Human Impacts On Marine Biodiversity Mac
Human Impacts On Marine Biodiversity Mac
Human Impacts On Marine Biodiversity Mac
1. Introduction
In recent decades, biological diversity has received increased interest. However, most
studies are related to terrestrial systems, and knowledge of marine biodiversity lags behind
that of land systems (Ellingsen, 2002). Oceans cover about 70% of the earth, and soft-
sediment habitats cover most of the bottom of marine environments (Snelgrove, 1998). These
habitats support a diverse array of macrobenthic communities that play important roles in
ecosystem processes such as recycling nutrients, detoxifying pollutants, dispersion and
burial, and secondary production (Gray, 1997; Snelgrove, 1997). Additionally, these
organisms provide food for humans and are considered an important source of food for
fishes and birds (Snelgrove, 1999; Thrush & Dayton, 2002). Human activities are the primary
cause of recent changes to marine biological diversity in coastal and subtidal areas. It is
therefore important to improve our understanding of both biodiversity in marine sediments
and anthropogenic impacts affecting these habitats in order to effectively incorporate
conservation measures.
The Arabian Gulf is a semi-enclosed sea situated in the subtropical zone and characterized
by low precipitation and high aridity. It is a shallow sedimentary basin dominated by soft
substrate benthos. The average depth of the Arabian Gulf is 35 m, and whole of its substrate
lies within the photic zone. The Kingdom of Bahrain is an archipelago composed of 37
islands located in the Arabian Gulf between latitude 25o 32′ and 26o 20′ north and longitude
50o 20′ and 50o 50′ east (Fig. 1). The total land area of Bahrain is about 762 km2. The length of
the coastlines of Bahrain is approximately 126 km and the marine area is estimated to be
around 8000 km2. Despite the limited land area of Bahrain, waters around its islands
support a range of coastal and marine habitats such as seagrass beds, coral reefs, mangrove
swamps, offshore islands, and mud and sand flats.
High levels of salinity and surface temperature are the main natural stresses in the Arabian
Gulf. Salinities around Bahrain are generally high due to the effects of high temperatures
associated with high evaporation rates. Salinities on the west coast are higher than those on
the east coast, with average means of 50-57 psu for the west coast and 43-45 psu for the east
coast (Price et al., 1985). This variation in the salinity gradients may be attributed to a
complex system of water circulation around Bahrain enforced by reduced water exchange,
110 The Importance of Biological Interactions in the Study of Biodiversity
particularly in south of Bahrain, where salinity could reach 70 - 80 psu in areas with
restricted water flow such as tidal pools and lagoons (Al-Zayani, 2003).
10 km
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BAHRAIN
Saudi
Arabia
environment of the Arabian Gulf, which is considered among the highest anthropogenically
impacted regions in the world (Halpern et al., 2008). Such impacts include reclamation and
dredging, industrial and sewage effluents, hypersaline water discharge from desalination
plants, and oil pollution (Hamza & Munawar, 2009; Sheppard et al., 2010). This chapter
explores the biodiversity of macrobenthos and anthropogenic impacts affecting these
assemblages. Additionally, measures that may contribute to conservation of macrobenthos
are discussed.
Giving that more than 97% of the bottom substrate of the Arabian Gulf is dominated by
sand and mud (Al-Ghadban, 2002), macrobenthos form the largest and most diverse marine
ecosystem. Indeed, mudflats are among the most productive marine habitats on the
southern shore of the Arabian Gulf (Basson et al., 1977; Sheppard et al., 2010). Mudflats and
coastal wetlands in Bahrain support high levels of biodiversity and primary productivity,
and contribute significantly into fisheries productivity (Abdulqader, 1999) and provide
feeding and roosting grounds for important numbers of shorebirds (Mohamed, 1993).
It can be argued that biodiversity of macrobenthos in the Arabian Gulf is underestimated.
Generally, studies of soft-sediment macrobenthic assemblages in tropical coastal and marine
environment, including the Arabian Gulf, lag behind that of equivalent environments in
temperate zones (Mackie et al., 2005). These studies require the identification of organisms,
which is typically constrained by time, costs and the shortages of trained taxonomists.
Nonetheless, studies investigating macrobenthic communities in coastal and subtidal areas
of the Arabian Gulf revealed considerable levels of biodiversity (Table 1). Even though these
studies were conducted using different sampling and processing methods, a general trend
of reduction in diversity and abundance of macrobenthos could be detected. For instance,
higher numbers of species were recorded in the earlier studies (Basson et al., 1977; Coles &
McCain, 1990; MCain, 1984) in comparison with the most recent studies (Al-Yamani et al.,
2009; Naser, 2010a; Zainal et al., 2007;). This reduction in both species number and
abundance could be primarily attributed to the environmental degradation due to escalated
anthropogenic activities in the Arabian Gulf (Sheppard et al., 2010).
direct removal and burial of macrobenthic assemblages in the coastal and marine
environments. Therefore, biodiversity and abundance of macrobenthos are severely affected
by mortality and smothering associated with dredging and reclamation activities.
(Gesteira & Dauvin, 2000, Ugolini et al, 2004). This is reflected in the limited number of
species and abundance of crustaceans in the area influenced by the industrial effluents in
Bahrain.
Fig. 3. The outfall of Tubli Water Pollution Control Centre, the main sewage treatment plant
in Bahrain.
Changes in macrobenthic community structure associated with moderate organic
enrichment are represented by an increase in species richness, abundance and biomass.
However, excessive organic enrichment reduces species richness, and increases densities
and numbers of few opportunistic species and their associated biomass (Grall & Chauvaud,
2002; Savage et al., 2002). Naser (2010b) investigated the effects of sewage discharge on
Human Impacts on Marine Biodiversity: Macrobenthos in Bahrain, Arabian Gulf 115
macrobenthic assemblages inhabiting subtidal areas surrounding the major treatment plant
in Bahrain. The study showed a reduction in biodiversity, richness and evenness of
macrobenthos due to the increase in organic enrichment mainly ammonia and phosphate.
Indeed, some areas adjacent to the outfall that were characterized by high levels of organic
content (> 60%) were devoid of macrobenthic assemblages reflecting severe sewage
pollution.
1992).
Reduced levels of biodiversity and abundance were recorded in stations adjacent to SPWS
outlet reflecting severe impacts on macrobenthic assemblages caused by brine wastewater
discharges, which are associated with high temperatures, salinities, and a range of chemical
and heavy metal pollutants (Naser, 2010a). Generally, a decline in populations of all
macrobenthic species is expected in the mixing zone of an effluent discharge potentially
associated with toxic wastes. Survival of species in the adjacent areas of a mixing zone
116 The Importance of Biological Interactions in the Study of Biodiversity
depends on their tolerance and adaptation. This is demonstrated by the dominance of tube
anemones (Cerianthus sp.) in the areas adjacent to the outlet of SPWS, which suggests that
these species might be resistant or adaptable to pollutants and changes in water quality.
4. Macrobenthos conservation
4.1 Marine Protected Areas
A marine protected area (MPA) is defined by the World Conservation Union (IUCN) as any
area of the marine environment that has been reserved by law or other effective means.
Marine protected areas may contribute significantly to both preservation and conservation
of genetic characteristics, species, habitats and cultural biodiversity in marine environments
(Agardy, 1994; Kelleher & Phillips, 1999; Krupp, 2002).
Coastal and marine protected areas have been established in Bahrain (Table 2). Marine
protected areas in Bahrain are considered an affective mean of protecting macrobenthos
diversity. For example, Hawar Islands, the largest protected area in Bahrain, support high
levels of macrobenthos diversity. Zainal et al. (2007) recorded 119 species in the shallow
subtidal habitats of Hawar Islands. Likewise, the sheltered mudflats in Ras-Sand are
characterized by high levels of macrobenthos diversity and abundance (Naser, 2010a). It is
recognized that mudflats provide several ecosystem services (Zedler & Kercher, 2005), and
higher levels of benthos diversity and abundance in these habitats are important to bird
populations (Zou et al., 2008). Several nationally and internationally important birds use
mudflats in Ras-Sand as feeding and roosting grounds (Evans, 1994). Similarly, Al-Sayed et
al. (2008) indicated that the protected mudflat of Duwhat Arad is a productive ecosystem,
and macrobenthic assemblages inhabiting this area provide food resources for bird
populations.
However, the lack of management plans for the Bahraini protected areas may restrict the
achievement of the conservational objectives of these areas. The Convention on Biological
Human Impacts on Marine Biodiversity: Macrobenthos in Bahrain, Arabian Gulf 117
Diversity requires that each of the contracting parties prepares a National Biodiversity
Strategy and Action Plan. Toward this, Bahrain is preparing the Bahraini National
Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (BNBSAP) with support from United Nations
Development Programme (UNEDP). The BNBSAP will address the current lack of
management plans for the protected areas and suggest measures to protect biodiversity in
Bahrain (Naser et al., 2008).
5. Conclusions
Globally, coastal and marine environments support a diverse array of macrobenthic
communities that play important roles in ecosystem processes and provide several
ecological and economic services. The Arabian Gulf is a shallow sedimentary basin
dominated by sand and mud substrates. Macrobenthic assemblages form the largest and
most diverse marine ecosystem in the Arabian Gulf. However, these assemblages inhabit
one of the harshest marine environments due to marked fluctuations in sea temperatures
and high salinities. Additional anthropogenic effects could arguably be critical for
biodiversity and abundance of macrobenthos inhabiting the naturally stressed marine
environment. Studies that investigated macrobenthos in the Arabian Gulf indicated that
Human Impacts on Marine Biodiversity: Macrobenthos in Bahrain, Arabian Gulf 121
6. Acknowledgment
Thanks are due to the staff at the Department of Biology, College of Science, University of
Bahrain. Technical assistance provided by F. Al-Ammari is highly appreciated.
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