13 Environment and

Health
Ihe study of disease is really the study of man and his environment"

The term environment

implies all the external factors -
However, man's mastery over his environmentis not
living and non-living.
material and non-material which -
complete. As old
problems are being solved, new problems
surround man. In its modern
not only the water, air and soil
concept, environment includes are arising. Air pollution is of growing concern in many uth
centres. Industrial growth has given rise to the problem
that form our environment but
also the social and economic conditions environmental pollution by industrial wastes. Advances
under which we live.
have
For descriptive purpose. environment has been divided
nuclear technology produced the problem radio
of
active pollution of the environment. The demographic growth
into three components, all closely related: and fast urbanization all over the world are bringing profound
(i) Physical Water. air, soil, housing, wastes, radiation, etc. social and environmental changes. Therefore, the attainment
(ii) Biologic Plant and animal life of a healthy environment is becoming more and more
viruses, insects,
including bacteria,
rodents and animals. complex. The term enuironmental sanitation is now being
(ii) Social Customs, culture. habits, income, ocupation, replaced by environmental health. Proper environmentai
religion etc. health now requires the services of the public health qualified
The key to man's health lies largely in his environment. In doctor, the epidemiologist, the public health engineer, the
fact. much of man's il-health can be traced to adverse town planner, the sociologist, the economist, and the health
environmental factors such as water pollution, soil pollution, inspector.A
is no
purely medical ora engineering approach by itself
air pollution, poor housing conditions, presence of animal longer sufficient; combined multi-disciplinary
programme of action is needed to achieve a healthy
reservoirs and insect vectors of diseases which pose a
environment.
constant threat to man's health. Often man is responsible for
the pollution of his environment through urbanization, The purpose of environmental health is to create and
industrialization and other human activities. In 1972 the UN maintain ecological conditions that will promote health and
conference on the Human Environment focussed worldwide thus prevent disease. One of the essential public health care
attention on the environmental hazards that threaten human element is safe drinking water and sanitation. In 1990, more
than 1 billion
people in developing world lacked access to sate
beings. To facilitate work in
this area, WHO has compiled a
of environmental hazards to human drinking water and nearly 2 billion people lacked an adequate
wide-ranging survey
health (1). system for disposing off their excreta (2). Faeces deposited
The dictionary meaning of the word sanitation is "the near homes, contaminated drinking water (sometimes Cau
science of safe-guarding health." One of the best definitions is by poorly designed or maintained sewerage systems), s
that given by the National Sanitation Foundation of the USA, rom polluted rivers and coastal waters, and agriculur
which is as follows: 'Sanitation is a way of life. It is the quality produce, fertilized with human waste are all healtn tind
of living that is expressed in the clean home, the clean farm,
Water quantity is as important as water quality. a of
hands after defecation and before
the clean business, the clean neighbourhood and the clean preparing ron
particular importance in reducing disease transmission, but
community. Being a way of life it must come from within the without abundant water ecomes

people; is nourished by knowledge and grows as an

it in or near home,
difficult or impossible. The lack hygeanitation
supply and sanita
obligation and an ideal in human relations'. The term is the of water es are
environmental sanitation" has been defined by WHO as "the primary reason why diseases transmited via rtant of
so common in developingcountries. The most tations,
control of all those factors in man's physical environment these diseases, diarrhoea
which exercise or may exercise a deleterious effect on his and intestinal wor
account for 10 per cent of the
total
burden of disease
diseas
development, health and survival".
upply

physical developing countries. In addition, an inadequate

In the past, sanitation was centred on the sanitary disposal ncreases the risk of schistosomiasis, skin and wfections
eye age o
Even now, to many people sanitation still and guineaworm
of human excreta. disease. Table 1 shows the percer sanitation

construction of latrines. In actual fact, the term population with safe water and adequae,
m e a n s the access to
covers the whole field of controlling the in South-East Asia countries.
sanitation
with a view to prevent disease and promote lwo of the changes needed to achieve "Health for
environment lifestyle

health. Man has already controlled

a
number of factors in his concerned with a healthy environt and healthy and the

environment, e.g., food, water, housing, clothing, sanitation. and require

initiatives by the individual, the familyproviding
controllable factors are those included in the "standard
These
of these factors that has been
community. "Africa 2000"a new initiative aimed at
a
services

of living". It is the control universal coverage of water and sanitation

responsible for considerable improvement in the health of the was launched.
A broad
supply
for hygi
during the past century in the developed countries. promotion of low-costprogramme
n g d e v e l o p e d

people sanitation is being

 WATER 653
TABLE 11
substances
b. free from harmful chemical
an with access to safe
water and free from colour and
in South-East Asia countriesadequate
i.e.,
sanitat 2008 Cpleasant to the taste,
odour; and
Safe water (%)
Countries Adequate sanitation (%) d. usable for domestic purposes.
contaminated when it
does
88 31 Water is said to be polluted o r
94 the above criteria. Water pollution is a growing
I n d i a

91 not fulfil countries owing to

human activity.
Bhutan
80 53 azard in many developing provide
water, we cannot
Bangladesh
80 52 without ample and safe drinking
Indonesia

91 98 health care to the community.

Maldives
71 81
Myvanmar

88 Water requirement
31 for drinking
water
Nepal 90 91 The basic physiological requirements
Sri Lanka head per day. This is
98 been estimated at about 2 litres per
Thailand
96 nave But from the standpoint of public
health and

Source ( 3 )
Just for survival.
of the quality of life, water
should be provided
mprovement reduce the incidence of
tian with UNICEF and bilateral and multilateral in adequate volume. It will help to
perat most at risk.
among the people
anizations. Key hygiene behaviours and principles for many water-related diseases however, depends upon climate
moting sanitation were identified. The global WHO/UNEP
Theconsumption of water, and habits of the people. A daily
work for air and water quality monitoring are operational standard of living
conditions, as a n
more than 60 countries. Surtace and ground water quality supply of 150-200 litres per needs capita is considered
urban domestic
for all
in 350 cities world-wide (2) adequate supply to meet the
ae monitored In India 40 litres of water supply per capita per day
Mach of the ill-health in India is due to poor environmental purposes. rural areas.lt must bee
was the set target to be achieved in
sanitation. that is, unsafe water. polluted soil, unhygienic to spend hours
available close to the people, else they have
disposal of human excreta and refuse, poor housing, insects and a lot of energy, going back and rth to obtain it and the
and rodents. Air pollution is also a growing concern in many water is often polluted in the process.
cties.The high
and poor
death
rate, infant mortality
rate, sickness rate
standards of health are in fact largely due to Uses of water
environmental sanitation. Improvement of are many, and the
detective The uses of water in a community
environmental sanitation is therefore crucial for the varied.
requirement in quantity and quality are
prevention of disease and promotion of health of individuals economical to
Conventionally, it has been convenient and
to serve all
and communities. Since more than 74 per cent of the provide a single water supply sufficient in quantity
population of India live in rural areas, the problem is one of uses and suitable in quality to meet drinking requirements,
rural sanitation. The first step in any health programme is the even though only a small fraction of the total water supplyis
elimination through environmental control of those factors actually used for drinking.
which are harmful to health. The environmental factors which The uses of water include : (1) Domestic use : on domestic
are basic and fundamental to individual and community
front, water is required for drinking. cooking, washing and
health are discussed in this chapter bathing, flushing of toilets, gardening etc. (2) Public purposes
: cleaning streets, recreational purposes like swimming pools,
WATER public fountains and ornamental ponds, fire protection and
public parks. (3) Industrial purposes for processing and
Much of the ill-health which affects humanity, especially in cooling: (4) Agricultural purpose irrigation (5) Power
lack of safe and production from hydropower and steam power; (6) Carrying
eveloping countries can be traced to
hat is easily accessible, away waste from all manner of establishments and
wholesome water supply. Water
contamination, sate
and institutions. Water is therefore an essential factor in the
Quate in quantity, free from There can be no state
of economic, social and cultural development of a community. It
available throughout the year. water. Water is not can eliminate diseases, promote rural development and
v e health and wellbeing without safe improve quality of life.
laVitalenvironmental factor to all forms of life, but it has
also
umant role to play in socio-economic developmentof
Sources of water supply
should develop its
own
WatoPopulation. Each country data Water may be abstracted for use from any one of a number
which would collect all pertinent
ources agency In 1980, of points in its movement through the hydrological cycle. The
exploitation and hydrogeology. the
es, safe yield of the source must be sufficient to serve the
the Unito General Assembly
launched
population expected at the end of the design period, which
Sanitation Decade,
Internati
ational Drinking Water Supply and may be 10 to 50 years in future. The safe yield is generally
1981-11990 n e aim being
to provide all people
with
1990. In defined as the yield that is adequate for 95 per cent of the
equate supplies and sanitation by
of safe water year. The selection of a source reguires professional advice. In
1981, the 34th World Health Assembly in
a resolution
of general, water sources must contorm to two criteria
basic element a) the
mphasized that safe drinking water is a
attainment
of quantity must be sufticient to meet present and future
mary health care" to the
which is the key requirement (b) the quality of water must be acceptable. There
is also integrated
.ealth for All by the year 2000 AD".
Water
essential part
of are three main sources of water
wth other
ith other PHC because it is a n

components
aucation, food and nutrition, and also
MCH. 1. RAIN

Safe and 2 SURFACE WATER

wholesome wate both Impounding reservoirs
Wate should be
Rivers and streams
e intended
and wholesome.for human
This consumption
has been defined as water that is
Tanks, ponds and lakes.
afree from
pathogenic agenis
654 ENVIRONMENT AND HEALTH
3. of contamination caused
GROUND WATER near, there is stilla possibility by wild
Shallow wells animals.
Deep wells (2) RIVERS

Springs. Many rivers furnish

a dependable supply of water, Cit
and Allahabad rely on river wato.
1. Rain such as Delhi, Kolkata or
ot river water is that
their needs. The chief drawback
Kain is the prime source of all water. A part of the rain polluted and is quite unfit for drinkina ut
water always grossly
treatment. CHARACTERISTICS : River water is turbid during
sinks into the ground to form ground water; part of it rainy season; it may be clear in other seasons. Clarity of water
evaporates back into the atmosphere, and some runs off to
torm streams and rivers which flow ultimately into the sea.
is no guarantee that the river water is
safe for drinking. Rito
Some of the water in the soil is taken up by the plants and is
water contains
dissolved and suspended impurities of ll
human intestinal
kinds. The bacterial count, including the
evaporated in turn by the leaves. These events are spoken of
IMPURITIES Rivor are
as "water cycle". CHARACTERISTICS: Rain
water is the organisms may be very high.
purest water in nature. Physically, it is clear, bright and described as a direct connection between the alimentary cana
sparkling. Chemically, it is very soft water containing only of the people living upstream mouths of those below
and the
traces of dissolved solids (0.0005 per cent). Being soft, it has a
The impurities river water
of are derived from surface
corrosive action on lead pipes. Bacteriologically, rain water and trade
washings, sewage and sullage water, industrial The customs
from clean districts is free from pathogenic agents. areas.
wastes, and drainage from agricultural animal
IMPURITIES Rain water tends to become impure as it passes like bathing, washing and
and habits of the people
through the atmosphere. It picks up suspended impurities all add to the pollution of water. SELF
disposal of the dead,
from the atmosphere such as dust, soot and microorganisms PURIFICATION Certain amount of self-purification does
and gases such as carbon dioxide, nitrogen, oxygen and water by natural forces of purification such as
ammonia. Gaseous sulphur and nitrogen oxides are emitted occur in river aeration, Oxidation, sunlight, plant
dilution, sedimentation,
from power plants that use fossil fuels. These gases react with sufticient to render
and animal life but these agencies are not
atmospheric water, dilute solution of sulphuric and
forming River water needs purification before it can
the water potable.
nitric acid. The precipitation of these acids (acid rain) has be used for drinking purposes.
o n surface water quality and on
begun to have serious impacts
Gibralter
plants etc. There are very few places in the world like (3) TANKS (5,6)
which depend upon rain as a source of water supply. excavations in which surface water is
Tanks are large
important source of water supply in some
stored. They are an
2. Surface water Indian villages. Tanks are recipients of contamination of all
Surface water originates from rain water. It
is the main sorts. They are full of silt and colloidal matter, especially
in a r e a s . Examples of surface immediately after the rains. The older tanks may be full of
source of water supply many
wadis (water source which of
water include rivers, tanks, lakes, aquatic vegetation. Tanks a r e often used for washing
clothes, cattle, humans, cooking pots; children use it tor
are in
dry, except season), man-made reservoirs and s e a
rainy
contamination from human defecation around the
water. Surtace water is prone to swimming and there may be regular
As such it is never safe for human edges which will be washed into the tank at the next rains.
and animal sources.

unless subjected to sanitary protection and Tanks are thus subjected to unlimited possibilities o
consumption
purification before use. contamination and are highly dangerous, as a source
and towns depend upon drinking water, even at the best of times. But unfortunately,
The vast majority of Indian cities
which are (1) Impounding
Reservoirs. the tank water is drunk without being boiled, disinfected or
surface water sources, having undergone treatment of any kind which is responsioe
Tanks, Ponds and Lakes. In
(2) Rivers and Streams, and (3) deatn,
general, surface water supplies possess a high probability of for an incalculable number of cases of sickness and
viral contamination. particularly of children.
organic, bacterial and ral
(1) IMPOUNDING RESERVOIRS
Improvement of tanks A certain amount of natun
purification does take place in tank water because of stora to
earthwork
These are artificial lakes constructed usually of oxidation and other agencies but these are not sufticiet
of surface water is may
or masonry in which large quantities render the water safe. The sanitary quality of tank war
streams also
stored. Dams built rivers and mountain
across be considerably improved by observing the followingthe
provide large
of surface
reserves
water. The area draining into edges of the tank should be elevated in order to preve the
"Catchment area Cities such as entry of surface washings, (2) there should be a fence uld be
the reservoir is called
their water supply from
Mumbai, Chennai and Nagpur derive the
tank to
prevent access to animals, (3) no of one snoard
One disadvantage of storing water for permitted to get into the tank directly (note the naated
impounding reservoirs. the growth of algae and other
long periods in reservoirs is guineaworm infestation), (4) there should be anweeds
which impart bad tastes and odours to platform from where people can draw water, (5) the
microscopic organisms, ould be
reservoirs usually
water. CHARACTERISTICS: Impounding should be periodically removed, (6)
the tank these
of water. The water is usually
furnish a fairly good quality cleaned at the end of the dry season.
In >p
palatable and ranks next to
rain
water in purity. If the precautions, from a practical point of view,
ssible to
it is not pme the
clear, the water may acquire
peat,
covered withwater
surrounding hills are
is usually soft and
prevent pollution of tanks as the people who coand do
a brownish coloration. he tank water are often among the poorest in the couij in

organisms. IMPURITIES
n o w

considered to be free ot pathogenic not have

sanitary concepts.
The upland surface water derives its impurities from the Considerable reseansure t
progress at national and international leveis 1s

catchment area, the sources being human

habitations and
village tank as a safe source of drinking water (5) subjectil the

animal keeping or grazing. It

is
therefore very necessary too believed that the simplest solution consists f how
human or animal intrusion.
keep the catchment area free from tank water to some sort of illus
sand filtratior Fig. 1
ion. orine wo
The general belief that mountain streams
are very pure water
is often untrue. Even if there is no human habitation or cattle
this could be brought about. The addition ot
undoubtedly add to the value of sand filtration
 collecting well
jencing or hedge WATER 655
dry stone pitching
between high and
low water

highest water level

sand filling

lowest water level

connection
to well

bed of tank

tile
draining perforated A.C.
or
pipe (gravel surrounded)
collector

FIG. 1
Slow sand
Sea water filtration of tank water
Though this source is
Itcontains 3.5 plentiful, it has great many limitations.
per cent ot salts in solution.
many communities. Technically, wells are of two kinds
the oceans and Off-shore waters of shallow and deep. (1) Shallow wells Shallow
36.000 mg/litre seas have a salt concentration of subsoil water i.e. the water from above the first wells tap
19,000 mg/litre of(30-36g/litre) of dissolved solids 30,000 to
chloride, 10,600 including
layer
the
in the ground.
water is
They yield limited quantities of impervious
water, and
notoriously liable to pollution unless care is taken
1.270 mg/litre of magnesium. mg/litre of sodium and in well construction.
process involves heavy Desalting and
demineralization (ii)
taps water from the Deep
wells: A deep well is one which
where sea water is the expenditure.
only source
It is
adopted in places impervious layer water-bearing stratum below the first
in the
available (4). ground (Fig. 2). Deep wells are usually
machine-dug a may be several hundred metres deep. Deep
3. Ground water wells furnish the safest water, and are often the
Rain water percolating into satisfactory sources of water supply. most
Water used by humans comes ground constitutes ground water. The points of difference between
realized that there is a limit to mainly from land. It is now well are set out in Table 2.
a shallow well and deep
should withdraw only ground water in the world. We
quantities of water that can be renewed. SHALLOW WELL DEEP WELL
Ground water is the
cheapest and most
providing water to small communities. practical means of
Ground water is PORUS SRUA N
superior to surface water, because the RRPA
an effective ground itself provides
are: (1) it is
filtering medium. The advantages of ground water IMPERVIOUS STRATA
likely to be free from pathogenic agents, (2) it
usually requires no treatment, (3) the supply is likely to be
ertain even during dry season. (4) It is less subject to 2PORUS STAATA
contamination than surface water. The disadvantages laPERVIOUS STRATA
i t is
high in mineral content, e.g., salts of calcium are:
and
dgnesium which render the water hard (2) it requires
Pumping or some arrangement to lift the water (7). The usual FIG.2
round water sources are wells and springs. Wells have been Shallow and deep wells
assified into shallow and Most of the wells in India are of the
deep wells, dug and tube wells. shallow type.
generally, shallow wells are Speaking
liable to
WELLS neighbouring sources of pollution from
urinals, drains, cesspools, contamination
soakage
such as
latrines
raditionally wells are an manure. Shallow wells are pits and collections of
important source of water supply. therefore a
today, they are an important source of water supply in community if they are not made sanitary. health hazard to the
A deep well can
also
TABLE 2
Differences between a shallow well and deep well

Shallow well Deep well

1. Definition above the first
Taps the water from Taps the water from
below the first
impervious layer
|2. Chemical quality impervious layer
Moderately hard Much hard
.4. Bacteriological
Yield
quality O f t e n grossly c o n t a m i n a t e d
Taps purer water
Usually goes dry
in summer
Provides a source of constant
supply
656 ENVIRONMENT AND HEALTH
site. If bacterial contamination is t.
hoosina of a proper not less than 1
e
should be located
become a health hazard if it is open, poorly
constructed and avoided, the
well
contamination. Th m
not protected against contamination. ARTESIAN WELLS are from likely sources of
(50 feet) with resperhe
a kind of deep wells in which the water rises located at a higher elevation toa
the level o
abovebetween should be The distance ho
consido. the
two contamination.
water, because it is held under pressure s o u r c e of
ground India.
possible
houses of the
u s e r s should also be
impervious strata. Artesian wells are not common in well and the
may not use it.
situated tar away, people
Saline intrusion Near the sea, there is danger of the well is
r e c o m m e n d e d that the
well should be so locato
for more than 10at
brackish
infiltration of sea water in to deep wells. This gives a therefore
for domestic use. will have to carry water of the well should
taste to water and may make the water unfit no u s e r
The lining
(2) LINING: be
the method ot (100 yards) (7). up t o a depth of at la
Wells may also be classified, according to in cement
set
bricks or stones
DUG WELLS are built of trom the bottom
into wells and tube wells.
dug so that water enters
construction, of dug wells 6 m (20 feet) The lining should be n d
by tar the commonest type in India. Two types sides of thewell.
exist in our rural areas: (a) the unlined katcha well and (b) the not from the level. (3)
above the ground APET
(2-3 feet) up to a height of.at
masonry or pucca well. The katcha
well is a hole dug into the 60-90 cm
should be a parapet wall
ot WALL: There
stratum. The pucca well is an open well, built (28 inches) above the ground
water-bearing 70-75 cms

platfor
bricks or stones. STEP WELLS are a kind of pucca wells which least
There should be a cement-concrete
constructed into (4) PLATFORM: least 1 in all dirochi
(3 feet)
becoming obsolete, fortunately. Steps
are m 1ons
extending at
round the well
are
into the well to fetch outwards towarde
these wells to enable people to descend should have gentle slope
these wells, there is The platform DRAIN: There should he
water or quench their thirst. In its edges. (5) a
the user and the water. drain built along to a public drain or :
considerable personal contact between to carry oft spilled water
e v e n wash their faces,
hands and feet pucca drain the "cone of filtration" (aroa
constructed beyond
Some people may Indian custom. Guineaworm
disease is soakage pit COVERING The top of the well
which is a common the well. (6)
in a r e a s where step wells
are in of drainage) of c o n c r e t e c o v e r because the bulk
quite a public health problem be closed by a cement
wells health hazard to should well directly through the
introduced into the
a
u s e . The open dug wells and step
are
of the pollution is that merely covering a well
the community. Studies have shown
open top. improvement in the bacteriological
marked
Improvement of dug wells alone caused a therefore, cannot be
water (5). Open wells,
unlined katcha wells may be
made sanitary by quality of the
The
with screen,
might be constructed
considered sanitary, however well they should
deepening the bottom, installing
a hand-pump HAND-PUMP: The well be equipped
sand up to the water level, and otherwise. (7)
and filling the well with c o a r s e the water in a sanitary manner.
material used for filling is with a hand-pump for lifting
with clay above that level.
When the
shown that when a pump is fitted there is
may be Studies have
consolidated a platform and drainage in the bacteriological quality
of the
completely marked improvement
constructed. should be of robust construction to
water. The handpump
consists of making the upper There should be an
Masonry well improvement withstand handling by the people.
rough
water-tight, raising the lining o n e service
and arrangements for
10 feet o r m o r e of the lining reinforced concrete
efficient maintenance
out of order
and providing a repair if the pumps go
foot above the ground, be immediate
slab c o v e r at the top.
One o r m o r e hand-pumps may RESPONSIBILITY The provision of
water. Special attention should be paid (8) CONSUMER freedom from water-borne
installed for lifting the sanitary wells does not guarantee
of the pump to prevent any
possible leakage certain
observe basic
to the foundation diseases unles the consumers
level. Strict
of waste water into the well. at the individual and family
precautions should be enforced in the vicinity of the well:
cleanliness
SANITARY WELL the
animals, and
is properly located, well- personal ablutions, washing of clothes and
wastes should be prohibited. Ropes
which
A sanitary well is
one
c o n t a m i n a t i o n with a view dumping of refuse and
constructed and protected against individual homes should not be used 1or
of safe water (Fig. 3). The following points and buckets fromfrom the well. Water from the well shouldbe
to yield a supply
into consideration while constructing sanitary carried in supply
drawinga clean sanitary vessels to individual houses. All tnis
should be taken construction is the
The first step in well
wells: (1) LOCATION : requires health education. (9) QUALITY: The physical,
chemical and bacteriological quality of water should contor
to the acceptable standards of quality of safe and wholeso
water.

TUBE WELLS in
Tube wells are successful of drinking water
as a :s o u r c e
of India. They yield water which is bacteriolo9
safe,
partsare
manyand also cheap in comparison to other sou the
th
Supply. Shallow tube wells "driven wells" have be
or n
largestindividual source of water supply to the rural co nk
The tube well consists of a pipe (usually galvanized i al the
into the water-bearing stratum and fitted with a s concrete
bottom, and a hand-pump at the top. A water- The area
platform with a drain all round should be proviae pollution

within 15 m of the tube well should be kept tree kept in

with
liquid and solid wastes. The hand-pump shou a m e e v e r y w h e r e

good repair. The life of the tube well is not the samef straine.
It
FIG. 3 varies from place to place depending upon the tyAn
guality of underground water and the nature of so
An averag
tube

Sanitary open well C a s e s ,

well may last for a

period of 5 to 10 years; in som
 WATER POLLUTION 657
wells have given satistactory service even after 30 years (8). A. Biologlcal (Water-borne diseases)
/hen the tube well is derelict, it is withdrawn and then resunk
with a new strainer using as much of the withdrawn pipes as can 1. Those caused by the presence of an infective agent
.

be recovered. Deep tube wells or bored wells are sunk

bydrilling (a) Viral : Viral hepatitis A, hepatitis E, poliomyelitis,
through successive substrata of gravel or rock until a suitable rotavirus diarrhoea in infants
supply of ground water is located. They may be several hundred
(b)Bacterial typhoid and paratyphoid fever, bacillary
feet deep and require complicated mechanical drilling dysentery, Esch. coli diarrhoea, cholera
equipment and skilled engineering direction. This type of wells,
(c) Protozoal amoebiasis, giardiasis
lthough costly to construct and to operate, are in many ways
the ideal supply. The yield is normally very high and does not (d)Helminthic roundworm, threadworm, hydatid disease.
depend upon direct rainfall in th immediate vicinity. (e) Leptospiral: weil's disease
Chandigarh, the capital of Punjab, derives its entire water 2. Those due to the presence of an aquatic host :
supply from tube wells
(a) Snail schistosomiasis

SPRINGS (b)Cyclops guineaworm, fish tape worm.

When ground water comes to the surface and flows
freely
under natural pressure, it is called a "spring". Springs may be of B. Chemical
two types-shallow springs and deep springs. Shallow springs dry Chemical pollutants of diverse natuie derived from
up quickly during summer months, whereas deep springs do not industrial and agricultural wastes are increasingly finding their
show seasonal fluctuations in the flow of water. In some include
way into public water supplies. These pollutants
geographic areas, springs constitute an important source of detergent solvents, cyanides, heavy metals, minerals and
water. Springs are simpler to exploit, as no pumping is needed to organic acids, nitrogenous substances, bleaching agents, dyes,
bring the water to the surface. Springs are exposed to pigments, sulphides, ammonia, toxic and biocidal organic
contamination. Well built protective structures are necessary to compounds of great variety. Chemical pollutants may affect
safeguard water quality. man's health not only directly, but also indirectly by
accumulating in aquatic life (e.g. fish) used as human food.
WATER POLLUTION The present concern about chemical pollutants in water
relates not so much as to their acute toxic effects on human
Pure uncontaminated water does not occur in nature. It health as to the possible long-term effects of low level
contains impurities of various kinds - natural and man-made.
exposure, which are often non-specific and difficult to detect.
The natural impurities are not essentially dangerous. These Further, some of the new pollutants are not easily removed by
comprise dissolved gases (e.g. nitrogen, carbon dioxide, conventional water treatment or purification processes.
hydrogen sulphide, etc. which may be picked up during rainfall), In many developed countries where water-borne
and dissolved minerals (e.g., salts of calcium, magnesium, communicable diseases have virtually disappeared, more
sodium, etc.) which are natural constituents of water following attention is now being paid to chemical pollution.
its contact with soil; and suspended impurities (e.g, clay, silt,
to the above,
sand and mud), and microscopic organisms. These impurities In addition
following:
water is associated with the
are derived from the atmosphere, catchment area and the soil.
A more serious aspect of water pollution is that caused by (a) Dental health: The presence of fluoride at about 1 mg/
human activity - urbanization and industrialization. The litre in drinking water is known to protect against dental
caries, but high levels of fluoride cause mottling of the dental
sources of pollution resulting from these are asewage,
which contains decomposable organic matter and pathogenic enamel;
agents (b) industrial and trade wastes, which contain toxic (b) Cyanosis in infant: High nitrate content of water is
agents ranging from metal salts complex synthetic organic
to associated with methaemoglobinaemia. This is a rare
fertilizers occurrence but may occur when surtace water from
chemicals (c) agricultural pollutants, which comprise farmland,
pesticides, and (d) physical pollutants, viz heat (thermal treated with a fertilizer, gain access to the water supply.
and
pllution) and radioactive substances (9). (c) Cardiovascular diseases : Hardness of water appears to
of total have a beneficial effect against cardiovascular
pollution include the amount
The indicators of disease;
(BOD) at 20
uspended solids, biochemical oxygen demand and phosphorus
(d) Some diseases are transmitted because of inadequate
aeg. concentration of chlorides, nitrogen
C, use of water like shigellosis, trachoma and
conjunctivitis,
àndabsence of dissolved oxygen. ascariasis, scabies (10).
and its treatment are ofa (e) Some diseases are related to the disease carrying
Even if the source of water supply occur as often happens,
still insects breeding in or near wate like: malaria, filaria,
n tostandard, water pollution may and cross connections
e corrosion of pipe lines, leaky joints arboviruses, onchocerciasis, African trypanosomiasis (10).
ween water supply pipes and sewage drainage pipes. While pollution seems to be an inevitable consequence of
in the distribution
has to be exercised at every point modern industrial technology, the problem, now, is to
SUo e mance
to ensure supply of safe water to the consumer.
determine the. level of polution that permits economic and,
social development without presenting hazards to health. The
Water-related diseases evaluation of the health effects of environmental pollutants is
M health may be affected by the ingestion of currently being carried out as part of the WHO Environmental
water either directly or
through food; and by Health Criteria Programme.
the nated for purpose ofpersonal
use of aminated water

hygien« recreation. The term water-related diseases WATER POLLUTION LAW

nclude nd
includ
Classical
water-borne
diseases. Developing
diseases, the In India, water pollution is becoming a serious
countries urden of water-related problem. To
protect water from being contaminated, Parliament in 1974
heavi carry heavy a

being the diarrhoeal diseases.

Water-related
diseases
passed the Water (Prevention and Control of
nay be classified Pollution) Act.
as follows
4
658 ENVIRONMENT AND HEALTH
The Act reduced and a rise nitrates in (c) occurs. Biola.
seeks to provide legal deterrent against the spread ot bacterial count durine
water pollution. The Act is a comprehensive piece or tremendous drop takes place
in
uring
die out. It is
storageA
legislation. It provides for the constitution of Central and The pathogenic organisms gradually found that
State when river water is stored1the total bacterial count
5-7 days. This is drops by as
Water Boards and Joint Water
Boards endowed with wide
powers for controlling pollution. much as 90 per cent in the first one
of sto the
greatest benefits of storage. The optimum period
to be about 10-14 daus Ifdge of
PURIFICATION OF WATER river water is considered
is stored for long periods, there is likelihood of devoleater
Purification of water is of great importance in community of vegetable growths such
as algae which impart a badpment
smell
medicine. It may be considered under two headings and colour to water.

1. Purification of water on a large scale

(11) Filtration
2. Purification of water on a small scale.
Filtration is the second stage in the purification of u
1. PURIFICATION OF WATER ON A LARGE SCALE and quite an important stage because 98-99 per cent ater,
of th
bacteria are removed by filtration, apart from other imDuris
of water
Theand
safe
purpose treatment is to produce water that is
wholesome. The method of treatment to be Two types of filters are in use, the "biological or "slow sand"
filters and the "rapid sand" or "mechanical" filters, A
emploved depends upon the nature of water, and the
raw brief
desired standards of water quality. For example, ground wateT description of these filters is given below:
(e.g. wells and springs) may need no treatment, other than
SLOW SAND OR BIOLOGICAL FILTERS (11)
disinfection. Surface (e g.,
water
be turbid and polluted, requires
river water) which tends to
extensive treatment. The Slow sand filters were first used for water treatment in 1804
components of a typical water purification system comprise in Scotland and subsequently in London. During the 19th
one or more of the following measures century their use spread throughout the world. Even toda.
1. Storage they are generally accepted as the standard method of water
I1. Filtration purification.
Il. Disinfection
Elements of a slow sand filter
(1) Storage Fig. 4 shows in diagrammatic form, the various elements of
Water is drawn out from the source and impounded in a slow sand filter. Essentially these consists of:
natural or artificial reservoirs. Storage provides a reserve of (1) supernatant (raw) water
water from which further pollution is excluded. As a result of (2) bed of graded sand
storage. a very considerable amount of purification takes (3) an under-drainage system; and
place. This is natural purification, and we may look at it from (4) a system of filter control valves.
three points of view : (a) Physical: By mere storage, the
quality of water improves. About 90 per cent of the suspended (1) Supernatant water
impurities settle down in 24 hours by gravity. The water
becomes clearer. This allows penetration of light, and reduces The supernatant water above the sand bed, whose depth
varies from 1 to 1.5
metre, serves two
provides a constant head of water soimportant purposes
the work of the filters, (b) ChemicalCertain chemical
as to overcome
changes also take place during storage. The aerobic bacteria
resistance of the filter bed and thereby promote the tne
oxidize the organic matter present in the water with the aid of flow of water downwad
dissolved oxygen. As a result, the content of free ammonia is through the sand bed; and secondly, it proviae
waiting period of some hours (3 to 12 hours, depending
upo
Scum outlet

Raw water
drain Weir and
outlet chamber
Stilling trough
Ventilation

Media
Sand bed

C Porous bottom
H
Ventilation
Raw water inlet
B G Venturi meter
Supernatant water to waste H
C Filtered water for backfilling Rate of flow
D.E, F Drain valves Filtered watercontrol
to
valve
Filtered water to waste
clear VTo drain
well
FIG. 4
Slow sand filter
 PURIFICATION OF WATER 659
he filtration velocity) for the raw water to brick or
may be made of stone,
nurification by sedimentation, oxidation undergo partial
and particle
below ground. The walls
cement. The filter box consists from top to
bottom :
agglomeration. Ihe level of
supernatant water is always kept 1 to 1.5 metre
constant. Supernatant water
Sand bed 1.2 metre
(2) Sand bed Gravel support 0.30 metre
Filter bottom 0.16 metre
The most important part of the filter is the sand bed. The **"

of
thicknes the sand bed is about 1 metre. The sand grains (4) Filter control
are carefully chosen so that they are devices
preferably rounded and
"effective diameter" between 0.2 and 0.3 mm. The The filter is equipped with certain valves and
have an
sand should be clean and free from clay and organic matter. which are incorporated in the outlet-pipe system. The purpose
An
of these devices is to maintain a constant rate of filtration.
The sand bed is supported by a layer of graded
gravel regulation system is the "Venturi
30-40 cm deep which also prevents the fine grains(Fig.
5), important component of the
m e a s u r e s the bed resistance or
"loss of
carried into the drainage pipes. being meter (Fig. 4) which
the the
head". When the resistance builds up, operator opens
The sand bed presents a vast surface area; one cubic metre valve so as to maintain a steady
rate of filtration.
regulating uneconomical
of filter sand presents some 15,000 sq. metres of surface area. When the "loss of head" exceeds 1.3 metre it is
Water percolates through the sand bed very slowly (a to run the filter.
process
taking two hours or more), and as it does so, it is subjected to
Filter cleaning Normally the filter may r u n for weeks or
a number of purification processes resistance
mechanical straining, even months without cleaning. When the bed
sedimentation, adsorption, oxidation and bacterial action, all increases to such an extent that the regulating valve has to be
playing their part. The designed rate of filtration of water it is time to clean the filter bed, since any
normally lies between 0.1 and 0.4 m /hour/per square metre kept fully open,
the filtration
further increase in resistance is bound to reduce
of sand bed surface. rate. At this stage, the supernatant water is
drained off, and
of
the sand bed is cleaned by "scraping" off the top portion
of 1 2 This operation may be
FILTER
the sand layer to a depth or cm.
carried out by unskilled labourers using hand tools or by
SAND
mechanical equipment. After several years of operation, and
thickness of the sand bed will have
COARSE say 20 or 30 scrapings, the
SAND reduced to about 0.5 to 0.8 metre. Then the plant is closed
down and a new bed is constructed.
FINE
The aduantages of a slow sand filter are (1) simple to
GRAVEL
construct and operate (2) the cost of construction is cheaper
than that of rapid sand filters (3) the physical, chemical and
COARSE bacteriological quality of filtered water is very high. When
GRAVEL working ideally, slow sand filters have been shown to reduce
total bacterial counts by 99.9 to 99.99 per cent and E. coli by
PERFORATED PIPES 99 to 99.9 per cent.
In recent years, a mistaken idea has grown that biological
FIG. 5
or slow sand filtration is an old fashioned, outdated method of
Section of filter bed
water treatment which has been completely superseded by
Vital layer When the filter is newly laid, it acts merely as a rapid sand filtration. This is definitely not the case. Slow sand
mechanical strainer, and cannot truly be considered
as filtration is still the chosen method of water purification in a
But the surface of the sand bed gets number of highly industrialized cities as well as urban areas. In
"biological". very soon,
vital a number of cities in U.S. and Europe, slow sand filters have
covered with slimy growth known as "Schmutzdecke",
a
recently been constructed.
This layer is slimy and
layer, zoogleal layer or biological layer.
and consists of threadlike algae and numerous
gelatinous bacteria. The
RAPID SAND OR MECHANICAL FILTERS
forms of life including plankton, diatoms and
known "ripening" of the filter. It In 1885, the first rapid sand filters were installed in the
formation of vital layer is as

for the vital layer to form fully, and USA. Since that time, they have gained considerable
may take several days popularity especially in highly industrialized countries .
when fully formed it extends for 2 to 3 cm into
the top portion
of the sand bed. The vital layer is the "heart"
of the slow sand Rapid sand filters are of two types, the gravity type (e.g.
bacteria and Paterson's filter) and the pressure type (e.g. Candy's filter).
filter. It removes organic matter, holds back
and helps in Both the types are in use. The fo owing steps are involved in
Oxidizesammoniacal nitrogen into nitrates
Until the vital layer is fully the purification of water by rapid sand filters (Fig. 6).
yieldinga bacteria-free water. is to waste. (1) Coagulation: The raw water is first treated with a
filtrate
tormed, the first few days usually run

chemical coagulant such as alum, the dose of which varies

(3) Under-drainage system from 5-40 mg or more per litre, depending upon the turbidity
is the under-drainage and colour, temperature and the pH value of the water.
At the bottom of the filter bed
perforated pipes which s e r v e (2) Rapid mixing: The treated water is then subjected to
System. It consists of porous an outlet for filtered water, and
or
violent agitation in a "mixing chamber" for a few minutes.
n e dual purpose of providing
bed has This allows a quick and thorough dissemination of alum
above. Once the filter
upporting the filter medium cannot be seen. throughout the bulk of the water, which is very necessary.
oeen laid, the under-drainage system
(3) Flocculation: The next phase involves a slow and gentle
Filter box: The first 3 elements (e.g. supernatant water, stirring of the treated water in a "flocculation chamber" for
contained in the
Ssand bed and under-drainage system) are about 30 minutes. The mechanical type of flocculator is the
box, usually rectangular in
ter box. The filter box is an openand is built wholly or partly most widely used. It consists of a number of paddles which
Shape, from 2.5 to 4 metres deep
660 ENVIRONMENT AND HEALTTH

River Clear
Mixing Flocculation Sedimentation Filters water
chamber chamber tank storage +Consumption

IG. 6
Flow diagram of a rapid sand filtration plant
rotate at 2 to 4
rpm. The paddles rotate with the help impurities and bacteria clog the filters. The filtes
motors. This slow and
gentle stirring results
of
in the formation of become dirty and begin to lose their efficiency. When t
the
8 teet, tiltration is stopped lo
a thick. copious. white flocculant
hydroxide. The thicker the precipitate of aluminium of head" approaches

greater the settling

precipitate or flock diameter, the the filters are subjected to a washing process wn
velocity. (4) Sedimentation : The "back-washing.
as
coagulated water is now led into sedimentation tanks where it
is detained for
periods varying from 2-6 hours when the Back-washing
flocculent precipitate together with
settle down in the tank. At least impurities and bacteria Rapid sand filters need frequent washing daily or
95 per cent of the flocculant weeklu
precipitate needs to be removed before the water is depending upon the loss of head. Washing is accomplished
into the rapid sand filters. The admitted reversing the flow of water through the sand bed, which is called
precipi
settles at the bottom is removed from
te or sludge which
"back-washing". Back-washing dislodges the impurities and
time to time without
disturbing the operation
of the tank. For proper cleans up the sand bed. The washing is stopped when clear
maintenance, sand
the tanks should be cleaned is visible and the wash water is sufficiently clear. The
otherwise they may become a
regularly from time to time,
process of washing takes about 15 minutes. In some rapid sand
whole
and sponges. (5) Filtration: Thebreeding ground
for molluscs
filters, compressed air is used as part of the
subjected to rapid sand filtration.
partly clarified water is now processes.
back-washing
Filter beds Aduantages
Each unit of Filter bed has a surface of about The advantages of a rapid sand filter over
80 to 90 m2 the slow sand filter
(about 900 sq. feet). Sand is the are (1) rapid sand filter
can deal with raw water
filtering medium. The
"effective size" of the sand particles is between 0.4-0.7 preliminary storage is needed (2) the filter beds directly. less No
The depth of the sand bed is
mm.
space (3) filtration is rapid, 40-50 times that of occupy
usually about 1 metre (2 1, to 3 (4) the washing of the filter is easy
a slow sand filter
feet). Below the sand bed is a layer of graded gravel, (5) there is more flexibility in
40 cm. (1-1/, feet) deep. The 30 to operation.
gravel supports the sand bed
and permits the filtered water to move
freely towards the Comparison of rapid
under-drains. The depth of the water on the top of the sand bed and slow sand
is 1.0 to 1.5 m (5-6 feet). The under-drains at The main features of
filters
the bottom of the rapid and slow sand filters
filter beds collect the filtered water. The rate of filtration given in Table 3. are a5
is 5-15
m/m-/hour. A view of the rapid sand filter is given in
Fig. 7. (I1) Disinfection
WASH WATER TROUGH For a
chemical or an
agent to be
FLTER UNIT disinfectant in water potentially useful a
criteria supplies, it has to satisfy the tolioW
(a) it should be
capable of destroying the genic
pathog
organisms present, within the contact time
SANO and
and
not
unduly influenced by the range oraval
GRAVEL chemical perties of water
pyd
particularly temperature, encoun nineral

PERFORATED pH and
PIPES
CENTRAL CONDUIT (6)
constituents;
FLOOR
should leave products of reaction
not ender

the water toxic or

impart colour or
Wn make

FIG.
c)
it unpotable;
have ready
otherwi
A view of a rapid sand filter
and dependable availabilnd
Filtration Teasonable cost safe a
accurate permitting convenient,
As filtration proceeds,
the "alum-floc" not
removed by (d) possess application to water;
the property residual

sedimentation is held back on the sand bed. It

forms a slimu of leaving
layer comparable to the zoogleal layer
in the slow sand filters.
concentration to deal with small possio
Itadsorbs bacteria from the
Oxidation of ammonia also water and eftects
purification. (e) recontamination;
be
amenable
and
takes place during the
water through the filters. As filtration passage of Simple
to
analyticaldetection by
y practical, the
techniques
rapid
Sma

proceeds, the suspended concentration

efficiency of ranges to
permit tne
ntrol o ftt h e

the
disinfection process
 PURIFICATION OF WATER 661

TABLE 3
Comparison of rapid and slow sand filters
Slow sand filter
Rapid sand filter
Occupies large area
1. Space Occupies very little space
Rate of filtration 2-3 m.g.a.d.
2. 200 m.g.a.d
Effective size of sand 0.2-0.3mm
3. 0.4-0.7mm
4. Preliminary treatment Chemical coagulation and sedimentation
Plain sedimentation

Washing By scraping the sand bed

5. By back-washing
6. Operation Highly skilled Less skilled

7, Loss of head allowed 6-8 feet (2-2.5 m) 4 feet (1.5 m)

8. Removal of turbidity Good Good
9. Removal of colour Good Fair
10. Removal of bacteria 99.9-99.99 per cent
98-99 per cent
of at
In water works practice, the term disinfection is residual chlorine for a contact period
presence of free kill bacteria and viruses (20).
synonymous with chlorination. least o n e hour is essential to
chlorine has n o effect o n
CHLORINATION It should be noted however, that
and helminthic ova, except in higher
Chlorination is one of the greatest advances in water spores, protozoal cysts recommended concentration of free
doses. (4) The minimum
The free residual
purification. It is supplement, not a substitute to sand filtration. chlorine is 0.5 mg/L for o n e hour (12).
Chlorine kills pathogenic bacteria, but is has no effect on chlorine provides a margin of safety against
subsequent
sporesand certain viruses (e.g., polio, viral hepatitis) except in microbial contamination such as may o c c u r during
storage
demand of the
high doses. Apart from its germicidal effect, chlorine has and distribution. (5) The sum of the chlorine
of 0.5 mg/L
several important secondary properties of value in water specific water plus the free residual chlorine
treatment: it oxidizes iron, manganese and hydrogen sulphide; constitutes the correct dose of chlorine to be applied.
it destroys some taste and odour-producing constituents; it
controls algae and slime organisms; and aids coagulation. METHOD OF CHLORINATION

Action of chlorine : When chlorine is added to water, there For isinfecting large bodies of water, chlorine is applied
is formation of hydrochloric and hypochlorous acids. The either as (1) chlorine gas (2) chloramine or (3) perchloron.
hydrochloric acid is neutralized by the alkalinity of the water. Chlorine gas is the first choice, because it is cheap, quick in
is an
The hypochlorous acid ionizes to form hydrogen ions and action, efficient and easyto apply.
Since chlorine gas
irritant to the eyes and poisonous, a special equipment known
hypochlorite ions, as follows:
as "chlorinating equipment" is required to apply chlorine gas
H,O+Cl, HCI+ HOCI to water supplies. Paterson's chloronome is one such device
HOCI H+OCI
for measuring, and administering gaseous
regulating chlorine
The disinfecting action of chlorine is mainly due to the to water supplies. In some water treatment plants, they use
and to a small extent due to the chloramine instead of chlorine gas. Chloramines are loose
hypochlorous acid,
hypochlorite ions. The hypochlorous acid is the most effective compounds of chlorine and ammonia. They have a less
form of chlorine for water disinfection. It is more effective tendency to produce chlorinous tastes and give a more
(70-80 times) than the hypochlorite ion. Chlorine acts best as persistent type of residual chlorine. The greatest drawback of
a disinfectant when the pH of water is around 7 because of
the predominance of hypochlorous acid. When the pH value
chloramines is that they have a slower action than chlorine
and therefore they are not being used to any great extent in
exceeds 8.5 it is unreliable as a disinfectant because about 90 water treatment. Perchloron or high test hypochlorite (H.T.H.)
ionized to hypochlorite is a calcium compound which carries 60-70 per cent of
per cent of the hypochlorous acid gets
ions.It is fortunate that most waters have a pH value between available chlorine. Solutions prepared from H.T.H. are also
6-7.5. used for water disinfection. As mentioned already, chlorine
gas has replaced all the other chlorine derivatives in the
Principles of chlorination The mere addition of chlorine to disinfection of urban water supplies.
which should
water is not chlorination. There are certain rules First of
ensure proper chlorination (1)
be obeyed in order to BREAK POINT CHLORINATION
all, the water to be chlorinated should be clear and free from
The addition of chlorine to ammonia in water produces
turbidity. Turbidity impedesefficientwaterchlorination
should be chloramines which do not have the same efficiency as free
(2) Secondly, the "chlorine demand" of the
"The chlorine demand of water is the difference
chlorine. If the chlorine dose in the water is increased, a
estimated.
between the amount of chlorine added to the water, and the reduction in the residual chlorine occurs, due to the
amount of residual chlorine remaining at the end of a specific destruction of chloramine by the added chlorine. The end
period of contact (usually 60 minutes), at a given temperature products do not represent any residual chlorine. This fall in
and pH of the water". In other words, it is the amount of residual chlorine will continue with further increase in chlorine
and to oxidize all dose and after a stage, the residual chlorine
cnlorine that is needed to destroy bacteria, in proportion to the added dose of chlorine.
begins to increase
and ammoniacal substances present in the This
which the residual chlorine appears and when all point
ne organic matter at
water. The point at which the chlorine demand of the water is
combined
is called the If further chlorine is added
"break-point". chlorines have been completely destroyed
is the
net
eyondthe break point, free chlorine (HOCI and OCI) begins
and corresponding dosage is the breakpointbreakpoint
dosage.
appear in the water (3) Thirdly the contact period.
Ihe Breakpoint chlorination achieves the same results as
662 ENVIRONMENT AND HEALTH
of water to destroy
not onl,
superchlorination in a rational manner and can theretore De pre-treatment
also organic compounds that viruses and
are prec
construed as controlled bacteria, but ursors ftor
superchlorination (4) compounds that
undesirable chloro-organic
chlorine is added. A carefully controll minimu
form when
SUPERCHLORINATIiON added to the water before it is pumped dose of
distribution system. Thus ozonation is usually em into the
chlorine
Superchlorination followed bu dechlorination comprises
the addition of
large doses of chlorine to the
removal of excess of chlorine after disinfection, thiswater, anais In this combined
combination with chlorination. ployed in
method
applicable to heavily polluted waters whose quality fluctuates
the two methods complement each other taking advar eatment,
each (16). The ozone dosanoage of
greatly the best features of
for potable water treatment varies from 0.2 to
1.5 Uired
mg per
ORTHOTOLIDINE (OT) TEST litre (17).
Orthotolidine test enables both free and combined chlorine (b) ULTRAVIOLET IRRADIATION: Germicidal
operty of
UV rays have been recognized for many years. UV irra
in water to bedetermined with speed and accuracy. The test
was
developed in 1918. The reagent consists of analytical is effective against most microorganisms kno n on
contaminate water supplies including viruses. to
grade Orthotolidine. dissolved in 10 per cent solution of
hydrochloric acid. When this reagent is added to This method of disinfection involves the exposure of a fin
containing chlorine, it turns yellow and water
the intensity the of water, upto about 120 mm thick, to one or several
colour varies with the concentration of the
gas. The yellow mercury vapour arc lamps emitting ultraviolet radiation Artz
colour produced by both free and combined chlorine
is
wavelength in the range of 200 to 295 (Nan dt a
residuals. OT reacts with free chlorine
instantaneously but
reacts more slowly with combined chlorine
Applications are limited to individual or institutional tems.
(12). The water should be free from turbidity and suspended or
The carried out by adding 0.1 ml of the
test is colloidal constituents for efficient disinfection.
1 ml of water. The reagent to
yellow colour produced is matched against The advantages are that the exposure is for short
suitable standards or colour discs. Commercial period
available for this purpose. It is essential to takeequipment
is no foreign matter introduced and no taste and odour
the reading produced. Overexposure does not result in any harmful
within 10 seconds after the addition of the
reagent to estimate effects. The disadvantages are that no residual effect
free chiorine in water (14). The colour that is is
produced after a
lapse. say 15-20 minutes. is due to the action of available and there is a lack of a rapid field test for
both free and the treatment assessing
combined chlorine. efficiency; moreover, the apparatus needed is
expensive (4).
ORTHOTOLIDINE-ARSENITE (OTA) TEST 2.
This is a modification of the OT
PURIFICATION OF WATER ON A SMALL SCALE
test to determine the free
and combined chlorine residuals
separately (13,
Further. the errors caused by the presence of 14, 15).
(1) Household purification of water
substances such as nitrites, iron and interfering Three methods are
manganese all of which on an individual
generally available for purifying water
produce yellow colour with Orthotolidine, are overcome
a or domestic scale.
These methods can be
the OTA test (12). by used singly in
or combination.
Other agents (a) BOILING
While chlorine continues to be the most
commonly used Boiling is
satisfactory method of purifying water io
a
sterilizing agent because of its germicidal properties and the household purposes. To be effective, the water
comparatively low cost and ease of
application, its brought to a must De
"rolling boil" for 10 to 20 minutes. It
pre-eminence in water disinfection is being seriously challenged acteria, spores, cysts and ova and yields kills du
because of the discovery that
the formation of many chlorination
of water can lead
to Boiling also removes temporary hardness sterilized water.
*halogenated carbon by driving
taste of dioxide
which are either known or compounds" some of and
precipitating the calcium carbonat
suspected carcinogens. As a result, water is altered, but this is harmless. While
many chlorine alternatives are an
These include bromine, receiving
renewed interest. excellent method of purifying water, it offers no
bola
bromine-chloride,
iodine and chlorine protection" against Tesidu
dioxide- but these
to chlorine
do not seem to
present a viable
alternative Water should be boiled subsequent microbial ination.
at the
present time.
Ozone is showing the greatest which it is to be preferably
stored to avoid
in the
same cona orage.
in
promise, and ultra-violet irradiation's limited contamination during sto
usefulness as
complimentary agents for chlorine in water disinfection. (b) CHEMICAL DISINFECTION
(a) OZONATION Ozone is a (1)
relatively unstable gas. It is aa Bleaching powder Bleaching
powerful oxidizing agent.It eliminates undesirable lime
smell (CaOCI,) powder
chlorine. When amorphous powde ornngent
taste and colour, and odour, is white a
removes all chlorine from of
Most importantly. ozone has the water.
inactivates viruses in a matter
a strong virucidal effect. It cent of freshly made, it contains
"available chlorine". co about 33 per
of seconds, whereas minutes compound. It
i n s t a b l e

are required to inactivate them On is, however,

This has prompted many with either chlorine or iodine. loses
it
its chlorineexposure to air, light and
content. moIstu
atrapidly
it
municipalities to consider ozone for retains its But lime,

potable water treatment. More than 1,000

treatment plants around municipal water Bleaching powderstrength; this when mixed with
is called
ca exhleach
"stabilized
the world are using
oldest of these is in France, which ozone, the in a closed should be stored in a dark, cool, dry
place

has been in
operation since container that is
chlorine content
Osion. 1he

frequently checked.of bleaching resistant

1906 (16). to should be

The drawback of ozone is

that after it has done its job, it powder stock hould
decomposes and disappears.
effect. The current thinking is There is no
that ozone residual germicidal
Appendix IIl gives in tabular
bleaching a
water. Thepowder required to form
disinfect ceT te
should be used i n quantities
as a
residual principle inin
chlorine chlorination
"tree

of 0.5 chlorination is to ensure One

houhou
mg/litre at the ena of
 PURIFICATION OF WATER 663
contact. Highly polluted and turbid waters are not suited for
direct chlorination.

(2) Chlorine solution: Chlorine solution may be

from bleaching powder. If 4 kg of bleaching powder prepared
with
25 per cent available chlorine is mixed with 20 litres of water,
it will give a 5 per cent solution of chlorine (13).
Ready-made
chlorine solutions in different strengths are also available in
the market. Like bleaching powder, the chlorine solution is
subjectto losses on
exposure to light or on prolonged storage.
The solution should be kept in a dark, cool and dry place in a
closed container.

(3) High test hypochlorite High test hypochlorite (HTH)

or perchloron is a calcium compound which contains 60 to 70
per cent available chlorine. It is more stable than bleaching
powder and deteriorates much less on storage. Solutions FIG.8
prepared from HTH are also used for water disinfection. Berkefeld filter
Appendix II (page 674) shows the amount of HTH needed to
disinfect certain quantities of water. (2) Disinfection of wells
rural
(4) Chlorine tablets Under various trade names (viz., Wells are the main source of water supply in the
disinfect them, sometimes on a
halazone tablets) are available in the market. They are quite areas. The need often arises to
mass scale, during epidemics of cholera and gastroenteritis.
good for disinfecting they
small quantities of water, but are
The most effective and cheapest method of disinfecting wells
costly. The National Environmental Engineering Research
Institute, Nagpur formulated a new type of chlorine tablet is powder. Potassium permanganate should not
by bleaching
be used, as it is not a satisfactory disinfecting agent.
which is 15 times better than ordinary halogen tablets. These
tablets are manufactured in various strengths and
available in plenty, in the Indian market at a cheap rate.
are now
STEPS IN WELL DISINFECTION

A single tablet of 0.5 g is sufficient to disinfect 20 litres of water. (1) Find the volume of water in a well
(a) Measure the depth of water column (h) metre
(5) lodine : lodine may be used for emergency disinfection
of water. Two drops of 2 per cent ethanol solution of iodine (b) Measure the diameter of well (d) metre
will suffice for one litre of clear water. A contact time of 20 to Take the average of several readings of the above
30 minutes is needed for effective disinfection. lodine does measurements.
not react with ammonia or organic compounds to any great
(c) Substitute h and d in:
extent; hence it remains in its active molecular form, over a

wide range of pH values and water conditions and persists Volume (litres) =
3.14x d x h ,

1000
4
longer than either chlorine or bromine. lodine is unlikely to (d) One cubic metre = 1,000 litres of water
become a municipal water supply disinfectant in a broad
sense. High costs and the fact that the element is
activity) its major (2) Find the amount of bleaching powder required for
physiologically active (thyroid are
disinfection
disadvantages (17).
Once widely used it is no Estimate the chlorine demand of the well water by
(6) Potassium permanganate "Horrock's Apparatus (vide Annex 1) and calculate the
disinfection. Although a
longer recommended for water amountof bleaching powder required to disinfect the well.
it is not a satisfactory agent for
powerful oxidizing agent, Annex-l gives the amount of chemicals needed to disinfect
It kill cholera vibrios, but is of little use
disinfecting water. may water for drinking. Roughly, 2.5 grams of good quality
against other disease organisms(15). It has other drawbacks,
bleaching powder would be required to disinfect 1,000 litres
smell and taste of water.
too, such as altering the colour, of water. This will give an approximate dose of 0.7 mg of
applied chlorine per litre of water.
(c) FILTRATION
(3) Dissolve bleaching powder in water
Water can be purified on a small scale by filtering through
Chamberland filter, Berkefeld The bleaching powder required for disinfecting the well is
ceramic filters such as Pasteur placed ina bucket (not more than 100 g in one bucket of
filter and "Katadyn" filter. The essential part of a filter is the
in the Chamberland type, water) and made into a thin paste.More water is added till the
candle" which is made of porcelain
infusorial earth in the Berkefeld filter bucket is nearly three-fourths full. The contents are stirred wel,
and of kieselgurh or of the filter is coated and allowed to sediment for 5 to 10 minutes when lime settles
(Fig. 8). In the Katadyn filter, the surface in contact with down. The supernatant solution which is chlorine solution, is
bacteria coming
With a silver catalyst so thatthe "oligodynamic" action of the transferred to another bucket, and the chalk or lime is
the surface are killed by into the water. Filter candles
of discarded. (Note : the lime sediment should not be poured into
SIlver ions, which are liberated bacteriae found in drinking the well, as it increases the hardness of well water)
tne fine type usually remove
viruses. Filter candles
are
(4) Delivery of chlorine solution into the well
er, but not the filter-passing and bacteriae. They should
aole to be logged with impurities
a hard brush
under running The bucket containing the chlorine solution is lowered
oe cleaned by scrubbing with a week. Only clean water some distance below the water surface, and the well water is
arer and boiled at least once Although ceramic filters
agitated by moving the bucket violently both vertically and
Snould be used with ceramic filters. are not quite suitable for laterally. This should be done several times so that the chlorine
etective in purifying water, they solution mixes intimately with the water inside the well.
widespread use under Indian conditions.
664 ENVIRONMENT AND HEALTH
ör appropriate and therefore have
authorities a n d
(5) Contact period governments
force. The
of
purpose standards
of standards is to
minimise all
A contact period of one hour is allowed before the water is legal
known health
hazards, since it is
obviously impossible to
drawn for use. prevent all pollution.
vol. 1 and
(6) Orthotolidine arsenite test The WHO has published in 1993 in
second edition
for drinkine w
of guideline 1996
It is good practice to test for residual chlorine at the end of vol. 2 of as a basis for the deuol qualit
for use by countries
one hour contact. If the "free" residual chlorine level is less
intended
if properly implemented, willpment
of
standards, which, ure the
than
. s mglitre, the chlorination procedure should be water supplies. In order to define
epeated before any water is drawn. Wells are best disinfected safety of drinking
it is necessary
to consider these recommendationstandards,
the In
at night after the day's draw off. During epidemics of cholera, environmental, social, econ
context of prevailing and
wells should be disinfected every day. These guidelines are intended to s
cultural conditions.
drinking water published in 1984 (101ede
THE DOUBLE POT METHOD (13, 18) the guidelines for
During an emergency. it is desirable to ensure a constant
The quidelines for drinking water quality recommended
relate to following variables dby
dosage of chlorine to well water. Several simple and effective WHO (1993 and 1996)
methods have been devised for this purpose. of which the pot Acceptability aspects
method of chlorination is one which has been used with II Microbiological aspects
is
success in various countries. The double pot
method an III Chemical aspects
improvement devised by the National Environmental IV Radiological aspects.
Engineering Research Institute. Nagpur, India. This method
uses two cylindrical pots. one placed inside the other. The I. ACCEPTABILITY ASPECTS
inside height and diameter are 30 cm and 25 cm respectively,
for the outer pot. A hole 1 cm in diameter is made in each pot; A. Physical parameters
in the inner pot the hole is in the upper portion, near the rim The ordinary consumer judges the water quality by its
and in the outer pot it is 4 cm above the bottom. physical characteristics. The provision drinking water that is
of
not only safe but also pleasing in appearance, taste and odour is
a matter of high priority. The supply of water that is
unsatisfactory in this respect will undermine the confidence of
consumers, leading to use of water from less safe source. The
acceptability of drinking water can be intluenced by many
differentconstituents. These a r e :
1. Turbidity: On aesthetic grounds, drinking water should
be free from turbidity. Turbidity in drinking water is caused by
HOLE particulate present as a consequence of
matter that may be
1 cm dia inadequate from resuspension of sediment in the
treatment or
distribution system. It may also be due to the presence of
BLEACHING inorganic particulate matter in some ground water. Turbidity
POWDER & interferes with
HOLE
COARSE SAND' disinfection and microbiological determination
Water with turbidity of less than 5 nephelometric turbidity
1 cm diea units (NTU) is usually acceptable to consumer.
2. Colour: Drinking water should be free from colour which
may be due to the presence of coloured organic matter (primary
FIG. 9 humic substances), metals such as iron and manganese, ou
Double po highly coloured industrial wastes. Consumers may furn
alternative, perhaps unsafe, sources when their water is colou
A of 1 kg of bleaching powder and 2 kg of coarse
mixture
sand (approx. 2 mm in diameter) is prepared and slightly
to
an aesthetically displeasing degree. The guideline value
moistened with water. The inner pot is filled with this mixture up upto 15 true colour units (TCU) although levels of colour above
15 TCU can be detected in a glass of water.
to 3 cm below the level of
the hole. The inner pot is introduced
into the outer one, and the mouth of the latter closed with 3. Taste and odour: Taste and odour originate from nat
by
polyethylene foil. The use of two pots
makes it possible to have and biological sources or processes, from contaminatn
holes without the risk of o v e r chlorination. chemicals, or as a by-product of water treaterage
larger chlorination). Taste and odour may develop tio
storage
n or
The double pot is lowered into the well by means of a rope
attached to the well kerb. The pot should be immersed at least
and distribution. It is indicative of some form o Phe cause
malfunction during water treatme or distribution. The
1m below the water level to prevent damage by the buckets should be investigated, particularly if there is su stantial
used for drawing water. t has been found that this device of
works satisfactorily for 2-3 weekS in small household wells change. An unusual taste or odour might be a n o Ication

health

of water and having a draw-off ne presence of potentially harmful substances.

containing about 4,500 htres based guideline value is
rate of 360-450 1litres per day. proposed for taste and Ou able
4. Temperature Cool water is generally morecy of
WATER QUALITY - CRITERIA AND STANDARDS Low water temperature tends to crease the effic
hushavea
The quest for pure water dates back to antiquity. In modern
treatment process, including disinfectio and may iowever, high
deleterious effect
times, it has led to the formulation of specific standards to
water
on
drinking water qually rOOrgan
sm

provide a basis for judging the quality of water. These temperature enhances the growth of micr
2ay increase

and taste, odour, colour and corrosion probie 1sualy

standards are exposure limits tor bacteriological, viral.

chemical and physical agents that have been adopted bu
No
guideline value is recommended since i s olis usu
impracticable.
 To sum up, we
cannot judge the quality of drinking water WATER QUALITY CRITERIA AND STANDARDs
by physical characteristics alone. A detailed at concentrations of upto several mg/litre withoui
nicrobiological examination is chemical and
also needed for discoloration or turbidity in water when directly pumped trom
assessment.
complete the well. On exposure to the atmosphere, however, the terrous
B. Inorganic constituents ron oxidizes to ferric iron,
brown colour to the water.
giving an objectionable reddish
Iron also promotes the growth ot
1. Chlorides All
waters including rain water contain
chlorides. In the neighbourhood
iron bacteria", which derive their energy from the oxidation
of
of the sea, the ferrous iron to ferric iron, and in the process deposit a siimy
water tends to be high. Since the salinity of coating on the pipe. At level above 0.3 mg/litre, iron stains
varies from place to place, it is chloride content of water laundry and plumbing fixtures.
necessary, first of al, to
determine the normal range of chlorides of the 7. Sodium The taste threshold concentration of so um i n
surface and ground water in
the given
unpolluted water depends on the associated anion and the temperature
over the locality. Any
normal range should arouse suspicion of excess of the solution. At room temperature, the average taste
contamination. The standard prescribed for chloridewater threshold for sodium is about 200 mg/litre
200 mg/litre. The maximum is
permissible level is 600 mg/litre. 8. Sulphate: The presence of sulphate in drinking water
2. Hardness:
may vary
Public acceptability of the
degree hardness of can cause noticeable taste. Taste impairment varies with the
considerably from one
community to nature of the associated cation. It is generally considered that
depending local The taste threshold another,
on
calcium ion is in the conditions.
of
range 100-300
for the taste impairment is minimal at levels below 250 mg/litre. It has
been found that addition of calcium and magnesium sulphate
the associated anion, mg/litre, depending on
and the taste threshold (but not sodium sulphate) to distilled water improves the taste
of magnesium is
probably less than that for
calcium. In some instances optimal taste was recorded at 270 and 90 mg/litre for the two
hardness in excess of 500 water
mg/litre is tolerated by consumers. compounds respectively.
Depending on the interaction of other factors, such as 9. Total dissolved solids Total dissolved solids (TDS) can
and alkalinity, water with a pH have an important effect on the taste of drinking water. The
200 mg/litre may cause scale
hardness -of approximately
deposition in the distribution palatability of water with a TDS level of less than 600 mg/litre
system and will result in excessive soap is generally considered to be
good. Drinking water becomes
subsequent scum formation. On heating, consumption and increasingly unpalatable at TDS levels greater than 1,200
hard water forms
deposits of calcium carbonate scale. Soft water, with a hardness mg/litre. Water with extremely low concentrations of TDS may
of less than 100 be unacceptable because of its flat, insipid taste. The
mg/litre, may, on the other
buffer capacity and so be more corrosive for hand, have a low of high level of TDS may also be presence
water pipes (19). objectionable to consumers
3. Ammonia The term ammonia owing to excessive scaling in water pipes, heaters, boilers and
includes the non-ionized
(NH) and ionized (NH,,). Ammonia in the environment household appliances. Water with concentrations of TDS
below 1000 mg/litre is usually acceptable to the consumers.
originates from metabolic, agricultural and industrial
and from disinfection with chloramine. Natural processeslevels in
10. Zinc: Zinc imparts an undesirable
water. Tests indicate a taste threshold
astringent
taste to
ground and surface waters are usually below 0.2 mg/litre. concentration of 4 mg/
Anaerobic ground waters may contain upto litre (as zinc sulphate). Water
3mg/litre. in excess of 5 mg/litre
containing zinc at concentrations
Intensive rearing of farm animals can give rise to much may appear opalescent and develop a
higher
levels in surface water. Ammonia contamination can also arise greasy film on boiling,
although these effects may also be
from cement mortar pip linings. Ammonia in water is an noticeable at concentrations as low as 3
indicator of possible bacterial, sewage and animal waste water seldom contains zinc at mg/litre. Drinking
concentrations above 0.1 mg/
pollution. Ammonia can compromise disinfection efficiency, litre, levels in tapwater can be
the zinc used in considerably higher because of
result in nitrite formation in distribution systems, can cause the plumbing material.
failure of filters for the removal of manganese, and cause taste 11. Manganese Manganese concentrations
and odour problems. below 0.1
mg/litre usually acceptable to consumerS, this
are
with local circumstances. At levels may vary
4. pH: One of the main objectives in controlling the pH is above 0.1 mg/litre,
to minimize corrosion and incrustation in the distribution in
manganese water supplies stains
and causes an undesirable taste in sanitary
ware and
laundry
System. phH levels of less than 7 may cause severe corrosion of beverages.
accumulation of deposits in the distribution
It may lead to
metals in the distribution pipes and elevated levels of certain system. Even at
concentration of 0.02 mg/litre, manganese will often form
chemical substances, such as lead, may result. At pH levels coating on pipes, which may slough off as a black
a

above 8, there is progressive decrease in the efficiency of

a precipitate
the chlorine disinfection process. An acceptable pH drinking 12. Dissolved oxygen The dissolved oxygen
content of
water is between 6.5 and 8.5. In the absence of a distribution water is influenced by the raw water
system, the acceptable range of pH may be broader. composition, treatment and chemical or biological
any
temperature
5. Hydrogen sulphide: The taste and odour threshold of processes taking place in the distribution
dissolved oxygen in water supplies can system. Depietion of
hydrogen sulphide in water are estimated to be between 0.05 reduction of nitrate t nitrite and encourage microbial
and 0.1 mg/litre. The "rotten eggs" odour of hydrogen is
rise to odour problem. It can also
sulphate to
sulphide, giving
particularly noticeable in some ground waters and in stagnant cause an increase in the
arinking water in the distribution system, as a result of oxygen
concentration of ferrous iron in solution. No
health based
guideline value has been recommended.
diepletion and the subsequent reduction of sulphate by
13. Copper: The presence of
acterial activity. Sulphide is oxidized rapidly to sulphate in copper in a water supply may
interfere with the intended domestic
well-aerated water, and hydrogen sulphide level in the corrosion of
uses of water it increases
genated water supplies are normally very low. Ihe galvanized iron and steel fittings Staining
sence of hydrogen sulphide in drinking water can be easily laundry and sanitary ware occurs at
of

above 1 mg/litre. copper concentrations

corrective
aetected by the consumer and requires immediate
action 14 Aluminium The presence of aluminium
.iron Anaerobic ground water may contain ferrous iron concentrations in excess of 02 mg/litre often leads
at
to
666 ENVIRONMENT AND HEALTH
be proved.
deposition of
aluminium hydroxide floc in distribution system faecal origin
can

and theexacerbation of discoloration of several reasons why coliform Oras

water by iron There are

faecal pollution rather

of thansm
Substances and parameters in drinking water and the chosen as indicators
the water-
reasons tor consumer borne pathogens directly : (1 coliform organisms
listed complaints are in Table 4. constantly present in great abundance in the human intesti are
II. MICROBIOLOGICAL ASPECTS It is estimated that an average son excretes 200 stine.
of these organisms per day. These organisms 400
(a) Bacteriological indicators : Natural and treated
billion
their presence in tu are
foreign to potable
waters, and hence
waters in
microbiological quality. Ideally, drinking water
vary
looked upon as evidence
of
faecal contamination, (2)
i_+er
should not contain any as small as one are
microorganisms known to 0C easily detected by culture methods
-

bacter
pathogenic. It should also be free from bacteria indicative of in 100 ml of water, whereas the hods for detecting
pollution with excreta. Failure to provide adequate complicated and time-co
the
effective treatment and disinfection of drinking water
protection, pathogenic organisms
are

will (3) they survive longer than the pathogens, which tondng,
die
expose the community to the risk of outbreaks of intestinal than coliform bacilli, (4) the coliflorm baci
and other infectious diseases. Those at out more rapidly
greatest risk of water the
torces
to natural purifica.
ot
borne diseases are infants and have greater resistance cation
young children, people who water borne pathogens. If the coliform organisms
than the
are
debilitated or living under insanitary conditions,
and the elderly. For them the infective dose is
the sick present in a water sample, the assumption is the prohs
able
significantly
lower than for the healthy population. The potential presence of intestinal pathogens.

consequences of
microbial contamination are such that its (2) Faecal streptococci: Faecal streptococci regularly oc ur
than E.coli:
control must always be of paramount importance and must in faeces, but in much smaller numbers n
never be compromised. doubtful cases, the finding of taecal streptococci in water is
as important confirmatory evidence
of recent faeral
The
prinmary bacterial
indicator recommended for this regarded
pollution of water. StreptococCi are highly resistant to dryina
purpose is the coliform group of organisms as a whole.
and may be valuable for routine control testing after lauina
Supplementary indicator organisms such as faecal new mains or repairs in distribution systems or for detectina
streptococci and sulphite-reducing clostridia, may sometimes
run-off to ground or surtace waters.
be useful in determining the origin of faecal pollution as well pollution by surface
as in assessing the efficiency of water treatment processes. (3) CI. perfringens They also occur regularly in faeces,
though generally in much smaller numbers than E.coli. The
(1) Coliform organisms The "coliform" organisms include spores are capable of surviving in water for a longer time than
all aerobic
and facultative anaerobic,
gram-negative,
sporing. motile and non-motile rods capable of fermenting
non organisms of the coliform group, and usually resist
chlorination at the doses normally used in waterworks
lactose at 35 to 37 deg. C in less than 48 hours. The coliform
practice. The presence of spores of CI. perfringens in a natural
group includes both faecal and non-faecal organisms. Typical
example of the faecal group is E. coli and of the non-faecal water suggests that faecal contamination has occurred, and
group. Klebsiella aerogens. From a practical point of view it is their presence, in the absence of the coliform group, suggests
assumed that all coliforms are of faecal origin unless a non- that faecal contamination occurred at some remote time. Its

TABLE 4
Substances and parameters in drinking-water that may give
rise to complaints from consumers

Constituents or Levels likely to give Reasons for consumer complaints

characteristics rise to consumer
complaints

Physical parameters
Colour 15 TCU appearance
Taste and odour should be acceptable
should be acceptable
Temperature
Turbidity 5 NTU appearance: for effective terminal disinfection, median turbidity < NTU
single sample 5 NTU
Inorganic constituents
Aluminium 0.2 mg/L depositions, discolouration
Ammonia 1.5 mg/LL odour and taste
Chloride 250 mg/LL taste, corrosion
1 mg/L staining of laundry and sanitary ware (health based provisional
Copper guideline value 2 mg/L)
Hardness high hardness scale deposition, scum formation; low hardness; possible corro
n

Hydrogen sulfide 0.05 mg/L odour and taste

Iron 0.3 mg/L staining of laundry and sanitary ware
0.1 mg/L staining of laundry and sanitary ware (health-based provisional
Manganese guideline value 0.5 mg/L)
Dissolved oxygen indirect effects
pH low pH: corrosion; high pH: taste, soapy feel
preferably 8.0 for effective disinfection with
<
chlorine
Sodium 200 mg/L taste
250 mg/VL taste, corrosion
Sulphate
Total dissolved solids 1000 mgL taste
3 mg/L appearance, taste
Zinc

Source: (19)
 Sence in filtered
WATER QUALITY CRITERIA AND STANDARDS 667
resence
supplies may indicate deficiency
filtration practice. in
prevention. The methods for detection of these parasites are
The guideline
It
values for bacteriological quality are unsuited for routine monitoring; (ii) Free-living organisms
Table 5. is only a
guidance required givenin ree living organisms that may occur in water supplies include
hacteriologically sate
supplies
piped, unpiped or bottled.
of
drinking
to
water
ensure
whether
tungi. algae etc. The most common problem with these are
their interference in the operation of water-treatment process,
colour, turbidity, taste and odour of finished water.
(b) Virologlcal aspects It is
acceptable, drinking-water should recommended
be free from
that, to be II. CHEMICAL ASPECTS
infections for any viruses
Disinfection with 0.5 mg/L of free
man.
residual after contact period of at least 30 chlorine The health risk due to toxic chemicals in drinking water
differs from that caused by micro-biological contaminants.
s.0 is sufficient to inactivate virus. This freeminutes at a pH of There are few chemical constituents of water that can lead to
is to be insisted in all disintected
chlorine residual
supplies in areas acute health problems except through massive accidental
endemicity of hepatitis A to take care of suspected of
contamination of a supply. Moreover, experience shows that,
the safety of the
supply from the virus point of view, which in such incidents the water usually becomes undrinkable
care of safety from the incidently takes
other areas 0.2
bacteriologic point of view as well. For owing to unacceptable taste, odour and appearance
mg/L of free residual chlorine for half an hour The chemicals selected for the development of guideline
should be insisted. The turbidity condition of 1 NTU include those considered potentially hazardous to
must be fulfilled prior to disinfection of
or less, value
water if adequate human health, those detected relatively frequently in drinking
treatment is to be achieved. Ozone has
been shown to be water and those detected in relatively high concentrations.
effective viral disinfectant, preferably for clean The problem associated with chemical constituents of drinking
residuals of 0.2-0.4 mg/L are maintained for 4 water, if
minutes, but it water arise primarily from their ability to cause adverse health
is not possible to maintain an ozone effects after prolonged periods of exposure; of particular
residual in distribution
system. concern are contaminants that have cumulative toxic
(c) Biological aspects : (i) properties, such as heavy metals and substances that are
Protozoa Species of
protozoa known to have been transmitted by the ingestion of carcinogenic.
contaminated drinking-water include Entamoeba
Giardia spp. and rarely, Balantidium coli. These
histolytica, Health-related chemical constituents
can be introduced into water
organisms The presence of certain chemicals in excess of prescribed
supply through human or, in limits may constitute ground for rejection of the water as a
some instances, animal faecal contamination. Drinking-water
should not contain any pathogenic intestinal protozoa. ource of public water supply. These substances may be
Rapid inorganic or organic (9).
or slow sand filtration have been shown to be effective in
removing a high proportion of pathogenic protozoa. Standard a. Inorganic constituents These substances include
methods are not currently available for the detection of arsenic, cadmium, chromiuim, cyanide, fluoride, lead,
pathogenic protozoa in water supplies in the context of a mercury, nickel, nitrate, selenium etc. The guide line value of
routine monitoring programme; (ii) Helminths: The infective these constituents are as shown in Table 6.
stages of many parasitic roundworms and flatworms can be 1. Arsenic: Arsenic is introduced into water through the
transmitted to man through drinking-water. A single mature dissolution of minerals and ores, from industrial effluents, and
larva or fertilized egg can cause infection and such infective from atmospheric deposition; concentrations in ground water
stages should be absent from drinking-water. However, the in some areas are sometimes elevated as a result of erosion
water route is relatively unimportant except in the case of from natural sources. The average daily intake of
inorganic
Dracunculus medinensis (guineaworm) and the human arsenic in water is estimated to be similar to that from food.
schistosomes, which are primarily hazards of unpiped water Intake from air is negligible. A provisional guideline value for
Supplies. Source protection is the best approach to arsenic in drinking water of 0.01 mg/litre is established.

TABLE 5
Bacteriological quality of drinking-water
Guideline value
Organisms
All water intended for drinking
E.coli or thermotolerant coliform bacteriae Must not be detectable in any 100 ml sample

Treated water entering the distribution system Must not be detectable in any 100 ml sample
E.coli or thermotolerant coliform bacteria"
Total coliform bacteria
Must not be detectable in any 100 ml sample

reated water entering the distribution system

Must not be detectable in any 100 ml sample
E.coli or thermotolerant coliform bacteria" Must not be detectable in any 100 ml sample. In the case of large supplies,
Total coliform bacteria where sufficient samples are examined, must not be present in 95%
of samples taken throughout any 12 month period.

be taken if either E.coli or total coliform bacteria are detected. The minimum a c t i o n
mmediate investigative action must it these bacteria are
detected n the repeat sample, the cause must be determined hu

total coliform bacteria is repeat sampling;

immediate further investigation. bacteria is an acceptable
b. oft pouonte u ernoOlerant coliform
Although E.coli is the more precise indicator faecalnmust oe caried ou lotal cOlitorm bacteria are not acceptable ind rs
alternative. If necessary, proper confirmatory tests in tropical a r e a s w n e r e many bacteria of no sanitary significance occ
particularly
Sanitary quality of rural water supplies,
all untreated supplies. aforitu of rural water supplies in developing countries, faecal contamination is widespread. Under
tis
these
recognized
conditions,
that,the
in the
national
greatsurveillance agency should set medium-term targets for progressive improvement of water supplies.
668 ENVIRONMENT AND HEALTH
2. Cadmium : Cadmium TABLE 6
metal is used in the steel industry
and in plastics. Cadmium
compounds are
batteries. It is released to the environment in widely
used in
Inorganic chemicals
of health signilicance in drinking wat
ater
diffuse pollution is caused waste-water and
Recommended maximum imit ot concentration
and local air pollution.
by contamination from fertilizers Constituents
Contamination in (mg/litre)
also be
drinking
water
may
caused by impurities in the zinc of 0.005 (P)
pipes and some metal fittings, galvanized Antimony
although levels in drinking 0.01 (P)
water are usually less than 1 ug/litre. Absorption of Arsenic 0.7
cadmium compound is dependent on the solubility of the Barium 0.3
compound. Cadmium accumulates primarily in the Boron
kidneys and has a long biological half-life in humans 0.003
10-35 years. A guideline value for cadmium is of Cadmium
established 0.05 (P)
at 0.003 ug/litre (19). Chromium
2 (P)
3. Chromium Chromium is widely distributed in the Copper 0.07
earth's crust. In general, food appears to be the |Cyanide
major source 1.5
of intake. The absorption of chromium after oral
exposure is
Fluoride 0.01
relatively low and depends on the oxidation state. The Lead 0.5 (P)
guideline value for chromium is 0.05 mg/litre, which is |Manganese
considered to be unlikely to give rise to Mercury (total) 0.001
significant health risks.
4. 0.07
Cyanide The acute toxicity of
cyanide in some is high. Molybdenum
Cyanides can be found in some foods, particularly 0.02
Nickel
developing countries, and they are usually found in drinking Nitrate (as NO,) 50
water, primarily as a consequence of industrial
Nitrite (as NO,) 3 (P)
contamination. Effects on thyroid and particularly the
0.01
nervous system were observed in some
populations as a Selenium
consequence of the long-term consumption of inadequately Source: (19) P - Provisional guideline value
processed cassava containing high levels of cyanide. The
guideline value of 0.07 mg/litre is considered to be safe. skeleton. Infants, children up to six years of age, and pregnant
5. Fluoride women are most susceptible to its adverse health effects. Lead
Fluoride accounts for about 0.3 g/kg of the
earth's crust. Inorganic fluorine compounds are used in the also interferes with calcium metabolism, both directly and by
production of aluminium. and fluoride is released during the interfering with vitamin D metabolism. Lead is toxic to both
central and peripheral nervous system,
manufacture and use of phosphate fertilizers which contain inducing
upto 4 per cent fluorine. Levels of daily exposure of fluoride subencephalopathic neurological and behavioural effects.
Renal tumours have been induced in
depends on the geographical area. If diets contain fish and experimental animals
tea,
exposed to high concentrations of lead compounds in the diet
be
areas
exposure via food may particularlyhigh. In specific
other foods and indoor air pollution may contribute
and it is grouped in Group B (possible human
carcinogen). The
health-based guideline value of lead is 0.01
considerably to total exposure. Additional intake may result mg/litre.
from the use of fluoride toothpastes. Lead is exceptional in that most lead in
arises from plumbing in drinking water
Exposure to fluoride from drinking water depends greatly buildings and the remedy consists
on natural circumstances. Levels in raw water are normally principally of removing plumbing and fittings containing
below 1.5 mg/litre, but ground water may contain about This requires much time and lead.
money, and it is recognized that
10 mg/litre in areas rich in fluoride containing minerals. not all water will meet the
guideline immediately. Measures to
control corrosion should also be
High fluoride levels, above 5 mg/litre, have been found in implemented.
several countries (e.g., China, India and Thailand). Such high 7. Mercury: Mercury is present in
levels have at times led to dental or skeletal fluorosis. surface and ground water at concentrations
inorganic
form in
Fluoride is sometimes added to drinking water to prevent 0.5 ug/litre. The usually less na
kidney is the main target organ for
dental caries. Soluble fluorides are readily absorbed in the mercury, whereas inorgan
gastrointestinal tract after intake in drinking water. The methylmercury affects mainly the centa
guideline value suggested is 1.5 mg/litre. In setting national nervous system. The guideline value for total
0.001 mg/litre. mercury
standards for fluoride, it is particularly important to consider
8. Nitrate and nitrite:
climatic conditions, volume of water intake and intake of Nitrate and nitrite are naturaiuy
fluoride from other sources (e.g., food and air). OcCurring ions that are
part of the nitrogen cycle.
6. Lead: Lead is present in tapwater to some extent as a Occurring nitrate level in surface Narurd
and ground ware
generally a few milligrams per litre. In
result of its dissolution from natural sources, but
primarily many ground
has been observed owingwah
an increase
of nitrate level
from household plumbing systems containing lead in pipes, the
solder, fittings or the service connections to homes. The intensification of
10 per cent of farming practice. In some to
amount
of lead dissolved from the
plumbing system depends levels in
the population may be exposed
countries
to itrate
on several factors, including pH, temperature, water hardness drinking water of above 50 "
and standing time of the water, In mg/litre.
the most plumbosolvent.
with soft, acidic water being general,
when levels invegetables are the main source of nitrate intake
Placental transfer of lead occurs in humans as early as twelfth nitrate level in drinking water is below 10 mg/ie Wher
water will becomedrinking water exceeds 50 nking
week of gestation and continues throughout
development.
Young children absorb 4-5 times as much lead as adults, and
the main
guideline value for nitrate in of total nitrate
source mg/liteo The
lly to
the biological half-life may be prevent drinking water s
solely

considerably longer in children conversionmethamoglobinaemia,

the
than in adults. Lead is a general toxicant that accumulates in of nitrate which depends
the than 3 months of into nitrite.
Bottle-fed nia
af lss
age are most
susceptible.
 WATER QUALITY CRITERIA AND STANDARDS 669
guideline value should not be
The with
nitrate-nitrogen but on the basis of expressed Because of the close association of PAH
on the basis
of nitrate itself, which is when
suspended solids, the application of treatment,
the chemical entity of concern to health and the recommended level of
value for nitrate is 50 mg/litre. guideline necessary to achieve the
turbidity will ensure that PAH levels are reduced to a
result of recent evidence of the
As a
minimum.
presence of nitrite in
Some water supplies, it was concluded that a Contamination of water with PAH should not occur
of 3 mg/litre for nitrite should be guideline value the
proposed. Because of the during water treatment or distribution. Therefore,
pOssibility simultaneous occurrence of nitrite and nitrate in
of use of coal-tar-based and similar materials for pipe
drinking water, the sum of the ratios of the concentration of and coatings on storage tanks should be
each to its guideline value should not exceed 1, i.e. lining
discontinued.
In situation where contamination of drinking water by
Concentration of nitrate Concentration of nitrite PAH has occurred, the specific compounds present
and the source of the contamination should be
Guideline value of nitrate Guideline value of nitrite identified, as the carcinogenic potential of PAH
compounds varies.
9. Selenium Selenium levels in drinking
vary
greatly in different geographical areas, and are usually much
water Pesticides: The pesticides that are of importance in
connection with water quality include chlorinated hydro-
less than the guideline value of 0.01
mg/litre. Food stuffs are carbons and their derivatives, persistent herbicides, soil
the principal source, and the level
depends according
geographical area of production. Selenium is an essential
to insecticides, pesticides that are easily leached out from the
soil, and pesticides that are systematically added to water
element for humans and forms an integral part of the
enzyme supplies for disease vector control. The recommended
glutathione peroxidase. Most selenium compounds are water guideline value (Table 8) are set at a level to protect human
soluble. In humans, the toxicity of long-term health.
exposure are
manifested in nails, hair and liver.
TABLE 8
b. Organic constituents The
guideline values of in
of the organic chemical constituents in water are as shown some Guideline values of certain pesticides
Table 7.
Upper limit of concentration
TABLE 7 Pesticides (ug/litre)
Guideline values for health related organic constituents Aldrin/dieldrin 0.03
Chlordane 0.2
Organic constituents Upper limit of concentration (ug/litre)
-
DDT 2
Chlorinated alkanes 2,4-D 30
Carbon tetrachloride 2 Heptachlor and heptachlor epoxide 0.03
Dichloromethane 20 Hexachlorobenzene 1
Chlorinated ethenes Lindane 2
Vinyl chloride 55 Methoxychlor 20
1.1 dichloroethene 30 Pentachlorophenol 9 (P)
1.2 dichloroethene 50 Source: (19) P- Provisional value
Aromatic hydrocarbons
Benzene 10 Drinking water consumption and body weight: The
Toluene 700 average daily per capita consumption of drinking water is
500 usually found to be around 2 litres, but there are considerable
Xylenes variations between individuals as water intake is
Ethylbenzene 300 with climate, physical activity and
likely to vary
Styrene 20 culture, e.g., at
above 25°C, there is a sharp rise in fluid intake,temperature
meet the demands of an increased sweat rate. In
largely
to
Benzolalpyrene 0.7
the guideline values for potentially hazardous developing
Source: (19) chemicals, a
daily per capita consumption of 2 litres by a person weighing
60 kg
Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons: A large number of
was generally assumed.
However, such an assumption
polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) from a variety of may underestimate the consumption of water per unit
combustion and pyrolysis sources have been identified in the and this exposure, for those living in hot climates as weight,
well as for
main source of human exposure to PAHs is infants and children, who consume more fluid
environment. The than adults. Where it was judged that this
per unit weight
Tood, with drinking water contributing only minor amounts. segment of the
Little information is available on the oral toxicity of PAHs, population was at a particularly high risk from exposure to
certain chemicals, the guideline value was derived
specially after long-term exposure. Benzo (a) pyrene, which on the
basis of a 10 kg child consuming 1 litre water
fraction of total PAHs have been found to per day or a 5 kg
onstitutes minor a
of administration.
infant consuming 0.75 litre water per day.
Ccarcinogenic in mice by the oral route to be Health risk assessment: For
Ome PAH compounds have been found carcinogenic most kinds of toxicity, it is
non-oral routes,Benzo (a) pyrene has been
found to be generally believed that there is a dose below which no adverse
mutagenic in a number of in vitro and in vivo assays. effects will occur. For chemicals that
give rise to
Th tollowing recommendations are made for the PAH effects, a tolerable daily intake (TDI) can be derived.such toxic
group Tolerable daily intake (TDI) : The TDI is an estimate
of the
670 ENVIRONMENT AND HEALTH
V. RADIOLOGICAL ASPECTs
amount of a substance in food or drinking water, expressed on
The effects of
radiation exposure are called "somatic"
a
body weight basis (mg/kg or ug/kg of body weight), that in the exposed individualif
can be ingested daily over a lifetime without appreciable they become manitest the
health risk (19). "hereditary" if they affect descendants. Malignant d: and
delayed somatic effect (30). Fease
most important
Acceptable daily intake (ADI) are established for food is the
somatic effects such as carcinogenesis, the probabilitu o e
an
additives and pesticide residues that occur in food for
necessary technological purposes or plant protection reasons. effect occurring, rather
than
its severity, is regarded as a
intended function of dose
without a threshold (stochastic effect)
For chemical contaminants, which usually have
function in drinking water the term TDI is seen as more
no
Whereas for other
somatic effects the severity of the eff
varies with the dose (non-stochastic effects); a threshold ma
appropriate than ADI, as it signifies permissibility rather than therefore exist for such
eftects. The aim of radiation protee
acceptability.
is to prevent harmful non-stochastic ettects and to reduco
No-observed-adverse-effect level (NOAEL): The NOAEL effects to a level deemed acceptah
is defined as the highest dose or concentration of a chemical probability of stochastic
Radioactivity in drinking water should not only be
in a single study, found by experiment or observation, that kept
those limits, be kent
causes no detectable adverse health effect (19). Whenever within safe limits; it should also, within as
possible. the NOAEL is based on long-term studies, low as is reasonably possible. The guideline values
recommended take account of both naturally occurrina
preferably of ingestion in drinking water.
radioactivity and any radioactivity that may reach the ater
Lowest-observed-adverse-effect level (LOAEL): LOAEL source as a result of man's activities. From a radiological point
is the lowest observed dose or concentration of a substance at of view, they represent a value below which water can he
which there is a detectable adverse health effect (19). When considered potable without any further radiological
LOAEL is used instead of NOAEL, an additional uncertainty
examination.
factor (UF) is normally used.
The activity of a radio-active material is the number of
Uncertainty factors (UF) : The application of uncertainty nuclear disintegration per unit of time. The unit of activity is a
factors has been widelyandused in the derivation of ADI for food becquerel (Bq); 1 Bq = 1 disintegration per second. Formerly,
additives. pesticides environmental contaminants. The
derivation of these factors requires expert judgement and a the unit of activity was curie (Ci).
careful sifting of the available scientific evidence. The proposed guideline values are
In the derivation of the WHO drinking water quality gross alpha activity 0.1 Bq/L
guideline values, uncertainty factors were applied to the gross beta activity 1.0 Bq/L
lowest NOAEL or LOAEL for the response considered to be
most biologically significant and were determined by SURVEILLANCE OF DRINKING WATER QUALITY (20)
consensus among a group of experts using the approach
The activities that ideally should be included in the
outlined below: surveillance function are:
Source of uncertainty Factor a. approval of new sources (including private-owned
Interspecies variation (animal to humans) 1 10 supplies);
Intraspecies variation (individual variation) 1-10 b watershed protection;
C. approval of the construction and operating
Adequacy of studies or database 1-10 procedures of waterworks, including
Nature and severity of effect 1- 10 ( disinfection of the plant and of the distribution
The total uncertainty factor should not exceed 10,000. If system after repair or interruption of supply.
the risk assessment would lead to a higher uncertainty factor, (i) periodic flushing programmes and cleaning
then the resulting TDI would be so imprecise as to lack water storage facilities,
meaning. For substances for which uncertainty factors were (ii) certification of
operators,
greater than 1000, guideline values are designated as (iv) regulation of chemical substances used in
wat
provisional in order to emphasize the high level of uncertainty
inherent in these values (19).
treatment,
Derivation of guideline value using a TDI approach TDI
(vcross-connection control,
prevention and leak detection control
back-flow

can be calculated by following formula. d.

sanitary surveys;
e. for
TDI =
NOAEL OR LOAEL monitoring
central and
programmes, including proviso
regional analytical laboratory servvices;
UF f
development of codes of practice ot well
The guideline value (GV) is then derived from the TDI construction, pump installation and
follows :
as plumoA
nspection quality control in bottled-water and ice

TDI x buw xP manufacturing operations.

GV= Surveillance of drinking water health

C measure. It is intended
diseases. The to protect the
is
essentialy ater-borne

Where bw =
body weight (60 kg for adult, 10 kg for public
elements of a surveillance Iro a are
5 kg for infants) children, 1. Sanitary survey progra
P =
fraction of the TDI allocated to
drinking water anitary a n d

=daily drinking water consumption (2 litres evaluation bysurvey is an Ction

C
for adults, 1 litre for
a
qualified on-the-spot n ater sup

for infants)
children and 0.75 litre System. The purpose of the person of the en a n d
ctron
correctie

of taults and
deficiencies. Asurvey
is
adequate
detectO survey is sentid

sanitary survey
interpretation of laboratory results
 SURVEILLANCE OF DRINKING WATER QUALITY 671
2. Sampling of little value, but
A single count is
bacterial purity of water.
Sampling of water
should done with the thoroughness
be intervals may be ot
counts from the same source at frequent in the colony count
of surgical operation, with the observation of similar
a Considerable value. A sudden increase
Drecautions, for upon it depends the results of analysis. aseptic contamination. The
It may give the earliest indication of
should be carried out by competent and trained personnel in recommended plate counts are:
strict accordance with the methods and frequency of
sampling
Drescribed in the WHO guidelines for drinking-water quality Plate count Plate count
or Water at the point after 2 days after 3 days
the ICMR 'Manual of Standards of Quality for Drinking Water of consumption at 22 deg C.
Supplies (21). The methods of sampling are set out briefly in at37 degC
AppendixlI. (i) Disinfected 20
(ii) Not-disinfected 10 100
3. Bacteriological surveillance
The tests usually employed in water Recent studies indicate that a bacterial plate count on yeast
bacteriology
presumptive colitorm test, tests for the detection
are
of faecal extract agar after incubation at 22 deg C for 7 days might
serve as the best general purpose indicator of microbiological
streptococci and Cl. perfringens and colony count. A complete the
bacteriological examination consists of all these tests. quality because in the absence of chlorine residual,
number of bacteria growing at 22 deg C after 7 days
(1) PRESUMPTIVE COLIFORM TEST incubation can increase enormously (22).
(i) Multiple tube method This test is based
the most probable number (MPN) of coliform estimating
on 4. Biological examination
100 ml of water. The test is carried out by organisms in Water may contain microscopic organisms such as algae,
inoculating measured
quantities of the sample water (0.1, 1.0, 10, 50 ml) into tubes fungi, yeast, protozoa, rotifers, crustaceans, minute worms,
of McConkey's Lactose Bile Salt Broth with bromcresol etc. These organisms are collectively called 'plankton. The
as an indicator. The tubes are incubated for
purple plankton organisms produce objectionable tastes and odours
48 hours. From the in water. They are an index of pollution. The degree of
number of tubes showing acid and gas, an estimate of the MPN
of coliform organisms in 100 ml of the pollution is assessed qualitatively and quantitatively by noting
sample water can be the type and number of organisms prevailing in water.
obtained from statistical tables. This result is known as
"presumptive coliform count", the presumption being each
5. Chemical surveillance
tube showing fermentation, contains coliform organisms. The
reaction may occasionally be due to the presence of some other Chemical surveillance of
drinking water is assuming greater
organisms or combination of organisms. importance in view of industrial and agricultural pollutants
finding their way into raw water sources. Tests for pH, colour,
Confirmatory tests The next step is to confirm the
presence of coliform organisms in each tube showing a
turbidity, chlorides, ammonia, chlorine demand and residual
chlorine are the basic tests. Regular measurement of chlorine
presumptive positive reaction. Such confirmation is
generally required in case of unchlorinated water, but is
not residuals in supply may in part replace bacteriological
surveillance. Tests for iron and manganese are required when
required in case of chlorinated water. Confirmation is done by hese substances are present in the raw water in sufficient
subculturing each presumptive positive tube in 2 tubes of amount to influence water treatment. Complete chemical
brilliant green bile broth, one of which is incubated at 37 deg C analysis would also include analysis for toxic metals,
for up to 48 hours for confirmation of the presence of coliform
organisms, and the other incubated at 44°C and inspected
pesticides, persistent organic chemicals and radioactivity.
after 6 and 24 hours to decide whether or not E. coli is present.
HARDNESS OF WATER
E. coli is almost the only coliform organism which is capable of
producing gas from lactose at 44 deg C. Further confirmation Hardness may be defined as the
of the presence of E. coli, if desired, can be obtained by testing water. The consumer considers water hard if
soap-destroying
power of
large amounts of
for indol production at 44°C. soap are required to produce lather. The hardness in water is
caused mainly by four dissolved
(ii) Membrane filtration technique : In some countries These compounds. are
membrane filter technique is used as a standard procedure to (1) Calcium bicarbonate (2) Magnesium bicarbonate
test for the presence of coliform organisms. A measured (3) Calcium sulphate, and (4) Magnesium sulphate. The
volume of the sample is filtered through a membrane specially presence of any one of these compounds produces hardness.
There are others which are of less
made of cellulose ester. All the bacteria present in water are importance. Chlorides and
nitrates of calcium and magnesium can also cause
retained on the surface of the membrane and by inoculating hardness
but they occur generally in smallamounts. Iron, manganese
the membrane face upwards on suitable media and at
and aluminium compounds also cause hardness, but as
appropriate temperature, it is possible to count the colonies they
obtain results within 20 hours as to 72-96 generally are present
in such small
amounts, it is
and compared
hours required for the usual multiple tube technique.
not to consider them in connection with
hardness.
customary
Hardness is classified as carbonate and
(2) THE DETECTION OF FAECAL STREPTOCOCCI The carbonate hardness which was non-carbonate.
formerly
"temporary" hardness is due to the presence ofdesignated
as
AND CI. PERFRINGENS calcium and
The presence of faecal streptococci and Cl. perfringens magnesium bicarbonates. The non-carbonate
useful confirmatory evidence of the faecal polution
formerly designated as permanent" hardness, ishardness,
due to
rOVides
of calcium and magnesium sulphates, chlorides
water in doubtful cases. and nitrates.
Hardness in water is expressed in terms of
(3) COLONY COUNT "milli-
equivalents per itre (mEq/L)". One
mEq/L of hardness-
lony counts on nutrient agar at 37 deg C
and 22 deg C producing ion is equal 50 mg to
frequently used in the bacteriological examination of of water (23). The terms sott andCaCO, (50ppm) in one litre
hard water are used when
general the levels of hardness are as
L o l o n y counts provide an estimate of the given in Table 9.
672 ENVIRONMENT AND HEALTH is a complex
process is used. Sodium permutit
and silica (Na, Al, Si,0 H,O).
ompound of
TABLE 99 aluminium
c as the
sodium, the sodium cation for the
Classification of hardness in water property of exchanging water. When hard water
through the
magnesium
in
ions the
permutit the calcium and magnesiumPassed
are
Level of hardness (mEq./litre)
Classification and sodium
the
(a) Soft water Less than 1(<50 mg/L) entirely removed intobase
by exchange
calcium and
ermutit is
1-3 (50-150 mg/L) converted magnesium permutit,.By this
(b) Moderately hard finally be s o f t e n e d
to zero hardness. Since
(c) Hard water 3-6 (150-300 mg/L) p r o c e s s , water
can the raw water is maer
of
hardness is
corrosive, a part of nixed with
d) Very hard water over 6 ( 300 mg/L) zero
water to secure the desired hardness After
softened
the for sometime, it lose
oses its effectivene
Drinking water should be moderately hard. Softening permutit has
been used conveness
of water is recommended when the hardness exceeds be regenerated by treating with
but it may and washing
sodium chloride or brine away the
3 mEq1 (150 mg per litre). solution of magnesium chloride formed Permut
calcium and
soluble
DISADVANTAGES OF HARDNEss removes
both temporary
andd permanent hardness.
to process
Hardness in water presents several disadvantages both cardiovascular diseases
the domestic and industrial consumer. These may be stated as and
Water hardness
follows: (1) hardness in water consumes more soap and
Reports from several countries have shown an inu.
carbonates are
is heated, the the hardness of drinkinas
detergents (2) when hard water association
between

and bring about furring or scaling of boilers.

This statistical
rate from cardiovascular diseases.
Ar
precipitated
leads to great fuel consumption, loss of efficiency and may and the death water showed a significantly higher
sometimes cause boiler explosions (3) hard water adversely supplied with soft drinking
affects cooking; food cooked in soft water retains its natural prevalence ofeither arteriosclerotic heart disease. or
disease, hypertension, sudden deaths of
colour and appearance (4) fabrics washed with soap in hard degenerative heart these. The evidenco
a combination of
are many industrial
cardiovascular origin, or
water do not have a long life (5) there circumstantial evidence and statistical
is unsuited and gives rise to is based solely on
processes in which hard water
studies are in progress to establish a
life of pipes and association. Further
economic losses (6) hardness shortens the water characteristics and
possible connection between certain
fixtures cardiovascular diseases (24).
the development of
SPECIAL TREATMENT
of water
(b) Fluoridation
(a) Removal of hardness Fluorine is one of the constituents naturally present in
stated of fluorine is drinking
briefly water supplies. In fact, the main
as source
The methods of removal of hardness
are
water is associated
drinking
water. Deficiency of fluorine in
below: dental and skeletal
Temporary hardness
with dental caries, and excess with
fluorine in
fluorosis. Leading workers in India regard
(a) Boiling concentration of 0.5 to 0.8 ppm in drinking water as optimum
Addition of lime (a concentration of 1 ppm is regarded as optimum in
(b)
Addition of sodium carbonate temperate climates because the consumption of water is low)
(c)
(d) Permutit process. The term "fluoridation" has been given to the process o
Permanent hardness supplementing the natural fluoride content of potable waters
to the point of optimum concentration. The WHO in 196
(a) Addition of sodium carbonate
recommended fluoridation of community water supplies in
(b) Base exchange process.
areas where the total intake of fluorides by the population
1. BOILING below the optimal levels for protection against dental carn
the temporary hardness by expelling Fluoridation is now an accepted public health procedure
Boiling removes
the insoluble calcium
carbon dioxide, and precipitating many developed countries (25).
method to. soften water on a
carbonate. It is a n expensive
large scale. (c) Defluoridation
a high level

Ca(HCO)2 CaCO, + H,O +C0, In some geographic areas, water may contain a d by

of fluorides. In such communities, water is defluoridd

2. ADDITION OF LIME phosphate to reduce fluorides to optimum levels.
Limesoftening not only reduces total hardness but also
absorbs the carbon
accomplishes magnesium reduction. Lime calcium SELECTION OF SOURCE OF WATER
dioxide, and precipitates the insoluble carbonate. to
possible

one ounce of quick In selecting a source, attention must be given

en
In the Clark's method of softening water,
lime is added to every
700 gallons of water for each degree future developments that may influence tne include

of hardness. Suitability of the source. Other considera hould be

(14.25 ppm.) (a) Quantity (source capacity) : The antity of wate Sho
n o

Ca (OH) + Ca(HCO),>2CaCO, + 2H,0 taking

sufficient to meet continuing water demands, ed growthin
SODIUM CARBONATE account daily and seasonal
3. ADDITION OF ations and project qualiy

the size The

Sodium carbonate (soda ash) removes both temporary and of the community being served. (b) Quality treatment
of raw water
hardness, as shown below ; should be such that, with te e

permanent
meets the drinking appropoction
(i)
Na, CO, + Ca(HCO), 2NaHCo, + CaCOo,
watershed must be
water standards. (c) with
h u m a n

CaSO, + Na, CO, CaCO, + Na, SO, ected from pollutio r u n - o

(i) excreta, industrial discharge and icultural

feated
reasonabe

4. BASE EXCHANGE
PROCESS (d) Feasibility : The source should be available
at
uld be
In the treatment of large water supplies, the permutit cost. (e) Treatability: The raw
adequately under locally prevailing water
condition
 HARDNESS OF WATER 673
Potential new sources should be examined in the spouting of water,
qualified and experienced sanitary
field by required before entering the pool. (d) spitting, environment of
surveyors and etc. are prohibited. (e) The
bacteriological and chemical analysis should be carriedphysical,
out for blowing the nose,
walk ways and
the swimming pool including the shower rooms,
a period covering seasonal variations prior to final disinfection to destroy
selection of pool decks should receive proper
the source. Such information is essential in order to define (2) Filtration of water:
bacterial, viral and fungal agents.
appropriate water treatment requirements and necessary Swimming pools are equipped with rapid sand filters. The
Dollution controlmeasures to protect raw water resources. It is is continuous such that all the water is refiltered in less
preferable to choose the source that requires the least filtering
than 6 hours. Part of the water, up to 15 per cent, should be
treatment. The source should be protected from contaminants function of water
emanating from septic tanks, sewers, cesspools, sullage water replaced by fresh water every day. The of ammonia,
replacement is to remove solutes consisting
and flooding and from contamination by users. Maintaining and nitrate nitrogen derived tfrom the
adequate residual chlorine levels in the distribution system is albuminoid, organic
bathers. These solutes have the capacity to reduce the
the most reliable indicator of protection bactericidal activity of chlorine. (3) Chlorination: Chlorination
against contamination
resulting from cross-connection, back siphonage, leaks etc.
is the most widely used method of pool disinfection. Various
workers have stated that a continuous maintenance of 1.0 mg/
DISTRIBUTION OF WATER litre (1 Ppm) of free chlorine residual provides adequate
There The pH of
are two main systems of water distribution, the protection against bacterial and viral agents (28).
intermittent supply and the continuous supply. In the between 7.4-7.8. (4) Bacteriological quality: The
intermittent system, water is delivered only during fixed hours.
water is kept
bacteriological quality of water should reach, as nearly as
The disadvantages of the intermittent system are (1) the possible, the standards prescribed for drinking water.
:
may be empty during times of emergency (2) people need to
pipes
store water in containers which may not be clean always. The National Water Supply and Sanitation Programme
safe water is likely to be rendered unsafe through The National Water Supply and Sanitation Programme was
improper
storage (3) when the pipes are empty, there is negative pressure launched in 1954 by the Govt. of India as part of the Health
and by what is known as back-siphoning, bacteria and foul Plan to assist the States to provide adequate water supply and
gases may be sucked in through leaky joints. A number of sanitation facilities in the entire country. Provision has been
recorded outbreaks of typhoid and of relapsing fever, made in the successive 5-year Plans to improve the water
among
other diseases, have been traced back to the contamination of supply (29).
water in the intermittent piped water supplies. Flowing water
For further details see chapter 7.
available 24 hours is therefore desirable, although it may entail
some wastage of water through misuse. The supply of water in Health education
most cities in India is intermittent. A WHO Expert Committee
(1965) strongly recommended that intermittent and low The provision of merely good water supply does not in
itself secure freedom from water-borne diseases. People must
pressure service should be avoided (26). DUAL WATER recognize safe water as a "felt" health need and give up their
SUPPLY: In Kolkata, there is a dual water supply system, i.e., old, unhygienic habits of polluting water supplies. In these
one set of pipes supplying filtered water for personal use and circumstances, health education emerges as an important
the other set supplying unfiltered water for flushing toilets, weapon in creating among people a desire for higher
washing roads and other civic purposes. The greatest drawback standards of life.
of the dual system is that people may mistake one for the other
through ignorance. The WHO Expert Committee (1965) APPENDIX I
strongly disapproved of the practice of supplying two kinds of
water (26). The possibility of cross-connection constitutes a HORROCK'S APPARATUS
serious health hazard. Horrock's water testing apparatus is designed to find out the
dose of
bleaching powder required for disinfection of water.
SWIMMING POOL SANITATION
CONTENTS
Swimming pool water is exposed to (1) faecal 1. 6 white cups (200 ml
contamination and (2) organisms from skin and nasopharynx. capacity each)
The health hazards associated with swimming pools are: 2. One black cup with a circular mark on the inside
3. 2 metal spoons (each holds 2g of
(1) fungal and viral infections of the skin. This includes
when filled level with the
bleaching powder
Epidermophyton and Trichophyton species brim)
which produce "athlete's foot." The papilloma virus 4. 7 glass stirring rods
is the inciting agent of "plantar warts 5. One special pipette
(2) infections of the eye, ear, nose and throat 6. Two droppers
infections of the upper respiratory tract,
7. Starch-iodide indicator solution
(3) 8. Instruction folder.
(4) intestinal infections, and
(5) accidents. PROCEDURE
SANITATION MEASURES 1. Take one level spoonful (2 g) of
bleaching powder in the
is 2.2 sq.m. black cup and make it into a thin paste with a little water.
Recommended area: The recommended area
more water to the paste and make
Add
C4sq.ft.) per swimmer (27). (2) Surveillance: Rules and up the volume up to the
should be posted in a circular mark with vigorous stirring. Allow to settle. This is
ations governing the use of the pool the stock solution.
the
picuous place for the information of users. These are:
sore eyes, cold, nasal
2. Fill the 6 white cups with water to be
ersons suffering from skin diseases,
a cm below the brim.
tested, up to about
disease should not
aischarge or any other communicable bathers are strictly 3. With the special pipette
pool. (b) All provided add one
stock solution to the 1st cup, 2 drops to the Znd drop of the
inowed into the swimming
the toilet.
ructed to empty the bladder, and if necessary use and water is to the 3rd cup, and so on. cup, 3 drops
the nude with soap
Cieansing shower bath in

#3
674 ENVIRONMENT AND HEALTH ould be removed
the sample,
the
sides of
paper cover should
the bottle
removed, taking car
to comne
4. Stir the water in each cup using a separate rod. allow the
tdct with
clean string should be tied
not to
5. Wait for half an hour for the action of chlorine. Another long
anything. lowered intr
into the wate
sterilized string, and the botle
6. Add 3 drops of starch-iodide indicator to
blue
each ocolour of the
and allowed to fill up. The bottle should be then raised and
white cups and stir again. Development of with cover replaced.
indicates the presence of free residual chlorine. the stopper
7. Note the first cup which shows distinct blue colour of collecting samples from rivers or res
Another method oirs
Supposing the 3rd cup shows blue colour, then 3 level by the bottom and plunge its neck da
turnedwn-wards
bottle
is to hold the ttle is then
The bottl
spoonfulsor 6 of
grams powder would be required
bleaching below the surface of the water.
the mouth being directe l the
to disinfect 455 litres of water. neck points slightly up-wards,
current exists, as
in reservoir,
a a
towards d

the current. If
no horizontall.Should
APPENDIX II the bottle
be artificially
created by pushing
hand. When full, the bottle
orward in
from the raised
direction away
SAMPLING a
surface and the stopper replaced.
rapidly above the
and chemical examination from a well fitted with
1. Samples for physical is taken waste
to be
mp
for physical and chemical examination
should be Ifa sample
should be pumped
to for about 2 min
and
Samplesin
collected clean glass stoppered bottles made of neutral the water
collected from
the pump delivery or from a tanon
the sample
than 2 litres. Stoppered glass bottles
glass, of capacity not less are suitable.
the discharge.
technically known as "Winchester Quart bottles" three times TRANSPORT AND STORAGE OF
SAMPLES
the sample rinse the bottle well (3)
with thecollecting
Betore
water, filling it each time about 1/3 full. Then fill it
The bacteriological the sample should ho
examination ofcollection.
piece of after Where thi
with the water. tie the stopper tightly down,
with a
commenced as possible
as s o o n
ice until it is taken
cloth over it and seal the string. not feasible, the
sample should
be
kept in
for analysis. All such iced samples
should be taken for analusis
2. Samples for bacteriological
examination
within 48 hours after collection. Samples not
preserved in this
be collected be accepted for bacteriological
examination should should not
Samples for bacteriological manner

sterilized bottles made of neutral glass, of capacity examination. Certain particulars regarding the date and time
in clean of water, particulars of
200-250 ml and provided with a ground glass stopper having of collection and despatch, source
must be relaxed by
an of the sanitary survey should also
an overlapping rim. The stopper recent rainfall and findings
the bottle
to prevent breakage of be supplied with the sample.
intervening strip of paper The stopper and
of the stopper.
during sterilization o r jamming be protected by a paper or APPENDIX III
should
the neck of the bottle or is likely CHEMICALS NEEDED TO
the water to be sampled contains, QUANTITY OF
parchment c o v e . If sodium thiosulphate DISINFECT WATER FOR DRINKING*
small quantity of
to contain chlorine,
a
solution o r a small crystal
of the salt)
(0.1 ml of 3.0 per cent Bleaching High strength Liquid bleach
bottle before sterilization. Sterile (5% sodium
should be added to the powder calcium
should be obtained from
the laboratory which Water (m ) hypochlorite hypochlorite)
sampling bottles bottle should not be
(25-35%) (g)
is to carry out the analysis.
The sampling (70%) (g) (m
it is required for filling.
m o m e n t at which 14
opened until the 1 2.3
A TAP 17
OF THE SAMPLE FROM 1.2 3 1.2
(1) COLLECTION in regular use, 3.5 1.5
T.5
to be taken from a tap 28
When the sample is the water run to waste at
fully, and 35
the tap should be opened flush the interior of the nozzle 2. 2.5
42
for 2 minutes in order to
least in the service pipe. In the 56
the stagnant water
and to discharge from taps which are not in
4
70
to be collected
c a s e of samples 5 12 84
should be sterilized by heating it either
regular use, the tap with a n ignited piece of cotton soaked in 6 14 98
with a blow lamp o r 16 110
hot to the touch. Then
until it is unbearably 19
methylated spirit, the water to run to waste
140
cooled by allowing 23 10 170
the tap should be
is collected. I2 28 12 210
before the sample
held the base with one hand and 15 35 15 280
be near
The bottle should together and
removed 20 50 20 420
and paper cover over it 30 30
the stopper bottle should be filled from a 70 560
held in the fingers. The sample The 40 90 40 700
water from the tap, avoiding splashing.
gentle stream of are leaky, should be
50 120 50 840
collection of samples from
taps which 60 140 60 980
down the outside of the
the water might run 70 70
avoided because If this cannot 160 1 100
enter the bottle causing contamination. 80 190 80 1.400
tap and taken to clean the
be avoided, special
precautions should be 100 230 100 00
to ensure sterilitu.
the tap and to flame it sufficiently 120 280 120 2. 100
outside of
FROM RIVERS, LAKES, 150 350 150 2. 800
(2) COLLECTION OF SAMPLES
RESERVOIRS, WELLS, ETC
200 470 200 3,500

250 580 250 4. (U

streams should
and not be taken too 300 700 300
600

Samples from rivers of draw off, For 400

, D O 0

bank or point
too far away Irom thelakes, 940 400
near the wells etr 500
tanks,
u a t e r

samples directly from rivers, 1,170 500 ol

t

collecting neck which is fullu

htre

the
attachedshould
bottle with a stringsterilized
to
Approximate dose 0.7 mg of applied chlorine
per

a
and
be used. Before takina
urapped in paper Source (13)
 APPENDIX IV AIR 675
WATER CONSERVATION References
1.
Declining trend of WHO (1972). Health Hazards of the Human Enuironment, WHO.
rainfall and rapid Geneva.
industrialization has created urbanization with 2. WHO (1995). The World Health Report 1995, Bridging the gaps,
increasing demand for water.
Growing water shortage is already P-41.
areas and available resources causing problems in several UNDP (2010). Human Development Report, 2010.
like rivers,
shrinking, causing more & more ponds, lakes are 4. Govt. of India (1977). Manual on Water Supply and
Treatment,
resources. Already, the rate of waterprrssure on sub-soil water Second Edition, Central Public Health and Environmental
the replenishment that takes extraction is exceeding Engineering Organization, Ministry of Works and Housing. New Delhi.
mainly place by natural processes Subrahmanyan, K. and Bhaskaran, T.R. (1948). indian J. Med. Res.
recharge due to rainfall. This
is causing 36, 211.
sub-soil water levels which is alarming fall in 6. WHO (1969). The Village Tank
several cities. going down in and around as a Sourc f Drinking Water WHO/
Development of
wells has further worsened theagriculture dependent on tube
CWS/RD/69-1.
7. Wagner, E.G. and Lanoix, J.N. (1959). Water Supply for Rural Areas
situation. The
water resources, therefore, underground
urgently need conservation.
and Small Communities, WHO.
The term conservation 8. Bhaskaran, T.R. et al (1973). Indian J. Med. Res., 61. 304.
implies both, protection of water 9. WHO (1968). Techn. Rep. Ser., No.406.
resources, and further building up the
precious water reserves. 10. WHO, Appropriate Technology for Health,
Water, Newsletter 14-15.
Conservation of water resources requires (1984), Division of Strengthening of Health Services.
(a) PREVENTION OF WASTAGE 11. Huisman, L. and Wood, W.E. (1974). Slow Sand Filtration,
WH0
needs to be developed : Wide-spread awareness Geneva.
of water. It has to be among people about economical use 12. WHO (1977). WHO Chronicle, 31, 318.
propagated that people should make an
effort not to waste water, 13. Rajagopalan, S. and Shiffman, M.A. (1974). Guide to
Simple Sanitary
and help in
the invaluable water reducing consumption of Measures for the Control of Enteric Diseases, WHO, Geneva.
reserves. Efficient water 14. American Public Health Association, American Water Works
can
substantially reduce total water
management
requirement of Association and Water pollution Control Federation (1971). Standard
communities. Domestic consumption of water can Methods for the Examination of Water and Waste Water, 13th ed., New
by individuals, by cultivating better habits in be reduced York
bathroom use, to avoid free running of water. kitchen and 15. Cox, C.R. (1964). Operation and Control of Water Treatment
Processes, WHO, Geneva.
(b) WATER HARVESTING: Simple innovative ideas 16. Bollyky, J. (1976), Water and Sewage Works, 123, 66-67.
water
like
harvesting extremely important to preserve and
are 17. Hoehn, R.C. (1976), JAWWA, 68, 302-308.
buildup underground water reserves in urban and semi-urban 18. WHO (1970). Public Health Papers 40.
areas, where considerable water is drawn out 19. WHO (1993), Guidelines For
by tube wells for
domestic consumption. Vast quantity of rainwater is
Drinking Water Quality Vol.1
Recommendations, Second Edition.
normally
discharged in to drains. This rainwater can be easily added to the 20. WHO (1976). Surveillance
of Drinking Water Quality, Geneva
21. Indian Council of Medical Research
underground reserves by diversion of rainwater from rooftops (1975). Manual of Standards of
and courtyards into soaking pits or trenches, instead of Quality for Drinking Water, Spl, Rpt, Ser, 44.
drains. 22. Water Research Centre (1976). Notes
It is also viable to clean and filter this water and divert it on Water Research,
into No. 6, 1-4.
existing tube wells or wells. Various economic designs are 23. WHO (1971). International Standards for Drinking Water, Geneva.
suggested by agencies like Central Ground Water Board 24. WHO (1972). Hazards of the Human Environment, Geneva.
(CGWB), UNICEF etc. Suitably large pit is filled in layers with big 25. WHO (1970). Fluorides and Human Health, Geneva.
stones, followed by gravel and sand. Collected rainwater from 26. WHO (1965). Techn. Rep. Ser., No.297.
rooftops is brought into the pit by PVC pipes. The rainwater 27. Salvato, J.A. (1976). Guide to Sanitation in Tourist
filtered through these layers, then travels by a PVC pipe WHO Geneva. Establishments,
connecting bottom of the pit into the nearby well or tube well. 28. Fish. N.A. (1969). Canad J. Public
Health, 60. 279.
29. Govt. of India (1981).
India, A Reference Annual 1981 Publication
Division, Ministry of Information and
30. WHO (1984). Guidelines For Broadcasting
Recommendations.
Drinking Water Quality, Vol.

AIR
The immediate environment of man
which depends all forms of life. comprises of air on
Apart from supplying the
life-giving oxygen, air and atmospheric conditions serve
several functions. The human body is cooled
by the air
contact; the special senses of hearing and smell function
PVC through air-transmitted stimuli ; disease agents may be
Tube well Pipes conveyed by air. Pollution of air by
dust, smoke, toxic gases
and chemical vapours has resulted in
sickness and
Filter
Man's adventure into outer space has broadened our death.
of air environment. Human concept
beings need a continuous supply
of air to exist. The
requirement
for air is relatively constant
(about 10-20m per day)
Composition
Air is a mechanical mixture of gases. The normal
FIG. 10 composition of external air
by volume is approximately as
Water harvesting a tube well follows: Nitrogen -78.1 per cent; Oxygen 20.93 per cent:
 676 ENVIRONMENT ND HEALTH
Carbon dioxide 0.03 per cent. The balance is made up of Discomfort
other gases which occur in traces, Discomfort is a subjective sensation which people
e.g., argon, neon, krypton,
xenon and helium, In addition to these
gases, air also contains experience in ill-ventilated and crowded roomsFor a long
water vapour, traces of ammonia and suspended matter such time it was believed to be due to increased carbon dioxide
as dust, bacteria, spores and vegetable debris. and decreased oxygen, resulting from respiration This theory
has since been refuted. Studies have shown that the oxygen
Air is rendered impure by (1)
Respiration of men and animals content may be reduced to 18 per cent and the carbon
(2) Combustion of coal, gas, oil, etc. (3) Decomposition of
dioxide content may be raised to over 5 per cent, withou
organic matter and (4) Trade, traffic and manufacturing
adverse effects, provided the temperature and humidity are
processes which give off dust, fumes, vapours and gases. Under satisfactory. In the 'Black Hole of Kolkata, 146 prisoners
ordinary conditions, the composition of outdoor air is kept
were imprisoned in a room, 18 x 14 x 10 out of whom only
remarkably constant. This is brought about by certain self
23 survived. There were two small windows which were
cleansing mechanisms which operate in nature (1) WInd: Wind adequate to supply all the oxygen needs even then only
dilutes and sweeps away the impurities by its movement. 23 survived. It was concluded that the deaths were due to
Because of wind movement, impurities do not accumulate in
changes in the physical condition ot the air, leading to 'heat
anyone place: (2) Sunlight: The atmospheric temperature and retention'. It is now established that the causes of discomfort
sunlight play their own part by oxidizing impurities, and killing are not due to chemical changes but physical changes. These
bacteria: (3) Rain : It cleanses the atmosphere by removing the are temperature, humidity, air movement and heat radiation
suspended and gaseous impurities: (4) Plant life: The green These factors determine the "cooling power of the air with
plants utilize the carbon dioxide and generate oxygen; this respect to the human body. It has been so well said by
process is reversed during the night time. When the rate of Professor Lee that "The problems of ventilation are physical,
pollution becomes too high or when the cleansing process
not chemical; cutaneous not respiratory"
becomes ineffective, it constitutes a health hazard
Indices of thermal comfort
The air of occupied room
Thermal comfort is a complex entity. Much work was done
Human occupancy and activity vitiate air in occupied in the past to determine what constitutes "thermal comfort"
rooms and give a sense of discomfort to the occupants. The Several indices have been put forward from time to time to
changes in air that take place in confined places are both
chemical and physical. (a) CHEMICAL CHANGES: The air express thermal comfort and heat stress. These are as follows
(1) AIR TEMPERATURE For a long time, air temperature was
becomes progressively contaminated by carbon dioxide and used as an index of thermal comfort, but it was realised that
the oxygen content decreases due to metabolic processes. An air temperature alone was not an adequate index of thermal
average person at rest gives off 0.7 c.ft. of carbon dioxide per comfort. (2) AIR TEMPERATURE AND HUMIDITY: Later, air
hour: this may increase up to 2 c.ft. during physical activity. In temperature and humidity were considered together to
a mixed gathering comprising all age groups, the per capita express thermal comfort: even this was found to be
output of carbon dioxide is taken as 0.6 c.ft. per hour,
unsatisfactory. (3) COOLING POWER Still later, air
(b) PHYSICAL CHANGES: The most important changes that
temperature, humidity and air movement were considered
occur due to human occupancy are the physical changes.
together and expressed as "cooling power" of the air An
These are (i) Rise in temperature The indoor temperature instrument was devised by Hill called the Kata Thermometer
tends to rise as a result of the emanation of body heat. A man
to measure the cooling power. A dry Kata reading of 6 and
at rest gives off approximately 400 Btu per hour. One Btu
(British Thermal Unit) is the quantity of heat required to raise above, and a
wet Kata reading of 20 and above, were
regarded as indices of thermal comfort. Further researches
the temperature of one pound of water by deg. . Under have shown that the Kata cooling powers are also not reliable
conditions of physical exertion, the heat output may go up to indices of comfort conditions. (4) EFFECTIVE
4,000 Btu. (ii) Increase of humidity: There is an increase in the
TEMPERATURE Effective temperature is an arbitrary index
relative humidity due to moisture evaporated from the skin
which combines into a single value the effect of
and lungs. The expired air contains about 6 per cent of water
and
temperature,
vapour. An adult person at rest releases an average 700 gms. humidity movement of the internal air on the sensation of
of water vapour per 24 hours in the form of perspiration. It has warmth or cold felt by the human
of ettective
body.
The numerical value
been calculated that a human being releases 18.4 gms of water temperature is that of the temperature of
stil
saturated air which would induce the same sensation ot
vapour per hour when sleeping and upto 175 gms of water
warmth or cold as that experienced in the given conditions
vapour when engaged in really vigorous exercise (1) For example, if the environment has an ET value of 30 deg
(ii) Decrease in air movement: In crowded places, the natural
(86 deg.F),. implies that the subjective sensation of it will
it be
movement of air is impeded. (iv) Body odours Unpleasant
odours arise from foul breath, perspiration, bad oral hygiene, same as in a saturated atmosphere of 30 deg C
dirty clothes and other sources. The production of body (86 deg F) with no air movement. This scale was evolved in

odours depends upon the social status, age and personal 1923 after a long series of experiments carried out in the
hygiene of the people. (v) Bacterial pollution: The exhaled air Pittsburgh Laboratory of the American Society of Heating and
contains microorganisms in suspension. These are principally Ventilation Engineers by Houghton and Yaglou Two se ales
are available one of which refers to men who are stripped to
saprophytic bacteria and may include pathogenic bacteria.
These organisms are discharged into the air during the waist and the other to men who are fully lad n indoor
clothing. Effective temperature may be obtained from »pecial
conversation, coughing, sneezing and loud talking
Unless the vitiated air is replaced by fresh air, it may
charts by reference to the three variables (Fig 1) A criti ism
of the effective temperature scale is that it ignores the eftects
adversely affect the comtort, health and efficiency of the of a radiation from the surrounding structures
occupants. It is known that a feeling of suffocation or discomlort (5) CORRECTED EFFECTIVE TEMPERATURI This Index 1
is experienced by the occupants in insufficiently ventilated an improvement over the Efective Temperature Index
rooms and also complaints of headache, drowsiness and Instead of the dry bulb temperature, the reading of the Globe
inability to concentrate. There is also the risk of droplet infection Thermomneter is used to allow for radiant heat That is the
and lowe1d stance to disease (on prolonged exposure). C.ET. scales deal with all the four factors namely a