pool boiling at 1 atm FC-72 76% enhancement in HTC
9 mm placed on polished surface
sition recorder (MX100, Yokogawa) connected to a computer for The actual amount of heat flux through the examined surface is
further analysis. The inclination of the heater surface, as defined in estimated as follows:
Fig. 3, is controlled by a rotational controller. A high-speed cam-
era is placed in front of the side window to capture the boiling Qactual
qactual = (5)
process. A
2.3. Data reduction and uncertainty analysis where A is the cross-sectional area of the examined surface. As the
actual heat transfer area is influenced by the surface roughness;
The cross-section of the effective surface of the test sample is therefore, the cross-sectional area is used in this case. To obtain
designed the same as that of the cross-section of the upper part of the surface temperature, Tw , of the test sample, a sheathed ther-
the heating block, and four sides of the heating block are directly mocouple (T1) is installed at the center of the test sample as de-
contacted with unmoving air within the air gap. The thermal con- picted in Fig. 1(b). Tw is calculated by the following equation:
ductivity of air is extremely small compared to that of the cop-
per. In addition, the experiments are carried out for investigating
qactual L1
Tw = T1 − (6)
the nucleate boiling, thereby the generated heat from the heaters k
would be dissipated by the examining surface. It is assumed that
where the distance between the thermocouple T1 and the examin-
the heat transferred through any point on a cross-section on the
ing surface, temperature obtained by the thermocouple T1, thermal
upper part of the heated block is equal; hence one-dimensional
conductivity of the test sample, and the actual heat flux transferred
conduction law is employed and the heat flux through the cross-
though the examining surface, are denoted by L1 , T1 , k and qactual ,
section of the heating block is estimated as follows:
respectively. The heat transfer coefficient of the examining surface,
dT h, is calculated as follows:
qideal = −kcu (1)
dx
The heat transfer rate through the copper block is calculated as Qideal − Qloss Qactual qactual
h= = = (7)
follows: A(Tsat ) A(Tw − Tsat ) Tw − Tsat
dT
Qideal = −kcu A (2) where Tsat is the saturation temperature of the dielectric fluid, Ais
dx the cross-sectional area of the examining surface. For all the cases
where the temperature gradient, dTdx
, is calculated by Taylor’s series in this study, the investigation is carried out under the saturated
[26,27] for a three-point backward-difference approximation as fol- nucleate pool boiling regime of the HFE-7200 dielectric fluid at the
lows: atmospheric pressure. The saturation temperature of the working
dT 3T7 − 4T8 + T9 fluid is obtained with respect to the measured pressure within the
= (3) testing chamber and is rechecked by the refrigerant measured tem-
dx 2 x
perature. From Zhu et al. [27], the relative uncertainty in the heat
where T7, T8, and T9 are the temperatures measured by thermo- transfer coefficient is estimated as follows:
couples T7, T8, and T9, respectively, which are installed at three
locations as presented in Fig. 2(b), and xis the distance between 2 2 2 12
two neighboring thermocouples T7 and T8 or T8 and T9 as also h q Tw Tsat
= + + (8)
presented in Fig. 2(b). h q Tw − Tsat Tw − Tsat
To measure the heat loss, five thermocouples, including T2, T3,
T4, T5, and T6 are assembled on a plane, which is perpendicular
The accuracies of the temperature measurement and the tol-
to the centerline and near to the top surface of the heating block.
erance of the manufacturing process are ± 0.1 °C and ± 5%, re-
The locations of the thermocouples are presented in Fig. 2(a) and
spectively. The maximum relative uncertainty of the present study
(b). The actual heat transfer rate through the examined surface is
is estimated to be 19.2% at a heat flux of 3.86 kW/m2 of the test
calculated by the following equation:
sample 1 with a surface roughness of 0.45 μm and the inclination
Qactual = Qideal − Qloss (4) angle of 180°.
4 N. Tran, U. Sajjad and R. Lin et al. / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 147 (2020) 119015
3. Results and discussion the sandblasted rough surfaces. The nucleate pool boiling phe-
nomenon of the HFE-7200 dielectric fluid is examined at atmo-
3.1. Effect of surface roughness for various surface machining process spheric pressure and boiling temperature of 76 °C with the wall
on the nucleate pool boiling superheat ranging from 5 °C to 30 °C. The thermophysical proper-
ties of the HFE-7200 dielectric fluid at the atmospheric condition
In this section, nucleate boiling characteristics of the HFE-7200 are listed in Table 2. The experimental results, in terms of HTC,
dielectric fluid on effective surfaces are examined in detail. Five wall superheat, and boiling curve, are presented in Fig. 4. Fig. 4(a)
aluminum surfaces are employed as test samples, in which one and (b) presents test results of the HTC and wall superheat ver-
polished surface with a roughness of 0.45 μm is regarded as a sus the surface roughness for three different surface inclination an-
smooth surface and the baseline; two machined rough surfaces gles of 0°, 90°, and 180° at two fixed heat fluxes of 14 kW/m2 and
with the surface roughness of 0.85 μm, and 5 μm, are employed 40 kW/m2 , respectively. Experiments were repeated at least three
as machined rough surfaces; and two sandblasted rough surfaces times in order to ensure repeatability of the measurements, and it
with the surface roughness of 6.2 μm and 9 μm are examined as is found that consistent results prevail from all the experiments.
6 N. Tran, U. Sajjad and R. Lin et al. / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 147 (2020) 119015
3.2. Effect of inclination angle on the nucleate boiling HTC of the surface with an inclination of 90° is slightly higher
than that with the inclination of 0°. At the same inclination an-
In this section, the nucleate boiling phenomena of the HFE- gles of 0°, or 90°, the HTC of the sandblasted rough surface is
7200 dielectric fluid on the three test samples, with the surface much higher than those of the smooth and machined rough sur-
roughness of 0.45 μm, 5 μm, and 9 μm representing for smooth, face. For instance, at 40 kW/m2 heat flux and 0° inclination, the
machined rough and sandblasted surfaces, respectively, are exam- HTCs are improved up to 20% and 73.7% compared to the base-
ined in detail at three inclination angles of 0°, 90°, and 180°. The line for the machined and sandblasted rough surfaces, respectively.
experimental conditions presented in Section 3.1 are employed. Also for the same heat flux (40 kW/m2 ), the HTC of the sandblasted
Fig. 5(a) presents the HTCs versus the heat flux of the test samples surface with the inclination of 90° is 6.7% higher than that of 0°.
for three different inclination angles of 0°, 90°, and 180°, respec- With the inclination of 180° and at a heat flux to be smaller than
tively. The results show that the HTC is increased with the heat 25 kW/m2 , the HTCs of the machined and sandblasted rough sur-
flux and surface roughness. For the same surface roughness, the faces are slightly higher than that with the inclination of 0°; how-
8 N. Tran, U. Sajjad and R. Lin et al. / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 147 (2020) 119015
Fig. 5. The experimental results of nucleate pool boiling for different inclination angles.
ever, that of the smooth surface is lowest when compared to other the roughness of 0.45 μm, 5 μm, and 9 μm subject to three inclina-
inclinations. Fig. 5(b) presents the HTCs versus the wall superheat tions of 0°, 90°, and 180°. The results show that for the inclina-
of the test samples for three different inclination angles of 0°, 90°, tions of 0° and 90°, the heat flux increases with the increase in the
and 180°. The results show that the HTC increases with the rise wall superheat temperature and the increase in surface roughness.
in the wall superheat for all cases. At the same wall superheat, At the inclination of 180°, the heat flux not only increases very
the HTC with an inclination of 90° is higher than that of 0°. The slowly with the rise of the wall superheat but also is limited un-
HTC of the sandblasted rough surface is much higher than that of der 25 kW/m2 . It is interesting to found that at the low wall super-
the smooth surface. For instance, at a wall superheat of 17.65 °C heats, the nucleate boiling HTC of the 90° inclined surface is higher
with the inclination of 0°, the HTCs are enhanced up to 34.7% and than that of the horizontal one (0°) as aforementioned; however,
218% compared to that of the baseline for the machined rough when the wall superheat is increased near to 30 °C, the nucleate
surface (5 μm) and the sandblasted rough surface (9 μm), respec- boiling HTCs of the two inclinations converge together. Fig. 5(d)–(f)
tively. Fig. 5(c) presents the boiling curve of the three surfaces with presents the photos of bubbles captured by the high-speed camera
N. Tran, U. Sajjad and R. Lin et al. / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 147 (2020) 119015 9
for the machined rough surface (5 μm) with a fixed heat flux of curves of the five examined surfaces subject to the three inclina-
9.16 kW/m2 at three inclinations of 0°, 90°, and 180°, respectively. tions. The results show that the heat fluxes are increased with the
The photos show that with a horizontal facing-up surface (inclina- increase in the wall superheat and with the increase in the surface
tion of 0°), a bubble departs the nucleation cavity when the buoy- roughness [34,35]. The heat fluxes are not linearly increased with
ancy force of that bubble overcomes surface tension and the grav- the increase in the surface roughness; yet it depends on the fabri-
ity force applied to it. Yet, with the 90° inclined surface, a bubble cation method. For instance, at a wall superheat of 30 °C, the sur-
at the lower sections does not leave the effective surface when it face roughness increases from 0.85 μm to 5 μm is 4.15 μm (for two
departs the cavity; it slips alongside the effective surface in the up- machined surfaces), from 5 μm (machined) to 6.2 μm (sandblasted)
ward direction. Eventually, the sliding bubbles collide and push the is 1.2 μm and from 6.2 μm to 9 μm (for two sandblasted surfaces)
upper bubbles out of their cavities earlier compared to those with- is 2.8 μm; however, the heat-flux increases for those groups are
out the sliding influence. In essence, the bubbles appeared on the 24.56%, 20.1%, and 42.6%, respectively.
upper sections of the 90° inclined surface are not only the bubbles Fig. 7(a)–(f) presents nucleate pool boiling photos of a test sam-
of the upper sections but also include bubbles from the lower sec- ple with the horizontal surface (0°), and the surface roughness of
tions; therefore, the density of the bubbles of the upper sections is 5 μm for heat fluxes of 9, 15, 25, 34, 39, and 47 kW/m2 , respec-
higher than those of the lower section with the 90° inclined sur- tively. The images show that an increment in the heat flux in-
faces as presented in Fig. 5(e). For the 180° inclination, because the creases the density of bubbles [29]. Moreover, it is found that the
heated surface is facing down; therefore, the bubbles cannot leave bubbles not only go upward but also merge toward the centerline
the surface and go up as other inclinations while the bubbles ac- of the bubble region. This is expected since the buoyancy force cre-
cumulated on the surface to engender a vapor film as presented ates a higher rising bubble velocity that leads to a comparatively
in Fig. 5(f). With the inclination of 0°, the bubbles can immedi- low-pressure zone, thereby bubbles move toward the center zone.
ately leave the surface (a nucleate boiling regime) while the sur- In the nucleate boiling region, the rise of heat flux leads to the
rounding liquid can refill the cavities efficiently to regenerate bub- activation of more nucleate sites and higher departing frequency
bles continuously; therefore, most of the heat, which is transferred as well. Therefore, the density of the bubbles is increased with
from the heat source to the working fluid, is though the latent the increase in heat flux as presented in Fig. 7. The higher sur-
heat. In addition, the higher the wall superheat is, the faster the face roughness could contain more nucleation sites; therefore, the
bubbles generate and detach the surface leading to the more heat HTC increases and the wall superheat temperature is decreased as
to be removed from the surface. The foregoing reasons explain for discussed in Figs. 4 and 5. These explain for the distributions of
the increase of the HTCs with the increase in the wall superheat the HTC and wall superheat temperature for the surfaces as pre-
temperature or the increase in heat flux with the inclination of 0° sented in Fig. 6. The density of the bubbles is much smaller than
as presented in Fig. 5(a)–(c). With the inclination of 90°, at small that of the liquid; therefore, the greater the number of bubbles in
wall superheat, the slipping causes the detachment of bubbles at a vapor-and-liquid mixture is, the smaller the density of that mix-
a higher rate compared to no slipping as aforementioned [33,34]; ture is achieved. This leads to the smaller pressure at the vapor-
however, when the wall superheat reaches near to 30 °C, the up- and-liquid mixed region as compared to that of the liquid region.
ward velocity of the lower-section bubbles is slower than that of This explains the trend of the bubbles that become concentrated
departure rate of the upper-section bubbles; therefore, it could not to the centerline as presented in Fig. 7.
further increase the departure rate of the upper-section bubbles
anymore. This explains for the HTC of the vertical surface (90°) to 3.4. Experimental data verification and correlation development
be slightly higher than that of the horizontal one at a low wall
superheat and converges eventually at high wall superheat as pre- The test results are compared with a well-known correlation
sented in Figs. 4(a), (b) and 5(a)–(c). With the inclination of 180°, for predicting the nucleate pool boiling of the flat plate by Cooper
at a low heat flux, the number of generated bubbles is compara- [35] whose correlation is given in Eq. (9).
tively fewer; therefore, it could not cover the overall surface. As a
h = 90PR (0.12−0.4343lnR p ) (−0.4343 ln PR )
−0.55
consequence, the HTC increases with the increased heat flux un- M−0.5 q0.67 (9)
der 25 kW/m2 depending on the surface roughness as presented where PR , Rp , M, and q represent the reduced pressure, surface
in Fig. 5(a)–(c). When the heat flux is higher than 25 kW/m2 , the roughness, molecular mass, and heat flux respectively. Fig. 8(a)
generated bubbles cover the overall surface. At that moment, the presents a comparison for experimental HTC and HTC based on
wall superheat increases significantly. The vapor blanket deterio- Cooper’s correlation. The comparison shows that a satisfactory
rates the HTC appreciably and the wall superheat of the 180° incli- agreement was found and 71.6% of the current data (from the
nation is raised significantly. It is noted that concerning the safety experiments) against Cooper’s prediction are within ± 40%. The
of the experimental system, the present experiments with the in- difference between the present experimental results and Cooper’s
clination of 180° are only carried out for the heat fluxes under prediction could be due to the differences in the working fluid and
25 kW/m2 . experimental conditions.
On the basis of experimental data, the correlations, which can
3.3. Effect of heat flux on the nucleate boiling well-predict the nucleate pool boiling HTC for the polished, ma-
chined, and sandblasted rough surfaces of the examined range for
In this section, the nucleate pool boiling of the HFE-7200 di- the HFE-7200 dielectric fluid at atmospheric working condition, are
electric fluid on the five test samples with different heat fluxes in proposed, as follows:
the range from 0 to 90 kW/m2 and three surface inclined angles of For smooth and machined rough surfaces,
0°, 90°, and 180° is examined in detail. The experiments are car-
ried out at the same aforementioned conditions. Fig. 6(a), and (b) hmachined−sur f ace
presents the heat transfer coefficient versus the heat flux subject to (0.02242×Ra +0.958 )
= (0.021 + 47.07 ) × Ra 0.01317 × Tsat (10)
the surface inclination of the machined and sandblasted rough sur-
faces, respectively. The results indicate that the HTC increases with For sandblasted rough surfaces,
the rise in the heat flux and this is the reason why the HTCs of
hsandblasted−sur f aces
the sandblasted rough surfaces are much higher than those of the
(0.021607×Ra +0.394 )
smooth or machined rough surfaces. Fig. 6(c) presents the boiling = (0.078 + 155.5 ) × Ra 0.5123 × Tsat (11)
10 N. Tran, U. Sajjad and R. Lin et al. / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 147 (2020) 119015
Fig. 6. Heat transfer coefficients and boiling curves of different heat fluxes.
Fig. 8. A comparison between exp. and pred. results for heat transfer coefficients.
where Ra , Tsat , and are the surface roughness, wall superheat, 4. Conclusions
and inclination, respectively. A comparison between the experi-
mental and predicted (on the basis of proposed correlation) HTCs In the present study, the influences of surface roughness, sur-
is presented in Fig. 8(b). The comparison shows a decent agree- face inclination, and heat flux on the nucleate pool boiling heat
ment between the experimental and the predicted data. The pre- transfer of HFE-7200 dielectric liquid at the ambient environment
dictive ability of the proposed correlation is that 96% of the test condition (1 atm.) are examined in detail. Five aluminum surfaces
data falls within ±10% predictive span. Fig. 8(c) and (d) presents of three groups of different surface roughness, including (1) pol-
boiling curves, which are predicted by the proposed correlations, ished surface (0.45 μm), (2) machined rough surfaces (0.85 μm and
for the machined and sandblasted rough surfaces with ten dif- 5 μm), and (3) sandblasted rough surfaces (6.2 μm and 9 μm), are
ferent surface roughness at the inclinations of 0° and 90°, re- employed as test samples. The nucleate boiling characteristics are
spectively. The predicted results show that the correlations not examined with the wall superheat ranging from 5 °C to 30 °C, and
only can regenerate the boiling curves of the examined sur- surface inclinations of 0°, 90°, and 180° SEM images and nucleate
faces with the accuracy up to 98% but also can predict the boil- boiling bubbles captured by a high-speed camera are utilized for
ing curves for the new surfaces with different roughness very further analyses. Based on the foregoing discussions, some conclu-
well. sions are encapsulated as follows:
12 N. Tran, U. Sajjad and R. Lin et al. / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 147 (2020) 119015
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This work was supported by the Ministry of Science Technology cavity at low superheats, Int. J. Heat Mass Transf. 100 (2016) 927–937.
of Taiwan, under grant numbers: MOST 106-2811-E-009-013 and [30] S. Gong, P. Cheng, Two-dimensional mesoscale simulations of saturated pool
boiling from rough surfaces. Part II: bubble interactions above multi-cavities,
107-2622-E-0 09-0 02-CC2. The supports are deeply appreciated.
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