DBMS important questions and answers

1. Write about advantages of DBMS?

Minimizing redundancy: Before entering data, we are creating definitions in which we are
imposing restrictions. Due to these restrictions, dbms will not allow duplicate data to be
entered. Restrictions are constraints like primary key, unique key, not null etc..

if we want only few columns data then we need not create another table. We can give access to
only those few columns to the users using views and data control language (DCL) commands. In
this way, the data is stored in only one location.

2. Eliminating redundancy: When there is no redundancy, inconsistency does not exist

3. Sharing of data: We can share the data to authorized user using DCL commands

4. Data Security: We can create users and give them username and passwords. We can grant
and revoke permissions to create session, create table etc.. We can also give access to row or
column only by using views.

5. Flexibility of the system is improved: Due to data independence, changes in data does not
affect the application programs.

6. Data integrity: Constraints ensures data in database to be complete, correct, and consistent.
For example: By using check constraint and data types, we can ensure that numbers are not
entered in name field. By using commit command, data once stored in database will be
consistent.

7. Provides back up and recovery: due to which data once stored in database will never be lost.

2. Explain about database system environment?

Ans: The components of database are

1. Data

2. Procedures

3. Hardware

4. Software

5. People

refer notes

3. Explain about Data base models?

Hierachical data model, network data model, relational data model etc…refer notes

4. Write short notes on Data Dictionary?

A data dictionary contains metadata i.e data about the data.The users of the database normally
don't interact with the data dictionary, it is only handled by the database administrators.

The data dictionary in general contains information about the following −

 Names of all the tables and their schemas.

  Details about all the tables in the database, such as their owners, their security
constraints, when they were created etc.

 Physical information about the tables such as where they are stored and how.

 Table constraints such as primary key attributes, foreign key information etc.

 Information about the database views that are visible.

This is a data dictionary describing a table that contains employee details.

Field Name Data Type Field Size for display Description

eno Integer 10 Unique ID of each employee

Name Text 20 Name of the employee

dob Date/Time 10 DOB of Employee

phone Integer 10 Phone number of employee

5. What is Specialization?

o Specialization is a top-down approach, and it is opposite to Generalization. In

specialization, one higher level entity can be broken down into two lower level
entities.
o Specialization is used to identify the subset of an entity set that shares some
distinguishing characteristics.
o Normally, the superclass is defined first, then the subclass and its related
attributes are defined next, and then relationship between them is defined.

For example: In an Employee management system, EMPLOYEE entity can be

specialized as TESTER or DEVELOPER based on what role they play in the company.

6. Define Attribute and relationships with suitable Examples?

An attribute is a property or characteristic of an entity. An entity may contain any number of

attributes. One of the attributes is considered as the primary key. In an Entity-Relation model,
attributes are represented in an elliptical shape. Types of attributes are shown in table below
 Attribute Type Description Symbol
Simple attribute An attribute that cannot be
divided

Composite An attribute that can be

attribute divided

Multivalued The attribute which takes up

attribute more than a single value for
each entity instance
Derived attribute An attribute that can be
derived from other attributes

Key attribute The attribute which uniquely

identifies each entity in the
entity set
Partial Identifier A Partial identifier attribute is
attribute a key identifier of a weak
entity

Relationship: Any association between two entity types is called a relationship. Entities take
part in the relationship.

Degree of a relationship: is the number of entities participating in the relationship.

Types of relationships based on degree

Unary Relationship Relationship between

single entity

Binary Relationship Relationship between

2 entities
Ternary Relationship Relationship between
3 entities

N- ary Relationship Relationship between

N entities

Cardinality: Number of instances of one entity is associated with how many number of entities
of another entity

Types of Relationships based on cardinality

One-to-One A row in A is associated with only one row in B
and vice versa.

One-to-Many one row in A is associated with many rows in B.

Many-to-One many rows in A is associated with only one rows

in B.

Many-to- many rows in A is associated with many rows in

Many B

7. Explain domain relational calculus ?

In domain relational calculus, filtering variable uses the domain of attributes.

Domain relational calculus uses the same operators as tuple calculus. It uses logical connectives
∧ (and), ∨ (or) and ┓ (not).

It uses Existential (∃) and Universal Quantifiers (∀) to bind the variable.

8. What is purpose of NULL value SQL?

A field with a NULL value is a field with no value. If a field in a table is optional, it is
possible to insert a new record or update a record without adding a value to this field. Then,
the field will be saved with a NULL value. A NULL value is different from a zero value or a
field that contains spaces. A field with a NULL value is one that has been left blank during
record creation!

To Test NULL value, we will have to use the IS NULL and IS NOT NULL operators instead.
IS NULL Syntax
SELECT column_names
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name IS NULL;
IS NOT NULL Syntax
SELECT column_names
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name IS NOT NULL;
9. Explain about roll back and commit?

COMMIT command is used to permanently save any transaction into the database.

When we use any DML command like INSERT, UPDATE or DELETE, the changes made by these
commands are not permanent, until the current session is closed, the changes made by these
commands can be rolled back.

To avoid that, we use the COMMIT command to mark the changes as permanent.

Following is commit command's syntax,

COMMIT;

ROLLBACK command restores the database to last commited state. It is also used with
SAVEPOINT command to jump to a savepoint in an ongoing transaction.

If we have used the UPDATE command to make some changes into the database, and realise
that those changes were not required, then we can use the ROLLBACK command to rollback
those changes, if they were not commited using the COMMIT command.

Following is rollback command's syntax,

ROLLBACK TO savepoint_name;

10. Define trigger and explain with suitable example?

Triggers in oracle are blocks of PL/SQL code which oracle engine can execute automatically based on
some action or event.
Triggers are automatically and repeatedly called upon by oracle engine on satisfying certain
condition. If triggers are activated then they are executed implicitly by oracle engine.
Whenever a trigger is created, it contains the following three sequential parts:
1. Triggering Event or Statement: The statements due to which a trigger occurs.
2. Trigger Restriction: The condition or any limitation applied on the trigger. If condition is
TRUE then trigger fires. Not all triggers has conditions.
3. Trigger Action: The body containing the executable statements that is to be executed when
trigger fires.

Types of Triggers

1) Level Triggers
a) ROW LEVEL TRIGGERS: It fires for every record that got affected. It always use a FOR EACH
ROW clause
b) STATEMENT LEVEL TRIGGERS: It fires once for each statement that is executed.
2) Event Triggers
a) DDL EVENT TRIGGER: It fires with the execution of every DDL statement(CREATE, ALTER,
DROP, TRUNCATE).
 b) DML EVENT TRIGGER: It fires with the execution of every DML statement(INSERT, UPDATE,
DELETE).
c) DATABASE EVENT TRIGGER: It fires with the execution of every database operation which
can be LOGON, LOGOFF, SHUTDOWN, SERVERERROR etc.
3) Timing Triggers
a) BEFORE TRIGGER: It fires before executing DML statement.
b) AFTER TRIGGER: It fires after executing DML statement.

Example : Create a trigger that fires after insert of every new row in Stu table. The trigger
automatically updates total.
create or replace trigger stud_marks
after INSERT
on
Stu
for each row
begin
update Stu set total = subj1 + subj2 + subj3;
end;
/

11. a. Define file and explain about draw backs of file based system?
(Or)
b. Describe about ANSI/SPARC database architecture?
12. a. Describe generalization and specialization with suitable examples?
(Or)
b. Define ER and Explain about components of ER diagrams?
13. a. What is constraint? Explain about Key constraint with suitable examples?
(Or)
b. Describe about relational algebra with suitable examples?

Explain about DDL, DML and DCL commands with suitable Examples?
SQL is a nonprocedural query language in which the expected results is given without the
specific details about how to accomplish the task.
SQL COMMANDS
SQL contains different types of commands
DDL (Data Definition Language) Commands
DML(Data Manipulation Language) Commands
TCL(Transaction Control Language) Commands
DCL(Data Control Language) Commands

I DDL Commands: The Data Definition Languages (DDL) Commands are used to create a table
structure, modify the table structure and delete the table structure.
 CREATE TABLE : The CREATE TABLE command is used to create a new table
Syntax: Create tabletablename (column_name1 data_ type (size) constraint, …);
Example:
create table student (sname varchar2(20) , rollno number(10) ,dob date );

 The ALTER TABLE StatementThe ALTER TABLE statement is used to modify

structure of an existing table. There are three different syntaxes
a. ALTER TABLE ADD : This command is used to add a new column in to an
existing table syntax:
ALTER TABLE table_name ADD (column_name data_type(size) , …) ;
Example : alter table student add(address varchar2(20),phone_no number(10));
 b. ALTER TABLE MODIFY This command is used to change the data type and size
of an existing column in to an existing table
syntax:
ALTER TABLE table_name MODIFY (old_column_name new_data_type(new_size),);
Example : alter table student modify (address varchar2(40));

c. ALTER TABLE DROP To delete a column in a table, use the following syntax
ALTER TABLE table_name DROP COLUMN column_name1,… ;
Example: alter table student drop phone_no;

 DROP: This command is used to delete the structure of the table as well as records in the
relation.
Syntax :drop tabletable_name;
Ex: drop table student;

 Create AS select: This is used to create a new relation or table from an existing relation or
table.
Syntax:
create tablenew_table_name (column_1, …..column_n) as select column_1, ….column_n
from old_table_name;
Ex: create table student2(sno,sname,saddress) AS select sno, name, address from student;

 RENAME: command is used to rename the table.

Example: Rename student to student1;

 TRUNCATING TABLE: Truncate command will delete all the records permanently in a
specified table but structure of the table will not be deleted.
• Syntax
– TRUNCATE TABLE TableName;
Eg: TRUNCATE TABLE student;

II Commands in DML:
 The SQL INSERT INTO Statement: The INSERT INTO statement is used to insert new
records in a table. There are different forms of insert commands are used to insert a
records into a table.
Syntax
The first form of insert is used to insert values for all columns in a table.
INSERT INTO table_name VALUES (value1,value2,value3,...);
The second form of insert is used to insert values for some columns of a record in a table.
INSERT INTO table_name (column1,...) VALUES (value1,...);
 Select: The select command is used to retrieve records from the tables.
This type is used to display the set of fields or all the fields of the selected or all records in a
table.
a. Syntax: Select * from <table_name> [WHERE condition];
Ex: select * from student;
b. Syntax: select set of fields from table_name [where condition];
Ex: selectsno,sname,addressfrom student where address=’BVRM’;
 Update: The update command is used to update the content of a table.
Syntax
– UPDATE TableName SET ColumnName1=Expression1,
Ex1: update student SET total = sub1+sub2+sub3;
Ex2: UPDATE student SET total = sub1+sub2+sub3 wheresno = 10;
 Delete: The delete command is used to delete all the records or selected records in a table.
But the structure of the table remains.
Syntax: DELETE FROM TableName;
 Example 1: Delete from student;
Example 2:Delete from student where address=’BVRM’;
DCL Commands:
Two types of DCL commands are
1. Grant
2. Revoke

 Grant: SQL Grant command is used to grant a privileges on the database objects to the
users.
The syntax for the GRANT command is:
GRANT privilege_name ON object_name TO user_name ;
Example:  GRANT SELECT ON employee TO user1 ;
This command grants a SELECT permission on employee table to user1.
 REVOKE : The revoke command removes user privileges to the database objects.
The syntax for the REVOKE command is:
REVOKE privilege_name ON object_name FROM User_name ;
For Example:
REVOKE SELECT ON employee FROM user1;
This command will revoke a SELECT privilege on employee table from user1.

Define join and Explain different types of joins in SQL?

The SQL Joins clause is used to combine records from two or more

tables in a database. A JOIN is a means for combining fields from two
tables by using values common to each.

There are different types of joins available in SQL:

INNER JOIN:
 returns rows when there is a match in both tables.
LEFT JOIN: 
returns all rows from the left table, even if there are no matches in the
right table.
RIGHT JOIN: 
returns all rows from the right table, even if there are no matches in the
left table.
FULL JOIN:
returns rows when there is a match in one of the tables.
SELF JOIN: 
is used to join a table to itself as if the table were two tables,
temporarily renaming at least one table in the SQL statement.

CARTESIAN JOIN:
returns the Cartesian product of the sets of records from the two or
more joined tables.
Consider two tables student and course as shown below:
cross join or cartesian join

natural join

innerjoin

outer joins
Explain about control structures of PL/SQL?
CONDITIONAL CONTROL STATEMNETS In PL/SQL there are three types of conditional
control : IF - THEN, IF-THEN-ELSE and CASE

IF – THEN Statement
This is the most basic kind of a conditional control and has the following structure

If Condition Then
Statement 1;
….
Statement 2;
End If;
The reserved word IF marks the beginning of the IF statement.
IF – THEN – ELSE
This statement enables you to specify two groups of statements One group of statements
is executed when the condition evaluates to TRUE and the other group of statements is executed
when the condition evaluates to FALSE.

If Condition Then
Statement 1;
ELSE
Statement 2;
End If;
Statement 3;
CASE:
A case statement has the following structure:

CASE SELECTOR
WHEN EXPRESSION 1 STATEMENT 1;
WHEN EXPRESSION 1 STATEMENT 1;
…..
WHEN EXPRESSION 1 STATEMENT 1;
ELSE STATEMENT N+1;
END CASE;

The reserved word CASE marks the beginning of the case statement. A selector is a value that
determines which WHEN clause should be executed.

ITERATIVE CONTROL
In PL/SQL there are three types of loops : Simple LOOP, WHILE loops and Numeric FOR
loop
A simple loop, as you can see from its name, is the most basic kind of loop and has the following
structure:

LOOP
STATEMENT 1;
STATEMENT 2;
…….
STATEMENT N;
END LOOP;

The reserved word LOOP marks the beginning of the simple loop. Statement 1 through N are a
sequence of statements that is executed repeatedly.

EXIT statement causes a loop to terminate when exit condition evaluates to TRUE.

LOOP
STATEMENT 1;
STATEMENT 2;
IF CONDITION THEN
EXITL;
END IF;
…….
STATEMENT N;
END LOOP;
WHILE LOOPS:
A while loop has the following structure

WHILE CONDITION LOOP

STATEMNET 1;
STATEMNET 2;
……
STATEMNET N;
End loop;
The reserved word WHILE marks the beginning of a loop construct. The word CONDITION is
the test condition of the loop that evaluates to TRUE or FALSE.

NUMERIC FOR LOOP:

A numeric FOR loop is called numeric because it requires an integer as its terminating
value. Its structure is as follows.

FOR loop_counter IN[REVERSE] Lower_limit..upper_limit LOOP

STATEMENT 1;
STATEMENT 2;
……
STATEMENT N;
END LOOP;
The reversed word FOR marks the beginning of a FOR loop construct. The variable
loop_counter is an implicitly defined index variable. There is no need to define the loop counter
in the declaration section. The values of the lower_limit and upper_limit are evaluated once for
the iteration of the loop.

Define function and Explain with suitable examples using PL/SQL?

Functions is a standalone PL/SQL subprogram. Like PL/SQL procedure, functions have a
unique name by which it can be referred. These are stored as PL/SQL database objects.

Procedure Vs. Function: Key Differences

Procedure Function
 Used mainly to a execute certain  Used mainly to perform some calculation
process

 Cannot call in SELECT statement  A Function that contains no DML statements

can be called in SELECT statement

 Use OUT parameter to return the  Use RETURN to return the value
value

 It is not mandatory to return the value  It is mandatory to return the value

 RETURN will simply exit the control  RETURN will exit the control from
from subprogram. subprogram and also returns the value

 Return datatype will not be specified  Return datatype is mandatory at the time of
at the time of creation creation

Write a PL/SQL programme to demonstrate functions.

CREATE OR REPLACE FUNCTION totalcustomers
RETURN NUMBER IS
total NUMBER(2) := 0;
BEGIN
SELECT COUNT(*) INTO total FROM emp1;
RETURN total;
END;

O/P: Function created.

To use Function:

DECLARE
c NUMBER(2);
BEGIN
c := totalcustomers();
dbms_output.put_line('Total number of customers:'||c);
END;

O/P:
Total number of customers:4

Statement processed.