NSC219 - Foundation of Professional Nursing

NSC219 MODULE 1
Course Code NSC219

Course Title FOUNDATION OF PROFESSIONAL NURSING
PRACTICE 1
Course Team
Course Material developer and Writers
Dr Reuben Fajemilehin (Course Developer/Writer) - OAU
Mr. Olufemi Ayandiran (Co-developer/Co-writer) - OAU
Mr Kayode S. Olubiyi (Co-developer/Co-writer) – NOUN
Prof. (Mrs) O. Nwana (Programme Leader) - NOUN
Course Reviewer Dr Elizabeth Joseph-Shehu – NOUN
Course Coordinator Dr Elizabeth Joseph-Shehu – NOUN
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NSC219 FOUNDATION OF PROFESSIONAL NURSING PRACTICE 1
© 2021 by NOUN Press

National Open University of Nigeria
Headquarters
University Village
Plot 91, Cadastral Zone
Nnamdi Azikiwe Expressway
Jabi, Abuja
Lagos Office
14/16 Ahmadu Bello Way
Victoria Island, Lagos
e-mail: [email protected]
URL: www.nou.edu.ng
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, in any
form or by any means, without permission in writing from the
publisher
Printed 2010
Reviewed 2022
ISBN: 978-978-058-277-7
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NSC219 MODULE 1
STUDY UNITS
There are thirteen study units in this course as follows:
Module 1 Nature of Nursing I………………………… 1
Unit 1 Historical Development of Nursing I………... 1

Unit 2 Historical Development of Nursing II……. 7
Unit 3 Concepts of Nursing………………………… 18
Unit 4 Nursing as an Art and a Science………… 26
Unit 5 Nursing as a Profession ………………...… 33
Module 2 Nature of Nursing II………………………... 42
Unit 1 The Role of the Nurse…………………… 42

Unit 2 Nursing Care Deliver…………………… 49
Unit 3 Nursing and Society …………………….. 58
Unit 4 Nursing and Human Environment………….. 68
Module 3 Health and Human Environment…………. 80
Unit 1 Concept of Health and Illness……………….. 80

Unit 2 Health and human needs I……………….….. 91
Unit 3 Health and human needs II…………….…… 103
Unit 4 Health Promotion…………………………….
Module 4 Fundamentals of Nursing…………………. 127

Unit 1 Vital Signs I……………………………… 127
Unit 2 Vital Signs II……………………………. 145
Unit 3 History Taking and Physical Examination 167
Unit 4 Diagnostic Measures in Patients Care….. 181
Unit 5 Providing Safety and Comfort…………... 200
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CONTENT PAGE
Introduction........................................................................ iv
What you will Learn in this Course……………………… iv
Course Aims....................................................................... iv
Course Objectives............................................................... iv
Working through this Course............................................. v
Course Materials………………………………………… vi
Study Units........................................................................ vi
Textbooks and References……………………………… vi
Assignment File
Tutor Marked Assignment
Final Examination and Grading
Presentation Schedule
Course marking Scheme
Course Overview
How to get the most from the course
INTRODUCTION
Welcome to NSC 211 – Foundation of Professional Nursing Practice I is

a four-credit unit course for students pursuing BNSc. It is one of the
courses meant to lay your desired foundation for the choice of nursing as
a course of study and profession.
The course consists of 4 Credit units (60 hours of instruction online; 48

hours of laboratory & Clinical Practice). This is a second-year first-
semester concurrent BNSc degree programme course.
The course comprises the bedrock of acquiring necessary elementary

skills amidst health care reforms. The changes in response to social,
political, economic factors, health technology, and advances in the health
care system call for reform in health care delivery have greatly influenced
the setting where nursing is practised coupled with the recipient of care
itself.
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NSC219 MODULE 1
WHAT YOU WILL LEARN IN THIS COURSE

The overall aim of this course is to introduce you to the ability to assess
the nurse's patient skills regardless of the practice setting. All settings
where nurses provide care, eliciting complete history and using
appropriate assessment skills are critical to identifying physical and
psycho- emotional problems experienced by the patient. The course will
provide you with a broad understanding of nursing and what made up
nursing as a profession.
COURSE AIMS
The aim of the course is to give you a better understanding of the
fundamental of the nursing profession. The aim of the course will be
achieved by:
 Providing you a comprehensive historical development of

Nursing
 exposing you to the concept of Nursing
 helping you to understand the various factors that affect health
and the human environment
 giving you insight into the fundamentals of Nursing practice.
COURSE OBJECTIVES
To achieve the aims set out above, the course sets overall objectives. In
addition, each unit also has specific objectives. The unit objectives are
always given at the beginning of a unit; you should read them before you
start working through the unit. You may also want to refer to them during
your study of the unit so as to check on your progress. You should always
look at the unit objectives after completing a unit. In this way, you can
be sure that you have done what was required of you by the unit.
Below are the wider objectives of the course as a whole. By meeting

these objectives, you should have achieved the aims of the course as a
whole. On successful completion of the course, you should be able to:
 define History and state the stages of nursing development in

Nigeria
 describe the events that occurred in the past that positively moved
Nursing forward to the present date
 explain the nature of Nursing
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 explain the importance of nursing to the health and human

environment
 examine the role of the nurse as a teacher, counsellor, caregiver,
manager and researcher
 explain what integrated approach of health, wellness, and illness is
 describe physical assessment and diagnostic measures in the care

of patients
 explain the problems militating against nursing development
 proffer solutions to these problems.
WORKING THROUGH THIS COURSE

To complete this course, you are required to read the study units and
other related materials. Each unit contains self-assessment exercises, and
at certain points in the course, you will be required to submit assignments
for assessment purposes. At the end of the course, you are going to sit
for a final examination. The course should take you about fifteen weeks,
in total, to complete. Below you will find listed all the course
components, what you have to do and how you should allocate your time
to studying the course.
You will be expected to read every module and all assigned readings to
prepare you to have meaningful contributions to all sessions and complete
all activities. It is important that you attempt all the Self-Assessment
Questions (SAQ) at the end of every unit to help your understanding of
the contents and to help you prepare for the in-course tests and the final
examination.
You will also be expected to keep a portfolio to keep all your completed
assignments.
Specifically, each unit has activities and videos that will guide your ability
to learn health history and physical assessment skills.
COURSE MATERIALS
STUDY UNITS
There are thirteen study units in this course as follows:
Module 1 Nature of Nursing I………………………… 1
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NSC219 MODULE 1
Unit 1 Historical Development of Nursing I………... 1

Unit 2 Historical Development of Nursing II……. 7
Unit 3 Concepts of Nursing………………………… 18
Unit 4 Nursing as an Art and a Science………… 26
Unit 5 Nursing as a Profession ………………...… 33
Module 2 Nature of Nursing II………………………... 42
Unit 1 The Role of the Nurse…………………… 42

Unit 2 Nursing Care Deliver…………………… 49
Unit 3 Nursing and Society …………………….. 58
Unit 4 Nursing and Human Environment………….. 68
Module 3 Health and Human Environment…………. 80
Unit 1 Concept of Health and Illness……………….. 80

Unit 2 Health and human needs I……………….….. 91
Unit 3 Health and human needs II…………….…… 103
Unit 4 Health Promotion…………………………….
Module 4 Fundamentals of Nursing…………………. 127

Unit 1 Vital Signs I……………………………… 127
Unit 2 Vital Signs II……………………………. 145
Unit 3 History Taking and Physical Examination 167
Unit 4 Diagnostic Measures in Patients Care….. 181
Unit 5 Providing Safety and Comfort…………... 200
TEXTBOOKS AND REFERENCES

 Berman, A., Snyder, S. J., Kozier, B., Erb, G. L., Levett-Jones,
T., Dwyer, T., Hales, M., Harvey, N., Moxham, L., & Park, T.
(2014). Kozier & Erb's fundamentals of Nursing Australian
edition (Vol. 3). Pearson Higher Education AU.
 Berman, A., Snyder, S., & Frandsen, G. (2016). Study Guide for
Kozier & Erb's Fundamentals of Nursing: Concepts, Process,
and Practice, [by] Berman, Snyder. Pearson.
 Brooker, C., & Waugh, A. (2013). Foundations of Nursing
Practice E-Book: Fundamentals of Holistic Care. Elsevier Health
Sciences.
 Cherry, B., & Jacob, S. R. (2016). Contemporary nursing: Issues,
trends, & management. Elsevier Health Sciences.
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 DeLaune, S. C., & Ladner, P. K. (2011). Fundamentals of

nursing: Standards and practice. Cengage learning.
 Dolan, J. A., Fitzpatrick, M. L., & Herrmann, E. K. (1983).
Nursing in society: A historical perspective. WB Saunders
Company.
 Donahue, M. P. (2011). Nursing, the finest art: An illustrated
history. Mosby.
 McCormack, B., & McCance, T. (2011). Person-centred nursing:
theory and practice. John Wiley & Sons Mortimer, B. (2004).
Introduction: the history of nursing: yesterday, today and
tomorrow. In New Directions in Nursing History (pp. 17-37).
Routledge.
 Potter, P. A., Perry, A. G. E., Hall, A. E., & Stockert, P. A.
(2009). Fundamentals of nursing. Elsevier Mosby.
EQUIPMENT AND SOFTWARE NEEDED TO ACCESS COURSE

You will be expected to have the following tools:
1. A computer (laptop or desktop or a tablet)
2. Internet access, preferably broadband rather than dial-up access
3. MS Office software – Word PROCESSOR, PowerPoint, Spreadsheet
4. Browser – Preferably Internet Explorer, Mozilla Firefox
5. Adobe Acrobat Reader
NUMBER AND PLACES OF MEETING (ONLINE, FACE-TO-

FACE, LABORATORY PRACTICALS)
These details will be provided to you at the time of commencement of this
course.
DISCUSSION FORUM
There will be an online discussion forum, and topics for discussion will
be available for your contributions. It is mandatory that you participate in
every discussion every week. Your participation links you, your face,
your ideas and views to that of every member of the class and earns you
some mark.
ASSIGNMENT FILE
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NSC219 MODULE 1
The assignment file will be the Tutor Marked Assignment (TMA), which
will constitute part of the course's continuous assessment (CA). There are
20 assignments in this course, with each unit having an activity/exercise
for you to do to facilitate your learning as an individual.
Assessment There are two aspects to the assessment of the course. These
are the Tutor marked assignments and written examinations. In tackling
the assignments, you are expected to apply information, knowledge and
strategies gathered during the course. The assignments must be turned in
to your tutor for formal assessment in accordance with the stated
presentation schedules. The works you submit to your tutor for
assessment will count for 30% of your total course work. At the end of
the course you will need to sit for a final written examination of three
hour’s duration. This examination will also count for 70% of your total
course mark.
Tutor-Marked Assignment (TMA) There are 30 tutor-marked
assignments in the course. You are advised in your own interest to attempt
and submit the assignments at the stipulated time. You will be able to
complete the assignments from the information and materials contained
in your reading and study units. There is other self activity contained in
the instructional material to facilitate your studies. Try to attempt it all.
Feel free to consult any of the references to provide you with broader view
and a deeper understanding of the course. The assignment accounts for
30% of the total assessment pack for the course. Continuous self-
assessment materials will be enclosed with the instructional materials so
that you can monitor your progress through the course.
GRADING CRITERIA
Grades will be based on the following percentages
Tutor- Marked Assignments
Computer- marked Assignment 30%
Group assignments 5% 40%
Discussion Topic participation 5%
Laboratory practical
End-of-Course examination 60%
GRADING SCALE
A = 70-100
B = 60 - 69
C= 50 - 59
F = < 49
HOW TO GET THE MOST FROM THIS COURSE

i. Read and understand the context of this course by reading
through this Course Guide paying attention to details. You must
know the requirements before you will do well.
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ii. Develop a study plan for yourself.

iii. Follow instructions about registration and master expectations in
terms of reading, participation in discussion forum, end of unit
and module assignments, laboratory practical and other directives
given by the course coordinator, facilitators and tutors.
iv. Read your course texts and other reference textbooks.
v. Listen to audio files, watch the video clips and consult websites
when given.
vi. Participate actively in online discussion forum and make sure you
are in touch with your study group and your course coordinator.
vii. Submit your assignments as at when due.
viii. Work ahead of the interactive sessions.
ix. Work through your assignments when returned to you and do not
wait until when examination is approaching before resolving any
challenge you have with any unit or any topic.
x. Keep in touch with your study centre and Department of Nursing
Science website as information will be provided continuously on
this site.
xi. Be optimistic about doing well.
MODULE 1 NATURE OF NURSING I
UNIT 1 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF NURSING I
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Significance of the Study of History
3.2 Pre-Nightingale Development of Nursing
3.3 Florence Nightingale Era (1820-1910)
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further reading
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Where are we coming from? What developments have brought us to the

present state? What problems were encountered during the journey? What
factors have facilitated or obstructed our movements? When we delve
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NSC219 MODULE 1
into the events of the past for one reason or the other, we are concerned
with history, with past events. There are many advantages to the study of
history. It provides foundation for the present and the future. It helps us
to plan strategies for a smooth transition. It provides us with the
knowledge of persons and resources that had supported and strengthened
our course over the past years. This is a general phenomenon of any
development in life.
There are two dimensions to the study of history, the process and the
content. In this unit you will be studying the content of the historical
development of nursing. The events that occurred in past that positively
moved Nursing forward to the present date. You will learn the contents
of the events in chronological order. The discussions shall cover the
following periods: Pre-Nightingale Era; Nightingale era, Pre and Post
First World War; Pre- and Post-2nd World War; and the modem times.
United Kingdom, North America and Nigeria shall receive the most
attention. The content enumerated shall be presented in two units (Units
1 & 2).
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2.0 OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit, you will be able to:
• explain the significance of the study of history

• summarise the development of nursing in Pre-Nightingale in Europe and
the UK
• identify the major areas of society and nursing that Florence
Nightingale's impact was felt.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Significance of the Study of History
Try to recall a history course you had at High School or the historical
aspects of one of your courses in your school of Nursing. The course titled
History dealt with the process of reviewing events. There are subjects
such as History of Political Movements in Nigeria; History of the Church
Missionary Society in Nigeria; History of Education - all these examine
the content of events. By the same token, when we talk about the
historical development of Nursing, we are concerned with the content of
development over a period: and how one developmental state influences
the subsequent stages. What is the significance of History in Nursing?
History allows us to link the past with the present. It shows the
achievements at each milestone. Knowledge of history serves as
reference points for the future.
You will now study the development of nursing during the different eras
stated in the introduction.
3.1.1 Pre-Nightingale Development of Nursing
Nursing was distinguished in its early history as a form of community

service and was originally related to a strong instinct to preserve and
protect the family (Donahue 1985). The desire to keep people healthy and
provide comfort, care and comfort for the sick were the initial focus of
nursing. This focus has remained relatively the same over the centuries,
but the practice of nursing has been modified because of societal
influence and changing needs. Nursing has evolved into what we now
know as modern nursing. Nursing is as old as medicine. Nursing and
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NSC219 MODULE 1
medicine have been interdependent throughout history. During the era of

Hippocrates, Medicine was practiced without Nursing. While in the
Middle Ages, nursing was practiced without medicine.
In ancient cultures, religious leaders assumed responsibility for health

and medical care because the causation of illness was tied to myths and
religion. Hence nurses were seen to be below religious leaders. Nurses
then worked under priests and physicians, performing custodians and
personal hygiene care. The physician directed nursing activities, except
the role of midwifery where nurses had always been accepted.
Throughout this period, nurses did not participate in activities to promote
health or teach the families how to care for the sick.
Under the influence of Christianity, nurses began to gain respect and the
practice of nurses expanded. The order of Deaconesses, a group similar
to today’s public health or visiting nurses was one of the earliest records
of Christian nursing. According to Dolen et al. (1983), (Brooker &
Waugh,m2013)., the order’s goals included the meeting of the following
needs:
• Feeding the hungry

• Giving water to the thirsty
• Clothing the naked
• Visiting the imprisoned
• Sheltering the homeless
• Caring for the sick
• Burying the dead
Historically, men and women held the role of the nurse. The entry of
women into nursing could be traced to AD 300 because of the
improvement in the social position of Roman women. Christianity taught
that men and women are equal before God. There was an appeal to
women to carry on God’s work towards those who were in distress. The
Benedictine Order comprising men was founded in the 6th century, and
this increased the number of women in nursing.
During the Middle Ages, the Crusades became a stimulus for expanding
nursing and healthcare. Military nursing orders for men were formed,
and hospitals were established. After the Crusades, and with the decline
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of the feudal system, large cities began to develop and grow. This
extensive growth of cities resulted in associated health problems.
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
Nigeria is experiencing a similar population shift from rural to urban. List

five health hazards associated with an extensive population growth of
cities.
Example of an answer: Overcrowding, poor ventilation; Hot and humid

environment, poor sanitation, inadequate water supply, air, food and
water contamination; disregard of personal and environmental hygiene,
inter-personal feuds.
Because of the enormity of the health problems, secular groups were

formed and nurses to meet specific health care needs in the Middle Ages.
In response to the serious health problems of the 15th to 17th centuries,

which were the consequence of societal factors, nursing responded by
founding the Sisters of Charity in AD 1633 by St. Vincent de Paul. The
Sisters cared for the people in hospitals, asylums, and poor houses. In
addition, they cared for sick people in their homes, hence labelled 'visiting
nurses'
The first supervisor of the Sisters of Charity was Louise de Gras, a widow
of high social standing. She established perhaps the first educational
programme associated with a nursing Order. She recruited intelligent,
refined and compassionate women. The programme included experience
in the care of the sick in hospitals as well as home visits. The sisters of
Charity were introduced in America in 1809, but their name was later
changed to Daughters of Charity. The 18th Century saw further growth
of cities in Europe, including the United Kingdom, and consequently, an
increase in the number of hospitals and more roles for the nurses. Nursing
skills and knowledge were generally passed on by experienced nurses
because there was still little formal education for them.
While nursing in continental Europe, especially in Germany, was

beginning to make progress, the UK could not say the same. Hospitals in
the UK were built in response to similar health problems, but the 'nurses'
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NSC219 MODULE 1
came from the low social status, lacked responsible leadership, and were
illiterate.
3.1.2 The Florence Nightingale Era (1820-1910)
Florence Nightingale went to study with the sisters of Charity in 1853 and
was later appointed superintendent of the English General Hospitals in
Turkey. During this period, she instituted major reforms in hygiene,
sanitation, and nursing practice, thereby reducing the mortality rate at the
Barracks Hospital in Sentari, Turkey, from 42.7% to 2.2% in 6 months
(Woodham Smith, 1983). Florence Nightingale was a proficient bedside
nurse with a great concern for the soldiers she nursed. Her ward round at
night with the lamp earned her the title "The Lady with the Lamp".
Organised nursing began in the mid-1800s under the leadership of
Florence Nightingale; before her era, nursing care was done by paupers
and drunkards and persons unfit for any work.
Florence Nightingale's beliefs about nursing form the basic foundation of

nursing practice today. Her religious convictions and experience in
nursing during the Crimean War influenced her approach and beliefs
about the care of the sick. She came from the upper social class, was
educated and possessed a good communication ability as judged by her
various letters and book, Notes on Nursing: What It Is and What It Is Not.
She travelled widely and had the ability to deal with government and
politics. Florence Nightingale possessed many outstanding qualities. By
today' s terminology, she would be called an epidemiologist and
statistician. She was a researcher, a politician and a caring nurse of the
sick and the well. Her philosophy of nursing practice reflected the
changing needs of society. She saw the role of Nursing as having 'charge
of somebody's health' based on the knowledge of "how to put the body in
such a state to be free of disease or to recover from disease" (Nightingale,
1860).
Considering the role women were expected to assume during her time,
Florence could be regarded as an activist of some sort. She was the one
who vehemently objected to the female Victorian role of indolence and
marriage and viewed the development of nursing as a "respectable
livelihood and constructive utilisation of women". She saw activities as
being based not only on compassion but also on observation and
experience, statistical data, knowledge of sanitation and nutrition, and
15
administrative skills (Donahue 2011). The greatest achievement to the

world of nursing was the establishment of the first organised programme
for training for nurses: The Nightingale Training School for Nurses at St.
Thomas' Hospital in London in 1860 AD. The professionalisation of
nursing commenced from henceforth, and nursing began to be accorded
some respectability in society. Educated ladies from the respectable
social backgrounds were selected for training. A distinct body of
knowledge was developed for nursing, and this was based on observed
societal health needs.
4.0 CONCLUSION
The writings of Florence Nightingale which are over a century old,

remain the reference points for all aspects of nursing development today.
Her focus of nursing was directed at the client, sick or well; the
environment for nursing, the knowledge and expertise required by nurse,
and the interactions of these parameters towards the achievement of
desired goals. Florence Nightingale's thrusting forces were Religion,
Science, and Society. Could there have been a better combination to
initiate change and sustain progress?
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have learnt that the importance and advantages of
studying history and the historical development of nursing in particular
were examined. Contributions of various individuals and groups to public
health and the care of the sick and less privileged in societies in Europe
and the UK were highlighted. The extraordinary contributions of Florence
Nightingale to Nursing, society, and science were fully discussed.
6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
1. Explain 'historical development' in the context of nursing history.

2. Briefly summarise the place of nursing in pre-Nightingale Europe.
3. Highlight the impact of Florence Nightingale on the following:
-Victorian women -Nursing science -Nursing education -Care of
the sick -Nursing management.
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NSC219 MODULE 1
7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Sciences.
Company.
history. Mosby.
Routledge.
 Nightingale, F.: Notes on Nursing: what it is and what it is not,
London, 1860, Harrison and sons.
(2009). Fundamentals of nursing. Elsevier mosby
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UNIT 2 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF NURSING II

CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Historical Development of Nursing in the USA.
3.2 Historical Development of Nursing in Nigeria
3.2.1 Religious Influence
3.2.2 British Colonial Service
3.2.3 Nursing education within the university system
3.2.4 Nursing education in Nigerian universities
3.3 Globalisation of nursing
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor- Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading
1.0 INTRODUCTION
You will recall that unit 1 of this course dealt with the first part of the
Historical Development of Nursing in Europe and the UK. The last part
of the presentation focused on Florence Nightingale, who heralded major
reforms in nursing. The concept of nursing proposed and practised by
Florence Nightingale became the foundation for professional nursing in
the UK, USA, and British colonial territories.
The dominant functions of nursing have been modified as an inevitable

consequence of changes in the social, economic, political, educational,
and scientific-technological value in which the consumers and the
practitioners of the nursing meeting. With the above changes and
facilitation by information/communication media, nurses worldwide are
now in better positions to share ideas and strategies and move nursing
forward globally. By the beginning of the 20th Century, the Florence
Nightingale concept of nursing and the various implementation strategies
have crossed oceans and seas to the USA and British colonial territories.
In this unit, we shall continue with the historical development as the

events occurred in the USA and Nigeria. As in the previous unit,
significant developments shall be addressed.
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NSC219 MODULE 1
2.0 OBJECTIVES
 describe the historical developments of nursing in the USA and

Nigeria
 discuss factors that influenced these developments
 explain factors that facilitated nursing education within Nigerian
universities
 discuss the influence of globalisation of nursing-on-nursing
development.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Historical Development of Nursing in the USA
Like the Crimean War in Europe, the Civil War in the USA stimulated
the growth of nursing. The women in the American Red Cross played
important nursing roles.
Clara Barton, founder of the American Red Cross attended to or cared for
soldiers on the battlefields, cleansing their wounds, meeting their basic
needs, and comforting them at points of death. The American Red Cross
was ratified by the United States Congress in 1882 after 10 years of
lobbying by Clara Barton. Dorothea Synde Dix, Mary Anne Ball (Mother
Bickerdyke) and Harriet Tubman also influenced nursing during the civil
war. As superintendent of the female nurses of the Union Army,
Dorothea Dix organised hospitals, appointed nurses, and oversaw and
regulated supplies to the troops. Mother Bickerdyke organised ambulance
services, supervised nurses, and walked abandoned battlefields at night
looking for wounded soldiers. Harriet Tubman was active in the
Underground Railroad movement and assisted in leading over 300 slaves
to freedom.
After the Civil War nursing schools in the USA and Canada started to
pattern their curricula after the Nightingale School. Many nurses
contributed to the development of nursing in the USA and Canada, but a
few will be highlighted. Isabel Hampton Robb graduated from St.
Catherine's School of Nursing, Ontario, Canada, a school which was
19
patterned on Florence Nightingale curriculum. She became the first

superintendent of the Johns Hopkins Training School, Baltimore
Maryland. She contributed immensely to the professionalisation of
nursing through publications of nursing textbooks and formation of a
professional nursing association that became the American Nurses
Association in 1911. She was one of the original founders of the
American Journal of Nursing. The textbooks she authored were:
Nursing: Its principles and Practice for Hospitals and Private Use
(1894); Nursing Ethics (1900), and Educational Standards for Nurses
(1907).
Advances were made in hospital care, public health, and nursing

education in the early 20th century. Mary Adelaide Nutting, a member of
the first graduating class of Johns Hopkins Training School was
instrumental to affiliation of nursing education with universities. She
became the first professor of nursing at Columbia University Teachers
College in 1907.
The journey towards the placement of nursing education into universities

was quickened in 1923 when the Rockefeller Foundation funded a survey
of nursing education, popularly known as the Goldmark Report. The
report recommended that nursing education needed increased financial
support and suggested that the money should be given to University
Schools of Nursing. Five universities benefited from the financial
support. University schools of Nursing were able to expand, increasing
opportunities for more nurses to have university education. As nursing
education developed, nursing practice expanded. More clinical specialty
programmes were started and so also were specialty nursing organisations
that were concerned with quality care.
In 1965, the National Commission on Nursing and Nursing Education

explored issues that included: the supply and demand of nurses,
clarification of nursing roles and functions, education of nurses, and
career opportunities available to nurses. The Lysaught Report, named
after the study director called for clarification of nursing roles and
responsibilities in relation to other health professionals; advocated greater
financial support for nurses; and more career opportunities to attract
nurses and retain them in the profession. (Lysaught 1970).
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NSC219 MODULE 1
As nursing education and practice evolved to meet the changing needs of

society, Nurses' code of Ethics also evolved. In 1926, American Nurses
Association proposed its code of Ethics. The purpose of this code was to
"create a sensitiveness to ethical situations and to formulate general
principles which result in the formation of conscious and critical
judgement resulting in action in specific situations" (ANA 1926).
As technology and needs of society changed, the code of ethics was

revised to provide code of ethics for nurses with interpretative statements
(ANA 1985) Nurses in the USA and Canada had made giant strides in the
development of nursing. The resolve to move nurse’s education into
Universities and Colleges, and away from hospitals affiliated schools
facilitated the: development of more nurse scholars who are committed
to developing nursing science and theory. Developing science and theory
in nursing involves generating knowledge from the nursing field and
other disciplines. One method for creating nursing scientific knowledge
base is through the development and use of nursing theory through the
research process.
A significant milestone influencing the development of concepts and

theory was the establishment of the Nursing Research Journal in 1952.
The journal has encouraged scientific productivity and has helped to
provide the framework for a questioning attitude that has set the stage for
further enquiries into theoretical nursing (Meleis, 1985). These have
produced theorists whose theories are influencing all aspects of nursing
worldwide. Such persons are Peplau, Henderson, Roy, Orem, Johnson.
Nurses in North America, particularly in the USA, have developed
nursing to a truly professional status.
You have spent the past few minutes studying the historical development
of nursing in the USA, the events that occurred and the persons
responsible for these events. We have also seen how the social, economic,
political, science and technological development of society as a whole
affected the development of nursing in the USA.
Discuss one developmental factor with American society that facilitated

the development of nursing.
21
3.2 Historical Development of Nursing in Nigeria
The following factors influenced the development of nursing in Nigeria.

Religion, British colonial administration, inter-professional
communication, and the world wars. Traditionally caring for the sick
took place at home and care is given by women and family members. The
concept of a nurse in the European sense was not part of the traditional
community set up. It was considered to be the responsibilities of the
families to care for their members both in health and sickness. But the
midwife had been a constant figure in all traditional societies. Nigeria had
and still has the traditional midwives who care for pregnant women from
conception, through labour and delivery. Post-natal care is also given to
both mother and baby. Caring includes provision of basic comfort,
feeding, bathing and also the care of other siblings in the family.
3.2.1 Religious Influence
When the missionaries arrived in Nigeria from the UK in the 19th

Century, their objectives were to convert (evangelise), to educate and to
provide health care. Hence you find the church, the school and the
hospital/clinic clustered in the mission grounds. With trained missionary
nurses, some of them products of Florence Nightingale School of Nursing
or curriculum. They recruited young men and women mostly with
primary school education for on-the-job training in nursing- procedures
and skills. The emphasis was on skills training starting from simple to
complex. It was purely task-oriented training. Initially, there was no
organised curricula, hence no central certification. The missionary
Nursing sisters provided physical, psychosocial and spiritual care for
their followers. The health care. needs of the communities were
constantly assessed and appropriate health care facilities were provided.
The first set of nursing personnel in the country were those trained on the
job by UK trained missionary Nursing sisters. These locally trained
nursing personnel also imbibed the tenets of the Christian religion and
served as local contacts for evangelism. The two McCarter sisters ran the
mother and child health centers in Abeokuta and its environs, while Mary
Slessor was known in Calabar for her work with abandoned twins.
22
NSC219 MODULE 1
3.2.2 The British Colonial Service
The British colonial service in conjunction with the Royal Niger

Company provided health care services for their serving citizens and their
families in Nigeria. Medical teams were also brought from the UK to run
the medical services. The medical teams included professional nurses
trained in the UK. Two parallel health care services were provided: one
for those in the colonial service Administration and the other for the local
Nigerians. Hence, there were the European and African Hospitals.
The nursing sisters in the Medical Teams also trained women and men
on-the-job and supervised their work. They were taught a lot of task and
skills but with little theory. These young women and men were referred
to as 'probation nurses' and they worked under supervision, mostly in the
African Hospitals. There was no formal curriculum, each Nursing sister
taught from her experience. There was no certification as there was no
controlling or Examination body.
After the Second World War, which ended in 1945, many Nigerian girls
with High School Education traveled to the UK, to train as professional
nurses. Upon their return, most of them were employed in the Civil
Service. The working environment was hostile, and many found that they
could not put to practice the knowledge and skills they had acquired in
the UK. Some left nursing for other disciplines, but others persevered. As
more nurses returned from the UK, they collectively resolved to improve
the standard of nursing education and practice in the country. These
standards pioneering nurses included Adetoun Barley who later became
the first Nigerian Registrar of the Nursing Council, Francis Oguntolu the
retired Director of Nursing, Lagos University Teaching Hospital;
Kofoworola Pratt, first Nigerian Matron of University College Hospital,
Ibadan; Oluyinka Sofenwa, retired Deputy Director of Nursing,
University College Hospital lbadan.
First on the list of improving standards was the inauguration of the first
Nursing Council for Nigeria and the appointment of an interim Registrar
in 1947 -an expatriate.
The changes effected in nursing were facilitated by the political climate

in the country. It was the period of negotiation for the country's
independence from Britain. During this period there were plans for the
23
improvement of health care. The Richards constitution which divided the

country' into three regions (East, West and North) and the capital Lagos
created a School of Nursing for each region located at Enugu, Ibadan and
Kaduna, plus the one in Lagos. These schools started to function in 1949
with formal syllabus to direct the educational programme. Qualified
nursing tutors were employed from the UK to direct the programmes.
Preceptors were employed from amongst Nigerian nurses trained in the
UK to supervise the practical training of students in government
hospitals.
The Health Policy also stipulated those Nigerian boys and girl with good
high School education be sponsored to study general nursing, midwifery
and other nursing sub-specialties of National needs in Great Britain. This
was a great departure from the traditional practice of training individuals
with only 6 to 8 years of primary education. The new direction
encouraged boys and girls with good high school education to choose
nursing as a career.
The Health Policy also directed that a School of Nursing be established

at the University College Hospital, Ibadan in 1952. It was patterned after
the Nightingale School of Nursing at St. Thomas' Hospital London. Girls
with good education also qualified for admission into the school. From
all indications, the government was bent on changing the poor image of
nurses and consequently improving the quality of nursing. This was
linking good general and professional education with qualitative nursing
practice.
With the Nursing Council in place and the instrument of authority
approved, the Council proceeded to set minimum standards for, nursing
curricula in Schools of Nursing, clinical teaching facilities, and the
minimum educational qualification for entry into the Schools of Nursing.
The authority of the Nursing Council was felt more in nursing than in
midwifery. This was probably due to the fact that midwifery services
were less organised than the nursing services. Fewer of the highly trained
professional nurses went into midwifery practice. Furthermore,
midwifery practice was more controlled by nongovernmental
organisations.
24
NSC219 MODULE 1
3.2.3 Nursing Education within the University System in Nigeria
The developments in nursing education in Canada and the USA started to

influence nursing education development in Nigeria especially in the old
Western Region. In line with its health manpower development and to
meet its expanding health care services, the Western Region government
embarked on a programme of sending qualified nurses overseas to train
as Nurse Tutors. In 1960, the Canadian government offered to educate
nurses at university degree level. In 1960, there were technical aids from
the British and Canadian
Governments to prepare nurse tutors at diploma and degree levels

respectively. Nursing administration and nursing clinical specialisations
were not left out of the development; there were German and British
technical assistance for those areas. The immediate post-independence
period saw nursing in Nigeria enriched with new ideas from the USA,
UK, and Western Germany. Impressed by the Professional performance
of the nurses trained abroad, many men and women went to these
countries for their nursing education. The return of the five graduate
nurses from McGill University in 1962, was the turning point for
university education in Nigeria. These graduates were deployed to
different schools of nursing where through their interpersonal
relationships, influenced students' attitudes to nursing. By 1966, twelve
graduate nurse teachers sponsored by the Canadian government, had
taken up appointments with the Western Region government and later
with other governments and health care institutions. This crop of nurse
teachers were able to impress on the governments, formal and nonformal
groups the benefits of university education in nursing and especially at
the administrative and education levels. There was also a world-
movement through Inter- National Nursing Organisations to move
nursing education from hospitals schools to universities. The first stage
was sourcing for funds, followed by staff development, then programme
development, identification and negotiation with institutions and
government, student's selection and admission.
These processes were embarked upon consequently. In 1965 the

University of Ibadan after creating a Department of Nursing admitted the
first set of 10 students into the post-basic Bachelor of Science (Nursing)
programme with options in Nursing Education and Nursing
25
Administration, and Clinical Electives in Medical Surgical Nursing,

Material and Child Health and Midwifery, Psychiatric Nursing, and
Community Health Nursing.
The Rockefeller Foundation provided the building, the World Health

Organisation (WHO) provided fellowships for students and teaching aids
and other teaching materials, and Boston University admitted students for
post graduate studies. WHO also provided supporting staff for the first
five years of the programme. The University provided the administrative
support, pending the take-over after five years.
By the time the first set of students graduated many more nurses wanted
university education. The number of applicants increased every year,
even when financial support was no longer available.
In 1971, the University of Ife (now Obafemi Awolowo University) started

a Faculty of Health Sciences with a philosophy of educating the health
professions students together, since they were expected to work together
in real situations. Based on this philosophy, a generic degree BNSc. was
started in 1973. More and more nurses and individuals who want to
become nurses want university nursing education. More universities now
run the generic nursing programme. Those Nigerian nurses and other
persons who spearheaded nursing education within the University system
include the late, Professor Frida O. Adebo, Olufemi O. Kujore" Adetoun
Bailey, Ayodele Tubi, Lola Alade, Stella Savage Vye. Okusoga, Late
Grace Afamefuna, Adebisi Fabayo and Later Professor T.A.I. Grillo
3.3 Globalisation of Nursing
Florence Nightingale through her definition of nursing has shown the

universality of nursing. She showed how the role of nursing is to utilise
the laws of nature to facilitate health and recuperation from illness. Long
before Maslow's hierarchy of human needs, Nightingale has called nurses'
attention to the manipulation of the elements in the environment in order
to meet Man's health needs. Nurses in different countries have evolved
concepts and theories from Nightingale's concepts.
Nurses, through research, are identifying global problems and issues that
affect man and sharing or offering solutions. The communication media
for the sharing could be by the printed materials in the form of journals,
26
NSC219 MODULE 1
books; electronic materials and software; face-to-face communication as

occurs at meetings and conferences. We can now access information on
nursing issues from the Internet. Nursing is no longer a calling shrouded
in secrecy. The ability to produce knowledge by the scientific process
through the fastest possible means is a work of professional growth and
development of the 21st century.
Globalisation of nursing is also fostered through communication among

various national nursing associations and specialty nursing groups. At
international conferences issues and/or phenomena of common concerns
are discussed, for example the International Council of Nurses (ICN). The
ICN is an organisation focused on 'Advancing Nursing World Wide'. In
1998 identified three key areas as crucial to the improvement of nursing
and health. These are known as ICN Pillars and they are: Professional
Practice, Regulation, and Socio-economic welfare. The International
Classification for Nursing Practice (ICNP) and Leadership for Change
are two significant ICN projects which come under the professional
practice pillar, Negotiation in Leadership is a project which comes under
the socio-economic welfare pillar.
EXERCISE 2
Access the Websites of:
i. International Council of Nursing (ICN),

ii. World Health Organisation (WHO),
Summarise the nursing roles within the organisations Regional
nursing organisations (RNO).
The trend in the past 20 years is for nurses within a geographical location
to corporately develop nursing. A typical example is the West African
College of Nursing (WACN) which is also an agency of the West African
Health Organisation (WAHO). It is concerned with the nursing and health
needs of people in countries of WAHO. The West African College of
Nursing (WACN) is composed of five faculties offering fellowship
programmes in specific nursing specialties Community Health Nursing,
Nursing Education and Administration, Maternal and Child Health,
Medical Surgical Nursing, and Mental Health and Psychiatric Nursing.
Its responsibilities include inauguration of the nursing and midwifery
councils, with the appropriate instruments of authority, the establishment
27
of better equipped secondary, tertiary and specialist and teaching

hospitals and the provision of articulated health policy. The cumulative
effects of all the above resulted in communication between Nigerian
nurses outside, particularly in the UK, Canada, and the USA.
4.0 CONCLUSION
From the presentation in this unit, it is clear that nurses in North America,
particularly in the United States, were the main force in the development
of nursing. The immediate pre and post independent periods in Nigeria
witnessed a formalisation of nursing education and nursing practice
through government policies on health; the raising of the educational
standard for entry into the nursing profession; the starting of formal
schools of nursing in all the political regions and at the University College
Hospital, Ibadan and other University Teaching Hospitals in the Nation;
government support for deserving students to study nursing in the United
Kingdom with scholarships, employment of many British trained
Nigerians and British nurses into the health services whereby much
higher quality of nursing education and nursing practice were
demonstrated, and these serving as encouragement to well-educated
persons to come into the nursing field.
5.0 SUMMARY
This unit examined the historical developments of nursing in the United

States of America. Discussions showed you how the development has
moved nursing to a high professional status.
It also examined the development of Nursing in Nigeria and the factors

that influenced the historical development. Lastly, globalisation of
information in nursing through various communication media are
highlighted.
28
NSC219 MODULE 1
1. List three major areas of development of nursing in the USA

during the first five decades of the 20th century.
2. Discuss the relationship between the development of the
Nightingale Era and post Nightingale Era in the US.
3. Describe two factors that influenced Nursing history and
development in Nigeria.

Company.
history. Mosby.
Routledge.
(2009). Fundamentals of nursing. Elsevier Mosby
 International Council of Nurses (ICN)
http://www.ICN/ch/progrtam.htrn
29
UNIT 3 CONCEPTS OF NURSING
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Concepts of Nursing
3.1.1 Florence Nightingale
3.1.2 Virginia Herderson
3.1.3 Hildegard E. Peplau
3.1.4 Myra Levine
3.1.5 Dorothea Orem
3.1.6 Calista Roy
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
I hope that you have read and understood the course guide. You are
therefore in a better position to appreciate how this unit (Concept of
Nursing) fits into the course as a whole. Concept of Nursing focuses on
the idea and meaning of nursing as a professional occupation. Different
people express different ideas as to what nursing actually is. The unit will
describe the ideas of nursing by six distinguished nurse leaders who had
influenced the development of nursing worldwide.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
• define the word 'concept' from the point of a general usage and
from the point of nursing as a concept
• mention at least three concepts of nursing stated by distinguished
nurse leaders from the time of Florence Nightingale to the
contemporary time
30
NSC219 MODULE 1
• identify the common focus of nursing activity for concepts of

nursing
• compare and contrast your concepts of nursing before and after
the study of this unit.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Concepts of Nursing
The concept of nursing expresses the opinion of recognised practitioners

of nursing as a profession. It is seen by some people as an art, and by
others as a science, skill or as a calling. But, here, we shall consider the
opinions of only six distinguished nurse leaders. These include:
-Florence Nightingale,
-Virginia Henderson,
-Hildegard E. Peplau,
-Myra Levine,
-Dorothea Orem, and
-Calista Roy.
These people have been specifically chosen because of the uniqueness of

the statement each of them has made. You are expected to study at least
three of the six statements from the point of view of uniqueness and focus.
EXERCISE 1
1. Think and state your concept of nursing that had influenced your
decision to choose nursing as a career.
2. State the focus of nursing activity that could be derived from
your statement.
Very often, the way a situation, a thing, or an event is conceptualised

directs the type and focus of activity that would be engaged in it. For
example, Imogene M. King's concept of nursing is that it is 'a process of
human interaction between nurse and client'. This statement when
examined shows that the focus is on communication whereby both nurse
and client share information, recognise each other, agree on set goals and
take actions for their attainment. This type of concept of nursing demands
collaborative interaction aimed at attaining planned set of goals.
31
There is a thread of ideas which connect from one nurse leader to another.
As we examine the concepts of nursing of different nurse leaders, we
should look out for the linking ideas. The attempt to define nursing started
before the 20th century.
3.1.1 Florence Nightingale
Florence Nightingale, the founder of professional nursing espoused

nursing to be a profession for women, the goal of which is to discover
and use nature's law governing health in the service of humanity. In
addition, nursing was stated to be an art and a science and required an
organised scientific and formal education to care for those suffering from
disease. Both sick nursing and health nursing are to "put the patient in the
best condition for nature to act upon him". From this concept of nursing,
it is possible to deduce the actions, activities, educational preparation, and
organisational support for the concept.
Nightingale concept of nursing dominated the development of nursing for

nearly 100 years roughly from late 19th century to mid-20th century. It
gave birth to the professionalisation of nursing.
The concept of nursing continued to receive attention of nurse leaders

after Florence Nightingale. The dominant functions continue to be
modified as an inevitable consequence of changes in the social,
economic, political, educational, scientific and technological milieu in
which the consumer and practitioner of nursing meet. Positions in the first
half of the 20th century on the nature and contribution of nursing have
resulted more often from deductive than from inductive reasoning.
3.1.2 Virginia Henderson
The relatively stable essence of nursing is captured in one of the most

widely quoted concepts of nursing by Virginia Henderson:
The unique function of the nurse is to assist the individual, sick or well in
the performance of those activities contributing to health or its recovery
(or to peaceful death) that he would perform unaided if he had the
necessary strength, will or knowledge. And to do this in such a way as to
help him gain independence as rapidly as possible. This aspect of her
32
NSC219 MODULE 1
work is thus part of her function. She initiates and controls. She initiates
and masters. In addition, she helps the patient to carry out the therapeutic
plan as initiated by the physician. She also, as a member of a medical
team, helps other members, as they in turn help her, to carry out the total
programme whether it be for the improvement of health, or the recovery
from illness or support in death.
Henderson proposed 14 activities contributing to health which nursing is

responsible for -assisting the individual and suggested that existing or
potential loss of the power to control or perform those activities signals
the existence of a nursing problem. The 14 proposed components are:
1. Breathing normally.
2. Eating and drinking adequately.
3. Eliminating body waste.
4. Moving and maintaining desirable postures.
5. Sleeping and resting.
6. Selecting suitable clothes -dressing and undressing.
7. Maintaining body temperatures within normal range by adjusting
clothing and modifying the environment.
8. Keeping the body clean and well-groomed and protecting the
integument.
9. Avoiding changes in the environment and avoiding injuring
others.
10. Communicating with others expressing emotions, needs, fears or
opinions.
11. Worshipping according to one's faith.
12. Working in such a way that there is sense of accomplishment.
13. Playing or participating in various forms of recreation.
14. Learning, discovering, or satisfying the curiosity that leads to
normal development and health and using the available health
facilities. -(Henderson, pp 16-17, 1966).
The above components guide the selection of educational content and

practice/intervention activities either in health or sickness.
3.1.3 Hildegarde Peplau
Hildegarde Peplau came into limelight in 1950s. She was one of the nurse
leaders dedicated to the development of nursing as a recognised
33
professional discipline, focusing much of her effort on the development

of knowledge base to guide clinical practice. Peplau differentiated
nursing and medicine by stating that physicians address themselves to
within person phenomena, to dysfunctions, deficits, defects and the like,
in relation to the organism. Physicians define the diseases of a person and
prescribe treatment for them. In contrast to this statement, Peplau defines
nursing as "a significant therapeutic interpersonal process which
functions cooperatively with other human processes that make health
possible for individuals".
Peplau's definition of nursing as a "nurturing force and educative

instrument", represent her view of the facilitative nature of the discipline.
Its primary purpose is the application of scientific principles in
facilitating human health.; Initially, Peplau viewed nursing as an applied
science and as a process which aids patients to meet their own needs and
recover from illness. More recently, her conceptualisation of nursing is
that of a social and scientific force in the exploration and organisation of
factors relevant to the maintenance of health.
Although Peplau considers nursing as a collaborative part of the health

profession team, all the same, she sees a' unique focus for nursing as
resting in the reactions of the patient or client to circumstances of illness
or health problem. This is helping patients to gain intellectual and
interpersonal competences.
Nursing activity is, more specifically, depicted as six identified roles

which the nurse assumes at various times during inter-personal
encounters with the patient. Details of the roles as components of Peplau'
s Model will be discussed in subsequent units of this Course.
The next three nurse leaders produced their concepts of nursing during
the last three decades of the 20th century. Previous ideas by earlier nurse
leader were expanded upon.
3.1.4 Myra Levine
Myra Levine defines nursing as:

a human interaction -an exchange between individuals. Nursing is
regarded as a sub-culture, processing ideas and values which are unique
to nurses, and which reflect society.
34
NSC219 MODULE 1
Nursing knowledge allows for a sensitive and productive relationship

between the nurse and the individual needing care.
Levine, like Nightingale, place great emphasis on observation.

Observation allows the nurse to evaluate the patient's condition as well as
anticipate the patient's future course of events.
Levine sees Nursing as a human interaction between individuals and for

which nursing has an extant body of knowledge.
3.1.5 Dorathea Orem
Dorathea Drem defines nursing as:
a human service that is different from all other human services. She
indicates that nursing's special concern is man's need for the provision
and management of self-care action on a continuous basis in order to
sustain life and health or to recover from disease or injury.
Of those who preceded Orem, Henderson's and Orem's
definitions/concepts appear to be closely related. Both focus primarily on
the individual stress, assisting the individual with activities he/she can no
longer do for himself/herself and extending the defined boundaries of
nursing to include assisting the individual toward independence from
nursing or assistance toward a peaceful death.
Nursing's special concern or uniqueness rests with the individual's need

for self-care action and the provision and management of it on a
continuous basis in order to sustain life and health, recover from disease
or injury, and cope with their effects. Nursing is characterised as action
and as assistance. For activities to be considered as nursing, they must be
consciously selected and directed by the nurse toward accomplishing
nursing goals.
3.1.6 Callista Roy
Callista Roy defines nursing as:
a theoretical system of knowledge which prescribes a process of analysis

and action related to the care of the ill or potentially ill person. Nursing
35
is concerned with the person as a total being, interacting with a changing

environment and responding to stimuli present because of his/her
position on the health-illness continuum. When unusual stressors or
weakened coping -mechanisms make a person's usual attempts to cope
ineffective, then, the person needs a nurse.
Nursing consists of both the goal of nursing and nursing intervention.

Although the above statements of concepts of nursing originated from
different nurse leaders, nevertheless they share at least one focus.
1. Read each concept of nursing statement again and identify one

common focus.
2. You have decided to study professional nursing as a career.
-State your idea/concept of nursing
-Mention two factors that influenced your idea/concept of
nursing.
You will recall, as pointed out earlier, that a concept of nursing directs
and guides the nurse in her focus, choice of nursing activities and basis
for model and theory development. For example, Nightingale's concept
of nursing focused on the manipulation of the environment in line with
the laws of nature. The concept environment is further broken down into
less abstraction, whereby we now have physical, psychological and social
environment. As these are further broken into observable activities, they
provide further direction for the intervention activities.
This process will be further developed in subsequent nursing courses.
Think again of your own concept of nursing:
List five specific nursing activities that you can generate from it. The
activities should be things you can do (for example, making a patient's
bed, feeding).
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NSC219 MODULE 1
4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit you have been introduced to the concept of nursing. The unit
started with a general introduction to the topic, followed by statements of
specific objectives to be achieved at the end of the interaction. The
definition of concept as a general term was discussed and followed by
definition of 'concept of nursing'.
The concepts of nursing of six renowned nurse theorists were presented.

The importance of concepts in the derivation of nursing activities, as
foundations for nursing models and nursing theories was mentioned.
Exercises were given to assist you to monitor your learning.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have learnt about concepts, and concepts of Nursing.
Definitions from selected nurse theorists were made for illustrations,
starting from Florence Nightingale who is regarded as the founder of
Modem Nursing. This Unit serves as a theoretical foundation for the
subsequent Units in this and other nursing courses.
1. Define the term concept in the context of its general usage, and
state briefly how concepts evolve.
2. Define a concept of nursing and describe the roles concepts of
nursing play in the development of nursing.

Sciences.
and Practice, [by] Berman, Snyder. Pearson
trends, & management. Elsevier Health Sciences
37
 Fitzpatrick, J. J., & McCarthy, G. (2014). Theories guiding

nursing research and practice: Making nursing knowledge
development explicit. Springer Publishing Company.
 Henderson, V. (1966) The Nature of Nursing. New York: The
MacMillan Co.
38
NSC219 MODULE 1
UNIT 4 NURSING AS AN ART AND A SCIENCE
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Definitions
3.2 Nature of Nursing as an Art and a Science: Historical
development
3.2.1 Nursing as an Art
3.2.2 Nursing as a Science
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 References and other resources
7.0 Tutor-marked assignment
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Historically, the practice of nursing concentrated on groups of activities

identified, organised and practiced in such ways that the sick would have
succour and comfort. These activities are based on the natural needs of
man for survival. These natural needs are air, water, food, excretion
(elimination), stimulation, exercise, rest, sleep, comfort, safety, love and
belonging, self-esteem, and self-fulfillment. Nursing initially was
equated with mothering; hence activities were centred on these
parameters. The focus of nursing historically centered on the sick and the
injured that were unable or incapable of providing for themselves the
natural needs which Abraham Maslow later identified as basic human
needs.
Nursing, as a human service, designed activities and skills (tasks) that

facilitated recovery from sickness and injury. The skills constituted
nursing knowledge; hence the memorisation of the various skills formed
the process for learning nursing. The consumers also view competent
performance of the technical skills as the focus of nursing. The greater
the automaticity with which a task is performed, the higher the
competency rating.
39
This initial interpretation of the art of Nursing was very narrow. It

assumes that this task-oriented nursing does not require an understanding
of why the tasks are necessary, how they work, or what the effects will
be. This view assumes that nursing has no knowledge base of its own, nor
does it need one. The skills are regarded to be essentially manual and
technical and reflect the knowledge of other disciplines, especially
medicine. Hence the common expression: "Nursing is tied to the apron
string of medicine". This might have been true for much of the pre-and
early Nightingale era. Nursing as a science, on the other hand, views
nursing as an intellectual process and activity. "
In current professional nursing art and science are not discrete entities.
They are on a continuum of interpersonal interaction, which has specific
goals and involves particular kinds of activities/tasks. A universally
accepted process is applied in the practice of nursing science. Some
aspects of this topic have been discussed in units 2 and 3 and will also be
expanded in unit 5, Nursing as a Profession.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
By the of this unit, you will be able to:
i. define the concepts art and science as in general usage

ii. describe the historical development of art and science in
Nursing
iii. enumerate at least two factors that influenced the art and
science of nursing
iv. discuss the application of art and science in the content and
process of nursing.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Definitions
Most of the general definition of ‘Art’ are applicable to Nursing. The

Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary defines Art as:
The Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary defines Art as:
• Skill acquired by experience, study, or observation.
• An occupation requiring knowledge or skill
40
NSC219 MODULE 1
• The conscious use of skill and creative imagination; A skillful

plan
• The faculty of carrying out expertly what is planned or devised.
• An ability or skill that can be developed with training and
practice.
Science is defined as:
 Possession of knowledge as distinguished from ignorance
or misunderstanding.
 Knowledge attained through study or practice
 Something that may be studied or learned like systematized
knowledge.
 Knowledge covering general truths, or the operation of general
laws especially as obtained and tested through scientific method.
 Such knowledge concerned with the physical world and its
phenomena
 A system or a method based or purporting to be based on
scientific principles.
The realisation of these definitions may not be fully experienced by you

at the end of the study of this unit. But, as you progress in your nursing
studies, each definition will unfold with a variety of nursing situations.
You need to keep this foundation information in constant perspective.
EXERCISE 1
Select one definition each from the Art and the Science. Think of your
past experiences in nursing (education, practice/care, management),
March the definition with narration of your experience.
3.2 Nature of Nursing as an Art and a Science: Historical

Development
3.2.1 Nursing as an Art
Nursing as an art encompasses the organisation and care of the clients'

environment communication, general care of clients, and performance of
clinical procedures and miscellaneous nursing skills. All these are
performed with the application of Levine's four conservation principles
which are: conservation of energy, Conservation of Structural Integrity,
41
conservation of Psychological Integrity and Conservation of Social

Integrity. These principles consider the clients, Nurses, families,
community members, and other health professionals.
Historically, the practice of nursing concentrated on groups of activities

identified, organised, and practiced in such ways that the sick would have
succour and comfort. Nightingale described two different types of
nursing, sick nursing or "nursing proper" and healthy nursing, which
required an organised, scientific, and formal education. Nightingale
meaning of nursing activity was a departure from the previous common
belief that nursing is a collection of tasks or procedures requiring some
skills, and are initiated and directed by others, particularly physicians
whose functions they exist to assist. So, there were no independent
nursing functions. Because they required skill, some training was
necessary. But competent performance did not require an understanding
of why the task is necessary, how it works, and what the effect would be.
Nursing had no knowledge base of its own; its skills were essentially
technical.
Nightingale saw nursing proper as both an art and a science that require
organised scientific formal education. She perceived nursing as being
distinct from medicine, asserted that nursing concern was with the client
who was il1, rather than the illness which was the focus of medicine.
Although nurses were to carry out physicians' orders, they were to do
these only with an independent sense of responsibility for their actions.
talking about Nursing as an Art, one needs to examine the various
activities in nursing, of goals of securing comfort and succour to the
clients be it in health or sickness. Nightingale in her book Notes of
Nursing discussed various activities of the nurse and how these could be
artistically organised that the goals of care are achieved. Safety, comfort,
pleasing to the sense, are essentials of a nursing activity, which are to be
directed towards the environment as well as the client.
The basic nursing focus, activities and procedures identified by

Nightingale and taught to her students of St., Thomas Hospital, School of
Nursing London, are still the Nursing Arts of professional nursing today.
Why? Because the process has consistently focused on clients personal
and universal needs in the context of the human environment. However,
the process of arriving at needs had been greatly influenced by knowledge
42
NSC219 MODULE 1
and the scientific method: Nightingale emphasised the importance of

observation and documentation in the nurse-client interactions.
1. You are asked to apply a bandage dressing to the forearm and

wrist of a client who sustained a soft tissue injury. Describe your
activity in terms of Nursing as an Art.
2. List two factors that have aided your skill development of a
chosen nursing care task.
3.2.2 Nursing as a Science
In the bid to achieve the professional status nursing has striven hard in
the 1st 100 years to fulfill the characteristics of a profession. A very
important requirement for professional status is that the profession has a
theoretical body of knowledge leading to defined skills, abilities, and
norms. Nursing knowledge has been developed through nursing theories.
Theoretical models serve as frameworks for nursing curricula and clinical
practice. Nursing theories also lead to further research that increases the
scientific basis of nursing practice.
Although the outward and visible signs of nursing care are what the nurse
does for, with or on behalf of a client, her actions are based on a series of
intellectual processes that are not directly visible. Together these
intellectual activities and nursing actions are called the nursing process.
Essentially, the nursing process is a systematic method of problem
solving applied to nursing situations and based on scientific method.
Other non-systematic problem-solving methods such as intuition,
experience, tradition, trial and error are used in nursing. But the reliability
under is often low.
The purposes of the nursing process are to meet the general objectives
towards which the nursing care of all clients is directed. The objectives
may include:
 Personalising the care of each client.

 Ascertaining, supporting, and maintaining client's capacity for
meeting the physiological, psychological, social and spiritual
needs, as well as recognising the client's strengths and limitations
43
 Protecting the client from threats to his safety comfort and

wellbeing
 Supporting, comforting and sustaining the client and to ease his
suffering during all phases of illness.
 Assisting in the restoration of the client to the fullest capacity of
which he/she is capable.
 Considering the client's family members and friends as persons
with legitimate interest and roles to play in his well-being
 Assisting the client and the family in planning for the required
care.
For these general objectives to be achieved, there must be a

complementarity between the type of problems presented by the clients
and the goal the nurse pursues in an effort to help the client meet an
otherwise unmet need (patient problems). It is at the point of intervention
that nursing art manifests. The relevance, quality quantity and
organisation of the art as an outcome of a scientific process that confirms
nursing care as scientific and nursing as a profession. In addition to the
process knowledge from relevant disciplines would be consulted and
utilised.
4.0 CONCLUSION
In essence Nursing as an Art and as a science could be described as two

faces of a coin. Just as the task, skill or procedure is an outcome of a
scientific process, the task, skill, or procedure may become a source for
scientific investigation. The emphasis on nursing as an art without
obvious intellectual activity might have been responsible for the view that
nursing is just a collection of tasks and procedures, which requires some
skill and therefore some training. The competent performance does not
require understanding of why the task is necessary, how it works, and
what the effects would be. But the intellectual activity of nurses by the
application of the scientific process, clinical judgement based on
knowledge, and research in nursing and publications in nursing journals
continue to strengthen the professional image of nursing.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have examined nursing as an art, and as a science.

Definitions of the concept’s art and science in the broad general usage
44
NSC219 MODULE 1
were presented. Discussion of each concept from the professional

perspective was presented, and the relationships in terms of the scientific
process and practice of nursing were also presented.
1. Define the concepts art and science.

2. Explain briefly the development of (i) nursing as an art (ii)
nursing as a science.
3. Explain how nursing as an art and nursing as a science could be
considered as the two faces of a coin.
 Benner, P. (1984). From Device to Expert: Excellence and Power

in Clinical nursing practice, Men! Park, Calif, 1. Addison-Wesley.
 Benner, P., Tanner C (1987). How Expert Nurses Use Intuition.
Am. J. Nurse 87 (1): 23,1987.
Sciences.
 Clark, J. Nursing: An Intellectual Activity, International Nursing
Review 39, 2, 1992.
Company.
history. Mosby.
45

Routledge.
(2009). Fundamentals of nursing. Elsevier mosby.
46
NSC219 MODULE 1
UNIT 5 NURSING AS A PROFESSION
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Definition
3.2 Characteristics of a Profession
3.3 Progress of Nursing Towards Professional Status
3.3.1 Elements of Professionalism in Nursing
3.3.2 Education
3.3.3 Theory Development
3.3.4 Specific Service
3.3.5 Autonomy of Decision Making and Practice
3.3.6 Accountability
3.3.7 Code of Ethics
3.3.8 Professional Organisations
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
7.0 References/Further reading
1.0 INTRODUCTION
You will recall that the science and art of nursing are important
contributors to the professionalisation of Nursing. In this unit we shall
discuss nursing as a profession. Take a few minutes off to review your
last lesson before starting on todays. It will help you to appreciate the
close inter-relatedness of the two units.
The discussion will start with the definition of 'profession' as a general

concept; some disciplines that are usually referred to as professions will
be identified; how nursing in its practice and development has been
progressing towards the attainment of an ideal profession will be
examined and attempts made by nursing in Nigeria towards
professionalism will be highlighted.
47
You will be requested to respond to tutor-marked assignment and

exercises in the text to help monitor your progress, and a Tutor -Marked
Assignment (TMA) will serve as the summative evaluation for the unit,
References to further reading and resources are also provided.
The following unit objectives indicate what you should accomplish at the
of this unit.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you will be able to:
i. define 'profession'
ii. enumerate the characteristics of a professional discipline
iii. discuss how nursing is progressing towards the ideal
professional status
iv.identify the efforts being made towards realisation of
professional nursing status in Nigeria.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Definition
You might have read and heard discussions about some occupations
being referred to as professions. How about the occupations such as
accountancy teaching? There are many more. Although the occupations
mentioned many others are distinct in emphasis and activities, they share
the recognition being professions. What then does being a profession
mean? Is your dictionary with you? Check the dictionary meaning of the
word 'profession'.
The Webster New Collegiate Dictionary states a few definitions, but

those found to be most relevant are Profession being:
1. A calling requiring specialised knowledge and often long and

intensive academic preparation.
2. A principal calling. Vocation or employment.
3. The whole body of persons engaged in a calling.
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NSC219 MODULE 1
Do you have similar statements in your dictionary? Remember! That I

mentioned that there are a few statements, but that those quoted appear to
be the most relevant composite. The statements can be reconstructed to
read: "Profession is the whole body of persons engaged in a principal
called, vocation or employment requiring specialised knowledge and
often long and intensive academic preparation".
It is worth noting that unlike many concepts, profession is not defined

with a single statement but with a construct. Hence it is from the construct
or characteristics that the meaning can be inferred. To construct is to
make or form by combining parts. Which means that all parts are
necessary for a meaningful whole. Some authors have also offered
descriptions of the concept -profession. Let us examine the one described
by Etzioni (1961). He describes professions in terms of the following
primary characteristics.
List five occupations that are of professional status applying the

definitions/constructs.
3.2 Characteristics of a Profession
The primary characteristics of a profession as described by Etzions

(1961) are as follows among others:
 It requires an extended education of its members as well as a

basic liberal foundation.
 It has a theoretical body of knowledge leading to defined skills,
abilities, and norms.
 It provides a specific service.
 Members of a profession have autonomy in decision-making and
practice.
 The profession has a code of ethics for practice.
EXERCISE 2
Can you find similarities in the two sets of characteristics of a profession

and an occupation? Try to match them.
49
3.3 Progress of Nursing Towards Professional Status
Most occupations do not acquire the elements of a professional status

over-night. It is a gradual developmental process. Hence in reality, any
specific occupational group might be placed or ranked along a continuum
ranging from 'non-professional to professional status, according to the
degree which the occupational group manifested the elements of
professionalism. In Nursing, the bid for professional status started with
Florence Nightingale reforms. It has taken nursing over a century to travel
to its present profession status.
Let us examine the occupation of Nursing. It is a professional occupation

Having been part of the development in nursing for over hundred years,
a witnessed and participated in various development, I want you to know
that nursing is not simply a collection of specific skills and the nurse is
not simply a person trained to perform specific tasks only. Nursing has
come a long way to becoming a profession.
No one factor absolutely differentiates an occupation from a profession;

because the difference is important in terms of how nurses practice. When
we say that a person acts professionally, we are implying that the person
is conscientious in actions, knowledgeable in the subject, and responsible
to self and others. Therefore, when one examines both the various
descriptions of a profession one would see that nursing clearly possesses
to some extent, the characteristics. However, nursing is still evolving as
a profession and faces controversial issues as nurses strive for greater
professionalism.
3.3.1 Elements of Professionalism in Nursing
If one says that Nursing is a profession, then it is necessary to discuss the

activities that support such an assertion.
3.3.1.1 Education
Nursing requires that its members possess a significant amount of

education The issue of standardisation of nursing education is a major
discussion today in the wide world of nursing. Most nurses agree that
nursing education is important to practice and that it must respond to
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NSC219 MODULE 1
changes in health care created by scientific and technologies advances.

The race for education for nurses started by Florence Nightingale in the
19th Century in the United Kingdom and Germany had moved to
different parts of the world where it has developed and is still developing.
Nurses in North America and Canada started the movement of nursing
education into universities, and this movement is influencing nursing
education in practically all countries of the world. It is a universal
agreement that education is important to the type of practice that would
meet today's client’s needs. As discussed in Unit 2, Historical
development of nursing, nursing in the USA has led the world in lifting
nursing education to unprecedented heights by relocating nursing
education from sole apprenticeship system in hospitals to universities.
The American Nurses Association (ANA) in 1984 directed that
professional nurse require the Bachelor of Science in Nursing before
practicing nursing. Many universities offer higher degrees in nursing
making it possible for nurses to undertake research and develop nursing
theories. Research facilitates the development of new knowledge and
modes of nursing practice. Continuing education programmes are
available for older nurses.
In the UK, the Royal College of Nursing and the UKCC embarked on
various advanced and continuing education programmes inside and
outside the universities. Universities and other higher institutions of
learning offering nursing courses at degree levels have risen by over 60
percent the past twenty years.
In Nigeria, the Nursing and Midwifery Council of Nigeria, the National

Association of Nigerian Nurses and Midwives and the Ministry of Health
have been working towards the improvement in nursing education
through curricular reviews, support for undergraduate and graduate
programmes in nursing, and the enabling legislation. Today in Nigeria we
have numbers of universities offering nursing programmes
3.3.1.2 Theory Development
As nursing emerged as a profession and with the quality of education

improving, nursing knowledge began to develop through nursing
theories. Theoretical models serve as frameworks for nursing curricula
and clinical practice, nursing theories also lead to further research that
increase the scientific bases of nursing practice. A theory is a way of
51
understanding a reality, and in this general sense all practicing nurses use
the theories they have learnt.
You have come across the word’s 'model' and 'theory' in Concepts of
Nursing, where they were mentioned in passing. They will be discussed
in detail next semester in NSC212 - Foundation of Professional Nursing
Practice II
3.3.1.3 Specific service
A profession is expected to provide a specific service relating to identified

needs of clients. The clients also recognise the need for the service being
rendered. Nursing has always been a service profession, although usually
viewed as a charitable one. The nurse is no longer primarily limited to
the hospital environment but has increasingly moved out into the
neighbourhood and community in identifying health care needs and
planning and executing appropriate interventions.
In addition to effecting change, nursing is offering an increasing number

of services to society. You will recall from discussion in unit 2 - Historical
Development of Nursing, ‘service' form the major emphasis of all the
definitions of nursing. The focus of activities in the-Nightingale and post-
Nightingale era was service to humanity. You should review the Units
again.
3.3.1.4 Autonomy in Decision Making and Practice
Autonomy is the quality or state of being self-governing. Have you

experienced autonomy before? When you had to look after your own
affairs without someone looking over your shoulders, think of how you
felt. The same applies to Nursing. Autonomy means that a person, group
or organisation' reasonably independent and self: -governing in decision
making and practice.
It has been difficult for nurses to attain the degree of freedom enjoyed by
other professionals. Until recent times, physicians, hospital
administrators and others directed nurses in the health care delivery
system because they could not understand why nurses require autonomy.
Thank goodness for increased clinical competence and better education
52
NSC219 MODULE 1
preparation. Nurses are increasingly taking independent roles in nurse run

clinics, collaborative practice, and advanced nursing practice.
In Nigeria nursing autonomy remains a thorny issue. The tradition of the

physician holding tightly to the reins of control is evident. This is an area
of conflict between the two professions. The genesis of this has been the
great disparity in the educational level, the nurses' being much lower. The
educations of the nurses did not prepare them for self-confidence and
assertiveness. With the upgrading of nurses general and professional
education inclusion of liberal arts subjects in the professional education,
and the gradual relocation of nursing education into institutions of higher
learning, the nurse is beginning to gain control of their profession. Nurses
are becoming more self-confident and assertive. The quality of education
is having this effect on nurses. Other health care professionals are also
beginning to appreciate the new qualities in nurses. Communication and
Interpersonal Relationships are becoming positive.
3.3.1.5 Accountability
Like it is in normal life, the greater the autonomy one has the greater the
responsibility and accountability. Accountability simply means being
answerable for one’s actions or deeds. For the professional nurse
however, accountability means that the nurse is responsible,
professionally, and legally for the type and quality of nursing care
provided. The nurse is accountable for keeping abreast of technical skills
and the knowledge required for performing nursing care. A nurse is
accountable to self, the client, the profession, the employer, and society.
For example, if a nurse injects a drug into the wrong site, she will be
accountable to the client who received the drug, the physician who
prescribed it, the nursing service that set standards of expected
performance, and society that demands professional excellence. To be
accountable, the nurse acts according to the Code of Ethics. Thus, when
an error occurs, the nurse reports it, and initiates care to prevent further
injury.
The nursing profession in most parts of the world regulates accountability

through the process of nursing audits and setting of standards of practice.
In summary professional accountability serve the following purposes:
53
 Evaluates new professional practices and assesses existing ones:

Maintains standards of healthcare.
 Facilitates personal reflection, ethical thought, and personal
growth on the part of the health professionals and
 Provides basis for ethical decision-making.
In Nigeria nursing area, accountability has not received the attention it

deserves. This analysis is not confined to nursing alone, it is a public
problem that thrives because clients hardly exercise their rights. Human
Rights issues are now topical, and the general population is becoming
enlightened about their rights. Human Rights, Accountability and
Standards of Nursing practice have feature prominently in nursing
curricula and in practice manuals. Nurses are now more knowledgeable
about nursing Standards, Nursing Audit and Human Rights than two
decades ago. There is a general political will towards the implementation
of these concepts.
3.3.1.6 Code of Ethics
In all human cultures, there are ethical codes that govern interactions
between people and the environment-physical, psychological, social and
spiritual. Most cultures inculcate into their offspring values and ethical
behaviour characteristic of their groups. So at the professional level, the
values and codes of ethics of the profession must be internalised. Many
countries have developed their Codes of Nursing Ethics, guided by the
Code of Nursing Ethics from the International Council of Nurses (ICN).
Write on a sheet of paper one Ethical statement in your culture. Compare
it with the Ethical Principles below. Is there one with similarity in
meaning or characteristic?
Nursing operates under a code of ethics, which defines the principles by

which nurses’ function. In addition, nurses incorporate their own values
and ethics into practice. The discussion on ethics will be brief here, as a
Unit solely on ethics will be discussed in Foundation of Nursing. It is
being mentioned here as a requirement for professionalism. Only the
ethical principles will be highlighted.
High on the list of ethical principles is Respect for autonomy,

nonmaleficence; beneficence; and justice. The secondary principles
include veracity, confidentiality, and fidelity.
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NSC219 MODULE 1
Check the definitions of these ethical principles
Which other profession would use the ethical principles in their

professional discourse?
3.3.1.7 Professional Organisations
Members of a professional group are required to form formal professional

associations that are to deal with issues of concern to those practicing in
the profession. In Nigeria, there is the National Association of Nigeria
Nurse and Midwives (NANNM). The mandate is to improve the
standards of nursing education of nursing practice; foster a higher
standard for nursing, and to promote the professional development,
general and economic welfare of nurses and midwives. NANNM is
affiliated to the International Council of Nurses (ICN) whose aims are to
promote National Association of Nurses, improve standards of nursing
practice, seek a higher status for nurses, and provide an international
power base for nurses.
Some specialty areas such as preoperative, Orthopedic, Intensive Care,

Public Health, Ophthalmology, Association of Nigeria Nurse Educators,
also formed Associations that seek to improve the standards of practice,
expand nursing roles, and foster the welfare of nurses within the specialty
areas. In addition, some of these professional organisations present
education programs and public journals. The Nigeria Nurse, Nigerian
Nurse-Educator Journal, are examples of publications.
4.0 CONCLUSION
As any occupation of discipline approaches professional status, there

occur important internal and structural changes and changes in the
relation of the practitioners to society at large. A useful way of discussing
these changes is by reference to the criteria of professionalisation. The
traditional focus of nursing is service to society. The elements of
professionalisation have greatly influenced the direction and
development of nursing, and invariably the quality of service to society.
55
5.0 SUMMARY
You have learnt from this unit the definition of the concept profession as
shared by many professional occupations. The basic characteristics
shared by professions are highlighted. Professionalisation in an
occupation is a gradual and continuing process. You have learnt the
process of professionalisation in Nursing and how this has influenced the
direction of, and quality of care. How professionalism is influencing
nursing in Nigeria was discussed.
1. Define 'profession'.
2. Enumerate the six basic characteristics of a profession.
3. Discuss the role education plays in the professionalisation of
nursing generally and Nigeria in particular.

Sciences.
Routledge.
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NSC219 MODULE 1
MODULE 2 NATURE OF NURSING II
UNIT 1 THE ROLE AND FUNCTIONS OF THE NURSE
CONTENT
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 The Nurse as a Teacher
3.2 The Nurse as a Counsellor
3.3 The Nurse as a Caregiver
3.4 The Nurse as a Manager
3.5 The nurse as a Communicator
3.6 The Nurse as a Client Advocate
3.7 The Nurse as a Change Agent
3.8 The Nurse as a Leader
3.9 The Nurse as a Case Manager
3.10 The Nurse as a Researcher
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor- Marked Assignment
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The last two units examined the nature of nursing as a science and as an
art and as a profession. By this, the foundation you require for the
assumption of your roles and functions as a nurse has been laid. A nurse
is anyone who has undergone the prescribed type and length of training
and certified by the Nursing and Midwifery Council of Nigeria to practice
nursing. A nurse may be prepared as a generalist or a specialist as
midwifery, psychiatry or community health nursing etc. Nursing then is
primarily assisting the (sick or well) in the performance of those activities
contributing to health or its recovery (or to a peaceful death) that he would
have done unaided if he had the necessary strength, will or knowledge
(Henderson, 1966).
57
There has been changing scene in nursing practice with the polyvalent
care provider adaptation in response to changes in the society, thus nurses
assume several roles when they provide care to clients. The International
Council of Nursing in 1983 decide to shift the focus of nursing from
curative care, medically circumscribed and hospital-based orientation to
be involved in all aspects of decision-making. The American Nurses
Association (ANA) developed standards of nursing practice that are
generic in nature using the nursing process as a guide regardless of area
of specialization.
This unit will examine the roles and functions of the nurse as a teacher,
counselor, caregiver, manager, communicator, client advocate, change
agent, leader, case manager and researcher.
You will be expected to observe colleagues in your hospital playing these

roles while you can also role play the same as part of your clinical
demonstration.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
i.identify the polyvalent role of a nurse in a changing society

ii.describe the changing roles of the nurses and effects on
health care delivery
iii.discuss the managerial process required by a nurse manager
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 The Nurse as a Teacher
A nurse offers her services to a client and assists the individual in the
performance of those activities leading to healthy living through teaching
and observation.
A nurse as a teacher at both hospital and community level explains the

concept and facts about health and illness to clients, demonstrates
procedures such as self-care activities (wound dressing, treatment of
pressure areas, changing of position, etc.); reinforces learning or client
behavior and evaluate progress in learning. The ultimate goal is to
provide knowledge that will lead to change of attitude and practice. The
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NSC219 MODULE 1
nurse assesses the client’s learning needs and

readiness to learn, sets specific learning goals in conjunction with
the client, enacts teaching strategies, and measures learning. The nurse-
teacher may be formal or informal in her teaching. It may be planned or
unplanned (as it depends on wherever it is required).
Appropriate methods matching clients' capabilities with needs and

incorporating other resources such as the family in the process. Health
education is a major activity when a nurse truly demonstrates the teaching
role. As a role model in hygiene and interpersonal relationship, he/she
teach on self-care, ante-natal care, exercise, administration of insulin and
urine testing by diabetic patients. Health behaviour and risks are
identified, and preventive measures are packaged to help clients.
Nurses should understand the culture and values of the people to foster
and promote cooperation and understanding. As she teaches, she also
listens and, observes the effect on the client to establish therapeutic nurse-
patient relationship.
Nurses also teach unlicensed assistive personnel (UAP) to whom they

delegate care, and they share their expertise with other nurses and health
professionals.
1. What are the 3 main activities of a nurse-teacher?

2. What does a nurse teacher intend to achieve afterwards?
3.2 The Nurse as a Counsellor
Counseling is the process of helping a client to recognize and cope

with stressful psychological or social problems, to develop improved
interpersonal relationships, and to promote personal growth. It involves
providing emotional, intellectual, and psychological support.
The nurse counsels primarily healthy individuals with normal adjustment
difficulties and focuses on helping the person develop new
attitudes, feelings, and behaviors by encouraging the client to look at
alternative behaviors, recognize the choices, and develop a sense of
control
59
The nurse is faced daily with issues that have psychological influence on
her clients. A nurse counselor puts herself in the place of the client
(empathic), creates a conducive atmosphere to discuss thereby getting
into root cause of the expressed problem, dissolve doubts and fears which
are the underlying issue that may affect client’s recovery.
A nurse counselor sees beyond her client's expression; observes clients'

attitudes, looks, involves the relation in the care of the client and establish
healthful relationship. Health is perceived in bio-psycho-social realms
whereas physical care provides health to the physical and social areas,
psychological/mental health is often neglected. Couple will require
counseling on marital harmony, family planning, identifying the
predominate symptoms of a maladaptive lifestyle and re-integrating a
psychiatric patient to the life in the community. A nurse counsellor ought
to be sensitive to his/her client’s needs, commend him/her when there is
an improvement and encourage her to keep it up. The aim of the nurse is
to assist client to willingly accept treatment for an identified problem in
order to recover early and live a healthy life. The nurse counselor also
keeps records.
1. List 4 qualities of a nurse counsellor.

2. Now go back to 3.1 and 3.2 to see (of any) the difference(s) in
the identified role. Discuss with your colleagues.
3.3 The Nurse as a Caregiver
The caregiver role has traditionally included those activities that

assist the client physically and psychologically while preserving the
client’s dignity. The required nursing actions may involve full care for
the completely dependent client, partial care for the partially dependent
client, and supportive-educative care to assist clients in attaining
their highest possible level of health and wellness. Caregiving
encompasses the physical, psychosocial, developmental, cultural, and
spiritual levels. The nursing process provides nurses with a framework
for
providing care.
Caregiving is the conventional role of a nurse as expressed in the

definition of nursing by Henderson (1966). Also, Nursing as
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NSC219 MODULE 1
demonstrated by Florence Nightingale (1860) is the act of caring not only

for the sick, but also the well. The commitment of a nurse to patient’s
care is total (physical, mental, social) wellbeing thereby providing
holistic care.
A nurse helps the client regain health through the healing process,
addresses the needs of client, restore emotional and social wellbeing, sets
goals for client and family for care. Even at the primary health care level,
the nurse as a care giver cuddles a child, 'lay hands or touch' as in nursing
a sick child or adult with fever, immunisation, ante-natal care, care during
labour and after delivery.
A nurse care giver possesses scientific knowledge with which she uses
her judgment in assessing client’s needs, plan appropriate nursing care,
implement and evaluate in order to make decisions. The nurse as a
caregiver is health oriented, continuity of care through referral among
other health and social agencies is also included. She is available in the 3
(three) tiers of health care primary, secondary and tertiary. Nurses
shifting period covering the 24 hours provides closest contact with a
multidimensional role in the maintenance and promotion of health,
prevention and curing of disease, rehabilitation and advocate better
nursing care for the clients/patients. A nurse may provide care directly or
delegate it to other caregivers.
3.4 The Nurse as a Manager
The nurse manages the nursing care of individuals, families, and

communities. The nurse manager also delegates nursing activities
to ancillary workers and other nurses and supervises and evaluates
their performance. He/she co-ordinates the activities of nursing as well as
other members of healthcare working with her in the provision of total
clients’ care. The tools employed include planning, organising, directing,
coordinating, budgeting and the reporting. The nurse in the performance
of her daily professional work employs these tools unknowingly. For
example, a nurse on morning shift organises the daily schedule, monitors
and supervises them and report at the end of the shift to ensure continued
care by the incoming nurse. The nurse manager plans her time, resources
(human and materials), engages everyone around her in one thing or the
other and supervises them to ensure the ultimate interest of the client.
61
The utilisation of the management process by a nurse makes her an

adviser to the community, individual client, interactions with various
organisations, consultations on perceived needs, evaluation of task
performed based on set goals and objectives, and professing solutions to
identified problems. Managing requires knowledge about organizational
structure and dynamics, authority and accountability, leadership, change
theory, advocacy, delegation, and supervision and
evaluation.
3.5 The Nurse as a Communicator
Communication is integral to all nursing roles. Nurses communicate with

the client, support persons, other health professionals, and people in the
community. In the role of communicator, nurses identify client
problems
and then communicate these verbally or in writing to other members
of the health care team. The quality of a nurse’s communication is an
important factor in nursing care. The nurse must be able to communicate
clearly and accurately for a client’s health care needs to
be met
3.6 The Nurse as a Client Advocate
The nurse as a client advocate acts to protect the client right. An

advocate informs clients about their rights and provides them with
the information they need to make informed decisions. In this role the
nurse
may represent the client’s needs and wishes to other health professionals,
such as relaying the client’s request for information to the
health care provider. They also assist clients in exercising their rights
and help them speak up for themselves. Advocacy
requires accepting and respecting the client’s right to decide, even if
the nurse believes the decision to be wrong.
In mediating, the advocate directly intervenes on the client’s behalf, often
by influencing others. An example of acting on behalf of a
client is asking a primary care provider to review with the client the
reasons for and the expected duration of therapy because the client
says he always forgets to ask the primary care provider.
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3.7 The Nurse as a Change Agent
The nurse acts as a change agent when assisting clients to make

modifications in their behavior. Nurses also often act to make
changes in a system, such as clinical care, if it is not helping a client
return to health. Nurses are continually dealing with change in the
health care system. Technologic change, change in the age of the client
population, and changes in medications are just a few of the changes
nurses deal with daily.
3.8 The Nurse as a Leader
A leader influences others to work together to accomplish a specific

goal. The leader role can be employed at different levels: individual
client, family, groups of clients, colleagues, or the community. Effective
leadership is a learned process requiring an understanding of
the needs and goals that motivate people, the knowledge to apply the
leadership skills, and the interpersonal skills to influence others.
3.9 The Nurse as a Case Manager
Nurse case managers work with the multidisciplinary health care

team to measure the effectiveness of the case management plan and
to monitor outcomes. Each agency or unit specifies the role of the
nurse case manager. In some institutions, the case manager works
with primary or staff nurses to oversee the care of a specific caseload.
In other agencies, the case manager is the primary nurse or provides
some level of direct care to the client and family. Insurance companies
have also developed several roles for nurse case managers,
and responsibilities may vary from managing acute hospitalizations
to managing high-cost clients or case types. Regardless of the setting,
case managers help ensure that care is oriented to the client, while
controlling costs
3.10 The Nurse as a Researcher
Nursing has moved from being task oriented to knowledge oriented. Re-
search is a quest for new knowledge pertinent to an identified area of
interest through application of the scientific process. Nursing has
63
embraced research in her practice thus becoming self-regulatory and self-

determining.
A nurse researcher identifies, investigates, and analyses clients/patients’

problems/needs. She sets out plan for care, implement and then evaluate.
Findings are communicated in writing and applied to a whole group or
class of clients. The process of research helps the nurse to provide care
on a one-to-one basis focusing on every patient as an individual requiring
an individualised care. A nurse researcher through her holistic approach
coupled with the research skills uses an interdisciplinary team in
providing comprehensive care to the clients.
1. List the 5 steps required by a nurse researcher.

2. Describe the polyvalent role of a nurse in a changing society
4.0 CONCLUSION
The nursing role is multidimensional despite her expected role of

maintenance and promotion of health, prevention and curing of diseases
and rehabilitation, the nurse still functions as an advocate interceding for
patients to obtain health services from various community health
agencies.
The nurse interprets patient's needs to his family to carry them along as
well as articulating the services of all disciplines in the health care. The
decision making of a nurse helps her to employ different skills for
effective care. The scope and range of nursing responsibilities become
enlarged, specialties in nursing as depicted by the changing roles of
nurses will assist greatly, support new and promising methods of
delivering health care services more effectively.
5.0 SUMMARY
In summary the roles and functions of the nurse is presented below
Role Function Examples

Addressing the
Listening to lung sounds
physical, emotional,
Caregiver Giving medications
social, and spiritual
Patient teaching
needs of the client
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Using interpersonal and

therapeutic
communication skills to Counselling a client
address the needs of the Discussing staffing needs
client, to facilitate at a unit
Communicator
communication in the meeting
healthcare team, and to Providing HIV education
advise the community at a local school
about health promotion
and disease prevention
Assessing and
diagnosing the teaching
needs of the client,
group, family, or Preoperative teaching
community. Once the Prenatal education for
Client/patient
diagnosis is made, siblings
teacher/educator
nurses plan how to meet Community classes on
these needs, implement nutrition
the teaching plan, and
evaluate its
effectiveness.
Supporting clients’ right
to make healthcare
decisions when they are Helping a client explain
able to voice their to his family that he does
Client advocate
opinions and protecting not want to have further
clients from harm when chemotherapy
they are unable to make
decisions
Using therapeutic
Counselling a client on
communication skills to
Counsellor weight-loss
advise clients about
strategies
health-related issues
Advocating for change
on an individual,
family, group,
Working to improve the
community, or societal
nutritional
level that enhances
Change agent quality of the lunch
health. The nurse may
program at a
use counselling,
preschool
communication, and
educator skills to
accomplish this change.
Inspiring others by Florence Nightingale
Leader setting an example of Francis Oguntolu
positive health, Kofoworola Pratt,
65
assertive Oluyinka Sofenwa,

communication, and
willingness to improve
Charge nurse on a
Coordinating and
hospital unit
managing the
Manager (e.g., assigns patients and
activities of all
work to
members of the team
staff nurses)
Coordinator of services
Coordinating the care
Case manager for clients with
delivered to a client
tuberculosis
Applying evidence-
based practice to
provide the most
Reading journal articles
appropriate care, to
Attending continuing
Researcher identify clinical
education; seeking
problems that warrant
additional education
research, and to protect
the rights of
research subject
6.0 TUTOR- MARKED ASSIGNMENT
1. Discuss (in less than 300 words) the 5 roles of a nurse in a

changing society.
2. Identify and describe the managerial skills/process required by a
nurse in-charge of the outpatient department of a Specialist
Hospital.

Sciences.
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NSC219 MODULE 1

Company.
history. Mosby.
 Henderson, V. (1966). The Nature of Nursing, New York, Mac
Milan Publishing Co. (15th ed.).
Routledge.
(2009). Fundamentals of nursing. Elsevier Mosby.
 Santhosh, M. et al. (2000). Role of Nurse in Primary Health Care
Primary Health Nursing (PHN) Handbook of the Indira Gandhi
National Open University, New Delhi, Berry Art Press.
67
UNIT 2 NURSING CARE DELIVER
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Definition of Care Delivery System
3.2 Types of Client Care Delivery System
3.2.1 Case Management
3.2.2 Functional Nursing
3.2.3 Team Nursing
3.2.4 Primary Nursing
3.3 Strengths and Weaknesses of Nursing Care Delivery
systems
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Delivery of nursing care is a means to achieve the goals of a healthcare

organisation. The effective delivery of nursing care requires efficiency in
an organisation that promotes high productivity and staff adequately.
Clients are usually placed in various categories to help in determining
staffing needs based on the kind and amount of care needed. When clients
with similar conditions or treatments are grouped together, special
equipment needed in the care of these clients may be kept in one
department, thus eliminating duplicating; however, there is danger that
the clients will become so stereo- typed that their individual needs are
ignored. Some of the categories that are being used are based on:
 the amount of care needed, e.g., self-care or manorial care, partial

care, or complete or intensive care.
 Age, e.g., pediatric or geriatric.
 diagnosis of condition being treated, e.g., cardiopulmonary or
bums.
 therapy being given, e.g., dialysis, chemotherapy.
 sex, sometimes on religious grounds. population of clients.
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In Nigeria, a combination of these categories is used. Classification of

clients guides the staffing pattern and the assignment pattern used for
nursing care delivery. The philosophy and the goals of the health care
organisation also influence the staffing and assignment patterns. Identify
the categories being used in the organisation of the care of clients. How
do the categories compare to those discussed above? The discussion that
follows will identify the major nursing care delivery patterns commonly
used in Nigerian healthcare institutions.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
i. define 'nursing care delivery'.

ii. list the major categories used in determining nursing care
delivery system.
iii. describe the four common nursing care delivery systems
iv. recognise the application of each system in client care settings
v. discuss the strengths and weaknesses of each nursing care
delivery system.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Definition of Nursing Care Delivery System
Client care delivery refers to the way nursing care is organised and
provided. It is organised at the unit level. The type of client care delivery
system used in a healthcare organisation reflects the organisation's
philosophy; it also depends on factors such as organisational structure,
nurse staffing, client population, and client's health problems and nursing
care needs.
i. Define 'nursing care delivery'.

ii. List 3 factors within a healthcare organisation that could
influence client nursing care delivery.
69
3.2. Types of Client Care Delivery Systems
In this unit four systems will be discussed. They are:

 Case management nursing
 Functional nursing
 Team nursing
 Primary nursing
3.2.1 Case management
This is the first and oldest approach to client care. It involves a 1 to 1

nurse patient ratio, with the one nurse responsible for caring for one
patient and providing all, the patient, care required while on duty. The
nurse responsible for the care reports to a head nurse, charge nurse, or
nurse manager. Although this approach to patient care is expensive it
continues to be used in critical care units, labour, delievery and in other
life-threatening situations. Depending on the education or philosophy of
the nurse, either task oriented or patient-centered care may be given. The
care given by the nurse is not fragmented during the time the nurse is on
duty. Staffing for case management considers the acuity of patients and
the standards of care that the organisation wants the nursing personnel to
provide. In this method the patient’s needs are quickly met, the nurse and
the patient work more closely together and the nurse has a greater
autonomy.
Nurse Manager
Registered Registered Registered

Nurse Nurse Nurse
Patient Patient
Patient
Figure 2.1 Structure of case management Nursing
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3.2.2 Functional nursing
This is fragmented approach to care, and it focuses on tasks and

procedures, and emphasises efficiency, division of labour and rigid
control. It reflects a bureaucratic, centralised organisations. Tasks are
assigned to various personnel based on complexity and required skill, e.g.
nursing aides might bathe clients, while nursing assistants might provide
certain treatments, and registered nurses would administer medications.
Each staff member is responsible only for assigned tasks while on duty.
The charge nurse is responsible for coordinating the activities of the unit,
and reports to the nurse manager~ in some cases a nurse manager may act
as the charge nurse.
Although functional nursing may be useful during times of critical staff

shortages job satisfaction may be reduced and patient dissatisfaction may
increase because the nurse and the patient do not see the effects or impact
of the total client care. The nurse sees the client through a series of tasks
which the client might consider disturbing. The diagram below shows the
structure of functional Nursing. Note the interaction network between the
nursing personnel and the patients.
Charge Nurse
Registered Assistant Nurse Nurse Aide

Nurse
Patients Patients
Patients
Figure 2.2 Structure of Functional Nursing
71
3.2.3 Team Nursing
Team Nursing is a method of assigning patient care used when the teams
would be composed of nursing caregivers with diversities in education
and abilities. It is based on the beliefs that:
 Every patient has the right to receive the best care possible with
the available staff and time.
 Planning nursing care is basic in providing this care,
 All nursing personnel have the right to receive help in doing their
job, and
 A group of caregivers with the leadership of a professional nurse
can provide better patient care than those same people working as
individuals.
The following concepts guide the practice of team nursing:
 Leadership of the team must be provided by a registered nurse

who accepts responsibility for making decisions about priorities
of patients' needs and for the planning, supervision, and evaluation
of the nursing care.
 Team leaders should also examine how their philosophy affect
their implementation of team nursing; as those who are task-
oriented will continue to practice this kind of nursing, while
those who are more patient-oriented will find team nursing one
method of implementing their philosophy.
 Effective communication is needed to ensure continuity in the
delivery of planned nursing care.
 The team leader must use all the techniques of
leadership/management
 Team members must accept the leadership of the team leader.
 The practice of team nursing should be limited by a fixed
procedure.
Team nursing may be used throughout the day, evening, and night shifts
of any unit. The size of the unit and the number of registered nurses and
other staff members will determine the number and the size of the teams.
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Nurse Manager
Team leader
Team leader
RN AN NA RN AN NA
patients patients patients patients patients patients
Key: RN =Registered Nurse; AN = Assistant Nurse; NA = Nursing Aide
Figure 2.3 Structure of Team Nursing
3.2.4 Primary Nursing
This is the last type of nursing care delivery for this unit. It is a method
of delivering nursing care in which a registered nurse is responsible and
accountable for the care of a patient 24 hours a day. The responsibility
includes assessing, planning, implementing and evaluating the nursing
care from the time the patient is admitted to the nursing unit until the
patient is discharged from the unit.
The concept of primary nursing was developed in 1968 under the

direction of Marie Manthey at the University of Minnesota Hospitals. It
was designed to return the Registered Nurse to the role of giving direct
client nursing care, which would improve the quality of nursing care.
The focus of nursing is patient-centred, and promotes continuity of care

planning, care giving, and evaluation. Changes in the care plans are the
responsibility of the Primary Nurse. The primary Nurse usually selects
the number of patients she can manage, but in some health care
institutions, the head nurse assigns the clients to the Primary Nurse. The
Primary nurse gives the care while on duty, while an associate nurse
73
carries on when she is not on duty. Primary nursing gives the opportunity
to utilise and synthesise all the cognitive, psychomotor and affective
skills needed to assess the patient's status and prescribe nursing care.
The primary nurse coordinates the care and thus must be cognisance of
available resources. An associate nurse administered care in the absence
of a primary nurse. A nurse can be an associate nurse for some clients
while serving as a primary nurse for other clients. The associate nurse
must be a registered nurse (RN).
Nurse Manager
Primary Primary Primary Primary

Nurse Nurse Nurse Nurse
patients patients patients patients
Figure 2.3 Structure of Primary Nursing
3.3 Strengths and Weaknesses of Nursing care Delivery

Systems
In 3.2, the four common nursing care delivery system were described and
illustrated, situations where each could be utilised were mentioned, we
now proceed to highlight the strengths and weaknesses of each system.
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NSC219 MODULE 1
Types of Patient-Care Delivery Systems: Strengths & Weaknesses

Delivery Description Strengths Weakness
system
Case 1. Based on 1. Improve Increase
management holistic nurse’s personnel
philosophy of responsiveness cost
Nursing to client’s
changing needs
2. Nurse is 2. Improve
responsible for continuity of
care and care
observation of
specific client’s
3. Involves a one- 3. May increase
one nurse-client nurse’s job
ratio satisfaction
Functional 1. Based on task- 1. Reduces 1.
nursing oriented personnel and Fragment’s
philosophy of care costs nursing care
nursing 2. Supports cost 2. May
2. Nurse performs controls decrease
specific tasks staff job
according to satisfaction
charge nurses 3. Decrease
work schedule
human
interaction
with client
4. Limit
continuity of
care
Team 1. Based on group 1. Supports 1. Decreases
nursing philosophy of comprehensive contact with
nursing six or care client
seven 2. May increase 2. Limit
professional and continuity of
job satisfaction
nonprofessional
3. Increases cost care
personnel work as
effectiveness
a team to
supervised by a
team leader
75
Primary 1. Based on 1. May increase Increases

nursing comprehensive, job satisfaction personnel
personal 2. Improve cost initially
philosophy of continuity of Requires
nursing. A nurse care property
is responsible for 3. Allow trained
all aspect of care independent nurses to
from assessing decision making carry out
patient condition 4. Supports system’s
to coordinating direct nurse principles
patient’s care for client Restricts
specific patient communication opportunity
2. Involves a 1 to 5. Encourages for evening
4 or 5 nurse care discharge and night
ratio and care shift nurses
planning
methods to participate
6. Improve
assignment
quality of care
Describe each of the patient-care delivery system and identify their
strength and weakness
4.0 CONCLUSION
You have learnt that the philosophy of nursing held by an individual

nurse, or a health care organisation often determines the choice of nursing
care delivery system which is also influenced by other factors such as
organisational structure, available nursing staff, population of clients and
the nursing needs of clients. You must have noted that the ultimate is the
utilisation of a delivery system that would achieve the goals of nursing
care, which is high quality care.
5.0 SUMMARY
In his unit you have examined four common types of nursing care
delivery systems-care management functional, team and primary nursing.
Factors that influence choice were highlighted, and the characteristics and
assignment patterns of each discussed and illustrated with diagrams. The
strengths and weaknesses of each system were also listed. The ultimate
in nursing care is identifying and fulfilling clients' nursing needs at a
high-quality level, utilising the most appropriate nursing care delivery
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NSC219 MODULE 1
system. Nurses should be mindful of extraneous factors that might

interfere with the achievement of high-quality nursing care, even when a
seemingly appropriate delivery system has been chosen. Therefore,
nurses must identify these extraneous factors and incorporate them into
the total plan. No nursing care delivery system is stagnant in terms of
knowledge, psycho-motor and effective skills. Therefore, nurses must
make continuing education as an important aspect of their professional
life.
1. a) Define 'client nursing care delivery system'.

b. Discuss four factors that may influence the selection of a
type of nursing care delivery system
2. a) List four common types of nursing care delivery system.
b) Describe the strengths and weaknesses of any two under
the headings: Delivery system, description, strengths and
weakness.
TEXTBOOKS AND REFERENCES

Sciences.
77
UNIT 3 NURSING AND SOCIETY
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Demographic Changes
3.2 Technological Advances
3.3 Increasing Consumer Knowledge
3.4 Human Rights Movement
3.5 Women Liberation Movement
3.6 Professionalism in Nursing
3.7 Cultural and Societal Influence on Nursing
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The society is a system whereby people live together in organised

community. It is dynamic with its attending challenges. Throughout
history, nursing has responded to society needs and ceases to remain
static/practicing solely on tradition with threats to her existence and
relevance.
In this unit, we shall examine Nursing and the Society with the trends
influencing Nursing practice. The overall effect will be considered vis-
à-vis Nursing adaptation to the challenges posed by the societal trends.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
i.examine the societal changes and nursing practice

ii.discuss the current societal trends and influence on nursing
practice
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NSC219 MODULE 1
iii.identify the place of Nursing in the society.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Demographic Changes
Demography is the statistical description of population using birth, death

migration, emigration, life expectancy, marriage, and divorce rates.
Population in every society increase daily, which accounts for more
people in need of health services with greater demand on health
practitioners (Nurses inclusive). Urban shifts, peculiarities in the health
care of older persons and youths which forms 75% of the population,
increased divorce rates and weakened family ties requires nursing
assistance to family and other social problems with health implications.
These include incidence of chronic long-term illness, e.g. AIDS, Cancer,
mental disorders and alcoholism, epidemics, etc.
Nurses therefore must explore new methods for providing care and
establish practice standards in new areas.
Activity 1
a) What is the population of Nigeria today?

b) List three problems of over population.
3.2 Technological Advances
The ongoing scientific research has continued to uncover new knowledge

at a faster pace. With the advent of computer and other management
information systems, societal values and quest for services have been
tailored towards this e.g. canned foods, drinks and additives. Scientific
advances closely associated with health illness, organ transplants, family
planning methods and sophisticated diagnostic sets such as CT. Scan
machine, Ultrasound machines and Electrocardiograph machines. In the
social sciences, great strides have been made in attempting to understand
and predict human behaviour, which is an important area for nursing.
Nurses as agent of change uses the knowledge of values, attitudes and

prejudices, social mobility, ethnic, social, and cultural backgrounds to
design patient care. Empirical knowledge of practice is no longer
79
adequate as nursing programmes are increasingly teaching scientific

principles that will guide the practice for all possible circumstances.
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1
Mention four (4) advancement in information and communication

technology that can facilitate Nursing Care in a Hospital set up.
3.3 Increasing Consumer Knowledge
There has been an increase in health information on consumable items

thereby encouraging consumer movement aimed at getting quality health
to the worth of their money. The society made up of consumers is
demanding health care with high quality. Nurses as consumer of
someone’s product in the society with high expectations, is expected to
support the clients right in the quality and cost of health care being
offered.
3.4 Human Rights Movements
Human Rights movements is a non-governmental organisation which

seeks to address outright violation/negation of human rights to life,
expression, association and religion that is considered as morally right or
wrong in our relationship with others. The movement is concerned for
the poor, lonely, neglected and oppressed.
Nursing respects the rights to good care for all and recognises the right to
life, advocates clients’ rights with recognitions of special needs of some
groups: the dying, hospitalised, pregnant women, and other vulnerable
groups to ensure that quality care is provided without sacrificing their
rights. Nursing holds the key to maintenance of human individualistic
concern for people and their health problems hence it must be zealously
enlarged.
3.5 Women Liberation Movement
Women today are taking steps to be independent. Nursing traces its origin
in the society to orders with unquestioned obedience to superiors.
Nursing is predominately made up of women and this reveals the role of
a nurse as a mother surrogate to nurture those who were ill and helpless.
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NSC219 MODULE 1
Women in the society today seek for social, economic, political and
educational quality with men. The Women-In-Nursing (WIN) is one of
such group which joining forces with non-nurses strives for equality in
the society and changing nursing care practices.
3.6 Professionalism in Nursing
Nursing in Nigeria has evolved through several philosophical eras.

Having passed through the Nurses’ Ordinance of 1947/1959, Registration
of Nurses Regulation of 1962 and the legal status of as a professional
trade union organization, trade Union Decree 21 and 22 of 1978, Decree
54 of 1989 and recently amended decree 54 of 1992. One common
phenomenon that prevailed in all these has been that of uplifting the
image of nursing.
This progress is attributed to the recognition accorded nursing by the

society due to unique and essential contributions made. The emergence
of professionalism in nursing has produce a self-regulatory, self-
determining and a body of scientific knowledge of a group of people who
can assume responsibility and accountable for their action.
3.7 Cultural and Societal Influence on Nursing
The range of human behaviour is dramatic and diverse and through many
thousands of years, the human being has survived because of the
remarkable ability to adapt to a variety of problems and situations.
Human beings have demonstrated concern for their welfare, health, and
existence. The responsibility of nursing is to assist human beings in their
adaptation bid through promotive, preventive and restorative nursing
activities. One major way by which the human being copes is through
his/her cultural practices - the norms, values, mores, understanding and
the likes that he shares with others in his/her group. This is man's culture.
In this session we will discuss how Nursing is influenced by culture and
society. You will learn the meaning of the care concepts, identify the
major influential factors, and how Nursing responds to a few factors. You
are expected to actively participate through your responses to exercises
utilising your experiences in human society.
3.7.1 Culture
81
You must have come across the term 'culture' during your social studies
at High School. Do you still remember how the social studies teacher
defined it?
If you don't remember the school definition, you then need to check your
dictionary. Culture refers to people in a group who share certain common
values, artifact languages and understandings. Culture is everything that
an individual learns from groups of which he is a part and that he
transmits to succeeding generations. It is what all have in common. It
includes understandings, values and mutual expectations. It is made up of
certain ways of acting, thinking, feeling and communicating. We are born
into a culture that teaches us over a period what to eat, what to wear, how
to get along and communicate with others, how to rear our children, how
to care for our health among others. Culture is a fundamental concept to
the anthropologist.
3.7.2 Society
What is it? Do you belong to a society? You must have come across this
word in your social studies. However, a common definition is that society
is an organised group working together or periodically meeting because
of common interests, beliefs, or professions. Or a voluntary association
of individuals for common ends.
EXERCISE 1
List two activities you do that have been passed to you through culture.
Can they be related to the discussion on culture? Read the paragraph
again.
3.7.3 Culture and Nursing
From the two definitions one can conclude that society is the context in
which culture takes place. We all belong to different societies in which
different cultures are practiced. Nurses may come from different cultures
from their clients; and this may have serious implications for the nurse-
client interactions. Nursing and nurses are to render service to the clients
according to the identified needs. Sometimes problems arise when the
cultural backgrounds differ. For example, a mother with a malnourished
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NSC219 MODULE 1
toddler refuses to give the child eggs because of her cultural belief that
the child will grow up to become a thief. The nurse on the other hand sees
the egg as an effective intervention for the malnutrition. The nurse gets
annoyed with the mother and totally ignores mother and child. Would you
consider the nurse to be culturally sensitive or ethnocentric? The answer
is that she is ethnocentric she feels her culture is superior to that of the
other woman. With this attitude, she has disrupted her focus of nursing.
Therefore, it is necessary for the nurse to acknowledge and appreciate
cultural differences. By so doing, the nurse will be in a better position to
understand his/her clients/patients. The nurse does this by making
concerted and conscientious efforts to study different cultures and
subcultures.
1. Check the meaning of the word "ethnocentric"

2. Visit a Library and write 3 titles of books on Culture. Read one
and discuss the summary with your tutor.
3. State 2 ways by which the reading has improved your
understanding of culture.
A study of culture requires an accepting, non-judgmental and objective

attitude. Cultural differences require that the nurse conscientiously
observe and listen. The study of man places reliance on the holistic
approach. This means looking at man as a whole from all views and in
the context of his total environment and considering every part as related
to every other part. This approach is best accomplished using an inter-
disciplinary team, which takes advantage of the knowledge and skills of
various specialists. Holistic approach utilised in nursing is the concept of
meeting the-clients physiological needs, promoting psychological
development, fostering socio- cultural relationships and supporting the
fulfillment of spiritual aspirations.
3.2. 1 Comprehensive Nursing Care
Total nursing care, team nursing and comprehensive nursing are all
concepts of care that were derived from the study of culture. These
concepts was discussed in the previous unit. The study of culture
provides information that would assist nurses to render services that are
relevant. Man is a very complex creature living in increasingly complex
83
societies. Nursing must continue to render needs-relevant services

through the study of cultures, as it is common knowledge that cultural
factors exert strong influences on health and illness and attitudes towards
them.
3.3 Society and Nursing
Historically, nursing developments are closely tied to changes in society.

Nursing responds to societal needs and forces in its environment
influence society. Some of the forces also originate from society.
Contemporary nursing education, practice, and research are outgrowths
of economic, technological, demographic, sociological and political
issues.
Let us examine each issue briefly and the influence each has on nursing
and how nursing is responding.
3.3.1 Demographic Changes
Demographic changes affect all segments of the population. Changes that

have influenced health care include:
• Rural urban population shift.

• Decrease in life span of young adults.
• Higher incidence of chronic long-term diseases, (HIV/AIDS)
• Increased incidence of deaths from trauma (road accidents),
violence, prostate cancer, and breast cancer.
Nursing responds to these changes by exploring new methods of

providing care, developing new curricula with appropriate emphasis;
education of those affected families and communities.
3.3.2 Consumerism
Consumers, being more conscious of their rights want value for the
expenses incurred on their health. Consumers are becoming more
knowledgeable, therefore demanding quality care. Health care consumers
are more aware of their rights as clients, and the nurse supports these
rights in the role of client advocates.
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3.3.3 Health Promotion
There is now a greater emphasis on health promotion and prevention of

illness. Targets are set for eradication of communicable diseases such as
measles and poliomyelitis in children, guinea worm in adults and
HIV/AIDS prevention programmes. Nurses are vanguards of many health
promotion programs, Health promotion activities are normal activity of
Nigerian nurses.
3.3.4 Human Rights Movement
Human rights movement is changing the way society views the rights of
all its members. They are calling attention to those who had been
sidetracked. Nurses are responding by respecting all clients as individuals
with a right to good care and with basic human rights. Nurses advocate
the rights of all clients and also of those with special needs.
3.3.5 Technological Advances
In recent years, scientific and technological advances have affected

almost every aspect of life. Health care has changed in many ways,
including the use of new equipment, new diagnostic treatment measures
and new drugs.
Nursing has adapted and will continue to respond to these changes with
continuing education, in-service programs and other educational
approaches such as new curricular developments. Nursing is also
concerned with the human side of technological advances. Society as a
whole seems to accept technological advances in health care, but clients
often experience problems related to them. As health care technology
becomes more complex and sophisticated, nurses must help clients to
adjust to the use of technology in care.
3.3.6 Partnership in Nursing Care Delivery
Clients are demanding participation in decisions that affect their health.

Nursing is responding by utilising the holistic approach and objectives
directed care. Clients and nurses derive the objectives from collaborative
need identification.
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1) List the six – (6) societal changes identified already.

2) I want you to look back into the past 5 years and list the changes
you have noted in the Nigeria society under the following
headings: Economic; Political; Demographic; Technological;
Sociological. Consult Potter and Perry for more information.
4.0 CONCLUSION
The scope and range of nursing responsibilities in meeting the needs of

society mean assuming increasing responsibility for patient care,
developing collaboration with other health practitioners, supporting and
embracing new and promising methods for delivery health care service
more effective.
Nursing has demonstrated interest in caring for society’s unfortunates.

The emphasis of the care is on compassion and understanding, sympathy
and empathy in accepting the patient who is a member of the society as
the nurse. Nursing is a member of the society as the nurse. Nursing as a
profession holds the key to the holistic client care.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have identified and examine concisely nursing and society
with six (6) changes in the society that has positively influenced nursing
practice. A dynamic society requires understanding and commitment on
the part of service providers that will not be compromised.
1. Discuss in detail the societal changes that have come on Nursing

and its influence on the practice.
2. State four definitions of culture and one of society.
3. List four societal factors that influence nursing.
4. Describe briefly how nursing responds to any two of the societal
factors listed in 3.
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7.0 TEXTBOOKS AND REFERENCES

Sciences.
.
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UNIT 4 NURSING AND HUMAN ENVIRONMENT
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Definition
3.2 Types of Environment
3.3 Effects of Environment on Man's well-being
3.3.1 Physical Environment
3.3.2 Socio-cultural Environment
3.3.3 Socio-economic Environment
3.3.4 Spiritual/religious Environment
3.4 The Internal Environment
3.4.1 Maintenance of Homeostasis
3.4.2 Structures Supporting Homeostasis
3.4.3 Conditions of Homeostasis
3.5 Nurses Responsibility Towards
Promoting a Safe Environment
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Human beings are constantly interacting with their environment. The

environment influences human beings and vice versa. The relationship
between human beings and the environment is a dynamic one, never
static. The environment greatly influences the quality of life one enjoys.
People need the environment that they can constantly manipulate so that
they can develop their potentials. An environment that stifles may result
in abnormal personality. The importance of the environment has been
demonstrated in an account of creation. The Garden of Eden provided an
environment that was physically pleasing with soil that supported all
plants and animals in symbiotic relationship. Adam and Eve provided
social supports to each other and were spiritual in harmony with God.
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Everything was beautiful and peaceful. From this scenario, it could be

deduced that the environment assumed the three dimensions of the
physical, the psychosocial and the spiritual, the three being inter-related
and inter-dependent. Any disruption in one area would affect the other
areas. Adam and Eve's problems started with social disharmony, which
affected the other two parameters. One could see the concepts of
adjustment and adaptation at work.
What started millions of years ago in terms of equilibrium among the

elements in the universe remain with us till today. This Unit will discuss
the importance of a conducive environment in the promotion and
maintenance of good health. The presentation will start with definitions
and end with the discussion of nursing responsibility towards the
provision of a healthy and safe environment.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
• define 'environment'
• describe the components of the environment
• describe at least two ways by which the environment could
affect Man's health
• list at least three professional activities of the nurse that would
support a safe environment for a client.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Definitions of the Environment
The environment may be defined as the aggregate of human beings,

things, conditions or influences surrounding human beings. It is all of the
many physical socio-cultural, socio-economic, and physical and
psychosocial factors that influence or affect the lives and survival or
people. The promotion and maintenance of a wholesome environment is
a major concern of most world governments including Nigeria. A
principle concerning human beings and their environment implies that
any environmental condition that interferes with the wellbeing, is a threat
to the human organism when he is no longer able to cope with it
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sufficiently well. Some people tolerate their environment better than

others do. Also each individual may experience variations in ability to
tolerate certain conditions depending on other factors in the situation.
Concern for the physical as well as the sociological environment is global
in nature. Nigeria is part of the global movement to make the world a
safer place to live in. There is an Agency in Nigeria, specifically
responsible for monitoring the environment and implementing measures
that would make it safe, the Federal Environmental Protection Agency
(FEPA).
EXERCISE 1
i. Name 2 major life-threatening environmental hazards in Nigerian

cities. Are these problems present in the village?
ii. Name 2 intervention strategies of governments at the various
administrative levels.
Here are some examples that violate a wholesome environment. The

human organism enjoys optimum functioning when the air breathed is
sufficiently free of physical and chemical pollutants so that irritation to
the tissue is absent or at least negligible. But exhaust fumes from vehicles
on our roads cause so much irritation to the eye and respiratory tissues.
The noise emanating from music sheds and shops and every residence
endanger our hearing mechanism. In recent years, Nigeria and the world
population growths, and rural urban migration are leading to
unprecedented congestion. Everywhere is being built up with temporary
sheds, which often become permanent. Human welfare is being
compromised due to lack of access to nature and beauty. All these should
be of concern to nursing. An instability at the physical level can
eventually affect the totality of well-being.
3.2 Types of Environment
The environment can be classified into two major types: External and
Internal. The External Environment consists of:
• biological environment, which considers all living things such as

plants, bacteria. etc.
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• social environment, this is unique to human beings. It is

concerned with the relationship between human beings and their
environment.
• physical environment consists of non-living portions of the
environment such as air, water and land.
3.3 Effects of Environment on Well-being
Now that the types of environments are identified, you will now proceed
to learn how each type affects the well-being of individuals.
3.3.1 Physical Environment
The type of physical environment in which a person lives can lead to an

increased incidence or certain health problems. For example, people
living in urban areas with heavy industries are exposed to smoke and air
pollution. People who live in rural areas are less likely to have this type
of health concern, but they may experience other problems such as snake
bites, contaminated water supply, and decreased access to healthcare.
The environment may restrict daily activity. The hustle and bustle in our
cities have restricted the daily activities of many older adults. This has a
negative consequence on the conditions of bones and joints. Women in
their post-menopausal years are known to suffer from osteoporosis a
result of long-term reduced physical activity.
The environment in which one works, and the type of physical activity
engaged in, in terms of occupation, affect individual wellbeing. Those
who work in coal mines, cement factories, flourmills, tobacco factories
are subjected to environments that make them prone to lung disease.
Those who work in rice paddies (wet land in which rice is grown) are
more prone to guinea worm infection. In short, what you should learn
from the discussion is that the environment affects the lifestyle of the
inhabitants.
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Look around you and identify at least two environmental lifestyles that
may have negative effective on the individual. What solutions would you
suggest?”
3.3.2 Socio-cultural, environmental
Each culture defines health and illness in a manner that reflects its
previous experience. You will recall from our previous discussion that
culture was defined as the sum of traditions, practices, beliefs and values
developed by a group of people and passed on most often by the family
from generation to generation. Cultural factors determine which health
behaviors people perceive as 'normal or abnormal'. Cultural influence
also determines whether a person seeks health care, and how a person
seeks such care. Health practices are also based on cultural beliefs. Let us
look at one or two examples.
You must have heard or read about female circumcision being practiced
by some cultural groups in Nigeria. The reason proffered is that it would
deter sexual promiscuity as the girls grow up. While there is virtue in
discouraging promiscuity, the method being employed has left many
women grossly incapacitated for life. What a price to pay for being born
into such a cultural environment. Take another cultural practice that
forbids meat and eggs to be fed to children because the children will grow
up stealing. While the rationale appears to be morally acceptable, but the
child is being deprived the right to good health through good nutrition
from being born into a particular socio-cultural environment.
Find out from your community 2 other cultural practices that might have
implications for the well-being of the people.
3.3.3 Socio-economic Environment
In many countries of the world, economic status is a major determinant

of the quality of the physical and psychosocial environment available to
individuals. We see that persons in the low-income group tend to
congregate in the crowded inner-city slums, where cleanliness and
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sanitation are poor, air is polluted by stench from public drains and refuse
mountains. All these endanger well-being and often lead to high
incidence of communicable and infectious diseases. The picture is more
dismal when the people in these areas are outside the health care system
because they could not afford the cost of healthcare.
On the other hand, people of high socio-economic status could afford to

locate themselves in healthy environments; and could afford good
medical care.
But, despite the problems of adjustment and adaptation, human beings

continue to find solutions to problems created by his environment.
3.3.4 Spiritual/religious Environment
Spirituality refers to person's beliefs about a divine or a higher power or

force, and related practices. Religion is an organised system of worship
often directed towards the divine being, power or force. Spirituality and
religion can affect a person's views of and actions towards health, illness
and health care. For example, some religious groups regard illness as a
form of punishment from God, and therefore refuse medical treatment or
prevented care from being given. Some religious groups ban the use of
drugs and alcohol for whatever reason. Being born and socialised into this
type of environment means denying oneself or cause to be denied the
rights to health care.
Conditions or circumstances in the external environment can be classified

as life supporting or as hazardous. On the agents essential to survival are
air, water, nutrients, and shelter. Other agents favoring survival include
people and a variety of other living organisms, from microorganisms to
highly complicated multicellular organisms of both plant and animal
origin. Even essential agents may be harmful when exposure is excessive
or unbalanced. As an example, oxygen is required for survival. However,
continued high concentrations of oxygen damage the respiratory
membrane, and can cause blindness in newborn babies.
You have learnt about the external environment and some of the adverse
effects it could have on health. The next emphasis is on the internal
environment. By the end of this section, you would have come to
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appreciate the inter-relatedness and interdependency of the external and

internal environment; and that Man is not so easily dissected.
3.4 The Internal Environment
The environment listed in 3.3 above lies outside the body and is in contact
with the skin, mucous, membrane, and the sense organs. The internal
environment is made up of the fluid surrounding the cells and carrying
material to and from them.
Similar to the dependence of health on stability within the external

environment, health is also dependent on the maintenance of relative
stability of the physical and chemical characteristic of the fluid
comprising the internal environment. Survival of the cells and
maintenance of their functions are dependent on conditions in the cell's
immediate fluid environment. It is from this environment that the cell
obtains a continued supply of nutrients and into which it discharges its
wastes. For all cells, this immediate environment is a pool of water in
which a variety of substances such as sodium chloride and glucose are
dissolved. For a unicellular organism such as the amoeba, the fluid
environment is a pond or puddle of water.
Human beings and other multi-cellular organisms, the fluid environment

consists of blood, lymph, and interstitial fluid form the immediate
environment of the cells. These fluids are known as the internal
environment. The fluids composing the internal environment not only
serve individual cells as such but are the medium by which all body cells
are united and affected by the activities of all other cells within the entire
organism.
The physiological process which maintains most of the steady states is

termed homeostasis, which implies variations within limits as long as the
individual is capable of making appropriate adaptations to change.
3.4.1 Maintenance of Homeostasis
The maintenance of homeostasis depends on a variety of elements.

Substance required by cells must be available in adequate quantities.
Material supplies include water, oxygen, and a variety of nutrients,
including sources of calories, tissue-building materials, electrolytes and
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regulators not synthesised or present in the body. The intake, storage and
elimination of excess supply are regulated so that the level of each
substance is maintained within well-defined limits.
3.4.2 Structure Supporting Homeostasis I
The healthy organism is capable of responding to disturbances in such a

manner that damage is prevented or repaired. The kinds of structures that
fulfill this function include the following:
• Structure where required substances are absorbed from the

external environment and when necessary, modified so that they
can enter the internal environment. For example, Oxygen is
absorbed into the blood unchanged., The air from which oxygen is
taken however, requires conditioning. Nutrients usually require
reduction to simpler forms before they can be absorbed and
provision for the elimination of indigestible substances is also
necessary.
• Materials enter or leave the external environment through

semipermeable membranes that separate the internal from the
external environment. These semi-permeable membranes act to
protect the internal environment from too rapid a change or from
the entrance of potentially harmful or unusable particles.
• Structures to transport materials from point of entry to cells and

from cells to points of elimination or exit such as the heart and
blood vessels.
• Structures that store or eliminate excesses of intake and

byproducts of metabolism. For example, glucose is stored as
glycogen in the liver and muscles, much of the excess is stored as
fat. Excess sodium is normally excreted in the urine.
• Structures that make movement in the external environment

possible. They enable the individual to seek food and water, to
alter the environment to suit his needs, to overcome or avoid
danger and to find a partner.
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• Structures that reproduce themselves to replace worm-out cells, to

repair injury or to produce a new organism.
• Structures that protect the organism from injury.
• Finally, structures that regulate and integrate the activities of all

individual cells and aggregates of cells so that the organism
functions as a whole.
3.4.3 Conditions of Homeostasis
Conditions that must be maintained within limits include:
• Osmolality
• Blood pressure
• Level of glucose in the blood
• Cation-anion balance and concentration,
• Hydrogen ion concentration, and
• Body temperature
Conditions in the external environment must be within the limits to which

human beings can adapt. For example, the capacity to adapt to extremes
of temperature, high altitude, water and food supply, and physical trauma
is limited. However, human beings are able to live in some hostile
environments by adapting them to their needs.
This section now completes the discussion on the environment, you now
have a picture of what a conducive or an ideal environment consist of the
substrates and the structure that would support healthy living. We now
proceed to examine the role nursing plays with regard to the patient's
environment.
3.5 Nurses Responsibility Towards Promoting a Safe

Environment
As earlier mentioned, a safe environment is one in which basic needs are

achieved, physical hazards are reduced, transmission of pathogen and
parasites is reduced, sanitation is maintained and pollution controlled.
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Nursing care directed at health maintenance and illness prevention

involves promoting the clients' safety in the community or within the
health care environment and is just as essential as meeting other
physiological and psychosocial needs. Protection and safety are basic to
survival, and these needs continue throughout life.
Safety in the home reduces the risk of accidents and illnesses, and the
subsequent need for healthcare services. Safety is positively correlated to
health promotion.
A safe environment is essential to maintaining and restoring health.

Nurses are the first line of defense against environmental hazards.
Management of the environment is possibly the nurses most nearly

independent function Florence Nightingale recognized the significance of
the natural environment in the care of the sick when she wrote. "The thing
which strikes the experienced observer most forcibly is this, that
symptoms or suffering generally considered to be inevitable and incident
to the disease are very often not symptoms of disease at all, but of
something quite different-of the want of fresh air, or of light, or of warmth
or of quiet, or of cleanliness, or of punctuality and care to the
administration of diet, of each or all of these". To this should be added
the people. Nurses, physicians, paramedical personnel, family friends,
and others who enter and leave the environment of the patient in the
course of a day.
The nurse will concern herself with many additional environmental

factors as she takes action to promote a healthy environment for her
clients. First, the nurse must set exemplary examples by her personal
behavior. The practice of washing hands thoroughly whenever indicated
in order to control the spread of infection. The nurse knows that oxygen
supports combustion, so she takes appropriate measures to decrease the
likelihood of fire in the room of someone receiving oxygen therapy.
Public education directed towards safe environment both in the healthcare
institutions and homes watching electrical cords and connections,
medications, house cleaning solutions and so on.
Water supply, good ventilation and clean air, balanced food, personal
hygiene and environmental sanitation are all concerns of nursing.
Florence Nightingale in her treatise on what nursing should do, wrote:
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"nursing ought to signify the proper use of fresh air, light, warmth,
cleanliness, quite, and the proper selection and administration of diet-all
at the least expense of vital power to the patient." All these are vital
elements in the external environment that are necessary for homeostasis
in the internal environment.
In subsequent Units you will be introduced to how nurses should identify
and meet basic human needs both in theory and in practice.
1) Identify 3 elements that support a safe environment.

2) Identify 2 elements that would promote a health problem.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Environment is all of the many physical and psychosocial factors that

influence or affect the life and survival of the individual. Environment is
subdivided into external and internal. External environment lies outside
the body and is in contact with the skin, mucous membrane and the sense
organs. The internal environment is made up of the fluid surrounding the
cells and carrying to and from them. Similar to the dependence of health
on the stability within the external environment, health is also dependent
on the maintenance of relative stability of the physical and chemical
characteristics of the fluid comprising the internal environment. For
human beings and other multi-cellular organisms, blood, lymph and
interstitial fluid form the immediate environment of the cells. Materials
utilized in the internal environment come from the external environment
through specialized structures.
Therefore, the quality and state of the external environment determine the
state of the internal environment. For man to be in a health state, there
should be equilibrium between the external and internal environment.
Hence a safe external environment determines the quality of the internal
environment. Conditions in the external environment must be within the
limits to which an individual can adapt to.
Management of the environment for positive clients' health is possibly

the most nearly independent function of the nurse. Florence nightingale
recognized the importance of the natural environment in the care of the
sick and in the prevention of illness.
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5.0 SUMMARY
You have just concluded the study unit on the human being and his
environment. The unit started with an introduction, which gave you an
overview of the concept Environment.
How human beings and their environment are constantly interacting and
influencing each other, how the relationship is dynamic and how human
beings manipulate their environment to meet their needs.
The major types of environment external and internal were analysed,

showing the characteristics of each, and how each compliments the other
to support health and general welfare.
The concept of homeostasis as a mechanism for internal environment
regulation was discussed, finally the role of nursing in providing and
protecting the environment was discussed.
6.0 TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT
1. Define environment.
2. Describe the different types of
environment.
3. Discuss how external environment in which a person lives can
lead to an increased incidence of a certain health problem.
Illustrate your answer with an example.

Sciences.
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 Nightingale, Florence (1860) Notes on Nursing: What It is and

What It
Is Not. New edition, revised and enlarged, London; Harrison and
Sons.p.56
 Potter, P. A., Perry, A. G. E., Hall, A. E., & Stockert, P. A. (2009).
Fundamentals of nursing. Elsevier mosby.
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MODULE 3 HEALTH AND HUMAN NEEDS
UNIT 1 CONCEPT OF HEALTH AND ILLNESS
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 What is Health?
3.2 Concept of Wellness
3.3 Illnesses and Disease
3.4 Etiology of Illnesses and Diseases
3.5 Classification of Illnesses and Diseases
3.6 Theoretical perspectives of health and wellness
3.7 The Health-Illness Continuum
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
To many people health and illness virtually means the same thing or as
accompanying one another. In fact, most individuals and societies in the
past have viewed good health or wellness as synonymous to absence of
illness. This limited view overlooks the complex interrelationships
between the physiological, emotional, intellectual, socio-cultural,
developmental and spiritual dimensions of health and illness (Berman et
al., 2016 ) However like Brooker & Waugh, (2013)rightly noted, health
may not always accompany well-being as a person with terminal illness
may have a sense of well-being while somebody else may lack a sense
of well-being yet be in good health. As nurses we therefore need a
comprehensive and robust understanding of health and illness as this go
a long way to affect scope and nature of nursing practice. To this end,
this unit employs a comprehensive and integrated approach of health,
wellness and illness. It particularly examined illness behaviour, models
of health and wellness, as well as the health-illness continuum.
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2.0 OBJECTIVES
i. differentiate health, wellness and illness

ii. describe five dimensions of wellness
iii. differentiate between acute, chronic and terminal illnesses;
primary and secondary illnesses; and hereditary, congenital, and
idiopathic illnesses.
iv. distinguish between the terms illness and disease
v. outline the etiology of illnesses and diseases
vi. describe the health-illness continuum.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 What is Health?
The term ‘health’ is so common a vocabulary in every culture; race or

creed that one is often tempted to assume that it would have a
homogeneous meaning. This is however not so. How each person
perceives and defines health varies, and it is important to respect these
individual differences rather than impose standards that may be
personally unrealistic (DeLaune & Ladner, 2011). In Berman et al.,
(2016) words ‘Health’ is a slippery concept to grasp in comparison with
ill-health, which seems so solid and tangible.
Nonetheless, the World Health Organisation (WHO) asserts in the

preamble of its constitutions that the enjoyment of the highest attainable
standard of health is one of the fundamental rights of every human being
regardless of race, religion, political belief, economic, or social
conditions. According to WHO, health ‘is a state of complete physical,
mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease on
infirmity’. By this definition, health is much more than physical
wellbeing. It means more than not having a physical disease but to be in
harmony. The question that quickly comes to mind however is harmony
with what and how? To answer this question, there is need to explore
cosmological framework to show how physical and social component of
the society helps to explain or determine the notion of health and illness.
Conception of health is therefore ultimately based on the perception of
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the original and intended fashion of humanity. As a result, the body

becomes an extension of moral perception.
Kozier et al., (2016) in what looks like a critical review of the WHO
definition submitted that the WHO definition
• Reflects concern for the individual as a total person functioning

physically, psychologically, and socially. They noted that mental
processes determine people’s relationship with their physical and
social surroundings, their attitudes about life, and their interaction
with others.
• Places health in the context of environment. It takes cognisance of
the fact that people live, and therefore their health, are affected by
everything they interact with – not only environmental influences
such as climate and the availability of nutritious food, comfortable
shelter, clean air to breathe and pure water to drink – but also other
people, including family, lovers, employers, coworkers, friends,
and associates of various kinds.
• Equates health with productive and creative living. According to
them it focuses on the living state rather than on categories of
disease that may cause illness or death.
• Health therefore in its global/broadest sense encompasses:
• Physical health – physical fitness, the body fixing at its best.
• Emotional health – feelings and attitudes that make one
comfortable with oneself.
• Mental health – a mind that grows and adjusts; in control, free of
serious stress.
• Social health – a sense of responsibility and caring for health and
welfare of others.
• Spiritual health – inner peace and security, comfort with one’s
higher power, as one perceives it.
One cannot but agree with Kozier et al., (2016) that the concept of health
encompasses such things as emotional and mental stability, spiritual
well-being and social usefulness. And while it is very true that health is
the fundamental right of every individual, it is also a limited resource as
well as a personal responsibility. It is considered a resource and personal
responsibility because it is valuable; has no substitute; and requires
continuous personal effort. Health however is not an absolute entity;
rather there may be fluctuations along a continuum from time to time.
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Health is not a condition, it is an adjustment; it is not a state, it is a process

(President’s commission, 1953). Delaune and Ladner (1998) definition
of health as a process through which the person seeks to maintain
equilibrium that promotes stability and comfort aptly corroborate this
fact. In other words, health is a dynamic process that varies according to
the individual’s perception of well-being.
Dubo (1978) views health as a creative process. In his words, individuals

are actively and continually adapting to their environments. He stressed
that individuals must however have sufficient knowledge to make
informed choices about his or her health and also income and resources
to act on choices. Pike and Forster (1995) compliments Dubo’s statement
by arguing that it is important to take into account people’s own
perceptions and views on health and that different people will see and
express these in different ways. Individuals as they continuously adapt
to their environment therefore are at different stages/level of wellness.
It is also noteworthy that man responds to the environment in which he

finds himself as an integrated whole. This brings us to the concept of
holism. Holism is a philosophy that views the “whole person”. The
person is seen as a complete unit that cannot be reduced to the sum of its
parts. Health in holistic sense therefore is total wellness – wellness of
mind, spirit as well as body (Berman et al., 2016)). But in view of the
fact that it is virtually impossible for someone to be well and stay well,
or get well and remain well forever, nurses are expected to assists people
in the prevention of illness and restoration of health through holistic
health care i.e. comprehensive and total care of a person.
3.2 Concepts of Wellness
Simply put, wellness is a state of well-being. Berman et al., (2016)

contend that people do confuse the process of health with the status of
wellbeing. Well-being is a state that can be described objectively and can
be plotted on a continuum A more lucid definition however is the one
given by Carroll and Miller (1991) which states that term wellness
connotes good physical self-care, using one’s mind constructively,
expressing one’s emotion effectively, interacting creatively with others
and being concerned about one’s physical and psychological
environment. Akin to this, is the definition by Travis and Ryan (1988)
which states that wellness is a choice; a process; efficient handling of
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energy; integration of body, mind, and spirit; and loving acceptance of

self. In synopsis, wellness can be interpreted as full and balanced
integration of physical, emotional, social and spiritual health i.e. the
condition in which an individual function at optimal level.
According to Berman et al., (2016)the basic concept of wellness

include self-responsibility; an ultimate goal; a dynamic, growing
process; daily decision making in areas of nutrition, stress management,
physical fitness, preventive health care, emotional health, and other
aspects of health; and most importantly, the whole being of the
individual. Anspaugh, et al., (2011) propose seven components of
wellness that lead to optimal health and wellness. These components
are: • Environmental. The ability to promote health measures that
improve the standard of living and quality of life in the community.
This includes influences such as food, water, and air.
• Social. The ability to interact successfully with people and within the
environment of which each person is a part, to develop and maintain
intimacy with significant others, and to develop respect and tolerance
for those with different opinions and beliefs.
• Emotional. The ability to manage stress and to express emotions
appropriately. Emotional wellness involves the ability to recognize,
accept, and express feelings and to accept one’s limitations.
• Physical. The ability to carry out daily tasks, achieve fitness (e.g.,
pulmonary, cardiovascular, gastrointestinal), maintain adequate
nutrition and proper body fat, avoid abusing drugs and alcohol or using
tobacco products, and generally practice positive lifestyle habits.
• Spiritual. The belief in some force (nature, science, religion, or a
higher power) that serves to unite human beings and provide meaning
and purpose to life. It includes a person’s own morals, values, and
ethics.
• Intellectual. The ability to learn and use information effectively for
personal, family, and career development. Intellectual wellness
involves striving for continued growth and learning to deal with new
challenges effectively.
• Occupational. The ability to achieve a balance between work and
leisure time. A person’s beliefs about education, employment, and
home influence personal satisfaction and relationships with others.
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Fig 2 – 1 Components of Wellness
In conclusion, the seven components overlap to some extent, and factors

in one
component often directly affect factors in another. For example, a person
who learns to control daily stress levels from a physiological perspective
is also helping to maintain the emotional stamina needed to
cope with a crisis. Wellness involves working on all aspects of the model
explain the seven componentsof wellness.
3.3 Illness and Disease
The term illness and disease to the layman means the same thing and no
wonder they are used interchangeably in everyday language. However,
the two terms are not synonymous even though they may or may not be
related. Hence the need to differentiate between the two terms. Any
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deviation from the accepted standard of well-being is regarded as illness.

According to Berman et al., (2016),illness is highly personal state in
which the person’s physical, emotional, intellectual, social,
developmental, or spiritual functioning is thought to be diminished. For
instance, an individual may have a disease, say hypertension and not feel
ill. By the same token a person can feel ill, that is feeling uncomfortable,
yet have no discernible disease. By extension, illness may or may not be
orchestrated by pathological abnormality. Therefore, illness can be
described as a situation in which somebody fails to perform his/her
normal roles in the society.
Disease on the other hand is a biological parameter of non-health a

pathological abnormality that is indicated by a set of signs and
symptoms. It could also be defined as a state of discomfort that results
when a person’s health becomes impaired through disease, stress or an
accident or injury. Implicit in the above statement is that this state of
discomfort or abnormality may be the aftermath of one organism
invading another with predictable negatively valued outcomes or
consequences on the host. It could also be a result of breakdown of
anatomic structures of an organism or a result of stress that the body
cannot cope with. It may even not be organic phenomenon interfering
with body function but the fabric of antisocial behaviour. For instance,
among the Yoruba ethnic group of western Nigeria, distasteful behaviour
are labelled as sickness as this has something to do with the state of mind.
In other words, such behaviour tends to exhibit the relationship between
the mind and the body thus reflecting the state of disharmony between
the mind and the body. Perhaps it is good to mention at this juncture that
disease may not necessarily be symptom manifesting as many forms of
diseases are hidden and allow the carrier or victim to go about their
normal business.
3.4 Etiology of Illnesses and Diseases
In the dark ages before the advent of science, diseases were thought to
be consequences of running foul to the laws of the gods/deity i.e. a
punishment inflicted on man by demons or evil spirits secondary to
offending the deity. This explains why the first line of action when
somebody falls sick then is to appease the gods. This was later replaced
by the single causation theory. Today we however know that multiple
factors are considered to be instrumental to causing disease. Outlined
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below therefore are some of the etiological agents of the various diseases
confronting man:
• Inherited genetic defects

• Developmental defects/Congenital malformations. Example –
Atria Septal Defect
• Biological agents or toxins
• Physical agents such as temperature extremes, chemicals, or
radiations
• Generalised response of tissues to injury or irritation •
Physiological and psychological reactions to various stressors
• Biochemical imbalances within the body.
It should however be mentioned as noted by Stephen (1992) that though

many of these factors are interrelated, the causes of many diseases are
still unknown.
3.5 Classification of Illnesses and Diseases
Illness may be classified as acute, chronic or terminal. Could also be

classified as Primary (1o) or Secondary (2 o). Let’s quickly see what these
means.
An acute illness is one that comes on suddenly and last a relatively short
time. Example: Bacterial conjunctivitis, Gastroenteritis to mention a
few. Acute illnesses are usually severe but curable; some however lead
to long-term problems because of their sequelae. Sequelae are ill effects
that result from permanent or progressive organ damaged cause by a
disease or its treatment. A chronic illness on the other hand, is one that
is gradual in onset and last a relatively long time. Stephen (1992)
paraphrasing the work of Zindler-Wernet and Weiss on Health Locus of
Control and Preventive Health Behaviour submitted that chronic
illnesses are illnesses that lead to at least some of the following
characteristics: (1) permanent impairment or deviation from normal, (2)
irreversible pathological changes, (3) a residual disability, (4) special
rehabilitation, and (5) long term medical and/or nursing management.
Examples include Arthritis, Chronic renal failure [CRF], Hypertension,
and Diabetes Mellitus. A terminal illness is one in which there is no
known cure. The terminal stage of an illness is one in which death has
become inevitable.
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A 1 o illness is one that has developed independently of any other disease.

Any subsequent disorder that develops from a pre-existing condition is
referred to as 2o illness Example - Hypertension leading to Congestive
Cardiac Failure (CCF). Furthermore, illness could be classified
according to their etiological factors as follows: Hereditary, Congenital
and Idiopathic.
Hereditary – A hereditary condition is one that is transmittable down

the family tree i.e. from parent to their offspring through their genetic
code. A common example in our environment is sickle cell anaemia.
Hereditary illnesses may be manifested immediately after birth or
develop at some time later.
Congenital – Congenital disorders are those that are present at birth and
are products of faulty embryonic development especially during the first
three month of intrauterine life otherwise referred to as period of
organogenesis. Example includes Tetralogy of Fallot.
Idiopathic – An idiopathic illness is one that for which there is no known

cause. Treatment is usually palliative (directed at relieving symptoms
alone). A typical example is cancer.
3.6 The Health – Illness Continua
A continuum is defined as a continuous whole. Our health is in a

dynamic state of continuity and change constantly being challenged,
stressed, abused and even enhanced by our genetic make-up and
lifestyle, and by our wider ecological environment (Watkinson, 2002).
Health and illness
or disease can be viewed as the opposite ends of a health continuum.
From a high level of health a person’s condition can move through
good health, normal health, poor health, and extremely poor health,
eventually to death. People move back and forth within this continuum
day by day. There is no distinct boundary across which people
move from health to illness or from illness back to health. How people
perceive themselves and how others see them in terms of health and
illness will also affect their placement on the continuum. The ranges in
which people can be thought of as healthy or ill are considerable.
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The Illness-Wellness Continua

The illness–wellness continuum ranges from optimal health to
premature death The model illustrates arrows pointing in opposite
directions and joined at a neutral point. Movement to the right of the
neutral point indicates increasing levels of health and wellness for an
individual. This is achieved through health knowledge, disease
prevention, health promotion, and positive attitude. In contrast,
movement to the left of the neutral point indicates progressively
decreasing levels of health. Some people believe that a health
continuum is overly
simplistic and linear when the real concepts are more complex than
the diagram suggests
Fig 3 – 2 Illness–Wellness Continuum
Source:
https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.resear
chgate.net%2Ffigure%2FIllness-Wellness-
Continuum_fig1_309430615&psig=AOvVaw2QPQRmUtThv1h6pDW
lZYEG&ust=1641691984736000&source=images&cd=vfe&ved=0CA
wQjhxqFwoTCID33bmBofUCFQAAAAAdAAAAABBu. Accessed 0n
8th January 2022. .
People do not tend to be totally healthy or totally ill at any given time.
Individual’s state of health however falls somewhere on a continuum
from high-level wellness to death. There is no exact point at which health
ends and illness begins. When needs are blocked or threatened, one
moves towards the “illness” end of the continuum and vice versa. The
body adapts to change in an attempt to maintain homeostasis but high-
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level wellness is optimum. Nursing actions involving health promotion

and illness prevention assist the patient/client not only in maintaining and
increasing the existing level of health but also in achieving an optimal
health. However, to assist the patient/client in health maintenance and
promotion, illness prevention, and adaptation to the changes that illness
produces in every dimension of functioning, the nurse must understand
all the aforementioned components of wellness
List the two main classification of illness?

Explain the health-illness continua
4.0 CONCLUSION
This unit has shown you that health is a dynamic state and its
conception/perception is highly varied. There however seems to be a
consensus that it involves the whole person – mind, body and spirit –
functioning at optimal level. And contrary to the traditional view of
illness, it has been shown to be a highly personal state in which a person
feels unhealthy or ill. Though usually associated with disease may occur
independently of disease. To provide effective nursing care and assist
clients/patients in regaining and maintaining high-level wellness, nurses
must therefore understand patients’/clients conception of health as this
influences their health belief and health practices.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, you examined the concept of health and illness. The unit
employed a comprehensive and integrated approach to health, wellness
and illness. It also examined the health-illness continuum. Nursing as a
holistic and humanistic discipline is therefore concerned with promotion,
maintenance and recovery of health. The subsequent chapter expatiates
on how this is achieved.
Is health static or changing? Explain with particular reference to the

health-illness continuum.
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Sciences

Company.
history. Mosby.
Routledge.
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UNIT 2 HEALTH AND HUMAN NEEDS
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Overview of Individual Needs
3.2 The Basic Human Needs
3.3 Physiologic Needs
3.4 Security and Safety Needs
3.6 Affiliation and Social Needs (Love)
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
60 Tutor-Marked Assignment
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Health and human needs are inextricably interrelated. Humans need a

number of essentials to survive. The assertion that all individuals
irrespective or age, sex, race or creed have needs that they strive to satisfy
is therefore no exaggeration. The Cambridge International Dictionary of
English defined ‘Needs’ as things one must have or things required to
live a satisfactory life i.e. things essential to life and quality living. As a
corollary, illness or risk of illness occurs when individuals are not able
to satisfy one or more of their basic needs.
Since the soul of nursing is caring, much of our career is weaved around
helping people to satisfy these needs. This is consistent with the position
of that renowned nurse theorist, Virginia Anderson, who submitted that
Nursing is primarily assisting the individual (sick or well) in the
performance of those activities contributing to health, or its recovery (or
to a peaceful death) which he would have performed unaided if he had
the necessary strength, will, or knowledge, as well as helping the
individual to be independent of such assistance as soon as possible.
Achieving this is however no mean work. This is because human beings
are not merely physiological creatures, and their needs are multifaceted
and multidimensional. Besides, every individual is a unique being and as
such requires some unique needs in addition to the basic human needs.
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This unit therefore takes a detailed look at human needs with a view to
enhancing nurses’ ability to help their clients meet these varied needs.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
i.state the basic human needs

ii.list at least five physiologic needs of all people
iii.describe relationships among the different levels of needs
iv.relate the achievement of basic human needs to health status
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Overview of Individual Needs
Human needs are many. They encompass both physical and nonphysical
elements needed for human growth and development, as well as all those
things humans are innately driven to attain. Human needs therefore can
be broadly classified into two major groups viz: Primary needs and
Secondary needs (Rosdahl & Kowalski, 2012).
Primary needs otherwise known as Basic needs, are survival needs.

They must be met to sustain life. Put differently, their absence or
nonsatisfaction portends great threat to human existence. As such they
take precedence over other needs called secondary needs. The beyond
intractability project (2003) in their write-up on Leadership and Human
Behaviour states that basic needs are physiological, such as food, water,
and sleep; as well as psychological, such as affection, security, and
selfesteem. According to this organisation, these basic needs are also
called deficiency needs because if an individual does not meet them, then
that person will strive to make up the deficiency and they are usually
listed in hierarchical order.
Secondary needs or Meta needs (growth needs) as they are sometimes

referred to, are additional higher needs that must be met to maintain the
quality of life. They include justice, goodness, beauty, order, unity, etc.
Basic needs normally take priority over growth needs. For example, a
person who lacks food or water will not normally attend to justice or
beauty needs. Unlike the basic needs, the Meta needs can be pursued in
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any order, depending upon a person's wants or circumstances, as long as

the basic needs have all been met.
3.2 The Basic Human Needs
There are at least five sets or categories of needs, which we can classify
as Basic Human Needs. They are physiological, safety, love, esteem and
self-actualisation needs. These needs are related to each other, being
arranged in a hierarchy of prepotency. This means that the most
prepotent goal will monopolise consciousness and will tend of itself to
organise the recruitment of the various capacities of the organism. The
less prepotent needs are minimised, even forgotten, or denied. But when
a need is fairly well satisfied, the next prepotent ('higher') need emerges,
in turn to dominate the conscious life and to serve as the center of
organisation of behaviour, since gratified needs are not active motivators.
Thus, man is a perpetually wanting animal. Ordinarily the satisfaction of
these wants is not altogether mutually exclusive, but only tends to be.
The average member of our society is most often partially satisfied and
partially unsatisfied in all of his wants (Maslow, 1943; White et al.,
2011).
3.3 Physiologic Needs
Undoubtedly the physiological needs are the most pre-potent of all needs.
Why? They are basic biological needs for life sustenance. This means
that in the human being who is missing everything in life in an extreme
fashion, it is most likely that the major motivation would be the
physiological needs rather than any others. A person who is lacking food,
safety, love, and esteem would most probably hunger for food more
strongly than for anything else. Stated differently, if the physiological
needs are unsatisfied, all other needs may become simply non-existent
or be pushed into the background. All capacities are put into the service
of hunger-satisfaction, and the organisation of these capacities is almost
entirely determined by the one purpose of satisfying hunger. The
receptors and effectors, the intelligence, memory, habits, all may now be
defined simply as hunger-gratifying tools. Capacities that are not useful
for this purpose lie dormant or are pushed into the background. For
instance, the urge to write poetry, the desire to acquire an automobile,
the desire for a new pair of shoes are in the extreme case, forgotten or
become of secondary importance. For the man who is extremely and
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dangerously hungry, no other interests exist but food. He dreams food,

he remembers food, and he thinks about food, he emotes only about food,
he perceives only food and he wants only food (Maslow, 1943; White et
al., 2011).
Perhaps it should be mentioned that any of the physiological needs and

the consummatory behaviour involved with them serves as channels for
all sorts of other needs as well. That is to say, the person who thinks he
is hungry may actually be seeking more for comfort, or dependence, than
for vitamins or proteins. Conversely, it is possible to satisfy the hunger
need in part by other activities such as drinking water or smoking
cigarettes. In other words, relatively isolable as these physiological needs
are, they are not completely so (Maslow, 1943; White et al., 2011). In
synopsis, the first need of the body is to achieve homeostasis and this is
achieved through the consumption of food, water and air; elimination of
exogenous and endogenous wastes; sleep and rest; activity and exercise;
and sexual gratification. Let us then take a look at each of these
physiological needs.
Air/Oxygen – This is the most essential of all basic needs. Air is a name
for the mixture of gases present in the earth atmosphere. By volume, dry
air contains approximately 78.1% Nitrogen, 20.9% Oxygen, 0.9%
Argon, and 0.03% Carbon Dioxide. Oxygenation (the delivery of oxygen
to the body cells and tissues) is necessary to maintain life and health
(Christensen, 2011). The brain for instance cannot function without
oxygen for longer than 4 – 5 minutes (DeLaune & Ladner, 2011)Oxygen
is needed for internal respiration alongside the metabolic processes
occurring in the body. The body meets its oxygen need via external
respiration or what is called gaseous exchange. Variables affecting
oxygenation include age, environmental and lifestyle factors and certain
disease process. Consequently, anything that interferes with the airway,
atmospheric oxygen content, human respiration and circulation can
threaten the body’s oxygen supply. Examples of such abound but briefly
they include: some respiratory diseases like emphysema, asthma,
pneumonia; air pollution; blockage of respiratory tract by secretion to
mention a few (Rosdahl & Kowalski, 2012).
Clients with compromised oxygenation status need careful assessment

and thoughtful nursing care to achieve adequate and comfortable level of
oxygenation status (Christensen, 2011). Nursing measures to meet
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oxygen needs range from teaching client to rest in position that increases
respiratory volume and thus the level of oxygen, to emergency
cardiopulmonary resuscitation for cardiac arrest and supportive
measures such as administration of oxygen to patients/clients with
pulmonary disease (DeLaune & Ladner, 2011)
Water and Fluids – It is no exaggeration that though a man can survive

several days without food could last only a few hours without water.
Water takes many different shapes on earth: water vapour and clouds in
the sky, waves and icebergs in the sea, glaciers in the mountain, aquifers
in the ground, to name but a few. From a biological standpoint, water has
many distinct properties that are critical for the proliferation of life that
set it apart from other substances. Water carries out this role by allowing
organic compounds to react in ways that ultimately allows replication. It
is a good solvent and has a high, surface tension and thus allows organic
compounds and living things to be transported in it. 60 – 70% of the body
cells are made up of fluids.
The body constantly loses fluid to the environment via the various
regulatory systems in the body. Howbeit, body fluid is replenished by
ingestion of liquids and food products such as meats and vegetables,
which contain 65% to 97% water and through the chemical oxidation of
food substances. The healthy existence or otherwise of the cellular
system, indeed the entire body therefore depends on the maintenance of
proper volume, chemical composition, and placement of these fluids.
This balanced internal environment is what is called homeostasis.
Virtually all illness states (unconsciousness, kidney dysfunctions,
gastroenteritis, diabetes mellitus etc.) threaten this balance. It is even
threatened in a healthy state, especially when one engages in prolonged
outdoor exercises without adequate fluid intake. Prolonged
administration of certain therapeutic regimen could also alter this
balance, for instance the use of diuretics and corticosteroids.
Dehydration and oedema indicate unmet fluid needs. Dehydration is the

excessive loss of fluid from body tissues; it is accompanied by a
disturbance of body electrolytes. Could follow prolonged fever,
vomiting, diarrhoea, trauma or any other condition that causes a rapid
fluid loss. Oedema is the abnormal accumulation of fluid in the
interstitial spaces of tissues, pericardial sac, intrapleural space, peritoneal
cavity, or joint capsules. Oedema may be caused by decreased serum
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protein level, altered functioning of the cardiovascular, renal, or hepatic

system, or drugs. The nurse examines patients/clients for actual and
potential fluid and electrolyte imbalance. Poor skin turgor (normal skin
elasticity becoming lax), flushed dry skin, decreased tears or salivation,
a coated tongue, decreased urine output (oliguria), confusion and
irritability indicate dehydration (DeLaune & Ladner, 2011). Pitting
bipedal oedema, facial puffiness, ascites (accumulation of fluids in the
peritoneal cavity), positive shifting dullness are all manifestations of
excessive body fluids. The nurse can assist in conditions of altered fluid
balance through accurate assessment, measuring of intake and output,
weighing of patients and monitoring of intravenous infusions and so on
and so forth.
Food and Nutrients – Food is any substance that can be consumed, be

it of plant or animal origin including liquid drinks, and it is the main
source of energy and of nutrition for man and other animals. The phrase
‘we are what we eat’ is frequently used to signify that the composition
of our bodies is dependent in large measures on what we have consumed
(Berman et al.,2014). Today there is a greater awareness of the
relationship between health and nutrition, nutrition and the onset of
illness, nutrition and wound healing, and nutrition and effective
immunity.
Optimal nutrition (intake matches energy expenditure; proper amount of

each essential nutrient) is essential for: Normal growth and development;
maintenance of bodily functions; optimal activities status; resistance to
infection; and repair of injuries to cells and tissues. Lack of adequate
nutrition produces specific identifiable diseases such as kwashiorkor,
marasmus, rickets, etc. Poor nutritional habits, inability to chew and
swallow, nausea and vomiting equally pose a threat to nutritional status.
Over-eating on the other hand also adversely affect health (results in
obesity, hypercholestraemia` and other related problems). Perhaps the
point that could be safely made is that while good nutrition is not
synonymous to good health, good health is not achievable without
adequate nutrition.
To determine whether patients/clients are meeting nutritional needs, the

nurse considers body weight and other markers of nutritional deficiency.
These include the physique, body mass index, hair texture and colour,
some laboratory data (e.g., PCV), and food intake patterns. Signs and
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symptoms indicating that individuals are not meeting nutritional needs

include failure to thrive, unplanned weight loss, fatigue, pallor and
recurring mouth and gum sores (DeLaune & Ladner, 2011)To help
individuals meet their nutritional needs, the nurse must have a good
understanding of the various locally available foodstuffs and their
nutritive values as well as the digestive and metabolic processes of the
body. Nursing action targeted at resolving nutritional problems range
from health education to assuming total responsibility for the planning
and feeding of patients.
List the basic human needs.
Elimination of Waste Products – This is essential to maintain life and

comfort. The integumentary (the skin and its appendages), respiratory,
urinary, hepatic, and digestive systems are the organs primarily
concerned with elimination of wastes from the body. The skin eliminates
water and salt in form of sweat; the kidney, excess fluids and electrolytes;
the lungs, carbon dioxide and water; the intestine, solid wastes and fluids;
and the liver, detoxified drugs and toxins. Many conditions (kidney or
renal problems, bowel obstruction, diseases of the respiratory tract etc.)
impair this process of waste elimination in the body with grave
consequences.
A patient/client whose urinary elimination needs are unmet may become

incontinent or develop urinary tract infection. Unmet urinary elimination
needs also results in fluid and electrolyte imbalances. A patient unmet
need for bowel elimination may lead to changes in pattern of elimination
or diet intake . (White et al., 2011) . Nursing measures at helping
clients/patients meet their elimination needs may be as simple as
providing privacy or changing diet or giving enema or as complex as
inserting a urethral catheter, conducting peritoneal dialysis or
haemodialysis, or assisting with surgery to relieve bowel obstruction or
administering medication to relieve constipation.
Sleep and Rest – Sleep is a recurrent, altered state of unconsciousness

that occurs for sustained periods, during which the body experiences
minimal physical activity and a general slowing down of physiological
processes with resultant restoration of energy and well-being. It provides
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time for the repair and recovery of body systems for the next period of
wakefulness. Rest refers to a state of relaxation and calmness (Coy,
2011). Like sleep it reduces physical and psychological demands on the
body. Activities during rest periods range from lying down to taking a
quiet walk. While it is very true that the much of sleep required by
individuals depends to a large extent on such factors as age, pregnancy,
state of health; sleep deprivation has been implicated in the worsening of
certain mental disorders. Although the length of time that can be
considered as adequate sleep is still controversial, there is a general belief
that about 6 to 8hours of sound sleep is sufficed for healthy living. Rest
and sleep habits of persons entering the hospital or other health care
facility can easily be changed by illness, the strange hospital environment
culminating in fear and anxiety, and hospital routines. The nurse must be
aware of patient/client’s need for rest and sleep as lack of it aggravates
the existing deteriorating state of health of the clients. As nurses, we can
assist our clients to get enough rest and sleep by providing safe,
comfortable, and quiet environment, maintenance of proper anatomical
alignment or positioning, provision of adequate ventilation, giving of
warm tub bath, soothing back rub, and prescribed sleep enhancing
medications (Rosdahl & Kowalski, 2012) . Any bedtime habits, such as
reading, walking, bathing or drinking milk should be incorporated into
the care plan. When possible the nurse should plan care to fit the
patient’s/client’s usual sleep-wake-cycle (Cox, 1995; . (White et al.,
2011).
Activity and Exercise – Mobility or movement is an activity most

people have taken for granted but the ability to move and be active brings
about positive benefits to one’s health status (Brillhart 2011). Mobility
though not absolutely essential for survival is needed to maintain
optimum health. According to Rosedale & Kowalskhi (2012) respiration
activity stimulates the mind and body while exercise helps in maintaining
body’s structural integrity and health by enhancing circulation and
respiration. Mobility enhances muscle tone, increases energy levels, and
is often associated with psychological benefits such as independence and
freedom. Functional mobility is governed by body mechanics, the
purposeful and coordinated use of body parts and positions during
activity. Use of proper body mechanics maximises the effectiveness of
the efforts of the Musculoskeletal and neurological systems and reduces
the body’s exposure to strain or injury during movement (Brillhart 2011;
White et al., 201)).
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The nurse can assist her client to obtain needed exercises in the following
ways: (a) Through the teaching of pre-operative breathing exercises; (b)
Encouraging early ambulation post-surgery; (c) Conduction of passive
range of motion exercises; (d) Turning of immobilised patients (non-
ambulant patients) to mention but a few.
Sexual Gratification – Everyone is a sexual being regardless of health

status (Hodge, 1995; DeLaune & Ladner, 2011), and sexual integrity is
an integral part of a person’s well-being. Even though there are no
universal values about sexuality, individuals do experience sexual needs
but unlike other physiologic needs, sexual gratification may be
sublimated (Rosdahl & Kowalski, 2012). This is to an extent
underscores the fact that the sex need is not vital to survival of
individuals but it is vital to the survival of the species.
Nurses often encounter clients whose sexuality is threatened. Some

illnesses such as diabetes mellitus, chronic pain, some disabilities,
certain surgeries and some medications like certain antihypertensives,
and even hospitalisation may impair a person’s sexual integrity (Delaune
& Ladner, 2011). The nurse can be of great help in managing client’s
sexual problems by demonstrating understanding, creating an
atmosphere that communicates consideration, and making the patient
feel comfortable. In addition, clients and sexual partner need to be
informed about the cause of the problem. Medications reducing sexual
libido could be substituted while clients with chronic pain could be
taught methods of increasing their comfort level (e.g. relaxation
techniques). However, Rosdahl & Kowalski, (2012), ) rightly suggested,
when a client present with major sexual problems such should be referred
for professional counseling.
3.4 Security and Safety Needs
Once the physiological needs are relatively well gratified, there then
emerges a new set of needs, which we may categorise roughly as the
safety needs. All that has been said of the physiological needs is equally
true, although in lesser degree, of these desires. They may equally well
wholly dominate the organism. They may serve as the almost exclusive
organisers of behaviour, recruiting all the capacities of the organism in
their service, and we may then fairly describe the whole organism as a
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safety-seeking mechanism. Again we may say of the receptors, the

effectors, of the intellect and the other capacities that they are primarily
safety-seeking tools. Again, as in the hungry man, we find that the
dominating goal is a strong determinant not only of his current world
outlook and philosophy but also of his philosophy of the future.
Practically everything looks less important than safety, (even sometimes
the physiological needs which being satisfied, are now underestimated).
A man, in this state, if it is extreme enough and chronic enough, may be
characterised as living almost for safety alone (Maslow, 1943; Delaune
& Ladner, 2011).
Whereas the physiological drive has certain limit to their satisfaction,

security needs seem to be infinite in nature. For example, excessive
indulgence in eating could be harmful to people. Characteristics of safety
include: predictability, stability, familiarity, as well as feeling safe and
comfortable and trusting other people (Rosdahl & Kowalski, 2012).
Inherent in the above statement is that safety needs contains both
physical and psychological components. Freedom from harm, danger
and fear, financial security, need for shelter and warmth all are therefore
subsumed under safety and security needs.
Physical Safety – Maintaining physical safety involves reducing or

eliminating threats to body or life. The threat may be illness, accident,
danger, or environmental exposure, lack of shelter and warmth. The
threat could even be orchestrated by medical or surgical complications
following a protracted illness or surgical intervention. Although lack of
shelter may not create an immediate threat to life, its cumulative effect
may eventually squeeze out life out of people. Furthermore, it will thwart
the ability of an individual to progress towards a higher level needs. The
need for warmth is however predicated on the fact that the human body
functions in a relatively narrow range of temperature and any deviation
from this narrow range will spell doom for the whole body (Rosdahl &
Kowalski, 2012). The nurse may assist in removing threats from patient’s
environment through keen observation and continual assessment,
ensuring adequate bed spacing, keeping wards well illuminated and
aerated, scrupulous hand-washing, aseptic wound dressing, locking up of
poisons at home to safeguard children, to mention but a few.
Psychological Safety – According to Delaune & Ladner (2011) ‘To be

safe and secure psychologically, a person must understand what to expect
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from others, including family members and healthcare professionals, and

what to expect from procedures, new experiences, and encounters within
the environment’. Delaune & Ladner, (2011) asserted that everyone feels
some threat to psychological safety with new and unfamiliar experiences.
By extension, a newly hospitalised patient may feel threatened by the
strange hospital environment and a patient/client about to undergo a
diagnostic test may equally feel threatened by the technology involved.
The fact that people rarely open up that their psychological safety is
threatened makes assessment of psychological safety often difficulty. To
this end, the nurse will have to interpret the patient/client language and
behaviour. The nurse may assist in alleviating psychological threat
through explanation of procedures to patients before actual intervention,
health education etc.
3.5 Affiliation and Social Needs (Love)
These encompass the need for friendship, love, belongingness, and

acceptance. When both the physiological and the safety needs are fairly
well gratified, then the affiliation needs will emerge and dominate the
behaviour of human being. Now the person will feel keenly, as never
before, the absence of friends, or a sweetheart, or a wife, or children. He
will hunger for affectionate relations with people in general, namely, for
a place in his group, and he will strive with great intensity to achieve this
goal. He will want to attain such a place more than anything else in the
world and may even forget that once, when he was hungry, he sneered at
love (Maslow, 1943).
The drive to belong and be accepted by other people stems from the
gregarious nature of human. Everyone needs to feel that they are wanted
and belong to a group. Non-fulfillment of these needs may affect the
mental health of the individual and indeed has implicated in the etiology
of maladjustment and more severe psychopathology. For instance, a
usually mild-tempered person may become easily irritated; an outgoing
person may suddenly become withdrawn from friends and coworkers;
could even affect a person’s work habits leading to increased
absenteeism or over commitment to the job.
For this reason, the nursing care plan for an ill hospitalised patient should
include means by which love and belonging needs can be met. Some of
the ways by which this need could be met include: getting patient/client
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actively involved in the development of their care plan; giving nursing

care in friendly and empathetic manner; encouraging presentation of
greeting cards to patient and visits by friends and relatives; and short
social visits by members of the health care team.
describe human physiological needs.
4.0 CONCLUSION
You have learnt that since the attainment of highest level of health by
any individual is predicated upon a complex maze of needs achievement,
no effort should be spared at ensuring that individuals meet their basic
human needs. Nurses, the set of health workers that spend the longest
hours with the patients, therefore need to be equipped with knowledge
and skill of assessing and meeting the multifaceted needs of their clients.
5.0 SUMMARY
This unit has taken a broad look at the relationship between health and
human needs. You must have noted that all human need a number of
essentials to survive and that all human beings are driven by physiologic
and psychological needs. It classified human needs into two broad groups
– Primary needs and Secondary needs noting that the first level needs
(physiologic needs) must be met before a person can address higher level
needs. Employing simple illustrations, the unit shows that physiological
needs can control thoughts and behaviours, and can cause people to feel
sickness, pain, and discomfort. In addition, the unit buttressed the view
that ‘as illness or injury can interfere with a person’s ability to meet
needs, the duo could also cause an individual to regress to a lower level
of functioning’. Lastly, the unit emphasised that nurses can do a lot in
identifying and assisting patients/clients to meet their basic human needs.
i. Classify the basic human physiological needs.

ii. Describe the relationship among the different levels of needs.
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 Delaune S.C & P.K. Ladner, (2011). Fundamentals of Nursing,
Standard and Practice. Albany: Delmar Publishers.
 Potters and Perry’s (2009). Foundations in Nursing Theory and
Practice. Italy: Mosby, An Imprint of Times Mirror International.
 Maslow, A. H. (1943). A Theory of Human Motivation.

Psychological Review, 50, 370-396. Retrieved
August 2000, from
http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Maslow/motivation.htm
 Rosdahl, C. B. & Kowalski M.T. (2012). Textbook of Basic
Nursing. 10 th Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott Company
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UNIT 3 HEALTH AND HUMAN NEEDS II
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Esteem and Self-Esteem Needs
3.2 Self Actualisation Needs
3.3 Theories of Human Needs
3.4 Criticisms of Maslow’s Theory of Needs
3.5 Application of Basic Needs Theory
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The preceding unit opens the discussion on the universality of needs and
the relationship between health and human needs but fail to address all
aspects of this all-important issue. The present unit is therefore a
continuation of that discourse. The unit particularly examines esteem
needs, self-actualisation needs, Maslow hierarchy of human needs and
other theories of human needs.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
i. differentiate between the esteem needs and self-

actualisation needs
ii. discuss the Maslow hierarchy of needs
iii. describe what is meant by hierarchy of needs
iv. discuss Maslow Hierarchy of Needs and other Needs
Theories
v. examine the flaws of Maslow Hierarchy of Needs
vi. discuss the clinical and other applicability of Basic Needs
Theory.
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3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Esteem and Self-Esteem Needs
The term self-esteem (self-image, self-respect, self-worth) is related to

the person’s perception of self / personal feeling of self-worth and
recognition or respect from others. All people in every society (with a
few pathological exceptions) have a need or desire for a stable, firmly
based (i.e. soundly based upon real capacity), usually high evaluation of
themselves, for self-respect, or self-esteem, and for the esteem of others.
This is because self-respect and dignity are essential to the psychological
well-being of individuals who have reached some degree of satisfaction
in the first three levels of human needs. Cox (2009) declared that a
change in roles whether anticipated (for instance retirement), or sudden
such as injury, may threaten self-esteem. Similarly, changes in body
image whether obvious like amputation or hidden (e.g. hysterectomy)
may also influence self-esteem. Cox (2009) stressed further that it is not
the magnitude of the change or role that affects self-esteem, but rather
how the person perceives the self after the change.
Esteem and Self-Esteem needs are met when the person thinks well of
himself or herself (achievement, adequacy, competence, confidence) and
is well thought of by others (recognition, status awards, prestige)
(Rosdahl & Kowalski, 2012). When both of these needs are met, a
person feels self-confident and useful but thwarting of these needs
produces feelings of inferiority, of weakness and of helplessness. These
feelings in turn give rise to either basic discouragement or else
compensatory or neurotic trends (Maslow, 1970; Berman et al., 2014).
Consequently, indications of unmet needs for self-esteem include a
feeling of helplessness/hopelessness/inferiority complex and becoming
self-critical or unusually lethargic or apathetic about anything involving
self, including appearance. In Cox (2009) words, a person feeling the
lack of esteem of other people may test others by making such statements
that call for their approval or praise, or may act in a way that prevents
such approval if little self-esteem is present and the person is certain of
failure.
Nursing intervention in cases of low self-esteem begins right from

admission or first contact with the client/patient. The nurse can assist
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client/patient to regain positive self-esteem by conveying a feeling of

acceptance and respect, employing a non-judgmental approach in
handling the values and beliefs of the client/patient, encouraging
independence, rewarding progress, allowing the client/patient to do as
much self-care as possible, and tailoring specific nursing actions towards
the root cause of the altered self-concept. But if patients’ self-esteem is
so low that they fail to care for themselves, the nurse assumes total
responsibility for meeting those other needs while taking steps to
increase self-esteem (Rosdahl & Kowalski, 2012).
3.2 Need for Self-Actualisation
This term, first coined by Kurt Goldstein refers to the desire for self-
fulfillment, namely, to the tendency for him to become actualised in what
he is potentially. This tendency might be phrased as the desire to become
more and more what one is, to become everything that one is capable of
becoming. They are more ego oriented in nature and frequently express
themselves in highly independent behaviours. However, the clear
emergence of these needs rests upon prior satisfaction of the
physiological, safety, love and esteem needs. That is, even if all
aforementioned needs are satisfied, we may still often (if not always)
expect that a new discontent and restlessness will soon develop, unless
the individual is doing what he is fitted for. A musician must make music;
an artist must paint, a poet must write, if he is to be ultimately happy.
What a man can be, he must be (Maslow, 1943; Berman et al., 2014). It
must however be stressed that the specific form that these needs will take,
will of course vary greatly from person to person. In one individual it
may take the form of the desire to be an ideal mother, in another it may
be expressed athletically, and in still another it may be expressed in
painting pictures or in inventions. It is not necessarily a creative urge
although in people who have any capacities for creation it will take this
form.
Present needs, environment, and stressors influence how well people

meet their need for self-actualisation. As a matter of fact, many
psychologists believe that people continue striving to reach this level in
life and very few people believe that they are self-actualised. Self-
actualised individuals have mature multidimensional personality,
frequently they are able to assume and complete multiple tasks, and the
achieve fulfillment from the pleasure of a job well done. They do not
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totally depend on opinions of others about appearance, quality of work,

or problem-solving methods. While it is true that they may have failings
and doubts, they generally deal with them realistically (potter & Perry
2009).However, self-actualisers may focus on the fulfillment of this
highest need to such an extent that they consciously or unconsciously
make sacrifices in the fulfillment of the lower level needs.
Illness, injury, loss of loved one, change in role, change in status can
threaten or disturb self-actualisation sometimes manifesting in
behavioral changes. The gal of nursing care is to assist individuals to
reach their fullest potential. As such nursing care is planned to encourage
individual to make decisions when possible, particularly those that
concern his health. Because the self-actualised person tends to be
creative, nursing care should give room for expression of creativity as
well as encouraging the individual to continue with specific projects.
And since the healthy self-actualised person generally has a strong need
for privacy, the patient’s need for privacy must be respected (potter &
Perry 2009).
What is the positive link of esteem and self-esteem needs?
Theories of Human Needs
Quite a number of theories have been propounded on human needs but

prominent among them are the Maslow Hierarchy of Needs and the
Alderfer's Existence/Relatedness/Growth (ERG) Theory of Needs.
(a) Maslow Hierarchy of Needs
Abraham Harold Maslow was a renowned psychologist and philosopher

who lived between April 1, 1908 and June 8, 1970. He was a scholar and
was referred to as the father of humanistic psychology. In 1943, Abraham
H. Maslow observed and concluded that:
• Needs are hierarchical in nature. That is, each need has a specific
ranking or order of obtainment.
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• The need network for most people is very complex, with a number
of needs affecting the behaviours of each person at any
point in time.
• People respond to these needs in a progressive manner from
simple physiological needs (survival needs) to more complex
(aesthetic) needs; and that they do so as whole and integrated
beings.
• When one set of needs is satisfied, it seizes to be a motivator.
• Lower level need must be satisfied in general, before higher level
needs are activated sufficiently to drive behaviour.
• There are more ways to satisfy higher level needs than there are
for lower level needs
Consequently, he identified various needs that motivate behaviour and

place them in sequential hierarchy or graded order according to their
significance to human survival i.e. in ascending order from lowest to the
highest needs. He posited that that the basic needs of all people regardless
of age, sex, creed, social class, or state of health (sick or well) could be
categorised into five levels:
Physiological: hunger, thirst, bodily comforts, etc.;
• Safety/Security: the need for structure, predictability, out of

danger, free from harm, feel safe and secure;
• Belongings and Love: the need to be accepted by others and to have
strong personal ties with one's family, friends, and identity
groups;
• Esteem: the need to achieve, be competent, gain approval and
recognition; and
• Self-Actualisation: the need to find self-fulfillment and reach
one's potential in all areas of life;
Maslow's needs pyramid starts with the basic items of food, water, and
shelter. These are followed by the need for safety and security, then
belonging or love, self-esteem, and finally, personal fulfillment (Self-
Actualisation). According to him, the first level needs, which are
physiologic, occupying the bottom of the pyramid/ladder, are the most
important as they are activities needed to sustain life such as breathing
and eating.
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Fig 3 – 1 Schematic Representation of Maslow Hierarchy of

Needs
Source:
Each higher level represents one of lesser importance to human existence

than the one previous to it. Maslow believed that it is when a particular
physiological need is met with relative degree of satisfaction that other
needs of lesser importance to human existence take precedence.
However, by progressively satisfying needs at each subsequent level,
people can realise their maximum potential for health and well-being
(potter & Perry 2009).
(b) Alderfer's Existence/Relatedness/Growth (ERG) Theory of

Needs
The ERG Theory of Clayton P. Alderfer is a model that appeared in 1969

in a Psychological Review article entitled "An Empirical Test of a New
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Theory of Human Need". In a reaction to Maslow's famous Hierarchy of

Needs, Alderfer, an American Psychologist, postulated that there are
three groups of human needs that influence workers’ behavior; existence,
relatedness, and growth. These three needs categories are:
• Existence - This group of needs is concerned with providing the

basic requirements for material existence, such as physiological
and safety needs. (Maslow’s first two levels). This need is satisfied
by money earned in a job so that one may buy food, shelter,
clothing, etc.
• Relationships - This group of needs center upon the desire to

establish and maintain interpersonal relationships i.e. social and
external esteem (involvement with family, friends, co-workers and
employers) (Maslow's third and fourth levels.
• Growth – This encompasses internal esteem and self-

actualisation (desires to be creative, productive and to complete
meaningful tasks) (Maslow's fourth and fifth levels). These needs
are met by personal development. A person's job, career, or
profession provides significant satisfaction of growth needs.
Contrarily to Maslow's idea that access to the higher levels of his

pyramid required satisfaction in the lower level needs, Alderfer declared
that the three ERG areas are not stepped in any way. ERG Theory
recognises that the order of importance of the three Categories may vary
for each individual. Managers must recognise that an employee has
multiple needs to satisfy simultaneously. According to the ERG theory,
focusing exclusively on one need at a time will not effectively motivate.
In addition, the ERG theory acknowledges that if a higher-level need
remains unfulfilled, the person may regress to lower level needs that
appear easier to satisfy. That is, if the gratification of a higher-level need
is frustrated, the desire to satisfy a lower level need will increase.
Alderfer identifies this phenomenon as the "frustration & shy aggression
dimension." This frustration-regression dimension affects workplace
motivation. For example, if growth opportunities are not provided to
employees, they may regress to relatedness needs, and socialise more
with co-workers. The relevance of this on the job is that even when the
upper-level needs are frustrated, the job still provides for the basic
physiological needs upon which one would then be focused. If, at that
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point, something happens to threaten the job, the person's basic needs are
significantly threatened. If there are not factors present to relieve the
pressure, the person may become desperate and panicky (Alderfer, 1969;
potter & Perry 2009)..
Fig 3 – 2 Schematic Presentation of Alderfer's ERG Theory of
Needs
Source:
(c) Other Theories of Needs: A Summary
Huitt (2004) in what looks like a review of literature captures other

scholars’ contribution to ‘Need Theory’ as follows:
“Contrary to Maslow’s categorisation of needs, James (1892/1962)
hypothesised that there are three levels of needs namely: material
(physiological, safety), social (belongingness, esteem), and spiritual.
Mathes (1981) while agreeing with the three-tier categorisation of needs
proposed that the three levels were physiological, belongingness, and
self-actualisation; he considered security and self-esteem as
unwarranted. Ryan & Deci (2000) also suggest three needs, although
they are not necessarily arranged hierarchically: the need for autonomy,
the need for competence, and the need for relatedness. Thompson, Grace
and Cohen (2001) submitted that the most important needs for children
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are connection, recognition, and power. Nohria, Lawrence, and Wilson

(2001) provide evidence from a sociobiology theory of motivation that
humans have four basic needs: (1) acquire objects and experiences; (2)
bond with others in long-term relationships of mutual care and
commitment; (3) learn and make sense of the world and of ourselves; and
(4) to defend ourselves, our loved ones, beliefs and resources from harm.
The Institute for Management Excellence (2001) suggests there are nine
basic human needs: (1) security, (2) adventure, (3) freedom, (4)
exchange, (5) power, (6) expansion, (7) acceptance, (8) community, and
(9) expression”.
As rightly noted by Huitt (2004), a common trait or regular feature of all

these theories however is bonding and relatedness. Notice that there do
not seem to be any other that are mentioned by all theorists. Franken
(2001) suggests this lack of accord may be a result of different
philosophies of researchers rather than differences among human beings.
In addition, he reviews research that shows a person's explanatory or
attributional style will modify the list of basic needs. This possibly
explains why Huitt (2004) concluded that it will seem appropriate to ask
people what they want and how their needs could be met rather than
relying on an unsupported theory.
3.3 Criticisms of Maslow’s Theory of Needs
Maslow concept of needs had been subjected to considerable research.

For example, in their extensive review of research that is dependent on
Maslow's theory, Wabha and Bridwell (1976) found little evidence for
the ranking of needs that Maslow described or even for the existence of
a definite hierarchy at all but rather are sought simultaneously in an
intense and relentless manner. Other needs theorists have perceived
human needs in a different way -- as an emergent collection of human
development essentials (Marker, 2003). Some have contended that
Maslow does not mention time period between various needs and that
people do not necessarily satisfy higher order needs through their jobs or
occupations. Besides, the concept of self-actualisation is considered
vague and psychobabble by some behaviourist psychologists. They
asserted that the concept is based on an aristotelian notion of human
nature that assumes we have an optimum role or purpose. In their words,
‘self actualisation is a difficult construct for researchers to operationalise,
and this in turn makes it difficult to test Maslow's theory. Even if self-
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actualisation is a useful concept, there is no proof that every individual

has this capacity or even the goal to achieve it’. Other counter positions
suggest that satisfaction which Maslow viewed as a major motivator has
been found not to be directly related to production which is main goal of
the manager.
3.4 Application of Basic Needs Theory
Huitt (2004) citing the works of Norwood (1999) submitted that Maslow
Hierarchy of needs could be used to describe the kinds of information
that individuals seek at different levels. For example, individuals at the
lowest level seek coping information in order to meet their basic needs.
Information that is not directly connected to helping a person meet his or
her needs in a very short time span is simply left unattended. Individuals
at the safety level need helping information. They seek to be assisted in
seeing how they can be safe and secure. Enlightening information is
sought by individuals seeking to meet their belongingness needs. Quite
often this can be found in books or other materials on relationship
development. Empowering information is sought by people at the esteem
level. They are looking for information on how their ego can be
developed. Finally, people in the growth levels of cognitive, aesthetic,
and self-actualisation seek edifying information.
Maslow’s theory of human needs has also gain a universal application in

nursing care of patients/clients of all ages. It wide applicability in nursing
is predicated upon the fact that illness often disrupt patients the ability to
meet needs on different levels, hence patients/clients come up with many
needs. It should however be noted that Maslow’s hierarchy is a
generalisation about the need priorities of most but not all people. As
such when the nurse applies this theory in practice, the focus should be
on the needs of the individual rather than rigid adherence to Maslow’s
hierarchy. In all cases, an emergency physiological need takes
precedence over a higher-level need. However, the need for self-esteem
may be a higher priority than a long-term nutritional need for one
patient/client, whereas for another person, the reverse may be the case.
Furthermore, although the hierarchy of needs suggests that one should
be met before the other, nursing care often addresses two or more at the
same time. As Potter & Perry (2009),suggests the provision of most
effective nursing care therefore entails an understanding on the part of
the nurse, the relationship among different needs for the individual.
135
Indeed, in some nursing situations, it is unrealistic to expect a

patient’s/clients basic needs to be fulfilled in the fixed hierarchical order.
The example given by Potter & Perry (2009) of a person who possibly
enters the health care system as a result of chronic respiratory infection
but presents with multiple related unmet needs for nutrition, sleep, etc.
aptly buttress this assertion. Nursing care in this situation will not simply
be directed at meeting the respiratory needs but will be directed at
resolving the pressing/life threatening needs while simultaneously
addressing the higher level needs.
It should also be noted that for different individuals, needs on different

levels may be related in different ways. Some people may give sexual
need a higher priority than the need for love, whereas for others, sexual
need is deferred until the need for love is met. Similarly, people with
unmet needs for self-esteem may be unable to seek fulfillment of the need
for love if their self- esteem is so low that they feel inferior and fear
rejection. In these and many other ways, needs on different level may be
closely related for individuals. When assessing needs and planning care,
the nurse must not assume that lower–level need always takes priority.
As with all other aspects of providing care, the nurse individualises the
nursing care plan to provide for the unique needs and desires of the
patient / client Potter & Perry (2009). Factors influencing need priorities
include: (a) A person’s personality and mood. For instance, a depressed
person may react negatively to a suggestion for an activity that could
increase self-esteem, although in another mood the person might respond
with enthusiasm. Thus, when providing care to help meet several needs,
the nurse can adjust the care plan to correspond most effectively to the
patients/client’s personality and mood. (b) The health status of the
client/patient. A frail looking anaemic patient for example, should not be
encouraged to resume physical activities related to need for self-esteem
until need for physical safety and security have been met. (c) Socio-
economic status and cultural background – this affects a person’s
perception of needs.
To make any meaningful impact in meeting the hydra-headed needs of

clients/patients, the nurse must therefore take into consideration all the
aforementioned factors. In addition, in view of the interrelatedness of
needs (e.g. if nutritional needs are not met for a long time, the person not
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only begins to grow lean and malnourished but also become deficient in
meeting safety, love and self-esteem needs.
Sketch a diagrammatic representation of Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy

of needs.
4.0 CONCLUSION
In conclusion, the human needs theory, no doubt, is a set of concepatients

important for the nurse understanding of health and illness and the
patient’s/client’s position on the health-illness continuum. Nonetheless,
the nurse must as a necessity consider the uniqueness of each individual,
their need References/Further Reading/Further Reading and the
significance of each need in prioritising nursing care.
5.0 SUMMARY
The unit is a follow up of the discussion on health and human needs. You
must have observed that it discussed the esteem and self-actualisation
needs with particular reference to how nurses could assist patients/clients
to meet these needs. The unit also incorporates a comprehensive
discourse of the Maslow hierarchy of needs with its flaws/ weaknesses
and other need theories. You also noted that the unit acknowledges that
Maslow hierarchy of needs is a theoretical representation of the need
priorities of most people and not all people and therefore cautioned that
when the nurse applies this theory in practice, the focus should be on the
needs of the individual rather than rigid adherence to Maslow’s
hierarchy.
1. Write an essay on Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs. Discuss the

application of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs in a clinical setting.
2. What is its criticism?
137
Alderfer, C. P. (1969). Existence, Relatedness, and Growth; Human

Needs in Organisational Settings. Retrieved from,
http://www.valuebasedmangement.net/methods_alderfer_erg_the
ory.html
Huitt, W. (2004). Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs. Educational Psychology

Interactive. Valdosta, GA: Valdosta State University. Retrieved
from, http://chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/col/regsys/maslow.html.
Maslow, A. H. (1943). A Theory of Human Motivation. Psychological

Review, 50, 370-396. Retrieved August 2000,
from http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Maslow/motivation.htm
Maslow, A.H. (1970). Motivation and Personality (2 nd ed.). New York:

Harper & Row.


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UNIT 4 PROMOTING HEALTH
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Factors/Variables Affecting Health
3.2 Defining Health Promotion and Illness Prevention
3.3 Health Promotion Goals
3.4 Behaviours that Promote Health (Healthy Habits)
3.5 Nurses Role in Health Promotion and Illness Prevention
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The popular axiom – prevention is not only better than cure but also
cheaper than cure – cannot be more relevant than in today’s world. This
is because the recent past had witnessed more natural disasters than ever
recorded. Emerging infectious diseases had been on the rampage with
the resurgence of those hitherto eradicated communicable diseases, that
have not only become more virulent but resistant to the simple
therapeutic agents. All these coupled with the global economic recession
and depreciation of currencies in many African states had compounded
the already precarious level of people in the African nation. Therefore,
health promotion becomes a veritable weapon to stem the all-time high
morbidity and mortality rate that has been trailing the African nation.
Interestingly health promotion is an important component of nursing

practice. According to Berman et al., (2014), health Promotion is a way
of thinking that revolves around a philosophy of wholeness, wellness,
and well-being.’ Implicit in the above statement is that there is a level of
commitment that should be displayed by the individual, community,
organisation, and the government if the goal of health promotion is ever
to be achieved. The role of each of this player and how the nurse can
assist in health promotion therefore forms the focus of this unit.
139
2.0 OBJECTIVES
i. identify variables affecting health and explain the relationship

between such and health
ii. define health promotion and distinguish it from illness prevention
iii. enumerate health promotion goals and discuss the levels of
iv. preventive care
v. describe the behaviours that promote health
vi. discuss theoretical models of health and illness together with their
assumptions
vii. differentiate health preventive or protective care from health
promotion
viii. discusses the nurses’ role in health promotion and illness
prevention.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 What Affects Health?
Health status of individuals in any community depends to a large extent

on their level of awareness of factors that enhance and/or militate against
their health. (White et al., 2011)contends that a great many things affect
health. She groped them into four broad categories namely:
1. Genetic/Human Biology – It is not uncommon to hear that certain

diseases run in families or have familial tendency. This is because
human traits are transmissible from parents to offspring via the
genes. Hence an individual genetic make-up to a large extent
affects his state of health.
2. Personal Lifestyle/Behaviour – This is the area that exerts the

most influence on health and well-being, and it is controlled
entirely by the individual. As such it is the individual’s decision
whether these factors will promote health or lead to ill health.
Although an increasing number of people are becoming aware of
the relationship between health, lifestyle and illness, and are
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already developing health-promoting habits, but a sizeable

proportion of the population are still naïve of this relationship.
Simply put health promoting habits encompasses such things as:
Diet, Exercise, Personal Care, Safe sex and Control sex, Tobacco
and Drug use, Alcohol Consumption, and safety.
3. Environmental Influences – The aggregate of people, things,

conditions, or influences surrounding man is what is referred to
as the environment. It could be physical, biological or social.
Man and his environment are constantly interacting. The
environment influences man and man influences his environment
at all times i.e. the relationship is never static but always
changing. Interestingly, health and the quality of life are greatly
affected by this interaction.
Human beings enjoy optimum functioning when the air they breathe, the
food they eat, the houses they live in, indeed the neighbourhood in which
they stay is of good quality. If they are bad, they tend to promote disease,
disability and discontent. For instance, in metropolitan cities where
domestic and industrial pollution is high, tarry particles, which contain
cancer-producing chemicals, may exist. As such irritation to the eye and
respiratory tissue may be rampant. In addition, overcrowding secondary
to rural-urban migration and problems of population control enhances
the spread of communicable diseases such as droplet infections. Besides,
bad housing, lack of adequate facilities for the storage, preparation, and
cooking of food are also intricately related to the development of
malnutrition, poor growth and low immunity among people. Poor
sanitation as well as lack of provision of drinkable water will also
promote the spread of water borne disease with adverse consequences on
healthy living.
It is also worth mentioning that technological advancement and

industrialisation with its attendant problems has placed new stresses on
man such as transport difficulties, noise, and loneliness. All these factors
are associated with greater incidence of hypertension, mental disorder
and suicide. Noise can produce alteration in respiration and circulation,
in the basal metabolic rate, and in muscular tension. Even the fetus is
affected by certain factors in the mothers’ environment. For instance,
the baby’s well-being to a large extent depends on her mother’s
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capability and knowledge of standard of hygiene, good nutrition, and

avoidance of harmful substances e.g. some drugs.
4. Health Care – This encompasses such things as immunisation,

regular examinations and screening tests, prophylactic
medications, to mention a few that man undertakes to prevent
invasion of disease causing organisms and prevent the body from
breaking down. Failure to undergo such treatment could spell
doom for the body with serious adverse consequences on healthy
living.
3.2 Defining Health Promotion
The concepts of health promotion, self-care and community participation

emerged during 1970s, primarily out of concerns about the limitation of
professional health. Since then, there have been rapid growth in these
areas in the developed world, and there is evidence of effectiveness of
such interventions states system although these areas are still in infancy
in the developing countries (Bhuyan, 2004). The Ottawa charter, an
important milestone in Health Promotion practice worldwide, defines
Health Promotion as the process of enabling people to increase control
over, and to improve, their health. To reach a state of complete physical,
mental and social well-being, an individual or group must be able to
identify and to realise aspirations, to satisfy needs, and to change or cope
with the environment. Health is, therefore, seen as a resource for
everyday life, not the objective of living. Health is a positive concept
emphasising social and personal resources, as well as physical capacities.
Therefore, health promotion is not just the responsibility of the health
sector, but goes beyond healthy lifestyles to well-being (WHO Ottawa
charter for health promotion, 1986). Consequently, the Ottawa charter
noted that five key strategies for Health Promotion action are building
healthy public policy, creating supportive environments, strengthening
community action, developing personal skills and reorienting health
services). This no doubt, settles any storm about the genesis of Health
Promotion but has not addressed what Health Promotion is all about and
how it is different from illness prevention.
Health promotion and illness prevention are closely related concepts, and
in practice, overlap to some extent. Activities for health promotion help
the patients/clients maintain or enhance their present levels of health
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while activities for illness prevention protect patients/clients from actual

or potential threats to health. Both types of activities are future
orientated. The difference between them involves motivations and goals.
Health promotion activities motivate people to act positively to reach the
goals of more stable levels of health. Illness prevention activities
motivate people to avoid declines in health and functional states (Berman
et al., 2016 ).
Health promotion activities can be passive or active. With passive

strategies of health promotion, individuals gain from the activities of
others without doing anything themselves. The fluoridation of municipal
drinking water, the fortification of salt with iodine and milk with vitamin
D are common examples of passive health promotion strategies. The
active health promotion strategies on the other hand, involves active
participation of individuals i.e. individuals are motivated to adopt
specific health programs. For instance, the weight reduction and smoking
cessation programmes require the patient/client to be actively involved
in measures to improve their present and future levels of wellness while
decreasing the risk of disease. Some health promotion and illness
prevention programs are operated by health care agencies. Others are
independently operated. Whichever, the point to be made is that health
promotion and illness prevention activities are important to both the
consumer and the health care provider (Berman et al., 2016).
The avian influenza (bird flu) that recently broke out in certain parts of
Nigeria presents an excellent picture of the how there could be an
interplay of actions among the major actors in the health sector. The
avian influenza epidemics, being a deadly disease that can be transmitted
to man, arouse the society concern about the disease. Being a
communicable disease and one that affect poultry farming, it also arouses
the interest of commercial organisations and agriculture. Besides it also
has a political element, with potential global repercussions. The jobs and
livelihood of some farmers and those within the food industry
particularly the fast food centers are at stake. There is of course, the
possibility of widespread trans-species infection. We can then appreciate
the concerted efforts of the individuals, the organisation, the
environment, the society, and the government (political). One cannot but
therefore agreed with Kelly et al. (1993) that health cannot be effectively
be promoted unless the organisational, social, individual, and
environmental aspects are combined in an integrated approach.
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3.3 Health Promotion Goals
Delaune & Ladner (2011) submitted the following as health promotion

goals:
• Respect and support clients right to make decisions.

• Identify and use clients’ strengths and assets.
• Empower clients to promote own health or healing.
Levels of Preventive Care
The three levels of prevention are:
• Primary Prevention – This is true prevention; it precedes disease

or dysfunction and is applied to patients/clients that are considered
physically and emotionally healthy (Berman et al., 2016). The
goal is to decrease person’s vulnerability to disease. It includes
such activities as health education, immunisation/vaccination,
personal and environmental hygiene, good nutrition, good
housing/avoidance of overcrowding, quarantine of suspects, and
chemoprophylaxis.
• Secondary Prevention – Focuses on individuals who are

experiencing health problems or illness or who are at risk of
developing complications or worsening conditions. Activities are
directed at diagnosis and prompt treatment, thereby reducing the
severity and enabling the patient/client to return to normal health
at the earliest possible time (Edelman & Mandle, 1990; Cox,
1995). Secondary prevention includes screening techniques and
treatment of early stages of disease to limit disability or delay the
consequences of advanced disease (Delaune & Ladner, 2011;
Berman et al., 2016).
• Tertiary Prevention – Instituted when a defect or disability is

permanent and irreversible. It involves minimising the effect of a
disease or disability through such activities as rehabilitative
nursing care for clients with permanent defect like blindness, to
avert further disability or reduced function. The focus is to help
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clients reach and maintain their optimum level of functioning

(Delaune & Ladner, 2011; Berman et al., 2016).
3.4 Behaviours that Promote Health (Healthy Habits)
Have you heard such phrase like habit is stronger than information?
When we say something has become habitual, we mean it has become
one’s second nature; a regular way of behaving; a reflex action or
instinctive response to a stimulus. Good health habits help to prevent
disorder and/or enhance total wellness. On the contrary poor health
habits will almost always adversely affect health status and individual's
capability and efficiency. What then can we consider as healthy habits?
The answer to this is obvious as practicing healthy habits cut across
practically all aspects of our life viz:
Exercise: It’s important for everyone to exercise, and we should all find
the preventive maintenance fitness programme best suited for us. There
is no alternative, nor substitute that increases the potential for a happier,
healthier and improved quality of life. “If exercise could be packed into
a pill, it would be the single most widely prescribed, and beneficial
medicine in the nation,” says Robert N. Butler, MD, director of the
National Institute on Aging (DiMartino, 1999). Exercise is necessary to
maintain muscle tone, to stimulate circulation and respiration, and to help
control body weight. All people need some sort of exercise daily. A
person’s age, occupation and general condition help to determine the
appropriate amount and kind of exercise (Rosdahl & Kowalski, 2012).
A moderate amount of daily exercise is better than occasional sports of
strenuous activity. A study conducted by the Journal of Medical
Association (JAMA, 277(16), April 23-30, 1997) included 11,470
women to determine the numerous benefits that ensues when a sedentary
level is increased to merely a normal level – daily routine movement.
The study revealed that the life preserving aspect of this minor change is
huge” (DiMartino, 1999).
Nutrition and Diet: A First Cousin to Exercise. One without the other
is like eating fries without catsup – it just doesn’t work as well. A regular
exercise regime means eating a balanced menu of foods, watching fat
intake and supplementing the diet with nutrients and vitamins. However,
when people exercise regularly, their diet must compensate for the extra
calories burned. Although, individuals’ nutritional needs vary, according
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to body build, age and activity, everybody needs certain nutrients to keep
the body functioning and in good repair Eating regular and balanced diet
and maintaining one’s weight within the normal range are factors that
contribute to wellness. Intake of salt, sugar, fat and red meat should be
limited while liberal intakes of fruits, vegetables, and grains should be
encouraged. Avoid alcohol consumption.
Elimination: The integumentary, respiratory, urinary and digestive

systems are the organs primarily concerned with elimination of wastes
from the body. Moderate intake of fibres in form of roughages (fruits
and vegetables) supplies the bulk that stimulates proper adequate
elimination of solids as faecal matter. Water intakes do assist the kidney
in getting rid of liquid wastes. Avoidance of cigarette smoking and
polluted air helps in preserving your lungs and your cardiovascular
system (Rosdahl & Kowalski, 2012).
Sleep and Rest: Rest is soothing to the body. Most people need 7 – 8
hours’ sleep per night. Sometimes after a day’s work, rest is needed
rather than sleep. Try lying relaxed and letting your thought drift. Some
people find that meditation or ‘emptying the mind of all thoughts’ is
restful (Rosdahl & Kowalski, 2012).
Personal Hygiene: Maintenance of personal hygiene is necessary for

comfort, safety and well-being. Activities of personal hygiene are basic
to normal functioning. Hygiene refers to practices that promote health
through personally cleanliness and it is fostered through activities like
bathing, tooth brushing, cleaning and maintaining fingernails and
toenails, and shampooing and grooming hair. Such activities help to
protect the body from infections, make a good impression on others, and
help to promote a positive self-image. For instance, regular bathing or
cleansing removes perspiration oil, and pathogens from the skin. It also
increases circulation and helps maintain muscle tone. Besides, bathing
is refreshing; it can help wake one up in the morning and to induce sleep
at night. Many a people shed their worries along with the day’s
accumulation of dirt by taking baths or showers. Grooming is equally
important to one’s well-being. Nails should be trimmed to comfortable
length. Bitten nails are unsightly and may lead to infection. Shoes
should be well fitted and comfortable. Clothes should be clean, well-
fitting and comfortable too. They should be appropriate for the type of
activity being performed. Dental care is also essential. Teeth to be
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brushed regularly and regular dental check-up encouraged. Fluorination

of water to lessen tooth decay and consumption of food rich in calcium,
phosphorus, vitamins A, C, and D for healthy and normal teeth formation
and growth is expedient. The cutting down on consumption of sugary
foods that is often overlooked is vital to the prevention of dental caries.
While the eating of soft food is good, continuous eating of such foods
affects the gums and teeth because chewing itself is needed to maintain
the tone and holding power of the gums and the strength of the teeth. Eye
care is another important aspect of personal care that must not be
neglected in order to achieve full health. To this end, eyes examination
should be done at least once a year.
Posture and Body Mechanics: Posture is the position of your body, the
way its part line up when you stand, sit, move or lie while body
mechanics is the term that refers to the use of the body as a tool. The way
you stand, sit, or move affects your efficiency and the impression you
create. Good posture improves your health saves your energy and
prevents unnecessary muscle strains and back disorder (Rosdahl &
Kowalski, 2012).
Safer Sex: The late twentieth century recorded an astronomical increase

in the emergence and spread of deadly infectious diseases emanating
primarily from unhealthy sexual practices. This informs the gospel of
safer sex and the doctrine of ABC in the prevention of AIDS (Acquired
Immune Deficiency Syndrome) and other sexually transmitted diseases.
Safer sex involves carefully choosing one’s sexual partner, mutual
fidelity, and the use of condom where in doubt.
Healthy Environment: As earlier stated, man and his environment are

constantly interacting. The environment influences man and man
influences his environment at all times i.e. the relationship is never static
but always changing. Interestingly, health and the quality of life are
greatly affected by this interaction. It is sufficing to say “it is difficult to
have optimum health if the environment is not safe.”
Note: As beginning health care providers, nursing students are
encouraged to develop their own health-promoting behavior to be better
role models for clients.
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3.5 Nurses’ Role in Health Promotion, Health Protection,

and Disease Prevention
It is an open truth that investment in the health sector is rapidly

becoming an amalgam of public and private partnerships. While it is
becoming increasingly glaring that the responsibility for health
promotion does not lie with health sector alone, Berman et al.,
2016argued that nurses nonetheless have an unequal contribution to
make to alliances created in the pursuit of health. Speaking in the same
vein, Delaune & Ladner (2011) asserted that nurses play a key role in
promoting health and wellness. Therefore, there is no doubt about the
nurses’ role in health promotion and disease prevention however the
challenge before us as nurses is to find ways to motivate clients and
families to develop health-promoting behaviours. This is against the
background that health promotion is not simply something that is done
to the client or patient, as in changing a dressing, but something that
pervades the entire nursing care ranging from needs assessment,
planning health gain to evaluating interventions and strategies for
effectiveness and efficiency (Berman et al., 2016 ).
Delaune & Ladner (2011) identified health education/health counselling

and motivation as two key components of health promotion strategies
employed by nurses. Watkinson (2002) citing the English National
Board’s Higher Award (ENB, 1991) document observed the health
promotion stands out as the 6th key characteristic of that document.
Inherent in the said document (highlighted below), are salient features
considered as essential to the performance of health promotion activities
by nurses.
• Promote understanding of health promotion, preventative care,

health education and healthy living.
• Understand and apply the principles and practice of health
promotion in the work setting and create, maintain and take
responsibility for a healthy work environment.
• Facilitate responsibility and choice among clients for healthy
living, and their ability to determine their own lifestyles.
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• Develop and implement strategies for health care based on

understanding of the impact of health trends on resources.
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISEDescribe the Nurses’ Role in Health
Promotion, Health Protection, and Disease Prevention
4.0 CONCLUSION
The issue of health promotion is an all-encompassing one. This unit has

demonstrated on one hand the limitations of modern medicine and health
care systems in single handedly improving the health status of the
population. On the other hand, it emphasised the role of nurses as a key
strategy for improving health through a holistic approach consisting of
not only a medical dimension but also psychological, social and
economic dimensions.
5.0 SUMMARY
The Ottawa charter, an important milestone in Health Promotion practice

worldwide, defines Health Promotion as the process of enabling people
to increase control over, and to improve, their health. You have noted
that to reach a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being,
an individual or group must be able to identify and to realise aspirations,
to satisfy needs, and to change or cope with the environment. Therefore,
health status of individuals in any community depends to a large extent
on their level of awareness of factors that enhance and/or militate against
their health. However, good health habits help to prevent disorder and/or
enhance total wellness. On the contrary poor health habits will almost
always adversely affect health status and individual’s capability and
efficiency. As such nurses play a key role in helping clients to adopt
healthy lifestyles and use approaches such as role modeling and formal
teaching to motivate client change.
As a nurse in a remote village, you observed that majority of the pregnant

women becomes anemic during pregnancy with frequent incidence of
malaria in pregnancy, and besides, over 90% are already genitally
mutilated. You initially focus on diet and reduction in malaria attack.
How would you begin to design the program? What resources do you
need?
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 Bhuyan, K. K. (2004). Health Promotion through Self-Care and
Community Participation: Elements of a Proposed Programme in
the Developing Countries. BMC Public Health. 4: 11.

Sciences
 Delaune, S. C. & Ladner, P.K. (Eds). (2011). The Individual,
Health and Holism. Fundamentals of Nursing, Standards and
Practice. Albany: Delmar Publishers.
 DiMartino, C. (1999). Healthy Living: A Combination of Diet,

Nutrition, and Exercise. In Motion, 9(6).


World Health Organisation (1986). Geneva: Ottawa Charter for Health

Promotion.
World Health Organisation (2016). Health Promotion.
MODULE 4 FUNDAMENTALS OF NURSING
Unit 1: Vital Signs I

Unit 2: Vital Signs II
Unit 3: History Taking and Physical Examination
Unit 4: Diagnostic Measures in Patients Care
Unit 5: Providing Safety and Comfort
UNIT 1: VITAL SIGNS I
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 What are Vital Signs?
3.2 Times to Assess Vital Signs
3.3 Factors Affecting Body Temperature
3.4 Alterations in Body Temperature
3.5 Assessing Body Temperature
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Health assessment is vital to monitoring the progress made by

clients/patients as well as establishing whether identified needs have been
met. Although health assessment is such a broad area encompassing
observation, physical examination and interviewing/History taking and
requiring the use of all senses, the measurement of vital signs appears to
be a regular and essential feature. Hence this unit is dedicated to
discussing vital signs with a view to enhancing nurses’ technical skills in
the art of assessing vital signs as well as deepening their
theoretical/knowledge base. This to our mind, will not only help nurses
to measure the vital signs correctly but will go a long way at assisting
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them to understand and interpret the values, communicate findings

appropriately and begin interventions as needed. The traditional vital
signs are body temperature, pulse, respirations, and blood pressure. Many
agencies such as the Veterans
Administration, American Pain Society, and The Joint Commission have
designated pain as a fifth vital sign, to be assessed at the
same time as each of the other four. The first two units of this module
will be centred on the four traditional vital signs
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you will be able to:
i. identify the measurements that comprise the vital signs

ii. identify when to assess vital signs
iii. define body temperature
iv. describe the thermoregulatory mechanisms
v. identify the variations in normal body temperature that
occur from infancy to old age
vi. discuss factors affecting body temperature
vii. describe how to measure body temperature using various
routes stating the advantages and disadvantages associated
with each route.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 What are Vital Signs?
Donovan, et al (1968) gave this over-simplified illustration that

beautifully captures what vital signs are. In their words ‘The healthy
person engaging in his daily activities is relatively unconscious of much
chemical process going on at all times in his body. A never-ending
production of energy in the form of heat is taking place. The fuel we
supply to our body as food is continuously being burned away when it
meets the oxygen in the air we breathe. This process is called oxidation.
When conversion of food to energy is occurring normally, our heart is
pumping a steady average amount of blood; our lungs are taking in a
regulated, steady flow of air; and the heat of our body is constant at an
average temperature. These functions are all related and in delicate
balance. When this balance is disturbed by such things as heavy exercise,
the rate of heat production, blood flow, and breathing will vary from
normal. This variations in temperature, pulse, respiration, and blood
pressure (otherwise referred to as vital signs) give nurses and doctors their
most important clues to the state of the body’s functioning.’ Vital signs
or cardinal signs as they are sometimes called could therefore be defined
as signs reflecting the body’s physiological state, which are governed by
body’s vital organs (brain, heart, lungs) and necessary for sustaining life.
Consequently, Temperature, Pulse, Respiration, and Blood pressure are
referred to as vital signs because they are indicators of vital functions of
the body that are necessary to sustain life.
3.2 Times to Assess Vital Signs
• On admission to a healthcare agency to obtain baseline data.

• When the patient’s/client’s general physical condition changes (as with
loss of consciousness or increased intensity of pain)
• Before and after surgery or an invasive diagnostic procedure.
• Before and/or after administration of certain medication that affect the
cardiovascular, respiratory, and temperature control function.
• Before and after nursing interventions influencing a vital sign (such as
when a patient/client previously on bed rest ambulates or when a patient
requires tracheal suctioning)
• When the patient reports non-specific symptoms of physical
distress (such as feeling ‘funny’ or ‘different’) (Berman et al., 2016)
3.3 Body Temperature
The term temperature is defined as the state of heat or coldness within a

substance, which can be measured against a standard scale (0C or 0F) i.e.
the degree of hotness or coldness of an object measured against a standard
scale. Man and other mammals unlike fishes, reptiles, and other
poikilothermic animals are homoeothermic, that is warm blooded and
maintain their body temperature independently of the environment. Our
body continually produces heat as a by-product of metabolism. This heat
is transported by blood round the body. Heat is however also continually
lost from the body. In essence, body temperature as indicated on a clinical
thermometer, is the balance between the heat produced and the heat lost
from the body measured in heat units called degree i.e. the measure of
heat inside the body.
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Basically, there are two kinds of body temperature viz: Core

temperature and Surface temperature. The core temperature is the
temperature of the deep tissues of the body such as abdominal cavity, and
pelvic region. It remains relatively constant. The surface temperature is
the temperature of the skin, the subcutaneous tissue, and fat. It by
contrast, rises and falls in response to the environment. The normal core
body temperature is a range of temperatures fluctuating between 36.1 and
37.20C (Berman, et.al., 2016). The big question however is – how is the
core temperature kept within this relatively narrow range? This forms the
focus of the subsequent paragraphs.
Thermoregulation
Thermoregulation is the body’s physiological function of heat regulation

to maintain a relatively constant internal body temperature. This is
achieved by a complex interplay of physical and chemical/hormonal
mechanism and sympathetic stimulation that is coordinated by the heat
regulating center in the brain called the hypothalamus. The hypothalamus
controls the body temperature in the same way that a thermostat works in
the home. The hypothalamus does this through its anterior and posterior
part. The anterior hypothalamus is concerned with heat dissipation while
the posterior hypothalamus controls heat conservation.
The hypothalamus senses minor changes in body temperature. When the

body temperature deviates from the set point, the temperature center of
the hypothalamus (hypothalamic integrator located in the preoptic area of
the hypothalamus) either activates heat loss (cooling) or heat production
to ensure that the core temperature remains within the safe physiological
range (Berman et al., 2016).
Heat Production
Heat is produced in the body through the chemical oxidation of food

substances (metabolism of food substances) that results in the release of
energy, and this is a continuous process. The body converts energy
supplied by metabolised nutrients to energy forms that can be used
directly by the body. One form of this energy is thermal energy. Really,
energy is measured in terms of heat. A kilocalorie is an energy value (heat
measure) of a given food; 1 kilocalorie equals 1000 calories (the amount
of heat required to raise temperature of 1 kilogram of water by 1 0 C. This

type of heat liberation is usually expressed as the metabolic rate and
measured as basal metabolic rate or BMR (the rate of energy use in the
body needed to maintain essential activities). It should be mentioned that
heat production increases when a person is active and most heat
production comes from the deep tissue organs (brain, liver, and heart) and
the skeletal muscles (Berman et al., 2016).
Heat production in the body is however increased by epinephrine, nor

epinephrine, thyroxine and triiodothyronine. These hormones increase
the rate of cellular metabolism in many body tissues. Epinephrine and nor
epinephrine apart from its vasoconstrictive effect, directly affect liver and
muscle cells, thereby increasing cellular metabolism. Vasoconstriction in
human’s internal organs produces heat and blood flow from the internal
organs carries heat to the body surface. The thyroid hormones thyroxine
and triiodothyronine increase basal metabolism by breaking down
glucose and fat. This effect is called chemical thermogenesis (Berman et
al., 2016).
Muscular activity also produces heat from breakdown of carbohydrates

and fats and through shivering. The skin is well supplied with heat and
cold receptors but because cold receptors are more plentiful, the skin
functions primarily to detect cold surface temperature. When the skin
becomes chilled, its sensors send information to the hypothalamus, which
initiates shivering (involuntary skeletal muscles contractions in response
to cold) and vasoconstriction. This leads to increased muscular tone,
which enhances further metabolism. Physical exercise often found
comforting in cold weather also increases heat production by increasing
muscle tone and stimulating metabolism. In a nutshell, when the body
suffers a significant heat loss the hypothalamus transmits impulses to
stimulate heat production through vasoconstriction (narrowing of blood
vessels), muscle shivering, piloerection (hair standing on end) and
inhibiting sweating. However, apart from these major means of heat
production, the body also gains heat from its environment, but this is
negligible and of less significance to the heat produced in the muscles
(Berman et al., 2016 ).
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Heat Loss
When the body heat rises, nerves in the hypothalamus (the sensors)
become heated and impulses/signals are then sent out to decrease heat
production and increase heat loss. This it does by triggering perspiration
(diaphoresis) from millions of sweat glands that lie deep below the dermal
layer of the skin, vasodilation (the widening of blood vessels), and
inhibition of heat production. The body cools itself. Heat is dissipated
from the body primarily through physical processes. As much as 95% is
lost through radiation, convention, and evaporation of water from the
lungs and skin. Most of the remaining amount is lost through urination
and defecation and in raising the temperature of inhaled air to body
temperature. A negligible amount is lost through conduction except when
the body is in contact with cold surfaces for prolonged period of time.
Heat Loss Mechanisms
The various physical processes through which heat is lost from the body
are:
Radiation: is the transfer of heat from the surface of one object to the
surface of another without contact between the two objects, mostly in the
form of infrared rays . Heat radiates from the skin to cooler nearby objects
and radiates to the skin from warmer objects. The amount of heat lost by
radiation from the skin varies with the degree of dilation of surface blood
vessels when the body is overheated, and with the extent of
vasoconstriction when the body is chilled. Radiant heat loss can be
enhanced by removing clothing or by wearing light clothing meaning that
heat loss through radiation can be curtailed by covering the body with
cloth especially dark, closely woven clothes. Another thing that affects
heat loss through radiation is positioning; a man in erect position with
arm and legs extended radiates more heat than one in dorsal position
(Berman et al., 2016).
Conduction: This is the transfer of heat from one object to another object
of lower temperature that is in contact with it. Notice that conductive
transfer cannot take place without contact between the molecules of both
objects. The amount of heat transferred depends on the temperature
difference and the amount and duration of the contact (Berman et al.,
2016). As earlier stated, conduction accounts for minimal heat loss from
the body except, when a body is immersed in cold water. Interestingly,

water conducts heat more efficiently than air. Therefore water used for
bathing the patient should be above body temperature to prevent
conductive heat loss. However, if the patient’s temperature is abnormally
high, the nurse can lower it by tepid sponging thereby taking advantage
of conductive heat loss (Webster, 1995).
Convention: Convention is the dispersion of heat by air currents. The

body usually has a small amount of warm air adjacent to it. This warm air
rises and is replaced by cooler air, and so people always lose a small
amount of heat through convention but can be artificially enhanced
through the use of fan to promote heat loss from febrile patient. It is
important to note that the speed of movement of air surrounding the skin
increases, the convention of heat loss from the skin increases (Brooker &
Waugh 2013).
Evaporation: This simply means the vaporisation of fluid i.e. changing

from liquid state to gaseous state. The physicist makes us to understand
that heat energy is needed to effect this change. Mountcastle (1980)
reported that for each gram of water that evaporates from the body
surface, approximately 0.6kilocalorie of heat is lost. In view of the
continuous evaporation of water from the respiratory tract, the skin and
the mucosa of the oral cavity tagged insensible water loss, there is also
accompanying insensible heat loss which medical experts claim to
accounts for about 10% of basal heat loss.
Behavioral Control of Body Temperature
In addition to heat production and heat loss mechanisms described above,

the body has potent mechanism for temperature control known as the
behavioral control. This encompasses voluntary acts that people take to
maintain comfortable temperatures in response to body signaling
conditions of either being overheated or too cold (DeLaune, & Ladner,
2011). They include such measures as changing environment, adding
more clothing or changing from light to thick clothing, raising the
temperature settings on heating thermostats, putting on air conditioner,
turning on fans, taking a cold shower, to mention a few.
3.4 Factors Influencing Body Temperature
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Temperature monitoring, no doubt stands out as one of the commonest

function of the nurse and in view of the importance temperature variation
in health assessment, it has become expedient for nurses to become aware
of factors that influence body temperature. Among these factors are:
Age – At birth, the newborn leaves a warm, relatively constant

environment and enters one in which temperature fluctuates widely.
Temperature control mechanisms are not fully developed; thus, an
infant’s temperature may change drastically with changes in the
environment. Therefore, the newborn must be protected from temperature
extremes and clothing must be adequate. Temperature regulation
continues to be labile until children reach puberty. Many older people,
particularly those over 75 years, are at risk of hypothermia (temperature
below 360C for a variety of reasons, such as inadequate diet, loss of
subcutaneous fat, lack of activity, and reduced thermoregulatory
efficiency (Brooker & Waugh 2013).).
Exercise – Muscular activity requires an increased blood supply and an

increase in carbohydrate and fat breakdown for more energy. This
increased metabolism causes increase in heat production and
consequently the body temperature. As such hard work or strenuous
exercise can increase body temperature to as high as 38.3 – 40 0C (101°F
to 104°F) measured rectally (Brooker & Waugh 2013; Berman et al.,
2016)
(
Circadian Rhythms (Diurnal Variations) – Body temperature
normally changes throughout the day, varying as much as 1.00C (1.8°F)
between the early morning and the late afternoon. The
point of highest body temperature is usually reached between
1600 and 1800 hours (4:00 pm and 6:00 pm), and the lowest point
is reached during sleep between 0400 and 0600 hours (4:00 am
and 6:00 am) (Figure 29–3 •). Older adults’ temperatures may
vary less than those of younger persons due to the changes in
autonomic functioning common in aging (Marigold, Arias,
Vassallo, Allen, & Kwan, 2011).
Hormone Level – Women usually experience greater temperature

fluctuations than men. This has been attributed to greater hormonal
fluctuations women experiences. For instance, during menstrual cycle,
progesterone levels rise and fall cyclically. Before start of menstrual

cycle, progesterone levels are low, and the body temperature falls a few
tenths of a degree below the baseline. This lower temperature persists
until ovulation. During ovulation, greater amounts of enter the circulatory
system and raise the body temperature to previous baseline levels or
higher. Body temperature fluctuations also occur in menopausal women
due to instability of the vasomotor controls for vasodilation and
vasoconstriction. In fact, one the cardinal symptoms of the post-
menopausal syndrome are the experience of periods of intense heat and
sweating lasting from 30 seconds to 5 minutes. The amount of thyroxine,
triiodothyronine, epinephrine/adrenaline, and
norepinephrine/noradrenaline circulating in the body also affect heat
production and basal metabolic rate
(Brooker & Waugh 2013; Berman et al., 2016 )
Stress – Physical and emotional stress increase body temperature through

hormonal and neural stimulation which sets into motion chains of
physiological reactions. These physiological changes like the release of
adrenaline with associated increase in heart rate causes increased
metabolism, which in turn increases heat production. Nurses may
therefore anticipate that individuals who are anxious about entering the
hospital or undergoing a surgical procedure could register a higher than
normal temperature
(Berman et al., 2016 )
Environment – Extremes in environmental temperatures can affect a

person’s temperature regulatory systems. If the temperature is assessed in
a very warm room and the body temperature cannot be modified by
convention, conduction, or radiation, the temperature will be elevated.
Similarly, if the client has been outside in extremely cold weather without
suitable clothing, the body temperature may be low
(Berman et al., 2016 )
3.5 Alterations in Body Temperature
Altered body temperature occurs when the body temperature rises above
the upper normal limit or fall below the lower normal limit (subnormal
or lowered body temperature). An extremely high or extremely low
temperature can be very fatal. Survival is rare if the core temperature is
above 42.20C or below 340C (DeLaune &
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Ladner 2011).PYREXIA
Source: Berman et al., 2016
A body temperature above the usual range is called pyrexia,

hyperthermia, or (in lay terms) fever. A very high fever, such as 41°C
(105.8°F), is called hyperpyrexia. The client who has a fever is referred
to as febrile; the one who does not is afebrile. Four common types of
fevers are intermittent, remittent, relapsing, and constant. During an
intermittent fever, the body temperature alternates at regular intervals
between periods of fever and periods of normal or subnormal
temperatures. An example is with the disease malaria.
During a remittent fever, such as with a cold or influenza, a wide range

of temperature fluctuations (more than 2°C [3.6°F]) occurs over a 24-
hour period, all of which are above normal. In a relapsing fever, short
febrile periods of a few days are interspersed with periods of 1 or 2 days
of normal temperature. During a constant fever, the body temperature
fluctuates minimally
but always remains above normal. This can occur with typhoid fever. A
temperature that rises to fever level rapidly following a normal
temperature and then returns to normal within a few hours is called
a fever spike. Bacterial blood infections often cause fever spikes. In
some conditions, an elevated temperature is not a true fever. Two
examples are heat exhaustion and heat stroke. Heat exhaustion
is a result of excessive heat and dehydration. Signs of heat exhaustion
include paleness, dizziness, nausea, vomiting, fainting, and a moderately
increased temperature (38.3°C to 38.9°C [101°F to 102°F]).
Persons experiencing heat stroke generally have been exercising in hot
weather, have warm, flushed skin, and often do not sweat. They usually
have a temperature of 41.1°C (106°F) or higher, and may be
delirious, unconscious, or having seizures. The clinical signs of fever
vary with the onset, course, and abatement stages of the fever (see
Clinical Manifestations). These signs occur as a result of changes in the
set point of the temperature control mechanism regulated by the
hypothalamus. Under normal conditions, whenever the core
temperature rises, the rate of heat loss is increased, resulting in a fall in
temperature toward the set-point level. Conversely, when the core
temperature falls, the rate of heat production is increased, resulting in a
rise in temperature toward the set point. In a fever, however, the set
point of the hypothalamic thermostat changes suddenly from the
normal level to a higher than normal value (e.g., 39.5°C [103.1°F]) as a
result of the effects of tissue destruction, pyrogenic substances, or
dehydration on the hypothalamus. Although the set point changes
rapidly, the core body temperature (i.e., the blood temperature) reaches
this new set point only after several hours. During
this interval, the usual heat production responses that cause elevation of
the body temperature occur: chills, feeling of coldness, cold skin due to
vasoconstriction, and shivering. This is referred to as the chill phase.
When the core temperature reaches the new set point, the person feels
neither cold nor hot and no longer experiences chills (the plateau
phase). Depending on the degree of temperature elevation, other signs
may occur during the course of the fever. Very high temperatures, such
as 41°C to 42°C (106°F to 108°F), damage the parenchyma of cells
throughout the body, particularly in the brain
where destruction of neuronal cells is irreversible. Damage to the liver,
kidneys, and other body organs can also be great enough to disrupt
functioning and eventually cause death.
When the cause of the high temperature is suddenly removed, the set
point of the hypothalamic thermostat is suddenly reduced to a lower
value, perhaps even back to the original normal level. In this
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instance, the hypothalamus now attempts to lower the temperature, and

the usual heat loss responses that cause a reduction of the body
temperature occur: excessive sweating and hot, flushed skin due to
sudden vasodilation. This is referred to as the flush phase. Nursing
interventions for a client who has a fever are designed to support the
body’s normal physiological processes, provide comfort, and prevent
complications. During the course of a fever, the nurse needs to monitor
the client’s vital signs closely.
Nursing interventions during the chill phase are designed to help the
client decrease heat loss. At this time, the body’s physiological
processes are attempting to raise the core temperature to the new
set-point temperature. During the flush or crisis phase, the body
processes are attempting to lower the core temperature to the reduced or
normal set-point temperature. At this time, the nurse takes measures to
increase heat loss and decrease heat production.
CLINICAL MANIFESTATIONS
Fever
ONSET (COLD OR CHILL PHASE)
• Increased heart rate
• Increased respiratory rate and depth
• Shivering
• Pallid, cold skin
• Complaints of feeling cold
• Cyanotic nail beds
• “Gooseflesh” appearance of the skin
• Cessation of sweating
COURSE (PLATEAU PHASE)

• Absence of chills
• Skin that feels warm
• Photosensitivity
• Glassy-eyed appearance
• Increased pulse and respiratory rates
• Increased thirst
• Mild to severe dehydration
• Drowsiness, restlessness, delirium, or convulsions
• Herpetic lesions of the mouth
• Loss of appetite (if the fever is prolonged)
• Malaise, weakness, and aching muscles
DEFERVESCENCE (FEVER ABATEMENT/FLUSH PHASE)
• Skin that appears flushed and feels warm
• Sweating
• Decreased shivering
• Possible dehydration
Nursing Interventions for Clients with Fever
• Monitor vital signs.
• Assess skin color and temperature.
• Monitor white blood cell count, hematocrit value, and other pertinent
laboratory reports for indications of infection or dehydration.
• Remove excess blankets when the client feels warm, but provide extra
warmth when the client feels chilled.
• Provide adequate nutrition and fluids (e.g., 2,500–3,000 mL/day) to
meet the increased metabolic demands and prevent dehydration.
• Measure intake and output.
• Reduce physical activity to limit heat production, especially during the
flush stage.
• Administer antipyretics (drugs that reduce the level of fever) as
ordered.
• Provide oral hygiene to keep the mucous membranes moist.
• Provide a tepid sponge bath to increase heat loss through conduction.
• Provide dry clothing and bed linens
HYPOTHERMIA
Hypothermia is a core body temperature below the lower limit of
normal. The three physiological mechanisms of hypothermia are (a)
excessive heat loss, (b) inadequate heat production to counteract
heat loss, and (c) impaired hypothalamic thermoregulation. The clinical
signs of hypothermia are listed in the Clinical Manifestations box.
Hypothermia may be induced or accidental. Induced hypothermia is the
deliberate lowering of the body temperature to decrease the need for
oxygen by the body tissues such as during certain surgeries. Accidental
hypothermia can occur as a result of (a) exposure to a cold
environment, (b) immersion in cold water, and (c) lack of adequate
clothing, shelter, or heat. In older adults, the problem can be
compounded by a decreased metabolic rate and the use of sedative
medications. If skin and underlying tissues are damaged by freezing
cold, this results in frostbite. Frostbite most commonly occurs in hands,
feet, nose, and ears. Managing hypothermia involves removing the
client from the cold and rewarming the client’s body. For the client with
mild hypothermia, the body is rewarmed by applying blankets, for the
client with severe hypothermia, a hyperthermia blanket (an
electronically controlled blanket that provides a specified temperature)
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is applied, and warm intravenous fluids are given. Wet clothing, which
increases heat loss because of the high conductivity of water, should be
replaced with dry clothing.
CLINICAL MANIFESTATIONS OF HYPOTHERMIA

• Decreased body temperature, pulse, and respirations
• Severe shivering (initially)
• Feelings of cold and chills
• Pale, cool, waxy skin
• Frostbite (discolored, blistered nose, fingers, toes)
• Hypotension
• Decreased urinary output
• Lack of muscle coordination
• Disorientation
• Drowsiness progressing to coma
Nursing Interventions for Clients with Hypothermia

• Provide a warm environment.
• Provide dry clothing.
• Apply warm blankets.
• Keep limbs close to body.
• Cover the client’s scalp with a cap or turban.
• Supply warm oral or intravenous fluids.
• Apply warming pads
3.5 Assessing Body Temperature
Sites for Assessment of body Temperature
The four most common sites are oral, rectal, Axillary, and the tympanic
membrane. Each has its own merit and demerits, which are summarised
in Table 5
Table 5 Advantages and Disadvantages of Sites Used for Body

Temperature Measurement
Site Advantages/Merits Disadvantages/Demerits/Flaws

Oral Accessible and Mercury-in-glass thermometers can

convenient break if bitten; therefore, they are
contraindicated for children under
6years and clients who are confused
or who have convulsive disorders or
patients who breathe only with
mouth open. Inaccurate if client has
just ingested hot or cold food or fluid
or smoked. Could injure the mouth
following oral surgery.
Rectal reliable Inconvenient and more unpleasant
measurement for clients; difficult for client who
cannot turn to the side. Should not be
used in patients who have a rectal
disorder like tumor or severe
hemorrhoids. Could injure the
rectum following rectal surgery.
Placement of the thermometer at
different sites within the rectum
yields different temperatures, yet
placement at the same site each time
is difficult. A rectal glass
thermometer does respond to
changes in arterial temperatures as
quickly as an oral thermometer, a
fact that may be potentially
dangerous for febrile clients because
misleading information may be
acquired. Presence of stool may
interfere with thermometer
placement. If the stool is soft, the
thermometer may be embedded in
stool rather than against the wall of
the rectum. If the stool is impacted,
the depth of the thermometer
insertion may be insufficient. In
newborns and infants, insertion of
the rectal thermometer has resulted
in ulceration and rectal perforations.
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Many agencies advise against using

rectal thermometers
on neonates.
Axillary Safest and

non- The thermometer may need to be
invasive left in place a long time to obtain an
accurate measurement.
Tympanic Readily accessible; Can be uncomfortable and involves
Membrane reflects the core risk of injuring the membrane if the
temperature. Very probe is inserted too far. Repeated
fast. measurement may vary. Right and
left measurements can differ.
Presence of cerumen can affect the
reading.
Temporal Safe and noninvasive; Requires electronic equipment that

artery very fast may be expensive or unavailable.
Variation
in technique needed if the client has
perspiration on the forehead.
Guidelines for Taking body Temperature Preparation

Traditionally, body temperatures were measured using mercury-inglass
thermometers. Such thermometers, however, can be hazardous due to
exposure to mercury, which is toxic to humans, and broken glass should
the thermometer crack or break. In 1998, the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency and the American Hospital Association agreed to the
goal of eliminating mercury from health care environments. Hospitals no
longer use mercury-in-glass thermometers, and several cities
have banned the sale and manufacture of them. However, the nurse may
still encounter this type of thermometer, especially in the home. In some
cases, plastics have replaced glass and safer chemicals (e.g., gallium)
have replaced mercury in modern versions of the thermometer
Patient: Explain procedure to gain consent and co-operation. Assess

patient regarding site suitable for temperature recording (see Points for
Practice (PPP) overleaf). Patient should not have had a hot drink, smoked
a cigarette or exercised within the previous ten minutes.
• Equipment/Environment: Clinical mercury
thermometer; Disposable cover for the thermometer or alcohol
swab for cleaning it; & Observation chart.
• Nurse: Hands must be clean.
Procedure
Use of Mercury Thermometer
1. Collect the thermometer – Each patient may have an individual

thermometer kept at the bedside or there may be several for general use
kept centrally.
2. Inspect the thermometer to ensure that it is clean and reading below
0
35 C. Shake down the mercury if necessary (see PPP).
3. If appropriate, apply the disposable cover according to the
manufacturer’s instructions and remove the backing paper.
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Oral
4. Ask the patient to open his/her mouth and gently insert the
thermometer under their tongue next to the frenulum. This is adjacent to
the sublingual artery, so the temperature will be close to core temperature.
5. Ask the patient to close their lips, but not their teeth, around the
thermometer to prevent cool air circulating in the mouth.
6. Leave in position for 2-3 minutes (see PPP).
7. Remove the thermometer taking care to touch only the part that
has not been in contact with the patient’s mouth. If applicable, remove
the disposable cover according to the manufacturer’s instructions and
dispose of appropriately
8. Holding the thermometer horizontally at eye level, note the level
of the mercury.
Axilla
9. Do not use a disposable cover as this is not necessary and interferes

with skin contact.
10. Ask/assist the patient to expose his/her axilla, for an accurate
recording, the axilla must be dry.
11. Insert the thermometer into the axilla and ask/assist the patient to
keep their arm close against the chest wall to ensure good contact with
the skin.
12. Leave in position for five minutes.
13. Holding the thermometer horizontally at eye level, note the level
of the mercury
Points for Practice

The rectal site is no longer recommended unless an electronic probe is
being used. Shake down the thermometer by holding firmly in your
dominant hand. Stand back from any furniture (e.g. bed table) to avoid
striking with the thermometer. With a flicking action, shake the
thermometer until the mercury is down below 350C. This may take
several shakes to achieve. Unlike a room thermometer the mercury in the
thermometer does not go down as the temperature falls (i.e. when in
storage) as there is a kink in the column, which confers on it a self-
registering property. The thermometer must remain in the mouth for at
least two minutes to obtain an accurate recording, but should not be left
for longer than three minutes as this is uncomfortable for the patient.
Electronic oral and tympanic thermometer and disposable thermometer
are increasingly being used.
Post-Procedure
Patient: Ensure patient comfort. Answer any questions regarding the

recording.
Equipment/Environment: Shake down the mercury. If a disposable

cover has been used no cleaning is necessary, if no cover has been used,
the thermometer should be cleaned with an alcohol swab and stored dry
according to local policy.
Nurse: Chart temperature recording. Report any abnormality.
Use of Electronic Thermometers

Electronic thermometers can provide a reading in only 2 to 60 seconds,
depending on the model. The equipment consists of an electronic base, a
probe, and a probe cover, which is usually disposable. Two special types
of oral thermometers are basal and hypothermia. A basal thermometer is
calibrated with 0.1°F intervals and is for fertility purposes, indicating the
temperature rise that is associated with ovulation. Hypothermia
thermometers have a greater low range than everyday thermometers,
usually measuring temperatures from 27.2°C to 42.2°C (81°F to 108°F).
Infrared thermometers sense body heat in the form of infrared energy
given off by a heat source, which, in the ear canal, is primarily the
tympanic membrane. The infrared thermometer makes no contact with
the tympanic membrane.
Temporal artery thermometers determine temperature using a scanning
infrared thermometer that compares the arterial temperature in the
temporal artery of the forehead to the temperature in the
room and calculates the heat balance to approximate the core
temperature of the blood in the pulmonary artery. The probe is placed in
the middle of the forehead and then drawn laterally to the hairline. If the
client has perspiration on the forehead, the probe is also touched behind
the earlobe so the thermometer can compensate for evaporative cooling
Oral
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Electronic oral thermometers are increasingly being used in hospitals.

They are efficient and easy to use, with an audible signal indicating when
the maximum temperature has been reached. The probe, covered by a
disposable plastic cover, is placed under the tongue in the same way as a
mercury thermometer. Each cover is for use by one patient only and is
usually kept clean and dry on the patient locker between use. It is
discarded when the patient is discharged from the ward.
Tympanic
Some electronic thermometers are designed to measure the temperature

by inserting probe into the outer ear, adjacent to (but not touching) the
tympanic membrane. Again, a special cover is used for each patient to
prevent cross-infection. An infrared light detects heat radiated from the
tympanic membrane and provides a digital reading. This provides a more
accurate measure of body core temperature as it is close to the carotid
artery. The patient may need more explanation than usual because
although most people will have had their temperature recorded at some
point, they may be surprised to find you approaching their ear.
Conversion of Temperature Scales (Centigrade & Fahrenheit)
Depending on your country of practice you will be expected to be familiar

with either of these measuring scales. However, since nursing is an
international occupation, it is better to be conversant with the use of both
scales. You can easily convert centigrade to Fahrenheit by multiplying
the centigrade temperature by the fraction 9/5 and adding 32. But to
convert Fahrenheit to centigrade, first subtract 32 from the Fahrenheit
temperature, and then multiply by 5/9.
List out the factors that can influence body temperature.

4.0 CONCLUSION
The importance of vital signs in health monitoring and evaluation of

client’s health status cannot be over-emphasised. Knowledge of factors
affecting heat production and heat loss helps the nurse to implement
appropriate interventions when the client has an altered body
temperature.
5.0 SUMMARY
Vital signs are signs reflecting the body’s physiological status. They
comprise temperature, pulse respiration, and blood pressure. Baseline
values establish the norm and variation from normal may indicate
possible problems with client’s health status. Human beings maintain a
relatively constant temperature independent of their environment. This
the body achieve through thermoregulation. The four sites commonly
used for assessing body temperature are oral, rectal, axillary, and
tympanic membrane, each with its advantages and disadvantages. The
nurse selects the most appropriate site according to the client’s age and
condition. Factors affecting body temperature include age, sex, diurnal
variation, exercise, hormones, stress and environmental temperatures.
Apart from these normal deviations in health, altered temperature (fever
or hypothermia) may develop and it is the nurses’ responsibility to
institute appropriate therapy.
ANSWER TO SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
Age, Environment, Stress, Hormonal level and Exercise.
Explain the thermoregulatory mechanism and discuss the various factors

influencing body temperature.
Sade, a 6-year old girl was brought to your hospital following an episode
of high fever. Discuss your management of Sade during the pyrexic
phase.
Berman, A., Snyder, S., & Frandsen, G. (2016). Study Guide for Kozier
& Erb's Fundamentals of Nursing: Concepts, Process, and Practice, [by]
Berman, Snyder. Pearson
Brooker, C., & Waugh, A. (2013). Foundations of Nursing Practice E-
Book: Fundamentals of Holistic Care. Elsevier Health Sciences
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DeLaune, S. C., & Ladner, P. K. (2011). Fundamentals of nursing:

Standards and practice. Cengage learning.
Guyton, A. C. (2021). Textbook of Medical Physiology (14th ed.).

Philadelphia: WB Saunders.
Potter, P. A. and Perry, A.G. (2009). Fundamental of Nursing:

Concepts, Progress, and Practice (7th ed). St Louis: C.V Mosby.
Rosdahl, C. B. & Kowalski M.T. (2012). Textbook of Basic Nursing. 10th
Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott Company
UNIT 2 VITAL SIGNS II
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Respiration
3.2 Mechanics and Regulation of Breathing
3.3 Altered Breathing Patterns and Sounds
3.4 Assessing Respiration
3.5 Heamodynamic Regulation
3.6 Assessing Pulse
3.7 Blood Pressure and its Determinants
3.8 Assessing Blood Pressure
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
This unit examines the other components that make up the vital signs,
which are respiration, pulse and blood pressure.
2.0 OBJECTIVES

i. describe the physiological mechanisms governing pulse,

ii. respiration, and blood pressure
iii. identify normal ranges for each vital sign
iv. identify the variations in pulse, respirations, and blood pressure
that occur in a normal healthy state from infancy to old age
v. select appropriate equipment needed for measuring each vital sign
vi. identify the different sites for assessing pulse and list the
characteristics that should be included when assessing pulses
vii. explain how to measure the apical pulse and the apical-radial pulse
viii. describe the mechanics of breathing/the mechanism that controls
respiration and demonstrate the ability to count the respiration of
a patient accurately
ix. discuss characteristics that should be included in a respiratory
assessment
x. explain how to measure a blood pressure and differentiate between
systolic and diastolic pressure.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Respiration
Human survival depends on the ability of oxygen (O2) to reach body cells
and carbon dioxide (CO2) to be removed from the cell. The body performs
this heroic function via respiration. Respiration is generally defined as the
act of breathing. This involves two distinctly different processes:
external respiration, which is the exchange of, gases between an
organism and its environment i.e. the process by which the lungs bring
O2 into the body and remove CO2 wastes, and internal respiration or
tissue respiration, which is the interchange of these same gases between
the circulating blood and the cells of the body tissue. Unlike external
respiration that is restricted to the alveoli of the lungs and pulmonary
blood, internal respiration takes place throughout the body.
External respiration is made up of inspiration – the intake of air into the

lungs and expiration – the breathing out or the movement of gases from
the lungs to the atmosphere. The term ventilation is also used to describe
this movement of air in and out of the lungs. Ventilation can be hyper or
hypo. Hyperventilation refers to very deep, rapid respirations while
hypoventilation refers to very shallow respirations. The rate, depth, and
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rhythm of ventilatory movements indicate the quality and efficiency of

the respiratory process. The nurse can directly assess only the process of
external respiration, specifically by assessing ventilation.
3.2 Mechanics and Regulation of Breathing
Regulation of Breathing
Breathing is generally a passive process. It is carried out automatically

and effortlessly; you breathe without thinking about it. Though can be
controlled momentarily, such willful control are usually too transient and
automatic control soon takes over. This automatic control is
governed/regulated by (i) respiratory centers in the medulla oblongata
and the pons of the brain, and (ii) chemoreceptors located centrally in the
medulla and peripherally in the carotid and aortic bodies. These centers
are sensitive to amount of CO2, pH, and low level of O2 (Hypoxia).
Consequently, they respond to changes in the concentrations of O2, CO2,
and H+ in the arterial blood. An elevation in the CO2 pressure of arterial
blood causes the respiratory center to increase the rate and depth of
breathing. This increased ventilatory effort removes excess PCO2 during
exhalation. Similarly, if the arterial O2 levels fall, the chemoreceptors
signal the respiratory center to increase the rate and depth of ventilation.
According to Webster (1995) rising PCO2 levels naturally stimulate the

initiation of inspiration but falling PCO2 levels have a limited impact on
the control of ventilation. He noted that in patients with chronic lung
disease such as bronchitis and emphysema, the hypoxic drive to increase
ventilation can become very important stressing that these people may
have chronic hypercarbia (a chronic excess of CO2 in arterial blood),
which can suppress the normal stimulus for ventilation. A low level of
arterial O2 then becomes the primary stimulus to breathing in such
patients.
Mechanics of Breathing
Normal breathing is accomplished by: (a) the downward and upward

movement of the diaphragm to lengthen or shorten the chest cavity, and
(b) the elevation and depression of the ribs to increase and decrease the
anteroposterior diameter of the chest cavity. During inhalation, the
diaphragm contracts (flattens), the ribs move upward and outward, thus
enlarging the thorax and permitting the lungs to expand. This allows the
inflowing of air into the lungs. In expiration or exhalation, the diaphragm
relaxes, the ribs move downward and inward, decreasing the size of the
thorax as the lungs are compressed, thus facilitating the movement of air
out of the lungs.
3.3 Altered Breathing Patterns and Sounds
For a good appreciation of what altered breathing patterns and sounds are,
there is a need for learners to be conversant with what is considered as
normal respiration in terms of rate, rhythm, depth and sounds. Hence this
section examines alterations in respiration against the background of what
is considered normal respiration.
(A) Normal Respiration
Normal respiration is quiet, rhythmical (regular), comfortable, being

neither too deep nor too shallow and of rate considered normal for that
age. Let us quickly look at what deviation from normal can occur across
these characteristics.
Respiratory Rate – Respiratory rate is usually described in breathes per

minute. It is the number of ventilations that take place in 1 minute.
Breathing that is normal in rate and depth is called eupnoea. Respiratory
rate has however been observed to vary considerably in healthy people.
The rate varies with age, tending to drop as a person grows older. It is
usually slightly rapid in women than in men. Nonetheless, some normal
ranges have been established. These normal ranges are captured in the
table below (Table 7 – 1).
Table 7 – 1 Variation in Normal Respiratory Rate by Age
Age Average
Range
Newborns 30 – 40
Early Childhood 25 – 30
Late Childhood 20 – 25
Teens 18 – 22
Adults 16 – 20
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Aged 16 – 18
Source: Adapted from Usman, et. al. 2000. Ross and Wilson Foundations
of Nursing and First Aid (6th ed.). and Kozier, et. al. 2000. Assessing
Health. In Fundamental of Nursing: Concepts Process and Practice.
Factors Influencing Respiratory Rate
Besides age and sex, several other factors affect the rate and character of
respiration. They include:
• Exercise – Exercises increases metabolism and increased

metabolism requires increase consumption of oxygen hence the increase
in respiratory rate and depth to meet the body’s greater oxygen needs.
• Body Position – Straight, erect posture promotes full chest
expansion. Stooped or slumped position impairs respiratory movement.
• Emotion – Fear, excitement, and anger all increase the rate of
respiration as a result of sympathetic stimulation.
• Stress – Gets the body ready for ‘fight or flight’ with
accompanying increase in respiration.
• Disease – Certain diseases increase the rate of respiration (e.g.
pneumonia, heart disease) while others decrease it.
• Certain Drugs – Some drugs such as caffeine stimulate
respiration. Others such as narcotic analgesic and sedatives depress the
respiratory center with associated slowing down of respiratory rate.
• Acute Pain – Pain increases rate and depth as a result of
sympathetic stimulation.
• Fever – Increases metabolic rate and consequently increases
respiratory rate.
• Cold – Decreased temperature results in decrease respiration.
• Increased Altitude – The higher the altitude the lower the oxygen
concentration. In a bid to make up for reduced oxygen concentration at
high altitude the body therefore increases the rate of breathing.
• Smoking – Long-term smoking changes the lungs airways,
resulting in an increased rate. (Berman et al. 2014)
Respiratory Depth
The depth of respiration is assessed by observing the degree of movement

in the chest wall. Ventilatory movements are objectively described as
shallow, normal, or deep. During a normal, relaxed breath, a person
inhales approximately 500ml of air. This volume is called tidal volume.
Deep respirations are those in which a large volume of air is inhaled and
exhaled, following a full expansion of the lungs with full exhalation.
Shallow respirations involve the exchange of small volume of air and
often the minimal use of lung tissue.
The capacity of the lungs to take in air depends on gender and age. Lung
capacity is determined by taking as deep a breath as possible and then
blowing it entirely into a spirometer, a device that measures air volume.
The amount of air exhaled after a minimal full inspiration is the lung’s
vital capacity and is about 4800ml 0f air. Men tend to have a larger vital
capacity than women of the same age. Infants and young children have
smaller vital capacities than adolescents and adults. With advancing age,
the lung loses its elasticity, and the capacity for forcible exhalation
declines (Potter & Perry 2009).
Body position also affects the amount of air that can be inhaled. Kozier,
et. al. submitted that people in supine position experiences two
physiological processes that suppress respiration: an increase in the
volume of blood inside the thoracic cavity and compression of the chest.
Consequently, clients lying on their back have poorer lung aeration,
which predisposes them to stasis of fluids and subsequent infection.
Certain drugs such as barbiturates that depresses the respiratory center
also affect the respiratory depth by depressing both respiratory rate and
depth.
Respiratory Rhythm
This refers to the regularity of ventilation. Normal breathing is evenly

space i.e. regular and uninterrupted. Hence respiratory rhythm is
described as regular or irregular. Generally, infants’ respiratory rhythms
are usually less regular than those of the adults.
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Respiratory Quality/Character
This refers to those aspects of breathing that are different from normal.
Depending on the level of oxygenation, respiratory alterations may bluish
discoloration of the skin (cyanosis) and altered level of consciousness.
Whereas normal breathing does not require any noticeable effort, some
clients only breath with decided effort referred to as labored breathing.
As breathing becomes labored, a person uses accessory muscles in the
chest and neck to breath. The sound of breathing is also significant.
Normal breathing is silent but when breathing becomes noisy, it is an
indication of some respiratory disorder.
This will be discussed in fuller detail in the next section.
(B) Abnormal Pattern/Dysfunctional Respiration
Rate:
• Tachypnea – Persistent rapid respiration marked by quick shallow

breaths (greater than 20 breaths per minute).
• Bradypnea – Abnormally slow breathing; less than 10 breaths per
minute.
• Apnea – Cessation of breathing, which may be for a few seconds
or prolonged.
Volume:
• Hyperventilation – An increase in the amount of air in the lungs

characterised by prolonged and deep breaths; may be associated with
anxiety.
• Hypoventilation – A reduction in the amount of air in the lungs,
characterised by shallow respirations Rhythm:
• Cheyne-Strokes – Cyclic breathing pattern characterised by

rhythmic waxing and waning of respirations, from very deep to very
shallow breathing and temporary apnea. The respiration becomes deeper
and deeper until they reach a climax, after which they decline until there
is complete cessation of breathing for a few seconds and then the cycle is
repeated. Often associated with cardiac failure, increased intracranial
pressure, and drug overdose.
• Biot’s – Cyclic breathing pattern characterised by shallow

breathing alternating with periods of apnea. Seen in neurologic problems
(meningitis, encephalitis), head trauma brain abscess, heat stroke.
Ease or Effort:
• Dyspnea – This is the term used for describing difficult or labored

breathing. The difficulty may be transient and may or may not be
accompanied by pain. Dyspneic patients usually appear anxious and
worried. The nostrils flare (widen) as the patient struggles to fill the lungs
with air. Associated with some lung and heart diseases.
• Orthopnea – When difficulty becomes so marked that the patient
can breath only when in an upright position, it is called Orthopnea. It is
associated with advanced heart disease. In many cases, it is helpful to pull
a bed table up to the patient, cover it with pillow, and allow the patient to
lean forward.
Breath Sounds:
• Stridor – A shrill, harsh sound heard during inspiration with

laryngeal obstruction.
• Stertor – Loud snoring or sonorous respiration, usually due to
partial obstruction of the upper airway.
• Wheeze – Continuous, high-pitched musical squeak or whistling
sound occurring on expiration and sometimes on inspiration when air
moves through a narrowed or partially obstructed airway as in asthma.
• Whoop – This long-drawn-out noisy inspiration occurring after a
paroxysm of coughing in whooping cough.
• Grunting – Grunting at the end of respiration is sometimes noticed
in pneumonia.
• Sighing – Sighing or air hunger, is characterised by slow
inspiration and rapid expiration. This occurs in shock following
hemorrhage.
• Bubbling – Gurgling sounds called bronchi are heard as air passes
through moist secretions in the respiratory tract.
Chest Movements
• Intercostal Retraction – Indrawing between the ribs.

• Substernal Retraction – Indrawing beneath the breast bone.
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• Suprasternal Retraction – Indrawing above the clavicles.

Flail Chest – The ballooning out of chest wall through injured rib spaces;
results in paradoxical breathing, during which the chest wall balloons on
expiration but is depressed or sucked inward on inspiration. (Potter &
Perry 2009; Berman et al., 2014).
•
3.4 Assessing Respiration
Respirations are the easiest of vital signs to assess but are often the most
haphazardly done. Resting respirations should be assessed when the
patient/client is at rest.
Equipment: – Watch with second hand or indicator.
Table 7 – 2 Procedure for Assessing Respiration
Suggested Action Rationale

Assessment Demonstrate accountability for
Determine when and how making timely and appropriate
frequently to monitor the assessments
patient’s respiratory rate..
Review the data collected in Aids in identifying trends and

previously recorded analyzing significant patterns.
assessments of the respiratory
rate and other vital signs.
Read the patient’s history for Demonstrate an understanding of

any reference to respiratory, factors that may affect the
cardiac, or neurologic respiratory rate.
disorders.
Review the list of prescribed Helps in analyzing the results

drugs for any that may have assessments findings.
respiratory or neurologic
effects.
Planning
Arrange the plan for care so as Ensures consistency and accuracy.

to count the patient’s
respiratory rate as close to
scheduled routine as possible.
Make sure a watch with a Ensures accurate counting.

second hand is available.
Plan to assess the patient’s Reflects the characteristics of

respiratory rate after a 5-minute respirations at rest rather than under
period of inactivity. the influence of activity
Implementation Demonstrates responsibility and
Introduce self to patient if this accountability.
has not been done during earlier
contact.
Explain the procedure to the
patient. Reduces apprehension and enhances
cooperation.
Raise the height of bed.
Reduces Musculoskeletal strain.
Wash your hands
Reduces spread of microorganisms.
Help patient to a sitting or lying
position. Facilitates the ability to observe
breathing.
Note the position of the second
hand on the wrist watch. Identifies the point at which
assessment begins
Choose a time when the patient
is unaware of being watched; it Prevents conscious control of
may be helpful to count the breathing during the assessment.
respiratory rate while appearing
to count the pulse.
Observe the rise and fall of the

patient’s chest for a full minute, Determines the respiratory rate per
if breathing is unusual. If minute.
breathing appears noiseless and
effortless, count the
ventilations for a fraction of a
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minute and then multiply to

calculate the rate.
Restore the patient to

therapeutic position or one that Demonstrates responsibility for
provides comfort, and lower the patient care, safety and comfort.
height of bed.
Document respiratory rate,

depth, rhythm And character on Ensures accurate documentation.
the appropriate records and
allows for future comparison.
Verbally report rapid or slow Alerts others to monitor the patient

respiratory rates or any other closely and make changes in the plan
unusual breathing Care. characteristics.
Evaluation Focus
Note the respiratory rate in relation to the baseline data or normal range
for age, relationship to other vital signs, respiratory depth, rhythm and
character.
Source: Berman, et al., (2016). Study Guide for Kozier & Erb's
Fundamentals of Nursing: Concepts, Process, and Practice.
3.5 Heamodynamic Regulation
The normal physiological function of the cells requires continuous blood

flow and appropriate volume and distribution of blood to cells that need
nutrients. This is accomplished through the heart’s contraction and
ejection of blood into the aorta and distensibility of the arterial system.
The combination of the arterial distensibility and resistance reduces the
pressure pulsations, allowing continuous blood flow to the tissues. The
dynamics of distensibility and resistance maintain a constant blood flow;
otherwise, blood would flow to the tissues only during systole with an
absence of blood flow during diastole.
The circulatory system consists of the heart (the pump), the network of
blood vessels (arteries, arteriole, capillaries, venules and veins), and the
blood that bring oxygen and nutrients to body cells and carries away
waste products. The heart is a four-chambered muscular organ (two upper
chambers called atria and two lower chambers called ventricles). When
the right and left atrium contract blood is forced into the two lower
chambers, the right and left ventricle. As wave of contraction continues,
blood, which has filled each ventricle, is forced out into the two main
arteries – the aorta, which supplies the body; and the pulmonary artery,
which supplies blood to the lungs (systole). At the onset of systole the
increase in ventricular pressure causes the mitral and tricuspid valves to
close. The closing of these valves produces the first heart sound (S1).
Ventricular pressure continues to increase until it exceeds the pressure in
the pulmonary artery and the aorta, causing the aortic and pulmonic
valves to open and allowing the ventricles to eject blood into these
arteries. Ventricular emptying and relaxation cause a decrease in the
ventricular pressure and closure of the aortic and pulmonic valves
(diastole). Closure of these valves produces the second heart sound (S2).
During diastole the pressure in the ventricles becomes lower than that in
the atria, causing the mitral and tricuspid valves to open. This together
with atria contraction allows the blood to flow into the ventricles.
Ventricular filling causes an increase in pressure that closes the mitral
and tricuspid valves (the beginning of systole) and starts another cardiac
cycle (DeLaune & Ladner 2011).
The amount of blood pumped out into circulation at each systole is known
as the stroke volume. As the blood enters the artery, the artery expands.
The rhythmic expansion and contraction (recoil) of the elastic arteries
during each cardiac cycle creates a pressure wave (a pulse) that is
transmitted through the arterial tree with each heartbeat. This wave of
distension and recoil of the arterial wall can be felt particularly where a
peripheral artery runs over a bone.
When adult is resting, the heart pumps about 5 litres of blood each minute.
This volume is called cardiac output (CO), which can be expressed
mathematically as follows:
CO = Stroke Volume x Heart Rate.
A person’s heart rate varies throughout the day. Nevertheless, the heart
functions to maintain a relatively constant circulatory blood flow
(Webster, 1995). This it does through the action of the cardiac center
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located in the medulla of the brainstem. Upon receipt of sensory impulses

from sensory receptors, the cardiac center either speed up or slow down
the heart rate through sympathetic and parasympathetic innervation.
There are however some factors that causes normal variation in
heart/pulse rate in health. These include:
• Age – As the age increases, the pulse rate decreases. See Table 7 – 3 for
specific variation in pulse rate from birth to old age.
Table 7 – 3 Normal Age Related Variations in Pulse

Age Normal Range Average
Rate/Minute
Newborn 80 – 180 130
1 – 3yrs 80 – 140 120
6 – 8 yrs 75 – 120 100
Teen years 50 – 90 70
Adult 60 – 100 80
Older Adult 60 – 70 65
Source: Adapted from Berman, et. al. 2014. Assessing Health. In

Fundamental of Nursing: Concepts Process and Practice; DeLaune &
Ladner 2011.Fundamentals of Nursing, Standards and Practice.
• Sex – After puberty, the average female have a slightly higher

pulse rate than male.
• Exercise – Pulse rate normally increases with activities.
• Posture/Position – When a person assumes a sitting position,
blood supply usually pools in dependent vessels of the venous system.
Pooling results in transient decrease in the venous blood return to the
heart and a subsequent reduction in blood pressure and an increase in
heart rate.
• Stress – In response to stress, sympathetic nervous stimulation
increases the overall activity of the heart. Stress increases the rate as well
as the force of the heartbeat. Fear and anxiety as well as the perception of
pain also stimulate the sympathetic system.
• Medications – Some medications decrease the pulse rate while

others increase it. For instance, digitalis preparations (e.g. digoxin)
decrease the pulse rate while epinephrine increases it.
• Hemorrhage – Loss of significant amount of blood from the
cardiovascular system results in an increase in pulse as the body strives
frantically to compensate for the loss.
• Fever – The peripheral vasodilation that occurs concomitantly
with elevated body temperature and increased metabolism associated
with fever results in an increase in pulse rate.
3.6 Assessing Pulse
In assessing pulse, the nurse is not just interested in the rate but the
rhythm, volume and tension as well. The rate talks about how many
counts per minute. The rhythm addresses the issue of regularity of the
pulse i.e. the interval between successive pulse while the volume refers
to the strength or amplitude of force exerted by the ejected blood against
the arterial wall with each contraction (It should require moderate
pressure to obliterate the vessel). The tension relates to state of the vessel
wall when being felt or palpated – the vessel should feel pliant and soft
under the nurse’s finger; it should not be hard and tortuous.
How to take the Patient’s Pulse
There are nine sites where pulse is commonly taken:
• Radial – At the wrist, just above the base of the thumb

(posteroinferior), where the radial artery run along the radial bone.
Readily accessible
• Temporal – Just in front of the ear, where the temporal artery
passes over the temporal bone of the head. Used when radial pulse is not
accessible.
• Carotid – On the side of the neck where carotid artery runs
between the trachea and sternocleidomastoid muscle. Used for infants
and in cases of cardiac arrest.
• Apical – Apex beat can be heard by placing the stethoscope over
th
the 5 intercostal space in the mid clavicular line on the left side of the
chest in non-cardiac patients. Routinely used for infants and children up
to 3 years of age. Also used to clarify discrepancies with radial pulse.
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• Brachial – locatable at the inner aspect of the biceps muscle of the

arm or medially in the antecubital space (elbow crease). Employed in
blood pressure measurement. Also used during cardiac arrest for infants.
• Femoral – In the groin where femoral artery passes alongside with
the inguinal ligament. Used for infants and children. Used to determine
circulation to the leg as well.
• Popliteal – Where the Popliteal artery passes behind knee.
Difficult to find but accessible when the patient flexes his knee slightly.
Used to determine circulation to the lower leg.
• Posterior Tibial – On the medial surface of the ankle where the
posterior tibial artery passes behind the medial malleolus. Used to
determine circulation to the foot.
• Pedal – Where the dorsalis pedis artery passes over the bone of
the foot. Can be palpated by feeling the dorsum (upper surface) of the
foot on an imaginary line drawn from the midline of the ankle to the space
between the big and second toes. Used to determine circulation to the
foot.
Assessing the Radial Pulse
Equipment – Watch with a second hand or indicator.
Intervention
• Prepare the client – Inform the client and explain the procedure
to him. Select the pulse point and assist the client to comfortable and
relaxed position. For clients in supine/dorsal position, the arm can rest
alongside the body with palm facing downward or over the abdomen
except where contraindicated. For clients who can sit, the forearm can
rest across the thigh, with the palm facing downward or inward. With
infants, have the parent close by. Having the parent close or holding the
child may decrease anxiety and yield more accurate results.
• Palpate and count pulse – Place the first two or three fingers
lightly and squarely over the medial aspect of the wrist just above the
base of the thumb. Using a thumb is contraindicated because thumb has
a pulse that the nurse could mistake for client’s pulse. Feel the pulsation
but before counting the pulse, note the rhythm, volume, and the state of
the vessel wall. If the pulse is regular, count for 30seconds and multiply
by 2. If it is irregular, count for a full minute. Count for a full minute also
when taking a client’s pulse for the first time or obtaining baseline data.
An irregular rhythm requires a full minute’s count for a correct
assessment and indicate need to take apical pulse.
• Document and report pertinent assessment – Record the pulse

rate, rhythm and volume on the appropriate records. Report to the nurse
in charge abnormal variations in pulse (Usman, et. al. 2000; Kozier, et.
al. 2000).
Abnormal Variations in Pulse
The pulse may vary in one or more of its characteristics.
Rate: An abnormally elevated pulse/heart rate above 100 beats per

minute in adults is referred to as Tachycardia. This is found in certain
heart conditions and in some anaemias. Tachycardia may be continuous
or paroxysmal. Bradycardia on the other hand is a pulse/heart rate that
is less than 60 beats per minute in adults. Could occur in cases of head
injury.
Rhythm: Arrthythmia is the name given to irregularities in heart

rhythm. A pulse is described as irregular when the interval between
successive beat is uneven. Intermittent pulse means that a pulsation is
being missed and it may occur at regular or irregular intervals. Extra
systoles are actually extra beats produced by an excessively irritable
cardiac muscle with resultant irregularity.
3.7 Blood Pressure and its Determinants
Blood pressure (Bp) is the force exerted by the blood against the walls of
the vessels that carry it measured by an instrument called
sphygmomanometer. In other words Bp is a product of cardiac output and
total peripheral resistance (TPR).
Bp = CO x TPR
As earlier stated, the CO is the quantity of blood being pumped out of the
heart per minute while TPR represents the total force exerted by the heart
and the walls of the vessels against the blood.
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Bp is highest during ventricular contraction. This is systolic pressure,

that is, the pressure of the height of the blood wave. The pressure
diminishes as the heart relaxes and is lowest when the heart is relaxed
before it begins to contract again; this is diastolic pressure that is the
pressure when the ventricles are at rest. Bp is measured in millimeters of
mercury (mmHg) and recorded as fraction, the systolic pressure written
over the diastolic pressure. Diastolic pressure then, is the lower pressure,
present at all times within the arteries. The difference between the two
readings is called pulse pressure.
Bp can either be high or low. The World Health Organisation has

considered a range of 90/60 – 140/95mmHg as normal. Therefore, when
there is a persistent rise in Bp above what is considered as average for an
age and sex, a condition known as Hypertension is said to have
developed. On the other hand, when the Bp falls extremely below normal
range for an age, e.g. a systolic reading consistently between 85 and
110mmHg in an adult, hypotension is said to have set in.
Determinants of Blood Pressure
Arterial Bp is the result of several factors. These include:
• The Pumping Action of the Heart – When the pumping action

of the heart is strong, the volume of blood pumped into circulation tends
to increase with corresponding increase in Bp and vice versa.
• Peripheral Vascular Resistance – The higher the peripheral

resistance (TPR), the higher the Bp. Some of the factors create TPR are
the size of the blood lumen, the compliance of the arteries and the
viscosity of the blood. The smaller the lumen of a vessel, the greater the
resistance. Normally, the arteries are in a state of partial constriction,
increased vasoconstriction therefore raises the Bp. The degree of
distensibility (compliance) of the arterial wall, which is a factor of the
elasticity of the arterial wall is yet another factor in TPR.
• Blood Volume – The smaller the blood volume, the lower the Bp
and the greater the blood volume the higher the Bp.
• Blood Viscosity – In viscous (thick) fluid, there is a great deal of

friction among the molecules as they slide by each other. This explains
why the Bp is higher when the blood is highly viscous as it’s usually the
case when the hematocrit is more than 60 – 65%.
Mechanism involved in Blood Pressure Regulation
• Sympathetic Stimulation/Cardiac Accelerator (Adrenalin) –

Increases peripheral resistance and heart rate and consequently increases
the Bp.
• Parasympathetic (Vagal) Stimulation – Cardiac inhibitor;

reduces Bp.
• Baroreceptor Mechanism – The baroreceptor are nerve receptors
in the wall of most great vessels like the aorta and the carotids that are
sensitive to changes in Bp. When the arterial pressure becomes great,
these baroreceptors are stimulated excessively, and impulses are
transmitted to the medulla of the brain. Here the impulses inhibit the
vasomotor center, which in turn decreases the number of impulses
transmitted through the sympathetic nervous system to the heart and
blood vessels. Lack of these impulses causes diminished pumping
activity of the heart and an increased ease of blood flow through the
peripheral vessels both of which lowers the arterial pressure back to
normal. Conversely, a fall in arterial pressure relaxes the stretch
receptors, allowing the vasomotor center to become more active than
usual with resultant rise in Bp.
• Renin-Angiotensin Phenomenon - Narrowing of the lumen of an

artery as a result of arteriosclerosis or renal artery stenosis results in a
decrease in the volume of blood to the kidney. The kidney by virtue of its
receptors that are very sensitive to changes in blood volume secretes a
substance called rennin. Renin while circulating in the blood acts on a
protein component (angiotensinogen) and convert it to angiotensin.
Angiotensin causes constriction of blood vessels and also stimulates the
release of aldosterone from the adrenal gland. Aldosterone causes salt and
water retention. The net result is a rise in Bp.
Factors Influencing Blood Pressure: The various factors influencing

Bp are outlined as follows:
• Age – Bp increases with age. In old age, as part of the degenerative

process, the arterial wall becomes more rigid and less yielding to pressure
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and no longer retract as flexibly to decreased pressure, hence the high Bp

associated with this group.
• Exercise – This increases cardiac output with consequent increase
in Bp.
• Stress – The stimulation of the sympathetic nervous system as
observable in stress causes increased the cardiac output with increased
vasoconstriction. The aftermath is increased Blood pressure. Pain
however can decrease Blood pressure greatly and cause shock by
inhibiting the vasomotor center and producing vasodilation.
• Race – The Negroid race tend to have higher Bp than the
Caucasians.
• Obesity – Bp is generally higher in obese people than in
individuals with normal weight (due to possible arteriosclerosis).
• Sex – After puberty, females usually have lower Bp than males of
the same age probably due to hormonal variation.
• Medications – Some medication increases the Bp while many
others decrease it. To this end the nurse needs to be conversant with the
actions and side effects of drugs and consider their possible impact on the
health status of their client.
• Disease Process – Many conditions that affect cardiac output,
blood volume, the arterial network and renal system exact a direct effect
on Bp.
• Diurnal Variations – Bp is usually lowest early in the morning,
when the metabolic rate is lowest, then rises throughout the day and peaks
in the late afternoon or early evening. (Kozier, et. al. 2000).
3.8 Assessing Blood Pressure
Since blood pressure can vary considerably, it is expedient for the nurse
to know a specific clients baseline Bp.
Preparation
• Patient: The patient should be resting in a bed, couch or chair, in

a quiet location. The patient should not have had a meal/alcohol or
caffeine or have smoked or exercised in the previous 30 minutes.
• Equipment/Environment: Sphygmomanometer with appropriate
size cuff (see Points for Practice), Stethoscope, Alcohol impregnated
swabs, Observation chart
• Nurse: The hands should be clean. No special preparation is

necessary unless required by the patient’s condition.
Procedure
1. Assess the patient’s knowledge of the procedure and explain as

necessary
2. Ensure the patient is resting in a comfortable position. If a
comparison between lying and standing blood pressure is required, the
lying recording should be done first.
3. When applying the cuff, no clothing should be underneath it if
clothing constricts the arm remove the arm from the sleeve (see PPP)
4. Apply the cuff so that the center of the bladder is over the brachial
artery 2 - 3cm above the antecubital fossa. This is easier to do if the cuff
tubing is disconnected from the sphygmomanometer.
5. The arm should be positioned so that the cuff is level with the ear
and may be more comfortable resting on a pillow
6. The sphygmomanometer should be placed on a firm surface,
facing you, with the center of the mercury column at eye level. Connect
the cuff tubing to the sphygmomanometer.
7. Locate the radial pulse. Squeeze the bulb slowly to inflate the cuff
while still feeling the pulse. Observe the mercury column and note the
level when the pulse can no longer be felt. Unscrew the valve and quickly
release the pressure in the cuff.
8. If using a communal stethoscope clean the earpieces with an
alcohol-impregnated swab. Curving the ends of the stethoscope slightly
forward, place the earpieces in your ears. Check that the tubes are not
twisted
9. Check that the stethoscope is turned to the diaphragm side by
tapping it with your finger.
10. Palpate the brachial artery, which is located on the medial aspects
of antecubital fossa.
11. Place the diaphragm of the stethoscope over the artery, and hold it
in place with your thumb while using your fingers to support the patient’s
elbow.
12. Position yourself so that the column of mercury in the
sphygmomanometer is clearly visible.
13. Ensure that the valve on the bulb is closed firmly but not too
tightly, so that it can be loosened with one hand. Inflate the cuff to 20 -
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30 mmHg above the level noted in step 7 Open the valve to allow the
column of mercury to drop slowly (2mm per second).
14. While observing the level of mercury as it fails, listen for korotkoff
(thudding) sounds: Sudden appearance of a sharp click sound which
increases in intensity and duration until it reaches a peak, then suddenly
becomes muffled and less intense after a further fall of about 5mmHg.
The systolic pressure is the level where this is first heard; the diastolic
pressure is the level where the sounds disappear.
15. Once the sounds have disappeared, open the valve fully, to
completely deflate the cuff, and remove it from the patient’s arm
Points for Practice

The sphygmomanometer may be mercury or an aneroid type. These are
used in exactly the same way, however, unlike the mercury column,
which must be placed in an upright position for accurate recording, the
dial on an aneroid sphygmomanometer may be positioned anywhere.
The bladder of the cuff must cover at least three quarters of the
circumference of the upper arm. If the patient is receiving intravenous
therapy, avoid using the arm that has the intravenous cannula or infusion
in progress. If the patient is unable to lift his/her arm, tuck the patient’s
hand under your arm to support the arm while you position the cuff. If
recording lying and standing blood pressure, do not remove the cuff
between recordings, keep it in the same position. The doctor may have
requested that the patient stands for at least five minutes before the
standing blood pressure is recorded. Be aware that the patient may feel
dizzy on getting out of bed (postural hypotension). Electronic blood
pressure recording machines are now often used. The cuff should be
positioned in the same way as described in step 4 but no stethoscope is
required because the machine provides a digital display of the systolic
and diastolic pressures.
List the factors that could influence respiratory rate.

4.0 CONCLUSION
The assessment of physiological functioning provides specific data

regarding the client’s current condition. It also provides a basis for
evaluating response to nursing interventions. However, most accurate
values could only be obtained when the client is at rest, the environment
controlled for comfort, and the nurses well-armed with knowledge and
skills for assessing vital signs.
5.0 SUMMARY
The assessment of the other components of vital signs (i.e. respiration,

pulse and blood pressure) is as crucial as that of temperature and various
sites and methods can be used to obtain them. Respirations are normally
quiet, effortless, and automatic and when assessing respiration care must
be taken to ascertain the respiratory rate, depth, rhythm, and sound. The
normal physiological function of the cells requires continuous blood flow
and appropriate volume and distribution of blood to cells that need
nutrients. The pulse rate, rhythm, and volume, in addition to blood
pressure are good indicators of the functionality of this system. Although
the radial pulse is the site commonly used, eight other sites may be used
in certain situations. Blood pressure which is a product of cardiac output,
peripheral resistance, blood volume and blood viscosity can be measured
by auscultation using a sphygmomanometer and a stethoscope. And like
temperature, several factors cause changes in one or more of these vital
signs. These include: age, sex, exercise, anxiety and stress, metabolism,
diurnal variation, hormones, medication, pain and alteration in
physiological functions.
1. Exercises, Body position, Emotion, Stress, Diseases, Certain drugs,

and acute pain.
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1. A 65-year-old known hypertensive patient was brought into your

clinic with complaint of slurred speech and labored breathing.
2. You have been assigned to check the vital signs. How will you
take his pulse and his blood pressure? What things should you pay
particular attention to while assessing the pulse? Differentiate between
normal and abnormal breathing patterns stating their implications.
Berman, A., Snyder, S. J., Kozier, B., Erb, G. L., Levett-Jones, T., Dwyer,
T., Hales, M., Harvey, N., Moxham, L., & Park, T. (2014). Kozier & Erb's
fundamentals of Nursing Australian edition (Vol. 3). Pearson Higher
Education AU
Guyton, A. C. (2021). Textbook of Medical Physiology (14th ed.).

Philadelphia: WB Saunders.


UNIT 3: HISTORY TAKING AND PHYSICAL

EXAMINATION
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Types of Assessment
3.2 Indications for Health Assessment
3.3 Data Collection
3.4 Interviewing/History Taking
3.5 Health History and Nursing History
3.6 Physical Examination
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Assessing health status is a major component of nursing care. Smith

(1982) remarked that if good nursing care entails meeting the needs of
the clients, then these needs must first be identified. As such, the skill of
observation becomes an invaluable asset. Assessment technique is
therefore a skill that nurses must develop right from the very beginning
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of their training. Speaking in the same vein, (Glynn & William

2017)submitted that one statement that gets near to the truth is that
diagnosis should precede treatment whenever possible. They observed
that are two steps critical to making a diagnosis: the first is observation
by history taking, physical examination, and ancillary investigations; and
the second – interpretation of information obtained in terms of a disorder
of function and structure, then in terms of pathology. These two steps put
together form part of the assessment phase of the Nursing process, which
incidentally has become the decision-making tool in Nursing practice.
However, as beginners, will be limiting ourselves to the first step,

knowing fully well that a thorough understanding of it is vital to
elucidating our client’s problem(s) without which the resolution of such
problem(s) will be elusive. Therefore, this unit focuses on the purpose,
components, and techniques related to the health history and physical
examination.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
i. explain the purpose, components, and techniques related to the
health history and physical examination
ii. differentiate between health history and nursing history
iii. identify information to collect from nursing history before an
examination
iv. describe the appropriate use and techniques of inspection,
palpation percussion, and auscultation
v. identify some of the equipment needed to perform a physical
examination
vi. conduct physical assessments correctly in the right sequence and
in an organised fashion.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Types of Assessment
Generally speaking, three types of assessment are employed in evaluating
the health status of patients/clients. They are: Comprehensive
Assessment, Focused Assessment, and Ongoing Assessment. However,
it is health care setting and needs of the patient that literally dictates what
type of assessment that is needed.
Comprehensive Assessment – As the name suggest, this is a

comprehensive assessment that is usually collected upon admission to a
health care agency. It includes a complete health history to determine the
current needs of the client. This database provides a baseline against
which changes in the client health status can be measured and should
include assessment of physical and psychosocial aspects of client’s
health, the client’s perception of health, the presence of health risk
factors and the client’s coping patterns
(DeLaune & Ladner, 2011). While it is true that comprehensive
assessment is the most desirable in the initial assessment of client’s
health needs, time constraint or special circumstances may indicate the
need for the abbreviated data collection, the focused assessment.
Focused Assessment – As insinuate in the preceding paragraph, this

assessment is limited in scope (in comparison with comprehensive
assessment) in order to focus on a particular need or health care problem
or potential health care risks. It is often used in health care agencies in
which short stays are anticipated (e.g. Emergency departments), in
specialty areas such as labor and delivery, and in mental health settings
or for the purposes of screening for specific problems or risk factors as
obtainable in well child clinic (DeLaune & Ladner, 2011).
Ongoing Assessment – An ongoing assessment is a continuous

systematic assessment and reassessment or evaluation of a client’s health
status with revision of care plan. This type of assessment allows the nurse
to broaden the database or to confirm the validity of the data obtained
during the initial assessment and to measure the effectiveness of nursing
interventions.
3.2 Indications for Health Assessment
The purposes of health assessment include to:
• Collect data about the client through observation, interview and

physical examination.
• Assess the patient’s current physical condition.
• Establish a database for future comparisons.
• Continuously update database.
• Detect early signs of developing health problems
• Evaluate responses to medical and nursing interventions.
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• Make clinical judgments about a client’s changing health status

and management.
3.3 Data Collection
This is the process of gathering information about a client’s health status.

It must be both systematic and continuous to prevent omission of
significant data and reflect a client’s changing health status. A database
(baseline data) is all information about a client; it includes the nursing
health history, physical assessment, the physician’s history and physical
examination, results of laboratory and diagnostic tests, and materials
contributed by other health personnel (Berman et al., 2016 ).
Types of Data
There are basically two types of data: objective data and subjective
data. Objective data also referred to as signs or overt data are factual
measurable and observable information about the patient and his overall
state of health i.e., they can be seen, heard, felt, or smelled, and they can
be obtained by observation or physical examination. Example includes
vital signs; height; weight; urine colour, volume and odour; skin rashes e.
t. c. Subjective Data sometimes called symptoms or covert data are data
client’s point of view that cannot be empirically validated. Encompasses
patient’s opinion or feelings, client’s sensation, values, beliefs, and
perception of personal health status and life situation. For instance, only
the patient can tell you that he/she is afraid or has pain or experiencing
itching.
Methods of Data Collection

The basic methods employed in data collection or data gathering are:
• Observation
• Interview, and
• Physical Examination.
3.1.1 Observation
The term observation is defined as a systematic and exhaustive search for

any significant physical deviation from the normal. Observation has two
aspects: (a) noticing the stimuli and (b) selecting, organising, and
interpreting the data including distinguishing stimuli in a meaningful

manner. Observation as an assessment technique involve the use of all
the five senses:
Visual Observation: Sight provides an abundance of visual clues about

general appearances, mannerisms, facial expressions, mode of dress,
family – friend’s interaction, to mention but a few.
Tactile Observation: Touching or palpating any part of the patient can

provide information such as hotness/coldness of the body, swelling,
edema, muscle strength, etc.
Auditory Observation: The sense of hearing. Quite a lot of information

can be gathered through mere listening to the patient or using specialised
equipment like the stethoscope to listen to breath sounds, bowel sounds,
and heart sounds.
Olfactory or Gustatory Observation: The sense of smell identifies

odors that can be specific to a patient’s condition or state of health. This
include body and breath odour which might indicate Gamalin poisoning,
alcohol intoxification, poor hygiene, diabetic ketoacidosis, etc.
3.4 Interviewing/History Taking
This is a planned communication or a conversation with a purpose, for

example, to get or give information, identify problems of mutual concern,
evaluate change, teach, provide support, or provide counseling or therapy
(Berman et al., 2016). During assessment, the purpose of interview is to
gather information about client’s health history. The goal of history
taking is to get from the client an accurate account of his complaint and
see this against the background of his life as a whole. How well this is
achieved is a factor of the nurse’s knowledge and skill at eliciting
information from the client using appropriate techniques of
communication and observation of nonverbal cues. Effective
communication is therefore a key factor in the interview process(Lewis.,
2016.
There are two approaches to interviewing: directive and nondirective.

The directive interview is highly structured and elicits specific
information. The nurse establishes the purpose of the interview and
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controls the interview, at least at the outset, by asking closed-ended

questions that call for specific data. During the nondirective interview,
or rapport-building interview, the nurse allows the client to control the
purpose, the subject matter, and pacing. The nurse encourages
communication by asking open-ended questions and providing
empathetic responses (Berman et al., 2016).
Guidelines for an Effective Interview/History Taking
Be prepared – The interview is more productive if the nurse has an

opportunity to prepare for the interaction. Such preparation includes the
review of client’s clinical record, conversation with other health care
personnel, and literatures about client’s health problem (DeLaune &
Ladner, 2011; , Berman et al., 2016). This will focus the interview and
prevent tiring the client, and save your time.
• Appropriate Timing – Schedule interviews with client at a time
when the client is physically comfortable and free of pain, and when
interruptions by friends, family, and other health professionals are
minimal.
• Create a Pleasant Interviewing Atmosphere – A quiet, well-
lighted, well-ventilated and relaxed setting, relatively devoid of noise and
interruptions enhances communication. A relaxed atmosphere eases the
patient’s anxiety, promotes comfort, and conveys your willingness to
listen. Ensure privacy, as some clients will not share personal information
if they suspect others can overhear. In all instances, the client should be
made to feel comfortable and unhurried.
• Establish a Good Rapport – Greet the client by name if possible;
sit and chat with the client before the interview. Be sure to explain the
purpose of the interview and show concern for the patient’s story.
• Set the Tone and be Focused – Encourage the client to talk about
his chief complaint. This helps you to focus on his most troublesome
symptoms. Keep the interview informal while still being professional.
Speak clearly and simply, avoiding medical jargons and be sure patient
understands you.
• Choose your Words Carefully – Ask open-ended questions to
encourage the client to provide complete and pertinent information.
• Take Notes – Avoid documenting everything during the interview
but make sure you jot down important information such as date, times.
3.5 Health History and Nursing History
The primary focus of the data collection interview is the health history
and Nursing history. A health history is designed to collect data to be
used primarily by the physician to diagnose a health problem and it
usually collected by the medical team. Often the admitting nurse also
collects this same information during the admission interview. However,
there is a growing disapproval of the nurse repeating this process, as
credibility is lost when the nurse repeats virtually all the questions that
others have already asked. A nursing history on the other hand has a
different focus – the client’s response to the health problems, which assist
the nurse more accurately in identifying nursing diagnoses (Lewis., 2016)
. While the health history concentrates on symptoms and progression of
disease, the nursing history focuses on client’s functional patterns,
responses to changes in health status and alterations in lifestyle.
Health History – The components of a health history include:
• Demographic Information – encompasses demographic

variables such as name, date, age, sex, etc.
• Chief/Presenting Complaint – try to define what has motivated the
client to seek health care and its duration.
• History of Present Illness (HPI) – HPI provides detailed data about the
chief complaint or reason for entering the health care system.
• Past Health History – provides information about the client’s prior state
of health. Includes questions about childhood and adult illnesses,
immunisations, injuries, hospitalisations, surgeries, therapeutic regimens,
allergies, travels, habits, and use of supportive devices.
• Family Health History (FHH) – FHH notes illnesses that have
environmental, genetic, or familial tendency or that are communicable. A
genetic chart or family tree of three generations can be developed to
illustrate the family health history.
• Social and Occupational History – Enquire about what may be grouped
as the client’s physical and emotional environment, his surroundings both
at home and work, his habits and his own mental attitude to life and to his
work.
• Review of Systems – This is the final portion of health history. It is
systematic collection of specific information about the client’s past and
present health status related to common problems of body systems.
(Glynn & William 2017; Lewis., 2016.)).
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It is important to mention here as Glynn & William, (2017) noted, that in

taking history, it neither possible nor desirable to tie a patient down to a
particular sequence. The client must be allowed to tell his own story.
Besides, a good clinician begins the examination of a patient as the latter
walks into the room – his appearance, the way he walks, the way he
answers questions and so on – and only finishes taking the history when
the consultation is over. Occasionally a vital piece of information may
come out just when the patient is leaving. Glynn & William (2017),)
remarked that while the list of headings is formidable, it does take some
experience to know in a given case which part of the history is particularly
worth pursuing. And following the health history, a general survey
statement is made, which is a statement of the provider’s impression of a
client, including behavioral observations.
Nursing History – Numerous nursing history/database formats are

available in literatures (Carpenito, 1989; Christensen & Kenney, 1990;
(Lewis., 2016.)). The format in use in most clinical setting is the 11
functional patterns credited to Majory Gordon. This format (presented
below) allows systematic data gathering and facilitates making inferences
(nursing diagnosis).
Health-Perception-Health-Management Pattern – Focuses on client’s

perceived level of health and well-being and on personal practices for
maintaining health. It also embraces preventive screening activities such
as breast and testicular examination; hypertension and cardiac risk factor
screening etc.
Nutritional-Metabolic Pattern – Assesses food and fluid intake, food

References/Further Reading and taboos, cultural factors relating to food
and nutrition, etc. Also explores difficulties if any with ingestion,
digestion, absorption, transport and metabolism of nutrients.
Elimination Pattern – Assesses bowel and bladder functions such as

frequency, amount, relationship of output to intake, and any discomfort
or difficulty associated with each function.
Activity-Exercise Pattern – Explores the client’s activities of daily

living including client’s usual pattern of exercise, leisure and recreation.
Sleep-Rest Pattern – This inquiries about the client’s pattern of sleep,

rest and relaxation in a 24hour period, noting any deviation from client’s
premorbid rest and sleep pattern.
Cognitive-Perceptual Pattern – Assessment of this pattern involves a

description of all the senses (vision, hearing, taste, touch, smell and pain)
and the cognitive functions (such as communication, memory, and
decision making).
Self-Perception-Self-Concept Pattern – This pattern explores the

client’s self-concept, which is critical to determining the way the client
interacts with others. Attitudes about self, perception of personal abilities
and body image, and general sense of worth are also addressed under this
pattern.
Role-Relationship Pattern – Describes the client’s role and

relationships including major responsibilities of the individual. It
examines person’s self-evaluation of the performance of expected
behaviors related to these roles.
Sexuality-Reproductive Pattern – This pattern describes satisfaction or

dissatisfaction with personal sexuality and describes the reproductive
pattern.
Coping-Stress Tolerance Pattern – This pattern explores the client’s

general coping pattern and the effectiveness of the coping mechanisms.
It encompasses analyzing the specific stressors or problems that confront
the client, the client’s perception of the stressor and the person’s response
to the stressor.
Value-Belief Pattern – Describes the values, goals, and beliefs

(including spiritual) that guide health related choices (Lewis., 2016)
3.6 Physical Examination
Physical examination or physical assessment is a systematic examination

of the body structures. There are basically four techniques of conducting
a physical examination and the examination may be done using the
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cephalocaudal (head – to – toe) approach or the body systems approach.

The four techniques are:
• Inspection: - Inspection is the most frequently used assessment

techniques. It involves deliberate, purposeful and systematic observation
to identify deviation from normal.
• Percussion: - The assessment techniques least used by nurses. It requires
considerable skills. Percussion involves striking or tapping a particular
part of the body to produce vibratory sounds. The quality of sound aids
in determining the location, size and density of underlying structures. If
the sound is different from that which is normally expected, it suggests
that there may be some pathologic changes in the area being examined.
Types of percussion: There are three types of percussion viz: Indirect,

Direct, and Blunt percussion.
Indirect Percussion: The most commonly used. Produces clear, crisp

sounds when performed correctly. To perform indirect percussion, use
the middle finger of your non-dominant hand as the pleximeter by placing
it firmly on the part that is to be percussed. The back of its middle phalanx
is then struck with the top of the middle finger of the dominant hand (the
plexor). The stroke should be delivered from the wrist and finger joints,
not from the elbow, and the percussing finger (the plexor) should be held
perpendicular to the pleximeter. Tap lightly and quickly, removing the
plexor as soon as you have delivered each blow.
Direct Percussion: In direct percussion, the nurse strikes the area to be

percussed directly with the pads of two or three or four fingers or with
the pad of the middle finger. This method helps in assessing an adult sinus
for tenderness.
Blunt Percussion: This is done by striking the ulnar surface of your fist
against the body surface. Alternatively, both arms may be used with the
palm of one hand placed over the areas to be percussed and then striking
it’s back with the fist of the other hand. Both techniques aim at eliciting
tenderness (not to create a sound) over such organs as the kidneys,
gallbladder, or liver (another blunt percussion method used in the
neurologic exam involves tapping a rubber – tipped reflex hammer
against a tendon to create a reflexive muscle contraction).
• Palpation: This is an assessment technique that uses sense of feeling

and pressure to assess structure size, placement, texture, temperature,
distension, mobility, pulsation and tenderness. There are two types of
palpation:
Light Palpation: Involves the use of pads of fingertips, the dorsum

(back) of the hand or the palm. Used because their concentration of nerve
endings makes them highly sensitive to tactile discrimination. In light
palpation, the body surface is indented gently using the slightest touch
possible; too much pressure blunts your sensitivity. The nurse extends the
dominant hand’s fingers parallel to the skin surface and presses gently
while moving the hand in a circle.
Deep Palpation: Deep palpation is done with two hands (bimanually) or

with one hand. In deep palpation, the hand is held flat and relaxed and
molded to the body surface as in light palpation. The best movement is
gentle but with firm pressure with the finger held almost straight but
slightly flexed at the metacarpophalangeal joints. Indent the skin or tissue
about 1-1 1/2 inches (2.5 - 4cm). Place your other hand on top of the
palpating hand to control and guide your movements. This approach
(bimanual palpation) is usually employed while palpating for deep,
underlying, hard – to – palpate organs (such as the kidney, liver or spleen)
or to fix or stabilise an organ (such as the uterus) while palpating with the
other hand. To perform a variation of deep palpation that allows
pinpointing an inflamed area, press firmly with one hand, and then lift
your hand away quickly. If the patient complains of increased pains as
you released the pressure, you have identified rebound tenderness.
Other variations of deep palpation are: Light Ballottement usually
performed by applying light rapid pressure from quadrant to quadrant of
the patient’s abdomen. Hands are kept on the skin surface to detect tissue
rebound. Deep Ballottement on the other hand, is performed by applying
abrupt, deep pressure and releasing it while maintaining contact.
NOTE: Palpation forms the most important of abdominal examinations.

Tell the patient to relax as best as he can, to breathe quietly and that you
will be as gentle as possible. Enquire for the site of any pain and come
to this region last. It is helpful to have a logical sequence to follow and
if this is done as a matter of routine, then no important point will be
omitted. Presented below are the different regions of the abdomen and
the different incision line employed in abdominal surgeries.
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Fig 7 – 1 Regions of the Abdomen
1. Right hypochondrion 6. Left lumbar

2. Epigastruium 7. Right Iliac
3. Left hypochondrion 8. Hypogastrum or suprapubic
4. Right lumbar 9. Left Iliac
5. Umbilical
Source: Adapted from Glynn & William, 2017). Hutchison’s

ClinicalMethods. An Integrated Approach to Clinical Practice (24th ed)
Fig 7 – 2 Some Commonly Employed Abdominal

Incisions
1. Upper midline 5. Gridiron (appendectomy)

2. Right sub costal (Kocher’s) 6. Left
3. Right paramedian 7. Suprapubic (pfannenstiel)
4. Lower midline
Source: Adapted Glynn & William (2017). Hutchison’s Clinical

Methods. An Integrated Approach to Clinical Practice (24 th ed.)..
• Auscultation: Auscultation is an assessment technique that involves

listening to sounds created in body organs to detect variations from
normal. Some sounds can be heard with unassisted ear, but most sounds
are heard through a stethoscope. You must first become familiar with
normal sounds before you
can be able to pick abnormal sounds. The heart, lungs and abdomen are
the structures that are most often assessed by this technique. To
auscultate effectively therefore requires good hearing acuity, a good
stethoscope and knowledge of how to use the stethoscope correctly.
Assessing High-Pitched Sounds – Example of high-pitched sounds are

1st and 2nd heart sounds (S1 & S2) and breath sound. This is done with
the use of the diaphragm of the stethoscope. Ensure that the diaphragm
entire surface is closely / firmly applied to the patient’s skin.
Assessing Low-Pitched Sounds – The heart murmurs, 3rd and 4th heart
sounds (S3 and S4) are all low-pitched sounds. To pick such sounds
lightly place the bell of the stethoscope on the appropriate areas. Do not
exert pressure. If you do, the patient’s chest will act as diaphragm and
you will miss low-pitched sounds.
Like all the other assessment techniques, it requires conscious effort and
regular practice to become proficient in its use.
1. List the indications for patient’s assessment.

2. What is the use of the four (4) special senses in
observation/physical examination?
4.0 CONCLUSION
In spite of proliferation of ancillary aids, history taking and physical

examination remain essential skills for nurses. The unit though might not
have included the interpretation of findings; it has presented a
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comprehensive package on assessment techniques, especially as relating

to knowledge that are vital to skill acquisition.
5.0 SUMMARY
Health assessment is a vital part of nursing care and it is conducted in a

systematic manner through history taking and physical examination.
Effective nursing history requires good communication and interpersonal
skills while skills in inspection, palpation, percussion, and auscultation
are needed for complete physical examination. Furthermore, knowledge
of the normal structure and function of body parts and systems is an
essential perquisite to conducting physical assessment.
i. For evaluating the patient’s current physical condition.

ii. For detecting early signs of developing health problems.
iii. To establish a data base for future comparisons.
iv. To evaluate responses to medical and nursing interventions.
Eye (Sight) for visual clues e.g. patient’s appearance, mannerisms, mode
of dressing.
Touch (Tactile) for palpating any part of the patient to provide
information such as coldness, swelling etc.
Auditory (Ear) - use of hearing aids to collect information (stethoscope).
Olfactory (Nose) an offensive smell when perceived around a patient can

be suggestive of an underlying problem.
You are asked to make an initial assessment on a woman entering the

nursing home. Describe the methods/techniques you will use in making
the assessment and identify types of data you will collect.

& Erb's Fundamentals of Nursing: Concepts, Process, and Practice,
[by] Berman, Snyder. Pearson.

Lewis S.L (2016). Medical Surgical Nursing; Assessment and
Management of Clinical Problems. (10 th ed.). Mosby
.


Glynn M. & William MD (2017). Hutchison’s Clinical Methods. An

Integrated Approach to Clinical Practice (24th ed.). Elsevier.
Trueman M.S (2014). Case Studies in Nursing Fundamentals. F.A.

Davis Company. Philadelphia
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UNIT 4 DIAGNOSTIC MEASURES IN PATIENTS CARE
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Preparing a Client for Diagnostic Investigations
3.2 Common Laboratory Tests
3.3 Lumbar Puncture
3.4 Sputum Studies
3.5 Urinalysis
3.6 Radiological Studies
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
A mastery of assessment technique no doubt will go a long way in

assisting a clinician in elucidating clients’ problems. However,
experience has shown that occasionally the findings generated from
physical assessment no matter how comprehensive may be insufficient
for making a definite diagnosis. This is not surprising as many diseases
present with similar clinical features; hence without the benefit of
hindsight it may be difficult if not impossible to make an accurate
diagnosis. Diagnostic investigations provide this benefit of hindsight.
Diagnostic investigations could therefore be likened to the third leg to
making an appropriate diagnosis. Consequently, it is expedient for nurses
to become conversant with simple diagnostic techniques that are
employed in the management of clients/patient’s conditions. Unlike the

preceding unit, students are provided information on how these
investigations are carried out and possible interpretation of results.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
i. describe common invasive and noninvasive

diagnostic procedures
ii. explain to patient what is involved to allay anxieties
iii. discuss the relevant client teaching guidelines for care of client
before, during and after diagnostic testing
iv. identify specific physical preparations (such as
bowel preparation, fluid deprivation, etc.) needed for certain
diagnostic procedures
v. describe accurately sample collection techniques and means of
ensuring delivery to right places
vi. determine what routine observations are required to spot dangers
associated with certain investigations that carry risks (e.g. renal
biopsy) and be equipped with what measure to take to avert such
risks.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Preparing a Client for Diagnostic Investigations
The nurse plays a key role in scheduling and preparing the client for
diagnostic investigations. When tests are not scheduled correctly, the
clients are not only inconvenienced, but also deprived of timely
interventions, thus further subjecting the client to untold hardship and
further risk. The institution is also at risk of losing money (Delaune &
Ladner, 2011 ).
General Nursing Responsibilities
• Explain to clients why the test needs to be performed, what is involved,

an estimation of how long the test will take, outcome and adverse effects
of the test, and assess effectiveness of teaching. An investigation that
involves the cooperation of patients requires the nurse to give definite
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instructions to clients on what they are expected to do. This helps to allay
clients’ anxiety, enhances their cooperation, encourages relaxation of
muscles to facilitate instrumentation, promotes reliability of test and
efficient utilisation of time, and above all, increases cost effectiveness.
• Ensure proper identification of clients. This promotes client’s safety.
• Review client’s medical record for allergies and previous adverse
reactions to nip in the bud any anaphylactic reaction and its associated
complications. Notify another physician accordingly.
• Assess the presence, location, and characteristics of physical and
communicative limitations or preexisting conditions.
• Assess vital signs of clients scheduled for invasive investigations to
establish baseline data. Establish intravenous access if necessary, for
procedure.
• Adequate physical preparation such as bowel preparation, fluid
deprivation, etc. Clarify with practitioner if regularly scheduled
medications are to be administered. The nil per oral (NPO) status is
determined by the type of investigation. Monitor level of hydration and
weakness for clients who are NPO, especially geriatric and pediatric
population. Administer cathartics or laxatives as denoted by the test’s
protocol.
• Evaluates client’s knowledge of what to expect, client’s anxiety and
client’s level of safety and comfort.
3.2 Common Laboratory Tests
Common laboratory studies are usually simple measurements to

determine how much or how many analytes, (a substance dissolved in a
solution, also called a solute) are present in a specimen. Laboratory tests
are ordered by the practitioners to:
• Detect and qualify the risk of future disease

• Establish and exclude diagnoses
• Assess the severity of the disease process and determine the prognosis
• Guide the selection of interventions
• Monitor the progress of the disorder
• Monitor the effectiveness of the treatment
The laboratory results are interpreted and compared to the clinical

observations.
Hematocrit
Hematocrit measures the percentage of packed red blood cells (RBC) in

a whole blood sample. The hematocrit value depends mainly on the
number of RBC but is also influenced by the size of the average RBC.
Therefore, conditions that result in elevated concentrations of blood
glucose and sodium (which cause swelling of RBC) may produce
elevated hematocrit.
Procedure-Related Nursing Care: Explain the purpose to the patient

and tell him it requires a blood sample drawn from his finger. Then
perform a fingerstick on an adult, using a heparinised capillary tube with
red band on the anticoagulant end. Fill the capillary tube from the
redbanded end to about two-thirds’ capacity, and seal this end with clay.
Interpretation of Result: Hematocrit values vary with age and sex, the
type of sample, and the laboratory performing the test. Reference values
range from 40% – 54% for men and from 37% – 47% for women. High
hematocrit suggests polycythermia or hemoconcentration caused by
blood loss; low hematocrit may indicate anemia or hemodilution.
Red Blood Cell Count or Erythrocyte Count
This is part of full blood count. This test determines the number of RBCs
in a cubic millimeter (microliter) of whole blood. Can be used to calculate
two RBC indices, mean corpuscular volume and mean corpuscular
hemoglobin. These, in turn, reveal RBC size and hemoglobin
concentration and weight.
Procedure-Related Nursing Care: Explain the purpose of the test to the

patient and tell him you will need a blood sample. Then draw a venous
blood sample, using a 7ml lavender-top tube. Fill the collection tube
completely, and invert it gently several times to mix the sample and the
anticoagulant. Handle the sample gently to prevent hemolysis.
Interpretation of Result: RBC values vary with age and sex, the type of
sample, and altitude. In men, normal RBC counts range from 4.5 – 6.2
million/mm3 (4.5 – 6.2 x 1012/L) of venous blood; in women, from 4.2 –
5.4 million/mm3 (4.2 – 5.4 x 10 12/L) of venous blood. People living at
high altitude usually have higher values. An elevated RBC may indicate
primary or secondary polycythemia or dehydration. A depressed count
may signify anemia, fluid overload, or recent hemorrhage.
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White Blood Cell (WBC) Count
Like the RBC Count, this is also part of full blood count. WBC count
reports the number of WBC found in a cubic millimeter (microliter) of
whole blood. On any given day, the WBC count can vary by as much as
2,000. Such variations may result from strenuous exercise, stress, or
digestion. The WBC count can rise and fall significantly in certain
diseases, but the count is diagnostically useful only when interpreted in
the light of WBC differential and patient’s current clinical status. It is
particularly useful for determining the presence of infection and for
monitoring patient’s response to chemotherapy.

patient. Tell him to avoid strenuous exercise for 24 hours before the test.
If he is receiving treatment for an infection, advise him that this test may
be repeated to monitor his progress. Perform venipuncture, collecting the
sample in a 7ml lavender top tube. Handle the sample gently to prevent
hemolysis. After the procedure tell the patient he may resume normal
activities.
Interpretation of Result: The WBC normally ranges from 4,00 –

10,9000/mm3. An elevated WBC count (leukocytosis) usually signifies
infection. A high count may also be secondary to leukemia or tissue
necrosis emanating from burns, myocardial infarction or gangrene. On
the other hand, a low count (leukopenia) indicates bone marrow
depression which may be secondary to viral infections or toxic reactions
following ingestion of mercury or other heavy metals. It could also be
complication of treatment with antineoplastics, or exposure to benzene or
arsenicals. Leukopenia also characteristically accompanies influenza,
typhoid fever, measles, infectious hepatitis, mononucleosis, and rubella.
Creatinine Clearance
This test determines how efficiently the kidneys clear creatinine from the
blood. The clearance rate is expressed in terms of the value of blood (in
milliliters) that the kidneys can clear of creatinine in 1 minute. The test
requires a blood sample and a timed urine specimen. Creatinine, the chief
metabolite of creatinine, is produced and excreted in constant amounts
that are proportional to total muscle mass. Normal physical activities,
diet, and urine volume have little effect on this production, although
strenuous exercise and a high-protein diet can affect it.
Purpose
• To assess renal function (primarily glomerular filtration)

• To monitor the progression of renal insufficiency.

patient. Tell him that you will need a timed urine specimen and at least
one blood sample. Describe the urine collection procedure. Also inform
client on need to avoid eating an excessive amount of meat before the
procedure and to avoid strenuous exercise during the urine collection
period. Collect a timed urine specimen for a 2, 6, 12, or 24-hour period.
Perform a veinpunctcre, and collect the blood sample in the appropriate
specimen bottle. Collect the urine specimen in a bottle containing a
preservative to prevent creatinine degeneration. Refrigerate it or keep it
on ice during the collection period. At the end of the period send the
specimen to the laboratory. Then inform patient he may resume normal
diet and activities.
Interpretation of Result: For men at age 20, the creatinine clearance rate
should be 90ml/minute/1.73m square of body surface. For women at age
20, the creatinine clearance rate should be 84ml/minute/1.73m square of
body surface. The clearance rate declines by 6ml/minute for each decade
of life. A low creatinine clearance rate may result from reduced renal
blood flow (from shock or renal artery obstruction), acute tubular
necrosis, acute or chronic glomerulonephritis, advanced bilateral renal
lesions (as occur in polycystic kidney disease, renal tuberculosis, or
cancer), or nephrosclerosis, congestive heart failure and severe
dehydration may also cause the creatinine clearance rate to drop. ** An
elevated creatinine clearance rate usually has little diagnostic
significance.
Erythrocyte Sedimentation Rate
A sensitive but nonspecific test, the erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR)

measures the time needed for erythrocytes (red blood cells) in a whole
blood sample to settle to the bottom of a vertical tube. It commonly
provides the earliest indication of disease when other chemical or
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NSC219 MODULE 1
physical signs are still normal. The rate typically rises significantly in
widespread inflammatory disorders caused by infection or autoimmune
mechanisms. Localised inflammation and cancer may prolong the ESR
elevation.
Purpose
• To aid in diagnosing occult disease such as tuberculosis and

connective tissue disease
• To monitor inflammatory and malignant disease.

patient, and inform him on the need for his blood sample. Then perform
a venipuncture, collecting sample in appropriate bottle. Examine the
sample for clots and clumps; then send it to the laboratory immediately.
Interpretation of Result: The ESR normally ranges from 0 to

20mm/hour; it increases with age. The ESR rises in most aneamias,
pregnancy, acute or chronic inflammation, tuberculosis,
paraproteinemias (especially multiple myeloma and waldenstrom’s
macroglobulinemia), rheumatoid arthritis, and some type of cancer.
Polycythemia, sickle cell anemia, hyperviscosity, and low plasma protein
levels tends to depress the ESR.
Glucose, Fasting Plasma
Also known as the fasting sugar test, the fasting plasma glucose tests
measures the patient’s plasma glucose level after an 8 to 12 hours fast.
When a patient fasts, his plasma glucose level decreases stimulating the
release of the hormone glucagon. This hormone raises plasma glucose
level by accerelating glycogenolysis, stimulating gluconeogenesis, and
inhibiting glycogen synthesis. Normally the secretion of insulin stops the
rise in glucose level. In patients with diabetes however, the absence or
deficiency of insulin allows glucose level to remain persistently elevated.
Purpose
• To screen for diabetes mellitus and other glucose metabolism

disorders.
• To monitor drug or dietary therapy in patients with diabetes

mellitus.
• To help determine the insulin requirements of patients who have
uncontrolled diabetes mellitus and those who require parental or
enteral nutritional support.
• To help evaluate patients with known or suspected hypoglycemia

patient. Tell him that it requires a blood sample and that he must fast
(taking only water) for 8 to 12 hours before the test. If the patient is known
to have diabetes, you should draw his blood before insulin or an oral
antidiabetic drug. Tell him to watch for symptoms of hypoglycemia, such
as weakness, restlessness, nervousness, hunger and sweating. Stress that
he could report such symptoms immediately. Prepare the laboratory slip
for the blood sample, noting the time of the patient’ last pretest meal and
pretest medication. Also record the time the sample was collected.
Perform a venipunctcre collecting the sample in appropriate sample
bottle. If the sample cannot be sent to the laboratory immediately,
refrigerate it and transport it as soon as possible. Give the patient a
balanced meal or a snack after the procedure. Assure him that he can now
take medications withheld before the procedure.
List out the purpose of glucose fasting plasma.
Interpretation of Result: The normal range for fasting plasma glucose

level varies according to the length of the fast. Generally, after an 8 to 12
hours fast, normal values are between 70 and 115mg/dl. Fasting plasma
glucose levels greater than 115mg/dl but less than 140mg/dl may suggest
impaired glucose tolerance. A 2-hour glucose tolerance test that yields a
plasma glucose level between 140 and 200mg/dl, and an intervening oral
glucose test that yield a plasma glucose level greater than or equal to
200mg/dl confirms the diagnosis. Levels greater than or equal to
140mg/dl (obtained on two or more occasions) may indicate diabetes
mellitus if other causes of patient’s hyperglycemia have been ruled out.
Such a patient will also have a random plasma glucose level greater than
or equal to 200mg/dl along with the classic signs and symptoms of
diabetes mellitus, such as polydipsia, polyuria, ketonuria, polyphagia and
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NSC219 MODULE 1
rapid weight loss. Elevated levels can also result from pancreatitis,
hyperthyroidism, adenoma and pheochromocytoma.
Hyperglycemia can also stem from chronic hepatic disease, brain trauma,
chronic
3.3 Lumbar Puncture (Cerebrospinal Fluid Analysis)
The cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), a clear substance circulating in the

subarachnoid space, has several vital functions. It protects the brain and
spinal cord from injury and transports products of neurosecretion, cellular
biosynthesis, and cellular metabolism through the central nervous system
(CNS). Most commonly, a doctor obtains three CSF samples by lumbar
puncture between the third and fourth lumbar vertebrae. If a patient has
an infection at this site, lumbar puncture is contraindicated, and the doctor
may instead perform a cisternal puncture. If a patient has increased
intracranial pressure, the doctor must remove the CSF with extreme
caution because the removal of fluid causes a rapid reduction in pressure
which could trigger brain stem herniation. The doctor may instead
perform a ventricular puncture on this patient. CSF samples may also be
obtained during other neurologic tests – myelography or
pneumoencephalography for instance.
Purpose
• To measure CSF pressure and to detect possible obstruction of

CSF circulation.
• To aid in diagnosing viral or bacterial meningitis, and
subarachnoid or intracranial hemorrhage, tumors, and abscesses.
• To aid in diagnosing neurosyphilis and chronic CNS infections.
Procedure-Related Nursing Care
Before the Procedure: Explain the purpose of the test to the patient and
describe the procedure. Make sure the patient has signed a consent form.
Tell him to remain still and breathe normally during the procedure
because movement and hyperventilation can alter pressure readings and
cause injury. Following these instructions will also reduce his risk of
developing a headache – the most common adverse effect of a lumbar
puncture. Just before the procedure, obtain a lumbar puncture tray. Place
the labeled tubes at the bedside, making sure the labels are numbered
sequentially, and include the patients name, the date, and his room
number as well as any laboratory instructions.
During the Procedure: If you’re assisting with the procedure, position

the patient as directed – usually, on his side at the edge of the bed with
his knees drawn up as far as possible (lateral decubitus position). This
position allows full flexion of the spine and easy access to the lumbar
subarachnoid space. Place a small pillow under the patient’s head and
bend his head forward so that his chin touches his chest. Help him
maintain this position during the procedure. Stand in front of him, and
place one hand around his neck and the other around his knees. If the
doctor wants the patient in sitting position, have him sit on the edge of
the bed and lower his chest and head toward his knees. Help the patient
maintain this position throughout the procedure. Monitor the patient for
signs of adverse reactions, such as elevated pulse rate, pallor, or clammy
skin. Make sure the samples are placed in the appropriately labeled tubes.
Record the time of collection on the test request form; then send the form
and the labeled samples to the laboratory immediately.
After the Procedure: After a lumbar puncture, the patient usually lies flat
for 8 hours. Some doctors, however allow a 30-degree elevation of the
head of the bed. Encourage the patient to drink plenty of fluids and
remind him that raising his head may cause a headache. If he develops a
headache administer an analgesic as ordered. Check the puncture site for
redness, swelling, drainage, CSF leakage and hematoma every hour for
the first 4 hours, then every 4 hours for the next 20 hours. Monitor the
patient level of consciousness, pupillary reaction, and vital signs. Also
observe him for signs and symptoms of complications of the lumbar
puncture such as meningitis, cerebellar tonsillar herniation, and
medullary compression.
Interpretation of Result: Normal CSF pressure ranges from 50 – 180

mm H2O. The CSF should appear clear and colorless. Normal protein
content ranges between 15 and 45 mg/dl; normal gamma globulin level,
between 3% and 12% of total protein. Glucose levels range between 45
and 85 mg/dl, which is two–thirds of the blood glucose level. CSF should
contain 0 – 5 white blood cells per microliter and no red blood cells All
serologic tests should be nonreactive. The chloride level should be 118
to 130 Eq/liter and the Gram-stain should reveal no organism. CSF
abnormal results are summarised below:
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Element Abnormal Result Possible Causes
CSF Pressure - Increase - Increased Intracranial

Pressure
- Decrease - Spinal subarachinoid
obstruction above
puncture site.
Appearance - Cloudy - Infection
- Xanthochromic - Elevated protein level
or RBC breakdown.
- Bloody - Subarachinoid,
intracerebral, or
intraventricular
haemorrhage; spinal
cord obstruction;
traumatic puncture
- Brown - Meningeal melanoma
- Orange - Systemic carotenemia
Protein - Marked increase - Tumor, trauma,

haemorrhage,
Diabetes mellitus,
polyneuritis, blood in
CSF.
- Marked decrease - Rapid CSF production
Gamma - Increase - Demyelinating disease

globulin (such as
Multiple sclerosis),
neurosyphilis,
Guillain-Barre′
syndrome
- Systemic
Glucose - Increase hyperglycemia
-Decrease - Systemic
hypoglycemia, bacterial
or fungal infection,
meningitis, mumps,
postsubarachinoid
hemorrhage.
Cell count - Increase in WBC - Meningitis, acute

count infection, onset of
chronic illness, tumor,
abscess infarction,
demyelinating disease
-RBC present - Hemorrhage or
traumatic puncture
Source: Cynthia, Breuninger, Ginnona,, & Mintzer, 1994. Nurse’s
Pocket Companion
3.4 Sputum Studies
Purpose – Examination of sputum to identify the pathogenic organism

and the presence of malignant cells.
Nursing Responsibilities – (a) Obtain a morning specimen. (b) Instruct

the patient to clear nose and throat, rinse mouth, and take a few deep
breaths; then have him/her cough up specimen from lung and
tracheobronchial tree. (c) Send specimen to the laboratory immediately,
or refrigerate to prevent overgrowth of organism. (d) Obtain specimen for
culture before initiating anti-invectives.
3.5 Urinalysis
Simple urinalysis is usually performed at the side wards. Investigations

involving blood, microscopy, culture and sensitivity however need a
laboratory environment for meaningful result. Hence urinalysis can be
classified as both laboratory and side ward investigation.
Purpose – To detect blood, casts, and other abnormalities of urine; renal

or urinary tract disease; & metabolic or systemic disease.
Description – Obtain a urine specimen of at least 10 ml. A fresh morning

specimen is usually preferred. Observe the urine for colour, clarity,
volume (quantity), PH, specific gravity, deposits odour (Physical
Examination).
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Quick Dipstick Tests
The older chemical tests for urine have largely been replaced by simple
dipsticks where the presence of glucose, blood, or protein can be readily
detected. They are accurate and sensitive. Examples include:
(i) Litmus paper for PH (Acid urine turns blue litmus paper to red
while alkaline urine turns red litmus paper to blue.
(ii) Clinistix strip for sugar.
(iii) Albustix strip for protein.
(iv) Multistix strip for a wide range of substances
(v) Ketostix for acetone/ketone bodies
(vi) Haemastix.
Procedure:
• Completely immerse all reagent areas of the strip in fresh,

wellmixed, uncentrifuged urine and remove immediately.
• Tap edge of strip against the side of urine container to remove
excess urine. Hold strip in a horizontal position to prevent possible
soiling of hands with urine or mixing chemical from adjacent reagent
areas, making sure that the test areas face upwards.
• Compare test areas closely with corresponding colour charts on
the bottle label at the times specified. Hold strip close to colour blocks
and watch carefully.
Test for Sugar Cold Test
Clinictest Reagent Tablet – This is a quantitative test for sugar.
Equipment – Clinictest tablet, test tube, and dropper.
Procedure: (a) Place 5 drops of urine into a test tube with the aid of the
special dropper provided. Rinse the dropper and add 10 drops pf water
to the urine. Drop in one clinictest tablet. Effervescence will occur.
Watch the test carefully until effervescence stops and for 15secs longer.
Then shake the tube gently and compare the colour with the colour range
on the chart scale.
Hot Test (i) Benedict’s Qualitative Test
Equipment: Bursen burner, test tube, benedict solution.
Procedure: Drop 5ml of Benedict’s reagent into a test tube and add 8 –
10 drops of urine. Boil this mixture vigorously for 2 minutes. If sugar is
present, green, yellow, or brick-red coloration will occur. The changes
from green to back-red indicates out of sugar
(ii) Fehling Test
Equipment: Bursen burner, test tube, fehling solution A & B.
Procedure: To equal quality of fehling solution A & B, add 8 – 10 drops

of urine and boil for 2 – 3 minutes. Any colour change from blue to brick-
red is indicative of presence of sugar.
Test for Protein Cold Test (i) Salicylsulphonic Acid Test
Equipment: salicylsulphonic acid, test tube.
Procedure: Add 5 drops of 25% salicylsulphonic acid to about 5ml of

urine in a test tube. Shake the tube and look for cloudiness in the urine.
The appearance of opacity indicates the presence of protein and the
degree of cloudiness gives some idea of the relative protein concentration.
(ii) Esbach Quantitative Test
Equipment: Esbach Urinometer, Esbach’s reagent.
Procedure: Esbach Urinometer is used for this test. All urine passed by
the subject over a period, say 6 hours, is collected in a chem. Stoppered
bottle and mixed. Measure its specific gravity. If this exceeds 1.010,
dilute a portion with an equal volume of water. If the urine is alkaline,
acidify it with a few drops of 10% acetic acid. Add urine to an Esbach
tube to the level marked U. Add Esbach’s reagent up to the level marked
R. Cork the tube and invert it gently several times to mix the contents.
Stand the tube upright and leave it in a constant temperature for 24 hours.
Then read the level of the precipitate of protein on the tube’s scale, with
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NSC219 MODULE 1
the eye on a level with the top of the sediment. This gives the protein
concentrate of the urine in parts per 1000 (g/l).
Boiling Test Heat plus Acetic Acid
Equipment: Bursen burner, test tube, dropper, acetic acid.
Procedure: Check that urine is mildly acidic. If it is not, add 10% acetic
acid solution until it is. Failure to check initial PH and adjust if necessary,
can invalidate this test. If urine is cloudy, filter some for this procedure.
Fill a boiling tube about three-quarter (¾) full with urine and heat the top
inch of the liquid gently over a bursen flame, turning the tube while
heating to prevent it from cracking. Let it boil for a few moments.
Compare the top boiled part of the urine with the lower part to see if any
cloudiness has appeared. If cloudy, add a drop of acetic acid. If
cloudiness or flocculation disappears, it has been due to the presence of
phosphate and is of no significance. But if it remains or persists, it
indicates the presence of albumin.
Test for Acetone or Ketone Bodies (i) Acetest Reagent Tablets
Equipment: Acetest tablets (Acetest tablets contain sodium intropusside,

glycine and buffers), Clean white paper.
Procedure: Place an Acetest tablets on clean, dry, white paper. Put 1

drop of urine on the tablet, leave for 30 seconds, and then compare any
colour change with the colour chart. A positive result varies from
lavender to deep purple, and may be recorded as a trace to strongly
positive.
(ii) Rothera’s Test
Equipment: Ammonium sulphate, freshly prepared 2% sodium

nitroprusside, strong ammonia solution.
Procedure: Saturate a portion of urine with ammonium sulphate by

shaking about 5ml of urine in a test tube with about the same volume of
crystals of this salt. Add 10 drops of freshly prepared 2% solution of
sodium nitroprusside. Add 10 drops of strong ammonia solution. Allow

to stand for 15 minutes. The development of a purple colour indicates
Ketone. This test is considered to be too sensitive, as it often gives a
positive result on a well subject who has not eaten for several hours
Test for Blood
Occultest – This is a test that determines the presence of blood but not
necessarily the amount of blood present.
Equipment: Occultest tablet, filter paper, water.
Procedure: Place 1 drop of urine on a filter paper square and put one
occultest tablet in the center of the moist area. Add 2 drops of water to
the tablet and allow it to stand for 2 minutes. If after 2 minutes a diffuse
blue colour appears on the filter paper around the tablet, blood is present.
The amount of blood is proportional to the intensity of the colour and the
speed with which it develops. If no blue colour appears, the test is
negative.
Test for Bile Pigments
(i) Ictotest – A special test mat is required. 5 drops of urine are placed
on this special mat and one Ictotest reagent tablet is put in the center of
the moistened area. Flow 2 drops of water over the tablet. If bilirubin is
present, a bluish-purple colour appears around the tablet in about 30
seconds. The amount of bilirubin present is determined by the speed of
intensity of the reaction. If there is no colour change or only a pinkish
colour, then there is no bilirubin.
(ii) Iodine test – About an inch of urine is poured into each of the two
test tubes. Several drops of tincture of iodine are added drop by drop to
one of them. Shake the test tube with the iodine and urine, and compare
it with the control test tube. If a green colour develops, it is positive for
bile pigments.
Fractional Urine
Purpose: To determine site and degree of bleeding after prostate surgery.
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NSC219 MODULE 1
Description: Patient voids into one urine container and then without
stopping the stream, continues to void into another container. The
amount of blood in each container gives an indication of the degree and
site of bleeding.
Nursing Responsibility: Provide 2 or 3 urine containers and instruct

patient to switch containers midway through the voiding without stopping
the stream.
Urine Culture and Sensitivity
Purpose: For diagnosis of urinary tract infection (UTI) and identification

of causative agent or organism.
Description: A midstream clean catch or sterile catheterized specimen is

obtained, and the urine is placed in a culture medium for growth of
bacterial colonies. After incubation, the colonies are counted. If more
than 100,000 organisms per milliliter are counted, there is a UTI. The
organisms are then identified as to type and a sensitivity test is run on it.
Sensitivity tests involve exposing the bacteria to various anti-infectives
to see which most effectively kills the organism.
Nursing Responsibilities: Instruct the patient in method for collection of

a ‘clean catch’ specimen. Instructions come with the specimen container.
Allow time for questions after patient is familiar with directives. Send
specimen to laboratory immediately to prevent chance in PH which can
affect bacterial growth.
Urine Osmolality
Purpose: To determine urine concentrating ability of the kidney.
Description: The patient is either placed on fluid restrictions or given a

specific amount of fluid to drink before the test.
Nursing Responsibilities: Give high protein diet for 3 days prior to the
urine collection. Restrict fluids for 8 – 12 hours before obtaining
specimen. Collect a random urine specimen preferably in the morning,
label it (including the time), and send to laboratory.
24 Hours Urine Collection
Purpose: To determine how well kidneys can excrete creatinine

(creatinine clearance) i.e. glomerular filtration rate (GRF).
Description: A 24 hours urine specimen is obtained and a blood

specimen is also taken. Elevated serum creatinine with increased urine
creatinine indicates decreased kidney function.
Nursing Responsibilities: Place a sign on patient’s door and over the

toilet stating 24 hours urine collection in progress, so that everyone can
save the urine properly. Decide in conjunction with the laboratory
technologist on a suitable time. Have patient void and discard the urine.
Note the time and put successive voiding into the collection container. At
the time the test is to end, ask the patient to void and add this to the
collection bottle. Label the specimen adequately and send to the
laboratory with the accompanying blood specimen/sample (5ml).
3.6 Radiologic Studies
Radiography (the study of x-rays or gamma ray exposed film through

the action of ionizing radiation) is used by practitioner to study internal
organ structure.
Chest X-Ray
The most common radiologic study is the noninvasive, noncontrasted

chest x-ray. The best results are obtained when the films are taken in the
radiology department; however a portable chest x-ray can be performed
at the bedside. Radiologic projections of chest x-ray films are taken from
various views. Multiple views of the chest are necessary for the
practitioner to assess the entire lung field.
Indications: Chest films can indicate the following alterations and

diseases:
• Lesions (tumors, cysts, masses) in the lung tissue, chest wall or

bony thorax or heart.
• Inflammation of lung tissue (pneumonia, atelectasis, abscesses,
tuberculosis); pleura (pleuritis); and pericardium (pericarditis).
• Fluid accumulation in the lung tissue (pulmonary edema,
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NSC219 MODULE 1
hemothorax); pleura (pleural effusion)

• Bone deformities and fractures of the rib and sternum.
• Air accumulation in the lungs (chronic obstructive pulmonary
disease, emphysema); and pleura (pneumothorax).
• Diaphragmatic hernia.
Nurses Responsibilities: To prepare a client for a chest x-ray, remove

metal objects (jewelry) and all clothing from waist up and replace with a
gown. Metal will appear on the x-ray film thereby obscuring visualisation
of parts of the chest. Pregnant women are draped with a metal apron to
protect the fetus.
Ultrasound
This is a non-invasive radiological investigation that employs high

frequency sound waves and oscilloscope screen to visualise deep body
structures. This study should be scheduled before any studies using a
contrast medium or air to ensure accuracy.
Purpose: To evaluate size, shape, and location of internal some

structures/organs such as: the brain, vascular structure, spleen, liver,
gallbladder, pancreas, uterus, and etc. It is also done during pregnancy to
determine the gestational age, the expected day of delivery, the sex, the
lie, the position and the size of the fetus including the location of the
placenta.
Description: A coupling agent (lubricant) is placed on the surface of the

body to be studied to increase the contact between the skin and the
transducer (instrument that converts electrical energy to sound waves).
The transducer emits waves that travel through the body tissue and are
reflected back to the transducer and recorded. The varying density of
body tissues deflects the waves into differentiated pattern on an
oscilloscope. Photographs can be taken of the sound wave pattern on the
oscilloscope.
Mention at least five (5) abnormalities which chest examination can

reveal.
Nursing Responsibilities: Explain the purpose and procedure to the

patient. The client is instructed to lie still during the procedure. Instruct
patients to drink 6 – 8 glasses of fluid and avoid urination prior to
sonogram.
4.0 CONCLUSION
As obvious from this unit there are so many diagnostic investigations for
elucidating patients’ problems exist in clinical practice. The list is
inexhaustible. Howbeit, thorough history taking and comprehensive
physical assessment helps in knowing which will be most helpful to
diagnosing the patient’s condition.
5.0 SUMMARY
The unit has taken an incisive look at some of the common diagnostic
tests employed in clinical practice. It specifically discusses the purpose,
description with particular emphasis on nurses’ responsibilities before,
during and after the performance of such investigation, and interpretation
of results that could be obtained from the conduction of each investigation
.
ANSWER TO SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
• To screen for diabetes mellitus and other glucose metabolism

disorders.
• To monitor drug or dietary therapy in patients with diabetes
mellitus.
• To help determine the insulin requirements of patients who have
uncontrolled diabetes mellitus and those who require parental or
enteral nutritional support.
• To help evaluate patients with known or suspected hypoglycemia.
• Lesions (tumors, cysts, masses) in the lung tissue, chest wall or

bony thorax or heart.
• Inflammation of lung tissue (pneumonia, atelectasis, abscesses,
tuberculosis); pleura (pleuritis); and pericardium (pericarditis).
• Fluid accumulation in the lung tissue (pulmonary edema,
hemothorax); pleura (pleural effusion)
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NSC219 MODULE 1
• Bone deformities and fractures of the rib and sternum.

• Air accumulation in the lungs (chronic obstructive pulmonary
disease, emphysema); and pleura (pneumothorax).
• Diaphragmatic hernia
Discuss you’re the nursing roles before, during and after the following
diagnostic investigations: (a) Lumber puncture (b) Fasting blood sugar,
and (c) Sputum studies.
& Erb's Fundamentals of Nursing: Concepts, Process, and Practice,
[by] Berman, Snyder. Pearson.
Cynthia, C.; Breuninger, T. A.; Ginnona, J. G. & Mintzer, D. W. (1994).
Nurse’s Pocket Companion. Pennsylvania: Springhouse
Corporation.

Trueman M.S (2014). Case Studies in Nursing Fundamentals. F.A.
Davis Company. Philadelphia
UNIT 4 PROVIDING SAFETY AND COMFORT I
CONTENT
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 General Safety Rules and Practices
3.2 The Role of the Nurse in Moving and Handling Patients
3.3 Control of Infection
3.4 Commonly Employed Comfort Measures in the Hospital
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Safety, prevention of accidents and promotion of comfort are vital to

survival, and these needs continue throughout life. When a client/patient
enters the health care facility, an unwritten contract is established
between the client/patient and health care personnel. Inherent in this
contract is fact that the health personnel owe the patient a duty of service.
As part of the package of that duty of care is the obligation to safeguard
the patient from harm/danger as well as to ensure that the patient is made
comfortable throughout his/her period of hospitalisation.
In view of their infirmities, hospital patients are more susceptible to

accidents than any other group of people. As such the management of all
hospitals must be safety conscious. Even though it may be argued that
safety in the health care setting is everybody’s responsibility, the nurse is
usually at a vantage point to detect any unsafe condition that could
precipitate injury to patients and visitors in health setting and promptly
institute corrective measures. Hence, the nurse should be well informed
and be acquainted with safety practices in the ward setting and measures
that promote patients’ comfort.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
i.outline the general safety rules and practices in the health care
setting
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ii.describe the role of the nurse in moving and handling patients

including principles underlying moving and lifting of patients
iii.give examples of risks in a health care setting and suggest
preventive measures
iv.describe the role of the nurse in infection control
v.describe the different comfort measures employed in patient’s care
in the hospital and explain their underlying principles.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
General Safety Rules and Practices
First, it is important for you to believe that most accidents are preventable.
Secondly, most accidents in the hospital result from carelessness or an
error in judgment (Donahue, 2011). Here however are some of the safety
regulations and practices in the health care setting:
• Walk rather than run – especially on stairs and along corridors.

• Open doors slowly. Do not open a door by pushing on the glass
part.
• Walk on right in halls – especially when pushing a wheelchair or
stretcher. Installing corridor mirrors which enable those wheeling a
stretcher or other patient vehicles to see around blind corners.
• Installing safety devices, wherever practicable including cautious
use of bedside rails.
• Ensure adequate lighting by illuminating areas in which people
move and work.
• Ensure good housekeeping and avoid wet patches on the floor.
Using non-slip floor coatings. Placing rubber mats on inclines and in the
bathtub before a patient uses the tub.
• Do not engage in horseplay or practical jokes.
• Observe principles of good body mechanics. Follow correct lifting
procedures when lifting a heavy object or lifting a patient. Possibly
introducing safety classes which teach correct lifting procedures and
other safety principles.
• Remember the elderly and the very young are more accident prone
than the adult. Protect them as much as possible.
• Endeavor to properly label all materials including medicaments
and water taps in bathrooms. Discard all unlabeled containers and bottles.
Never use the content of an unlabeled container. Analyze causes of

medication errors and instituting changes.
• Provision for refuse collection and proper waste disposal to
maintain hygienic condition.
• Ensure proper bed spacing is maintained.
• Maintaining aseptic technique for all invasive procedures.
• Appropriate institution of isolation techniques and barrier nursing
in infectious cases.
• Periodic fumigation of hospital ward and surgical theatres.
• Never overload an electric socket and avoid using defective
electric equipment.
• All electrical appliances left on should be switched off and
deplugged at the close of the day. Employ measures which minimise the
accumulation of static electricity.
• Obey all NO SMOKING signs. Never smoke or permit anyone to
smoke in the vicinity of oxygen equipment that is in use.
• When smoking in designated areas, see that cigarettes are
completely extinguished in receptacles provided.
• Report any injury to self or to others immediately and secure first
aid.
• Be safety-conscious at all times. If you notice a safety hazard,
report it at once to the right person. Provide educational programs for
employee which emphasise that accidents are preventable.
• When in doubt about how to handle or do something the safe way,
ask someone with more experience and training than you for help or
advice.
• Instituting incident reporting system and appointing members to a
safety committee who are saddled with the responsibility of reviewing
safety practices, analyzing potential safety hazards, and recommending
constructive procedures to prevent accidents.
(Donahue, 2011)
Activity 1
Quickly recap some of the safety rules and practices in the hospital.
3.2 The Role of the Nurse in Moving and Handling Patients
In professional nursing practice there will always be the need to move

patients or heavy equipment from one point to the other and this exposes
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the nurse to additional risks. Parboteeah (2002) quoting the Disabled

Living Foundation (1994) indicated that one in four nurses has taken time
off with back injury sustained at work, this for some meaning the end of
their nursing career.
The back is like a mast or a pillar that makes functional and productive
movement possible. Geographically it is an entity comprising the
vertebral column with its articular and periarticular structure and the
musculature extending from the occiput to the sacrum. The back
functions as a structure as well as a mechanism. As a structure, the back
can withstand a comprehensive force 10 times the weight it normally
supports. As a mechanism, with little effort the back can bent forward,
backwards, sideways and even twisted. However, as strong as back is and
as vital as it is, it is not immune to injury especially those arising from
poor lifting techniques.
While it is beyond the scope of this unit to go into the pathogenesis of

back pain, there may be no better period than now to examine what
constitute correct lifting technique. Nurse should also know how to set
the back muscles (i.e. keep their back muscles partially tensed to absorb
any imminent shock) particularly when lifting, or bending forward to pick
or give out something. In lifting:
• Keep as close as possible and safe to the object to be lifted.

• Maintain a good base of support.
• Keep the back as vertical as possible.
• Remember not to carry alone object than 70% of your body
weight.
These four principles must always be borne in mind when lifting or
transferring patients.
Here are additional safety tips or precautions that must be observed in the
health care setting:
• Always make sure the brake is on when transferring patients to

wheelchairs or stretchers or when the patient is left momentarily in a
wheelchair or stretcher. Instruct the patient not to step on the footrest in
getting into and out of the wheelchair.
• When transporting a patient on a stretcher, stand at his head and

move slowly. Be alert for moving persons or conveyances coming from
any possible direction.
• When going down an incline, guide the stretcher from the foot and
proceed slowly.
• Check restraining straps for proper fastening.
• Never lift a patient who is too heavy without assistance.
• Never leave a paralyzed patient alone in the bathroom or in bed
with the side rails down.
• Never leave a paralyzed or helpless patient sitting in a chair
without a protective restraint around the waist.
• Never allow a patient who is in an oxygen tent to have any electric
appliances inside the tent. This includes the electric call bell (Donahue,
2011).
3.3 Control of Infection
Microorganisms exist everywhere in the environment: in water, soil, and

on body surfaces such as the skin, gastrointestinal tract, vaginal, etc.
(Berman et al., 2016)
. Some are harmless; some are beneficial while others otherwise referred
to as pathogens are harmful to the body that is, capable of producing
infection. The term infection is used to describe the invasion and
development or multiplication of pathogens in the body of man or animal.
Infection could be apparent/manifest, or
inapparent/symptomatic/subclinical infection. It could be autoinfection
(self-infection), or cross infection (contracted from other sources such as
other individuals harboring or suffering from the same infection or
associated with the delivery of health care services in health care setting,
usually referred to as Nosocomial or hospital acquired infection including
Iatrogenic infection i.e. those are due to any aspect of therapy). It is
therefore the nurses’ responsibility to provide biologically safe
environment and reduce the spread of infection within the health care
setting.
Below are some of the measures employed by nurses to achieve this lofty
objective:
• Hand Hygiene – Many infections are spread by contact, the hands

being a major vehicle in the transmission of infection (RCN, 1992). In
Parboteeah (2002) words ‘normal skin has a resident population of
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microorganisms; other transient organisms being picked up and shed

during contact in the delivery of nursing care’. Parboteeah stated further
that the goal of handwashing is to remove these transient organisms or
reduce their number below that of infective dose before that are
transmitted to a patient. Handwashing therefore is the most important
method of preventing spread by contact. According to Parboteeah (2002)
indications for handwashing include: Before and after aseptic techniques
or invasive procedures; Before contact with susceptible patient; After
handling body fluids; After handling contaminated items; Prior to the
administration of drugs; Before serving meals; After removing aprons
and gloves; At the beginning and end of duty; and If in any doubt. It is
equally important that patients’ hands are kept clean.
• The Use of Face Mask – Masks are worn to reduce the

transmission of organisms by the droplet contact, airborne routes, and
splatters of body substances. The CDC recommends that masks be worn
under the following conditions: (1) Only by those close to the client if the
infection is transmitted by large-particle aerosols (droplets) like measles,
mumps and other acute respiratory tract infections; (2) By all persons
entering the room if the infection is transmitted by small-particle aerosols
(droplet nuclei) e.g. Tuberculosis; (3) During certain techniques requiring
surgical asepsis to prevent droplet contact transmission of exhaled
microorganisms to the sterile field or to a client’s open wound (Kozier, et
al., 2000).
• Sterilisation – The process of destroying all microorganisms and

their pathogenic agents e.g. spores. Often employed in the preparation of
dressing materials, equipment and other materials needed for surgeries
and all invasive procedures. Detailed discussion of sterilisation
techniques will be considered in some other units.
• Disinfection – This is defined as the killing of infectious agents

outside the body by chemical or physical means, directly applied. Could
be an on-going process (Concurrent disinfection) or Terminal – the
application of disinfective measures after the patient has been discharged
from the hospital or has ceased to be a source of infection.
• Isolation – Isolation refers to measures designed to prevent the

direct and indirect conveyance of the infectious agent from those infected
to susceptible individuals (other clients, visitors and health care
personnel). A variety of isolation techniques are used in the health care

setting. This will be expatiated in some other units but it is suffice to state
that when patients are isolated because of contagious and infectious
diseases, the nurse must be certain that proper technique is carried out in
caring for them and must be sure that their visitors also understand and
carry out necessary precautions.
• Others are: Adequate Bed-Spacing; Proper Waste Disposal;

Health Education etc.
3.4 Commonly employed Comfort Measures in the Hospital
(a) Bedmaking
Hospital patients spend varying degree of time in bed, as such; their

comfort is of utmost importance. The need to improve and maintain, for
as long as possible, the comfort of these patients therefore forms the
primary reason for bed making. A related one is the need to relieve
pressure from certain parts of the body and stimulates circulation thereby
preventing the development of decubitus ulcer (pressure sore).
A Typical Hospital Bed
A typical hospital bed is higher than the conventional beds at homes. This
is to reduce undue physical strain to the nurses’ back while attending to
the patient. The bedstead is usually 6ft 6 inches long, 3ft wide and
26inches high. The framework is steel or iron; the castors are well made
and move easily without jarring the bed. In some cases, the height may
be adjustable, and the head or foot of the bedstead may be raised or
lowered by levers. A movable back is supplied with most beds. This can
be brought forward to act as a backrest, or removed completely for any
treatment when necessary. A mattress is placed on the bedstead. Hair,
interior spring, rubber foam, plastic foam, sorbo rubber are the types
commonly used in hospital wards. The mattress is usually covered with
a polythene sheet or protective waterproof material.
The number of pillows used will depend on the need of the patient.
Pillows are usually stuffed with foams/hairs with a protective cover under
the pillowcase. Blankets – Turkish toweling, cellular cotton, synthetic
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material or wool blankets may be used to keep the patient warm without
being unnecessarily heavy or causing discomfort to the patient. Terry
blankets and cellular cotton blankets are most commonly used nowadays.
Bed sheets must be long and wide enough for the type of bed used.
Sheets are often made of cotton, polyester/cotton mixture or linen.
Counterpanes or bedspread are usually light in colour and weight. Draw
sheets are usually placed over a polythene protector (mackintosh) across
the bed under the patient’s buttocks. They are often placed in such a way
that they could be drawn at frequent intervals to give the patient a clean,
cool, fresh piece of sheet to lie on. The standard size of drawn sheet is 2
yards wide and 11/2 yards long. Long waterproof sheets – these are used
routinely to cover the entire mattress in some hospitals while in others
they are only used for selected patients.
Adjuncts to Hospital Bed/Special Appliances used in Bedmaking
Bed tables - Preferably of adjustable height. Meant for eating or leaning

arms on when sitting upright or when in respiratory embarrassment.
Bed cradles - Made of metal. Used for keeping the weight of bedclothes
off the patient’s legs or body, especially in weak or debilitated patients.
Particularly useful after Plaster of Paris (POP) has been applied to
fractured leg.
Bed rest – Usually attached to but may be separate from the bed. More
often than not metal but occasionally could be made of wood especially
the separate type. Most commonly used in putting the patient in sitting
up position with pillows placed between it and the patient.
Bed elevators & bed blocks – A number of beds have elevators built into
them so that the head or foot of the bed may be raised as required. In
some cases, the elevators, which are usually metal, have several rungs at
varying heights on which the bar of the bed may be supported at desired
height. Sometimes a portable wooden bed blocks may be used for the
same purpose. Such blocks usually have a depression at their tops into
which the castors of the bed can fit. They also vary in height.
Bed – strippers – These are stands placed at the foot of the bed over
which bedclothes are draped during bedmaking. Sometimes, two chairs
placed back to back can be improvised for this.
Air rings/Air cushions/Foam rubber rings – These may be placed

under the patient’s buttocks to relieve pressure.
Fracture boards – Wooden. May be placed under the mattress to

provide a firmer based on which to lie. In other words, they prevent the
mattress from sagging. Patients with spinal conditions, back injuries and
some fractures find this most helpful.
Sand bags – These are made of impermeable materials, which are filled
with sand. They are used for immobilisation of limb(s) in the treatment
of special conditions e.g. amputation to control phantom movement/pain.
They must always be covered with cotton.
Hot water bottles – These are made of rubber or aluminum. They are
used to give added warmth to patient.
Others are Drip stand, Bed stirrup etc.
Principles Governing Bedmaking
Bed making is essentially two-man procedure. Some of the principles

guiding this procedure are outlined below:
1. Principle of Organisation – Bedclothes and other materials

needed must be arranged in order of priority. The two nurses must work
from top to bottom of the bed. They must equally work in
unison/harmony i.e. there must be synchronicity of action.
2. Principle of Body Mechanics – There must be economy of
movement.
3. Principle of Comfort and Safety – The two nurses must maintain
a near erect position and avoid straining or overstretching their back to
prevent injury. The bed should be crump and wrinkle free. Always lift the
patient off the bed or roll from side to side in case of occupied bed. On
no account should the patient be dragged on bed.
4. Principle of Asepsis – Fans must be put off. There should be no
jarring or flying of bed sheets in the air to prevent cross infection.
Uniforms are prevented from touching bedclothes and hands are washed
before and after the procedure.
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5. Time Management – The two nurses must work with speed and
accuracy. There must be economy of movement.
Bedmaking: Definition and Types
The process of applying or changing linens is what is referred to as bed

making. Types are:
The Unoccupied Bed: There are two types of unoccupied bed viz – The
Closed Bed and the Open Bed. A closed bed is the bed making process
that is performed following the discharge or transfer of a patient when no
new patient is expected. An Open Bed on the other hand is the bed making
process that is carried out when the occupant is able to be up while the
bed is being made i.e. the type that is made for an ambulant or out-of-bed
patient
The Occupied Bed: Bed making process in which the bed is made while
the patient is in it. There are different typologies – Fractured Bed
(Characterised by a firm lying surface it offers the patient. Often
employed in the care of patient with back pain and those with fractures);
Divided Bed (So named by the fashion in which it is made. Used mostly
in the care of amputees. Also employed in the drying of Plaster of Paris).
Post-Operative Bed/Operation Bed – This is the bed that is prepared to
receive a post-surgical patient with minimal disturbance.
Making the Unoccupied Bed Points to Keep in Mind
Whether or not making empty beds for new patients is one of your
responsibilities, bed making is a frequent procedure for any staff member
giving nursing care.
Many patients are required by doctor's orders to sit up in a chair, even for
a short time. So, most patients' beds are unoccupied at one time or another
during the morning and can be made when the patient is out of it.
In any case, it is important to remember that soon a patient will be
occupying the bed. If the bottom sheet is anchored properly, it will not
loosen and bunch in wrinkles under the patient's back. The top covers
will be high enough to cover the shoulders, yet loose enough so that the
patient's feet will not be restrained and pulled forward in an abnormal
position.
In the procedure described here, there is no linen on the bed to start with;
it is made with clean linen throughout. However, if the bed is unoccupied
only because the patient is out of it for a while, then there will be linens
on the bed. Thus, the list below would be adjusted to those items needed
in your situation.
Equipment Needed
1. Cotton quilted mattress pad or mattress cover according to policy.

2. 2 large sheets
3. Rubber or plastic draw sheet, if it is the policy to use one
4. Cotton draw sheet
5. Blanket, if needed
6. Bedspread
7. Pillowcase for each pillow used
Important Steps Reasons for Action

1. Wash your hands before Unclean hands may spread disease
selecting linens; then take germs to clean linen, and to patient
everything needed next to who is to be to and pillowcase.
patient's unit.
2. Place linen on straight chair Stacking linens in this manner
near foot of bed. Stack the saves time and effort later on.
items in order of use, that is,
bedspread and pillowcase on
bottom, and so on with the
mattress pad on top.
3. See that bed is in high position The higher level will cause less
and is flat and that wheels are strain on back and leg muscles.
locked.
4. Place the folded quilted Lifting and shaking any item of
mattress pad on near side of bed linen may stir up dust and lint
and unfold it without which may which may carry and
lifting or shaking it out disease-causing organism.
5. Place folded sheet on near side Also lifting and flapping linen at
of bed and unfold it lengthwise shoulder level to unfold it causes
in the same manner described unnecessary strain and fatigue on
above, that is without shaking the back, shoulder, and arm
or flapping muscles.
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it out.
Arrange sheet in this way:
(a) With bottom hem even with Placing the bottom sheet correctly
foot of mattress, depending on is the most important step in
length of sheet. bedmaking.
(b) Allow 15 to 18 inches at head The Foundation sheet should be

of bed tuck under mattress. secure against anything that might
tend to loosen it. For this reason,
never skimp on this 15– to–18
inches allowance to tuck under
head of mattress.
(c) With center of sheet at center of
bed, fanfold the far half of Covering foot of mattress is far
sheet beyond the center of bed. less Important.
The sheet is doubled back on itself

in folds of several inches - like a
fan.
Placing this foundation sheet

straight on the bed is also
important. A sheet that is even just
a little crooked, on the base, will
always have wrinkles.
6. Lift the head of mattress with If you face in the direction of your
one hand and pull sheet under work and move along in this
the mattress with the other position, you will Avoid twisting
hand. See that material is groups of muscles, thus reducing
smooth after tucking under. strain and fatigue.
7. Make a mitered corner at head
of mattress.
8. Continue tucking sheet under Move along with your work,
side of mattress from head to facing side of mattress as you tuck
foot. sheet from head to foot of bed.
Keep feet slightly separated.
9. If rubber draw sheet is used, Where plasticized mattresses are

place it about 12 to 15 inches used, it is often the policy to omit
from head of mattress. Tuck a waterproof sheet. It is sometimes
smoothly under mattress on placed over the mattress and under
near side. the quilted mattress pad.
10. Cover rubber sheet with cotton Lying directly on even a small
draw the sheet or a large sheet strip of rubber sheet will be
folded once may uncomfortable and cause skin
cross-wise. Place this cotton irritation to patient.

sheet about two or three inches
higher than the rubber sheet and
see that it is completely
covered.
11. Tuck cotton draw sheet
smoothly under side of
mattresses on near side.
Fanfold far side of the sheet at
center of bed.
12. Go to other side of bed and tuckYou may be taught to make on
bottom sheet smoothly under entire side of the bed before going
head of mattress. Make a to the other side. If careful
mitered corner. attention is given to unnecessary
motion and energy there may not
be much difference.
13. Grasping bottom sheet with By keeping your feet slightly
both hands, tuck under mattress separated and your back straight,
alongside of bed, tightening you will reduce strain.
and smoothing it, as you Move
from head to foot of bed.
14. Pull rubber draw sheet (at When holding the sheet with
center of bed) toward you and palms downward, the strong
smooth it out. Grasp with both muscles of the shoulders and arms
hands, holding palms are used. Keep one foot in front
downward on level with and rock backward on the other, as
mattress; tighten the sheet and you tighten the sheet.
tuck under side of mattress.
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15. Pull the cotton draw sheet

toward you and smooth it in
place over the rubber sheet.
Grasp it with both hands and
tuck under side of mattress in
the manner described above.
Now you are ready to make the top part of the bed:
16. Continue on same side of bed. If wrong side of them is up, when
Place the folded top sheet on the top edge of the sheet is turned
near side of bed and unfold it in down over the edge of bedspread,
the manner described earlier. the right side of hem will show.
Arrange it this way:
(a) with upper edge of sheet

even with head of mattress.
(b) with center of sheet straight

and at the center of bed.
17. Tuck sheet (and blanket if used)

under foot of mattress and make
a corner.
Tuck under mattress at corner
but DO NOT tuck in along the
side of the bed. Allow it to hang
free
18. Place folded spread on bed and
unfold it as described earlier:
The upper edge is even with

head of mattress.
It is centered and hangs evenly,
covering the sheet and blanket
completely.
19. Tuck bedspread under the Allow the top covers to hang free at
mattress at foot of bed. Make a side of bed.
corner on near side, but do not
tuck the finished corner under
mattress.
20. Go to opposite side of bed and
repeat steps to complete making
the bed.
21. Rest the pillow on foot of bed If pillowcase is considerably wider
and draw on pillowcase - in this than the pillow, tuck the excess
way: and grasp the inside seam material into a smooth fold on one
at end of case. side, making the case fit well over
the pillow. Keep this tuck in place
(a) Slip your hand inside when placing on bed.
pillowcase and grasp the inside
seam at end of case.
(b) Still holding the inside

seam, place this same hand over
the end of pillow and pull on
pillowcase
(c) Fit corners of case over

corners of pillow.
22. Place the pillow(s) flat on the
bed
23. If you wish to "open" this bed, Opening the bed, that is, turning the
here is one of various ways it covers down, makes it look more
might be done: inviting to the patient sitting for a
time in a chair. If your patient has
With both hands grasp the upper gone to a treatment room or X-ray
edge of the top covers; carefully Department, it will be easier to
bring your arms toward foot of assist him back in bed.
bed, until the upper edge of cuff
is at the foot of the bed.
With hands still in place, bring

the cuff up to the fold halfway
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up the bed. Straighten and

smooth the cuff.
24. If you wish a "closed" bed for a The steps of this procedure lend
patient not yet admitted, the well to learning good body
upper edge of bedspread is left mechanics. There is a certain
even with the head of mattress. rhythm that can be developed
which will help you do job in less
time and with much less effort.
Try it.
Making the Occupied bed Points to Keep in Mind
1. Making the bed with a patient in it is necessary when the patient

is too ill or disabled to be out of bed. It is a long procedure and if not
accomplished skillfully, can be an extremely exhausting experience for
the patient. It is therefore a time when individual adjustments are needed
to save time and to lessen the exertion of the patient. And it calls for skills
in handling each step smoothly and avoiding irritations, such as bumping
and jarring the bed.
2. It is also a time to observe the patient and to give him chance to
talk about anything on his mind. This may be done by listening, not
talking about your own problems and experiences.
3. If this procedure follows the patient's bath in bed, the first steps as
given here will have already been accomplished. For instance, all the top
linen would have been removed and the patient covered with a bath
blanket. However, to give a complete description here, this procedure
starts with all bed linens in place.
Equipments Needed
1. 2 large sheets, or as many as policy calls for

2. Cotton draw sheet; if used, top sheet is now used for draw sheet
3. Bedspread
4. Pillowcase for each pillow
5. Bath blanket.
Important Steps Reasons for Action

1. Wash your hands before If this procedure follows the
selecting linens. Take patient's bath, start with step 5 and
everything needed to patient's loosen all the lower sheets. The
unit and stack items on chair reason is that the clean linen will
in order of use. already be stacked on chair at
bedside. If top covers are removed
and bath blanket is on the patient,
move on to step 10.
2. Provide for privacy by
placing screen or pulling
curtain.
3. Adjust the bed to level
position and lock the wheels.
Remove all but one pillow
from under the patient’s
head.
4. See that laundry bag is in a
place Close-by.
5. Loosen all bottom sheets all You will be delayed later if sheets
around the bed. are still tucked securely under
mattress.
6. Remove bedspread by
grasping it at top edge and
folding it to foot of bed. If it
is not to be used again, fold
and bunch it and drop in
laundry hamper.
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7. Place the folded bath blanket If patient is not familiar with this
on near side of bed and step for removing sheet, tell him
unfold it over top sheet If what you will do, so that he can be
patient is not too ill, ask him sure that he will not be exposed.
to hold the top edge of bath
blanket.
8. Slip hands under side of
blanket and grasp upper edge
of sheet and pull it from
under the blanket to the foot
of bed.
9. Bring the top and bottom Shaking and flapping linens
hems together and fold the (especially used linen) stirs up dust
sheet on lower part of bed and lint which carry disease causing
without shaking it out. organisms into the air.
10. Place folded top sheet on This top sheet will be used again as
back of chair. a bottom sheet or to cover rubber
draw sheet.
11. Go to other side of bed and It is much easier to remove sheets
help patient move toward and replace them if there are no
you, then turn him to pillows on the sheets. However, one
sidelying position, facing pillow can be managed, if patient is
you. uncomfortable without it.
Position him in good
alignment without pillow, if
this is not too uncomfortable
for him.
12. Raise the side rail on that side If patient is turned away from you to
of bed before returning to his side, he may just keep on turning
your original position. and fall out of bed. There is real
danger of this.
13. Fold the near half of used
cotton draw sheet close
against the patient's back.
14. Fanfold the rubber draw sheet These sheets are folded separately
smoothly to the back of Because each will be removed later
patient. (except the rubber draw sheet) one
at a time.
15. Fanfold the entire length of
the used bottom sheet to the
center of bed and close to the
patient's back. Tuck each
sheet under the one before.
16. Place the folded clean bottom
sheet on the near side of bed
and unfold it length-wise in
this manner:
(a) With center fold

straight with mattress with Face the direction of your work and
it. move Keep back straight but not
rigid; bend at hips. Knees should be
(b) Allow 15 to 18 inches slightly flexed and feet apart
at head of mattress. throughout action.
(c) With bottom hem

even with foot of mattress. This sheet will be placed under the
patient later. Do not wrinkle or pull
(d) Fanfold far half of it out of shape.
sheet carefully to patient's
back.
17. Lift corner of mattress with
one hand as you tuck sheet
under head of mattress with
the other hand.

18. Make a mitered corner at
head of mattress.
19. Tuck sheet smoothly under
mattress alongside of bed
from head to foot.
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NSC219 MODULE 1
20. Locate the free end of the

rubber sheet near patient and
pull it toward you, without
disturbing the folded bottom
Sheet.
21. Straighten the rubber sheet Make sure that rubber sheet will
in place and tuck it under never be next to patient's skin,
mattress at side of bed. because it will be irritating. Allow the
cotton draw sheet to overlap the
rubber sheet by two or three inches at
upper and lower edges.
22. Place the used top sheet
(folded once crosswise) over
the rubber draw sheet and
completely cover it. Fold far
half of sheet next to patient's
back. Tuck hanging part
under mattress, and make
sure both rubber sheet and
draw sheet are smooth.
23. Let the patient know that it is
time for him to roll back
toward you and that he is to
roll over the folded sheets
which are at the center of
the bed.
24. First, cradle the patient's feet Try to keep the patient's body in as
and lower legs in your arms good ' alignment as possible. It will
and move towards you over be much - less strain on him. Also, it
the "bump" of folded line will cause you less strain and fatigue,
(Keep edges of the bath if you keep your back straight your
blanket folded up on the knees slightly flexed. Keep one foot a
patient so it will be out of the little in front of the other. This allows
way of patient's movements you to use the long strong thigh
and your action). muscles rather than the small muscles
of the back.
25. Next, give patient the
assistance he needs to move
his hips and shoulders as he
rolls toward you to his side.
26. Reach over the patient and If patient has a drainage tube of any
push folded sheets away from kind, see that there is enough slack
patient's back toward the far in tube for turning.
side of bed.
27. Raise the side guard on your Use these side guards if available
side, then go the other side ofbecause the patient may misjudge
bed. the width of bed and move to near
edge.
28. Lower side guard. Starting Hold linens away from uniform and
with soiled bottom sheet, fold drop in laundry hamper.
and bunch it as you remove it
from the bed.
29. Remove and discard cotton If patient is becoming
draw sheet in the same uncomfortable Without a pillow,
manner. reach for the one you put aside
earlier change pillowcase and place
under patient's head.
30. Pull clean bottom sheet in
place; tuck under mattress at
head of bed; make mitered
corner and tuck under
mattress alongside of bed.
31. Pull both draw sheets toward

you and straighten them.
Tuck free end of rubber draw
sheet under mattress, keeping
it smooth and tight.
32. Straighten clean cotton draw There is no reason to overdo the
sheet. Grasping and pulling at tugging in place over rubber sheet.
this step. it with both hands If you lift the draw sheet up higher
(palms down), hold it at level than mattress level, you may cause
with mattress. Pull it tightly, the patient to roll out of bed. The
but without lifting it up, and cause and effect of this is something
tuck under side of mattress. like using crowbar to pry up a heavy
object.
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NSC219 MODULE 1
33. Place clean top sheet on near

side of bed and unfold it on
blanket top of bath blanket
34. Have patient hold upper edge This is done to prevent exposing
of sheet while you fold bath patient. At the same time, folding
blanket to foot of bed and the blanket toward the foot of bed
remove it. under the top sheet does not stir up
dust.
35. Arrange top sheet to extend

high enough to cover patient's
shoulders; leave excess at
foot of bed; see that it hangs
evenly on both sides.
36. Before tucking sheet (and Tight top covers not only are
blanket, if used) under foot of uncomfortable for patient's feet but
mattress, make a toe pleat to may cause a serious condition. If the
allow room for patient's feet. feet are restrained in a forward
When blanket is used, make position over a period of time, the
the pleat in sheet and blanket muscles of the soles of the feet are
together. The toe pleat may weakened. Th1s results in a serious
be made in this way. deformity called drop foot.
Note: The other types of bed making will be discussed in some other
units.
(B) Personal Hygiene Practices
Maintenance of personal hygiene is necessary for comfort, safety and

well-being. Hygiene refers to practices that promote health through
personally cleanliness and it is fostered through activities like bathing,
tooth brushing, cleaning and maintaining fingernails and toenails, and
shampooing and grooming hair. Many a people shed their worries along
with the day’s accumulation of dirt by taking baths or showers. Man
considers important to his well-being not only having his skin cleaned but
also being well groomed – wearing decent clothes with nails cut and
clean, and feet well shod. When clean and attractively dressed, a person
often gains confidence and can face difficulty with equanimity.
Cleanliness and good grooming are even more important in illness than
in health. Many a nurse has had experience of seeing a sick and
uncomfortable patient drop off into a restful sleep after taking his bath
and having his bed changed. Oral care to relieve bitter/distasteful taste
and a general dryness of the mouth which is often associated with ill
health; and hair care to bring refreshing feeling are all essential adjuncts
of care. But when these factors are left unattended, the patient looks and
feels more miserable than his state of health warrants.
Healthy individuals are capable of meeting their own hygiene. Sick

people are however incapacitated by their ill health and as such require
the nurses’ assistance to meet all their hygiene needs. The onus therefore
lies on the nurses to assess the person’s ability to perform self-care, plan
necessary intervention to meet any deficit and evaluate the effectiveness
of the care.
Hygiene practices and needs may differ according to age, inherited

characteristics of the skin and hair, cultural values and of course health
problems. Whatever, the point to be made is that, most hygiene practices
are based or maintaining or restoring healthy qualities of the integument
system.
Care of the Skin
In view of the enormous functions of the skin, it is just rational for the
skin to be kept healthy. One of the principal ways to ensure this is by
bathing. Bathing is the medium and method of cleansing the body.
Although its primarily objective is restoring cleanliness, it confers other
benefits on the body. Such include:
1. Keeps the body clean of accumulated dirt, perspiration, secretions,

microorganism and debris, which can clog the skin pores, and thereby
reduce irritation and soreness. Removing these accumulations, which can
act as culture media for pathogens also aids in preventing infection and
preserving the healthy, unbroken condition of the skin?
2. Provides comfort and relaxation to a tired, restless patient.
3. Stimulates circulation, both systematically and locally.
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NSC219 MODULE 1
4. Promotes muscle tone by active and or passive exercise.

5. Enhances elimination of wastes from the skin
6. Reduces, if not totally eliminate unpleasant body odour.
7. Prevents lung congestion by stimulating respiration through
change of position
8. Improve the patient’s self-esteem (self-image) through improved
appearance, which lead to increased interaction with others.
Types
The different kinds of bathing that people undertake can be subsumed

into two major groups:
• Cleansing Bath: - Tub bath or showers
- Partial bath - Complete bed bath
• Therapeutic Bath: - Sitz bath
- Emollient bath or medicated bath
Cleansing Bath: The Objectives of cleansing bath are to:
• promote hygiene and comfort for the patient

• observed the patient’s skin condition
• assess the patient’s range of motion.
• encourage the patient to be as independent as possible on allowed
• assess the patient’s physical and mental status
• establish a communication pattern between patient and nurse that
promotes health teaching and expression of patient concerns.
Providing a Tub Bath or shower
Equipments: - Buckets; Sponge/body flannel; Soap in soap dish; Small

bowl; Towel; Body lotions; Pyjamas.
Procedure
Actions Rationale
(a) Assessment
• Check nursing care plan for Ensures continuity of care.
hygiene directives.
• Assess the patient’s level of Provides data for evaluating the
consciousness, orientation, patient’s ability to carry out hygiene
strength, and mobility practices independently.
• Check for gauze dressings, plaster Contraindicates taking a tub bath or

cast, or electrical or battery- shower.
operated equipment
• Determine if and when any Aids time management
laboratory or diagnostic procedures
are scheduled
• Check the occupancy and Helps in organising the plan for
cleanliness of the tub or shower care.
(b) Planning
• Clean tub or shower if it appears to Reduces the potential for spreading
need it microorganisms.
• Consult with patient about a Facilitate cooperation between the
convenient time for tending to patient and nurse.
hygiene needs.
• Assemble supplies, floor mat, Demonstrate organisation and time
towels, face cloth, soap, clean management.
pyjamas or gowns
(c) Implementation
• Escort the patient to the shower Show concern for the patient’s
or bathroom safety
• Demonstrate how to operate water Ensures the patient’s safety and
faucet and drain comfort.
• If the patient cannot operate the Demonstrate concern for the
water faucet, fill the tub patient’s safety and comfort.
approximately half full with water
between 105 0F-1100F (40430C) or
adjust the shower to a similar
temperature.
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NSC219 MODULE 1
• Place a DO NOT DISTURB or IN Ensures privacy

USE Sign on the outer door.
• Help the patient into the tub if Reduces the risk of falling.
assistance is needed; this may be
done by:
placing a chair next to the tub
having the patient swing his/her feet
over the edge of the tub
leaning forward, grabbing a support
bar and raising the buttocks and
body until they can be lowered
within the tub.
• Have patient sit on a stool or seat Ensures safety.
within the tub or shower, if the
patient will have difficulty existing
from the tub or may become weak
while bathing.
• Show the patient how to summon Promotes safety.
help.
• Stay close at hand. Ensure proximity in case there is a
need to assist the patient.
• Check the patient at frequent Shows respect for privacy yet
intervals by knocking at the door & concerns for safety.
waiting for a response.
• Escort the patient back to his/her Demonstrates concern for safety &
room on completion of the bath or welfare.
shower.
• Clean the tub or shower with Reduces the spread
antiseptic/antibacterial agent and of microorganism and
dispose off the soiled linen in its demonstrate a conscientious
designated location. concern for the
person who will use the tub shower
or.
• Remove the IN-USE sign from the Indicates that the bathing room is
door. unoccupied.
(d) Evaluation
Patient is clean; Patient remains
uninjured.
(e) Document: Sample documentation: Date and time, Tub bath taken
independently, signature, title.
Source: Berman, et al., (2016). Study Guide for Kozier & Erb's
Fundamentals of Nursing: Concepts, Process, and Practice..
Partial Bath
A daily bath or shower is not always necessary. In fact, the older adults
who do not perspire as much as younger adults and who are prone to dry
skin, frequent washing with soap may further deplete the oil from their
skin. Therefore, there may be certain instances when partial bathing may
be appropriate.
A partial bath consists of washing those areas of the body that are
subjected to the greatest soiling or source of body odour such as the face,
hands, and axillae. Partial bathing may be done at a sink or with a basin
at the bedside. There may also be situations in which just the perineum,
the areas around the genitals and rectum are bathed. This is often referred
to as perineal care.
Perineal Care Indications
• Following a vaginal delivery or gynecologic or rectal surgery, so that the

impaired skin is kept as clean as possible.
• Whenever male or female patients have bloody drainage (urine/stool);
blood is a good medium for growth and development of microbes,
therefore its removal through perineal care reduces risk of infection.
Principles Guiding Perineal Care
1. Prevents direct contact between the nurse and the secretion or excretion
that may be present.
2. Cleanse in such a manner as to remove secretions and excretions from
less soiled to more soiled areas.
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NSC219 MODULE 1
The Sitz Bath
A major component of perineal care is the sitz bath. It is the immersion

of buttocks, thighs, and lower trunk in water of a temperature from 110 0
to 1150F. The sitz bath may be given in a regular bathtub, filled
approximately one third full. There are however specially designed sitz
tubs that allow the patient to sit comfortably with hips and buttocks
immersed in water. A portable sitz basin is also is also available for use
in commodes, chairs or even in bed. If nothing else is available, a large
basin could be used. It is important to point out here that; local
vasodilatation of the lower extremities may draw blood away from the
perineal area when the feet and the legs are completely immersed in the
water as in a bathtub. Therefore, wherever feasible, the feet and the legs
should not be immersed in the water. As such seating a patient in a basin
is more desirable than sitting him in a bathtub
Quickly recap the indications for perineal care.
Indication
• The sitz bath is used to relieve discomfort, congestion, or inflammation

in the pelvic and rectal regions.
• Promotes phagocytosis through increased peripheral vasodilation.
• Stimulate formation of new tissue through increased blood supply.
• Promote relaxation of local muscles.
• Provide for cleanliness.
Equipment – Sitz tub or bathtub, Bath thermometer, Water of indicated

temperature, Rubber or plastic ring, Bath blankets and towel, Straight
chair or bath stool.
Procedure
Suggested Action Reason for Action

(a) Assessment
• Pull the privacy curtain. Demonstrate respect for modesty.
• Inspect the genital and rectal areas Provides data for determining if
of the patient. perineal care is necessary.
(b) Planning
• Explain the procedure to the Reduce anxiety and promote

patient. cooperation
• Wash your hands. Reduces spread of
microorganisms.
• Gather equipment. Demonstrate organisation and time
management.
• Place the patient in dorsal Provides access to the perineum.
recumbent position and cover
with a bath blanket.

• With gloved hands remove soiled Soiled dressing is contaminated
dressings and disposed off properly.
• Consult the patient’s folder for Engenders accuracy and enhances

prescribed water temperature. maximal Benefits from treatment.
(c) Implementation
• Check the temperature of the water Facilitates bath and prevent possible
with your bath thermometer as you one-third full with warm water.
fill the tub scalding.
• Place the bath stool or the straight Ensures safety.

chair next to the bathtub and cover
the seat with one of the bath towels
you have obtained.
• Assist the patient in removing his Promotes safety.
bathrobe and have him sit on the
bath towel.
• Take the bath blanket and drape it Helps in avoiding chilling which
around vasoconstriction. may cause the patient. Pin the end
together at the back.
cclx
NSC219 MODULE 1
• If indicated, place rubber ring in Sitting the patient on rubber ring

bathtub. will relieve Pressure and discomfort
if he has rectal or Perineal sutures or
pain.
• Help the patient get into the tub. Reduces the risk of falling and
Take the towel the patient was sustaining injury.
sitting on and place it under his
buttocks.
• Check the water temperature from Fluctuations in water temperature
time to time and add warm water as can cause cardiovascular stress.
required.
• After the prescribed time for Maximum benefit is obtained
treatment has elapsed, usually 20 – within the first 20 minutes.
30 minutes, help the patient out of Prolonging the procedure tires the
the bath tub. patient and increases chances of
cardio-vascular stress.
• If necessary or requested by the Demonstrate concern for welfare.
patient, help him to dry himself and
put on a clean gown.
• Help the patient to return to bed. Promotes comfort.
See that the bed is dry and warm.
Arrange the bedding for patient’s
comfort.
• Return to bathroom. Wash the tub, disinfect Reduces the

spread of microorganism it, if
necessary.
• Return to bathroom. Wash the tub, Reduces the spread of
disinfect it, if necessary. Place used microorganism and demonstrate a
towels/washcloths in the hamper. conscientious concern for the next
Treat rubber rings as instructed and person who will use the tub.
return it to designated storage.
(d) Evaluation
• Note and document the patient’s total reaction Helps in monitoring
patient’s response to treatment, including the colour of skin, therapy. The
write-up serves as a vehicle pulse and respiration. In addition, note the
communication with other team members. Length of time in bath.
Source: Donahue, M. P. (2011). Nursing, the finest art: An illustrated

history
4.0 CONCLUSION
Provision of comfort and safety no doubt stands out as one of the

nonnegotiable requirements for successful recuperation and rehabilitation
of our clients. To say it is vital to good nursing care is to put it mildly.
This explains why the unit has taken time to examine steps that could be
taken to reduce threats to patients’ life and discussed a few comfort
measures commonly employed by nurses. You may ask why few? Well,
that is what the scope of this unit can conveniently accommodate.
Besides, the issue of comfort and safety is an ongoing thing, so it is going
to be a recurring theme throughout the period of your training and
beyond.
5.0 SUMMARY
The need for safety and comfort in the health care settings cannot be
overemphasised. Hence the unit opens with a discussion on the general
safety rules and practices in the health care setting. It particularly
examined the role of the nurse clinician in moving and handling patients
and the guiding principles thereof. The role of the nurse in infection
control was equally examined. Last but not the least, the unit takes a
detailed look at a few of the comfort measures currently being employed
in our hospitals. However, like we did note, there are one thousand and
one thing that could be done to ensure patient comfort and it is a dynamic
issue as it differ from patient to patient and changes as the patient’s
condition changes. So, the list is inexhaustible. The few examples given
here definitely would have help us to appreciate how far these seemingly
simple measures can go in alleviating the varying degree of discomfort
experienced by our clients.
Following a vaginal delivery or gynecologic or rectal surgery, so that the

impaired skin is kept as clean as possible.
cclxii
NSC219 MODULE 1
Whenever male or female patients have bloody drainage (urine/stool);

blood is a good medium for growth and development of microbes,
therefore its removal through perineal care reduces risk of infection
Describe the different comfort measures employed in patient’s care in the

hospital and explain their underlying principles.
Donahue, M. P. (2011). Nursing, the finest art: An illustrated history.

Mosby
Fuerst, E.V.; Wolff, L.U. & Weitzel, M. H. (eds.). (1974). Fundamentals
of Nursing (5th ed.). Toronto: J. B Lippincott Company.
King, E. M.; Wieck, L. & Dyer, M. (1977). Illustrated Manual of Nursing

Techniques. Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott Company.
Kozier, B.; Erb, G.; Berman, A.U. & Burke, K. (eds.). (2000). Health,
Wellness and Illness. Fundamental of Nursing: Concepts Process and
Practice (6th ed.). New Jersey: Prentice Hall, Inc.
Parboteeah, S. (2002). Safety in Practice. In R. Hogston & P. M. Simpson

(eds.). Foundations of Nursing Practice; Making the Difference (2nd ed.).
New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
RCN (Royal College of Nursing) (1992). Safety Representatives

Conference Committee. Introduction to Methicillin Resistant
Staphylococcus Aureus. RCN, London.
Berman, et al., (2016). Study Guide for Kozier & Erb's Fundamentals of
Nursing: Concepts, Process, and Practice..

NSC219 - Foundation of Professional Nursing

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NSC219 MODULE 1

Course Code NSC219

© 2021 by NOUN Press

There are thirteen study units in this course as follows:

Module 1 Nature of Nursing I………………………… 1

Unit 1 Historical Development of Nursing I………... 1

Module 2 Nature of Nursing II………………………... 42

Unit 1 The Role of the Nurse…………………… 42

Module 3 Health and Human Environment…………. 80

Unit 1 Concept of Health and Illness……………….. 80

Module 4 Fundamentals of Nursing…………………. 127

Welcome to NSC 211 – Foundation of Professional Nursing Practice I is

The course consists of 4 Credit units (60 hours of instruction online; 48

The course comprises the bedrock of acquiring necessary elementary

WHAT YOU WILL LEARN IN THIS COURSE

 Providing you a comprehensive historical development of

Below are the wider objectives of the course as a whole. By meeting

 define History and state the stages of nursing development in

 explain the importance of nursing to the health and human

 describe physical assessment and diagnostic measures in the care

WORKING THROUGH THIS COURSE

There are thirteen study units in this course as follows:

Module 1 Nature of Nursing I………………………… 1

Unit 1 Historical Development of Nursing I………... 1

Module 2 Nature of Nursing II………………………... 42

Unit 1 The Role of the Nurse…………………… 42

Module 3 Health and Human Environment…………. 80

Unit 1 Concept of Health and Illness……………….. 80

Module 4 Fundamentals of Nursing…………………. 127

TEXTBOOKS AND REFERENCES

 DeLaune, S. C., & Ladner, P. K. (2011). Fundamentals of

EQUIPMENT AND SOFTWARE NEEDED TO ACCESS COURSE

2. Internet access, preferably broadband rather than dial-up access

3. MS Office software – Word PROCESSOR, PowerPoint, Spreadsheet

4. Browser – Preferably Internet Explorer, Mozilla Firefox

5. Adobe Acrobat Reader

NUMBER AND PLACES OF MEETING (ONLINE, FACE-TO-

HOW TO GET THE MOST FROM THIS COURSE

ii. Develop a study plan for yourself.

MODULE 1 NATURE OF NURSING I

UNIT 1 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF NURSING I

Where are we coming from? What developments have brought us to the

By the end of this unit, you will be able to:

• explain the significance of the study of history

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Significance of the Study of History

3.1.1 Pre-Nightingale Development of Nursing

Nursing was distinguished in its early history as a form of community

medicine have been interdependent throughout history. During the era of

In ancient cultures, religious leaders assumed responsibility for health

• Feeding the hungry

Nigeria is experiencing a similar population shift from rural to urban. List

Example of an answer: Overcrowding, poor ventilation; Hot and humid

Because of the enormity of the health problems, secular groups were

In response to the serious health problems of the 15th to 17th centuries,

While nursing in continental Europe, especially in Germany, was

3.1.2 The Florence Nightingale Era (1820-1910)

Florence Nightingale's beliefs about nursing form the basic foundation of

administrative skills (Donahue 2011). The greatest achievement to the