AST 308 Thermo

SOUTHERN LEYTE STATE UNIVERSITY -SAN JUAN
San Juan, Southern Leyte
Workbook
in
AST 308
Applied Thermodynamics
JOWITZ C. CERO, M.E., M.T.E.
2nd Semester
AY: 2017-18
i
PREFACE
The content of this workbook is taken from

the different authors who are experts in the field
of engineering to help the students who are
enrolled in Applied Thermodynamics. This
workbook contains learning outcomes that you
must accomplished one in a while. The
presentation of topics used 4As Model to ensure
a learner-centered approach.
The workbook is designed to introduce

students to the basic concepts of
Thermodynamics systems and their application
in real life situations. The said workbook will help
students to understand the dynamics of energy
through the air, gas or other media; and build
students’ ability to solve thermodynamic
problems and also, provide students with the
ability to understand different thermodynamic
processes including isothermal, adiabatic,
isentropic, isochoric, and isobaric,
enthalpies/analysis of systems, first, second,
and third laws of thermodynamics and the
performance characteristics of heat engines in a
Carnot cycle.
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APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
I Module Guide iv
II Pre-Test v
III Module 1 Introduction to Thermodynamics 1-15

Lesson 1 Thermodynamics 2
Lesson 2 Viewpoints in thermodynamics, thermodynamic

property, state, path & process) 7
IV Module 2 Thermodynamic processes and Zeroth law of thermodynamics 16-37
Lesson 3 Thermodynamics process 17

Lesson 4 Zeroth law of thermodynamics 28
V Module 3 First, Second and Third Law of Thermodynamics 38-51

Lesson 5 First Law of Thermodynamics 39
Lesson 6 Second and Third Law of Thermodynamics 40
VI Module 4 Application of Thermodynamics 52-64

Lesson 7 Application of Thermodynamics and Source of Power 53
Lesson 8 Power Production in the Future 56
VII Post-Test 65
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MODULE GUIDE
To start the course module, you need to complete the pre-test structured by the author of this module. The
pre-test covered all topics of the course. You don’t need to worry because pre-test will not be graded, just answer
the test in order to determine the level of understanding or prior knowledge to the subject.
Course module is divided into two terms, two modules for midterm and another two for the final term. A
separate examination shall be given to you to assess the knowledge gained from the modules. Dates on the
examination will be announced accordingly.
Every topic contains learning outcomes that you must accomplished one in a while. The presentation of topics
used 4As Model to ensure a learner-centered approach. You must complete every activity provided to help
yourself understand the topic easily.
Once done with the course module, a separate parallel post-test will be accomplished by you to further
evaluate the learning and the module itself. References are provided for further research on your end.
This course module is divided into two terms, two for the midterm and another two for the final term.
Each of the four modules consists of three (3) to four (4) Lessons.
In this module, you are required to answer the following:
 Pre-Test
 Activities
 Assessment/Post-test.
Answer on the different activities should be written in the space provided within the module. For the activities
that would require you to draw, you can use pencil or any drawing materials unless you draw it clearly.
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PRE-TEST
Direction: Multiple Choice. Please read carefully and encircle the letter that correspond to the BEST answer.
ENCIRCLE the letter of your answer.
1. Carnot cycle consists of

a) Two constant volume and two reversible adiabatic processes
b) Two constant pressure and two reversible adiabatic processes
c) Two isothermal and two reversible adiabatic processes
d) One constant volume, one constant pressure and two reversible adiabatic processes
2. Which of the following factor affects the heat of reaction based on Kirchhoff equation?
a) Molecularity
b) Volume
c) Temperature
d) Pressure
3. The branch of Physics that deals with heat, work and temperature, and their relation to energy, radiation
and physical properties of matter is known as
a) Thermal Mechanics
b) Mechanics
c) Thermodynamics
d) Dynamics
4. Thermodynamics deals with
a) Bulk System
b) Molecular constitution of matter
c) Atoms and molecules
d) none of the options
5. Thermodynamics is classified into
a) Classical Thermodynamics
b) Statistical and Equilibrium Thermodynamics
c) Chemical Thermodynamics
d) Option a, b and c
6. The term thermodynamics was coined by
a) Newton
b) James Prescott Joule
c) William Thomson
d) Wilhelm Röntgen
7. Gas laws are applicable to
a) Gases as well as vapors
b) Gases and steam
c) Gases alone and not to vapors
d) Gases and vapors under certain conditions
8. Which of the following is mostly neglected while doing calculations for finding maximum work?
a) Kinetic Energy
b) Potential Energy
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c) both of the mentioned

d) none of the mentioned
9. Which of the following is correct for any thermodynamic system?
a) The internal energy changes in all processes
b) Internal energy and entropy are state functions
c) The change in entropy can never be zero
d) Heat gained or lost in an adiabatic process is always zero
10. Which of the following is an implication of the zeroth law of Thermodynamics?
a) Energy in the universe can neither be created nor destroyed
b) A pure crystal kept at −273.15 deg. C has a very low entropy
c) If systems A and B are in thermal equilibrium with system C, then systems A, B, C are in thermal
equilibrium with each other
d) Entropy of the universe is always increasing
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MODULE 1
INTRODUCTION TO THERMODYNAMICS
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LESSON 1
THERMODYNAMICS
Learning Outcomes
At the end of this module, the students will be able to:
 Explain the basic concepts of Thermodynamics Systems

 Distinguish between Open, Closed and Isolated systems
1.1.1 Introduction of Thermodynamic Systems
Thermodynamics deals with the change of one form of energy to another form. Thermodynamics emerged
primarily during the nineteenth century. The fundamental concepts of thermodynamics consider the problem of
conversion of heat into mechanical work and vice versa, which inspired the great "Industrial Revolution".
Thermodynamics can be defined as the science of energy and its effect on the physical properties of substances.
The name thermodynamics was formed from the Greek words therme (heat) and dynamics (power).
Thermodynamics is a branch of Physics that deals with the relationship among heat, work and properties of
system which are in equilibrium with one another.
Thermodynamic System: Certain quantity of matter or region in space which is under thermodynamic study or
analysis is called as a thermodynamic system. Let us say for example we are studying the engine of the vehicle, in
this case engine is called as the system. Similarly, the other examples of system can be complete refrigerator, air-
conditioner, washing machine, heat exchange, a utensil with hot water etc.
Surroundings: Everything external to the system is called surroundings.
System boundary: Interface separating system and surroundings. Boundaries can also be fixed or moveable (e.g.,
a piston).
Figure 1.1.1.1 Bounded System Figure 1.1.1.2 Thermodynamic System
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Universe: Combination of system and surroundings.
Figure 1.1.1.3 System Boundary Illustration
1.1.2 Types of Thermodynamic Systems
There are three main types of system: open system, closed system and isolated system.
Open system: The system in which the transfer of mass as well as energy can take place across its boundary is
called as an open system. Our previous example of engine is an open system. In this case we provide fuel to
engine and it produces power which is given out, thus there is exchange of mass as well as energy. The engine
also emits heat which is exchanged with the surroundings. The other example of open system is boiling water in
an open vessel, where transfer of heat as well as mass in the form of steam takes place between the vessel and
surrounding. When studying and analyzing devices such as engines, turbines as a whole… it is often useful to
define the boundary of the system to be an identifiable volume with a continuous flow of working fluid in to and
out of the system. This is termed a control volume. A control volume is said to be enclosed by a control surface.
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Figure 1.1.2.1 Open System: Car Engine
Closed system: The system in which the transfer of energy takes place across its boundary with the surrounding,
but no transfer of mass takes place is called as closed system. The closed system is fixed mass system. An
example is the water being heated in the closed vessel, where water will get heated but its mass will remain same.
In the case of a closed system, in which the mass of matter inside the system remains constant, the control volume
is referred to as control mass.
Figure 1.1.2.2 Open System: Piston – Cylinder Assembly
Isolated system: The system in which neither the transfer of mass nor that of energy takes place across its
boundary with the surroundings is called as isolated system. Here there will neither transfer of mass nor that of
energy. Hot water, coffee or tea kept in the thermos flask is closed system. However, if we pour this fluid in a
cup, it becomes an open system.
Figure 1.1.2.3 Comparison between Open, Closed, and Isolated Systems
1.1.3 Activity
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Write your answers in the space provided.

Answer the following:
1. Explain the differences between thermodynamic systems: open, closed, and isolated. Write it in a table
form.
2. Define the terms:
a. Thermodynamic System
b. State
c. Process
d. Control mass
e. Control Volume
f. Control Surface.
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References
SLSU – San Juan Library Textbook
Fundamental of Engineering Thermodynamics

Call#: TJ 265 M 67 2000
Author: Sharpio, Howard N.
Sublocation: Circulation
Published: 2000
Recommended Readings:
1. Thermodynamics – An Engineering Approach (4th Edition 2012) by Yunus A .Cengel and Michael A.
Boles
2. Fundamentals of Classical Thermodynamics (4th Edition 1996) by Richard E. Sonntag and Claus
Borgnakke
Other References and Textbooks
1. Fundamentals of Engineering Thermodynamics (6th Edition 2008) by Michael J. Moran and Howard N.
Shapiro. John Wiley & Sons
2. Introduction to Engineering Thermodynamics (6th Edition 2008) by Michael J. Moran and Howard N.
Shapiro. John Wiley & Son
3. Introduction to Engineering Thermodynamics (2nd Edition 2007) by Richard E. Sonntag and Claus
Borgnakke
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LESSON 2
VIEWPOINTS IN THERMODYNAMICS, THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTY, STATE, PATH

& PROCESS
Learning Outcomes
 Distinguish between microscopic and macroscopic viewpoints, point and path function, process, state &
path
 Define thermodynamic properties such as pressure, temperature, volume, velocity, mass, enthalpy,
entropy
1.2.1 Viewpoints in Thermodynamics
Table 1.2.1 The behavior of matter can be studied at two levels
Microscopic Macroscopic
1 Also called Classical Thermodynamics Also called Statistical Thermodynamics
2 In this approach, a certain quantity of matter In this approach, events occurring at the
is considered, without taking in to account molecular level is considered.
the events occurring at the molecular level.
3 Does not require the knowledge of behavior Does require the knowledge of behavior of
of individual particles (molecule/atoms individual particles (molecule/atoms etc…)
etc…)
4 Macroscopic effects could be easily analyzed Microscopic effects could be easily analyzed
by human sense. by human sense.
5 Example: A moving car, A rolling stone Example: Individual molecules present in air
etc…
1.2.2 Thermodynamic Properties
A property is any measurable characteristic of a system. The common properties include: pressure (P),
temperature (T), volume (V), velocity (v), mass (m), enthalpy (H), entropy (S).
Properties can be intensive or extensive. Intensive properties are those whose values are independent of the mass
possessed by the system, such as pressure, temperature, and velocity. Extensive properties are those whose values
are dependent of the mass possessed by the system, such as volume, enthalpy, and entropy.
1.2.3 State, Process & Path
When all the properties of a system have definite value at a particular instant, then the system is said to exist in a
state at that instant. At a given state all the properties of the system have definite values. If the value of even one
property changes, the state of the system changes.
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Figure 1.2.3.1 A System at two different States
When the properties of a system are assumed constant from point to point and there is no change over time, the
system is in a thermodynamic equilibrium.
A system is said to be at steady state if none of its properties changes with time.
The changes that a system undergoes from one equilibrium state to another is called a process. The series of
states through which a system passes during a process is called path.
If a system returns to its initial state at the end of a process, then the system is said to have undergone a cycle. For
a cycle the initial and final state are the same.
Figure 1.2.3.2 PV – Diagram State 1-2 Figure 1.2.3.3 PV – Diagram State 1-2
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1.2.4 Point and Path Thermodynamic Function
Point function does not depend on the path of the system. It only depends on the state of the system. Examples of
point functions are: temperature, pressure, density, mass, volume, enthalpy, entropy, internal energy etc. Change
in point function can be obtained from the initial and final values of the function. These properties can be located
on a graph by a point.
Figure 1.2.4 Thermodynamic Process 1-2
Path function depends on the path by which system arrived at a given state. Examples for path functions are
work and heat. These properties cannot be located on graph by a point but are given by area. Path has to defined
in order to evaluate path functions. It depends on nature of process that can follow different paths between same
states.
Path functions are not properties of the system, while point functions are properties of the system.
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1.2.5 Activity

Define the common thermodynamic properties: pressure (P), temperature (T), volume (V), velocity (v), mass (m),
enthalpy (H), entropy (S).
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1.2.6 Laboratory Experiment
EXPERIMENT 1
KEEP YOUR CANDY COOL WITH THE POWER OF EVAPORATION!
1.2.6.1 Abstract
Did you know that your body has a built-in cooler? And it might not be what you think! Sweat is produced when
you are hot, but its purpose is actually to cool your body as the water in it evaporates from your skin. In this
science fair project, you'll use the energy produced when water evaporates to cool down chocolate-covered candy
so it doesn't melt.
1.2.6.2 Objective
 In this DIY project, you will discover how to use the evaporation of water to keep chocolate-covered
candy from melting.
1.2.6.3 Introduction
You've probably noticed that when you're outside on a hot summer day, your body starts to sweat. But did you
know that sweat, or perspiration, is actually your body's way of cooling down? Sweat, which is mostly water,
cools us down when it evaporates.
Evaporation is the process that occurs when water changes from a liquid into a gas (in this case, the gas is water
vapor). When your sweat evaporates, it carries heat energy from your body with it. The faster your sweat
evaporates, the more heat is carried away, and the more the skin surface from which it evaporates is cooled.
As water evaporates from an object, it makes the air above the object more humid, (filled with more water vapor)
which, in turn, slows down the evaporation process. This is because once the air is already full of water vapor,
there is nowhere for the water on your skin to evaporate. But if you fan the moist, humid air away, then the water
can evaporate more quickly. That's why you feel cooler if you fan yourself or if there's a gust of wind.
In places with hot weather, engineers design misters—machines that spray a fine water mist—for use in public
places to help people keep cool. These misters help out your body's natural sweat cooling system by providing
more water to evaporate and carry away heat energy from your body. Another way that you can keep cool on a
hot day is by dipping a bandana in water and wearing it around your neck. The extra water from the bandana
causes more evaporation, which keeps your body even cooler than it would be with only sweat.
How can you use evaporative cooling to keep chocolate candies from melting? This DIY project will help you
find out!
1.2.6.4 Question
Instruction: You can write your answers (handwritten or typewritten) at the back or provide a separate sheet of
paper.
1. How does sweat cool your body down?
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2. What are some ways people use evaporation to keep cool?

3. How do engineers use evaporation to keep objects cool?
1.2.6.5 Materials and Equipment
 Paper towel (6 sheets)

 Scissors
 Small bowl of room-temperature water
 Chocolate candies in wrappers or small chocolate candy bars in wrappers (6) Note: Teardrop-shaped
chocolates are not recommended.
 Tape
 Ruler
 Drinking glass
 Hair dryer
 Timer
 Lab notebook
1.2.6.6 Experimental Procedure
1. Cut your paper towel sheet into strips that are about 3 inches wide.
2. Take one paper towel strip and wet it by dripping water on it. It should feel wet, but not dripping.
3. Keeping the candies in their wrappers, tightly wrap one of the candies in the wet paper towel strip and
tightly wrap another candy in a dry paper towel strip. The dry paper towel strip might have a tendency to
unwrap. Keep it in place with a small piece of tape.
4. Place the two candies side-by-side on a heatproof surface. Place a glass upside down on the edges of the
paper strips to keep the candy in place. The setup is shown in Figure 1.2.6.6.1
Figure 1.2.6.6.1 An upside-down glass holds the candies that are wrapped in paper towel strips in place.
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5. Hold your hair dryer so the air will blow down over the candies. The hair dryer should be 8 inches above
the candy, as shown in Figure 1.2.6.6.2
Figure 1.2.6.6.2 A hair dryer held at 8 inches above the candy blows hot air on the candies
6. Using your timer, blow hot air (with the hair dryer on high) for 5 minutes.
7. After 5 minutes, stop the hair dryer. Observe how the paper towel strips have changed. Remove the paper
towel strips and open the wrappers.
8. In your lab notebook, record your observations about what happened to the candy wrapped in the wet
paper towel versus the candy wrapped in the dry paper towel. A table like Table 1 can help organize your
observations.
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9. Repeat steps 1–8 two more times with new candies and paper towel strips. Are your observations
consistent between trials? Can you use the information you learned from the Introduction and your
background reading to explain your observations?
10. To gain an even deeper understanding of evaporative cooling, try the Variations.
1.2.6.7 Variations
 Try the experiment again, using thermometers to determine the starting temperature, and the final
temperature that each candy reaches after 5 minutes beneath the hair dryer. Graph your results. Note: for
help creating graphs
 What happens if you put the candies behind a window in the sun? The sun provides a heat source but the
moist air would not be blown away like it is with a hair dryer. How does this affect the melting of the
candies? What about the final temperature of the candies? Now what happens if you use a paper fan to fan
the paper towel-wrapped candies while they are in the sun?
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1.2.7 References

Call#: TJ 265 M 67 2000
Published: 2000
Boles
Borgnakke
Shapiro. John Wiley & Son
Borgnakke
Laboratory References
 https://www.sciencebuddies.org/science-fair-projects/project-ideas/Chem_p076/chemistry/keep-your-
candy-cool-with-the-power-of-evaporation#background
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MODULE 2
THERMODYNAMIC PROCESSES
AND ZEROTH LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
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LESSON 3
THERMODYNAMIC PROCESSES
Learning Outcomes
 Explain and understand the different Thermodynamic Processes

 Learn about Quasi of Equilibrium Process
 Distinguish between Adiabatic compression and expansion, Adiabatic and Isentropic
2.1.1 Introduction
A process occurs when the system changes from one state (one set of values of its physical properties) to another
state. The system returns to its original state when all of its macroscopic physical properties resume their original
values.
Heat transfer and work are two processes that change the state of thermodynamic equilibrium. A quasi-static
process is one in which the system changes slowly enough so that each succeeding state through which it passes is
essentially in equilibrium. All the reversible processes are quasi-static (occur very slowly). An equilibrium state is
a static state. During a reversible process, the system can deviate from equilibrium by only an infinitesimal
amount.
There are other thermodynamic processes in equilibrium thermodynamics. The processes are characterized by the
thermodynamic variable that is kept constant.
2.1.2 Isothermal Process
Figure 2.1.2 Isothermal Process: PV Diagram A-B
Physics, studies systems and objects to measure their temperatures, motions and other physical characteristics. It
can be applied to anything from single-celled organisms to mechanical systems to galaxies, stars and planets and
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the processes that govern them. In physics, thermodynamics is a branch that deals with the relationships between
heat energy and other forms of energy. It describes how thermal energy is converted into other forms of energy
and how it affects matter.
An isothermal process is a thermodynamic process in which the temperature of a system remains constant. The
transfer of heat into or out of the system happens so slowly that thermal equilibrium is maintained. At a particular
constant temperature, the change of a substance, object or system is known as Isothermal Process. Usually, there
are two phenomena under which this process can take place. If a system is in contact with a thermal reservoir
from outside, then, to maintain thermal equilibrium, the system slowly adjusts itself with the temperature of the
reservoir through heat exchange. In contrast, in another phenomenon, no heat transfer occurs between a system
and its surrounding. In this process, the temperature of the system is changed in order to keep the heat constant.
This process is known as Adiabatic Process.
An isothermal process occurs in systems that have some means of regulating the temperature. This process occurs
in systems ranging from highly structured machines to living cells. A few examples of an isothermal process are
given below.
 Changes of state or phase changes of different liquids through the process of melting and evaporation are
examples of the isothermal process.
 One of the examples of the industrial application of the isothermal process is the Carnot engine. In this
engine, some parts of the cycles are carried out isothermally.
 A refrigerator works isothermally. A set of changes take place in the mechanism of a refrigerator but the
temperature inside remains constant. Here, the heat energy is removed and transmitted to the surrounding
environment.
 Another example of an isothermal process is the heat pump. The heat is either removed from the house
and dumped outside or the heat is brought inside the house from outside to warm the house. In either case,
the goal is to keep the house at the desired temperature setting.
 Another example of isothermal process is latent heat of vaporization of water. When we heat water to 100
degree Celsius, it will not start boiling instantly. It will keep on absorbing heat at constant temperature;
this heat is called latent heat of vaporization. Only after absorbing this heat water at constant temperature,
water will get converted into steam.
 An isothermal process is of special interest for ideal gases. An ideal gas is a hypothetical gas whose
molecules don’t interact and face an elastic collision with each other. The Joule’s second law states that
the internal energy of a fixed amount of an ideal gas only depends on the temperature. Thus, the internal
energy of an ideal gas in an isothermal process is constant.
 In an isothermal condition, for an ideal gas, the product of Pressure and Volume (PV) is constant. This is
known as Boyle’s law. Physicist and chemist Robert Boyle published this law in 1662. Boyle’s law is
often termed as Boyle–Mariotte law, or Mariotte’s law because French physicist Edme Mariotte
independently discovered the same law in 1679.
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2.1.3 Adiabatic Process
Figure 2.1.3 Adiabatic Process Diagram 1-2
The process, during which the heat content of the system remains constant, is called as adiabatic process. Thus, in
adiabatic process no transfer of heat between the system and its surroundings takes place. The wall of the system
which does not allows the flow of heat through it, is called as adiabatic wall, while the wall which allows the flow
of heat is called as diathermic wall.
The adiabatic process can be either reversible or irreversible. Following are the essential conditions for the
adiabatic process to take place:
 The system must be perfectly insulated from the surrounding.

 The process must be carried out quickly so that there is a sufficient amount of time for heat transfer to
take place.
For instance, the gas compression within an engine cylinder is expected to happen so fast that on the compression
process timescale, a minimum amount of the energy of the system could be produced and sent out in the form of
heat. Despite the cylinders being not insulated and having a conductive nature, the process is deemed to be
adiabatic. The same could be considered to be true for the enlargement process of such a system.
Reversible adiabatic process is also called an Isentropic Process. It is an idealized thermodynamic process that is
adiabatic and in which the work transfers of the system are frictionless; there is no transfer of heat or of matter
and the process is reversible. Such an idealized process is useful in engineering as a model of and basis of
comparison for real processes.
Adiabatic expansion is defined as an ideal behavior for a closed system, in which the pressure is constant and the
temperature is decreasing.
Adiabatic compression of the air is defined as the compression in which no heat is added or subtracted from the
air and the internal energy of the air is increased which is equal to the external work done on the air. The pressure
of the air is more than the volume as the temperature increases during compression.
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2.1.4 Isochoric Process
Figure 2.1.4 Isochoric Process: PV Diagram 1-2
An isochoric process, also called a constant-volume process, an isovolumetric process, or an isometric process, is
a thermodynamic process during which the volume of the closed system undergoing such a process remains
constant. An isochoric process is exemplified by the heating or the cooling of the contents of a sealed, inelastic
container: The thermodynamic process is the addition or removal of heat; the isolation of the contents of the
container establishes the closed system; and the inability of the container to deform imposes the constant-volume
condition. The isochoric process here should be a quasi-static process.
2.1.5 Isobaric process
Figure 2.1.5.1 Isobaric Process: PV Diagram A-B
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An Isobaric process is a thermodynamic process taking place at constant pressure. The term isobaric has been
derived from the Greek words “iso” and “baros” meaning equal pressure. As such, the constant pressure is
obtained when the volume is expanded or contracted. This basically neutralizes any pressure change due to the
transfer of heat.
In an isobaric process, when the heat is transferred to the system some work is done. However, there is also a
change in the internal energy of the system. This further means that no quantities as in the first law of
thermodynamics become zero.
An isobaric process is also called constant pressure process.
The figure below shows one method of changing the state of gas while keeping the pressure constant.
Figure 2.1.5.2 Isobaric Process
A cylinder of gas has a tight-fitting, massless piston that can slide up and down but the container is closed so that
no atoms enter or escape. The mass on top applies a constant downward force Mg on the piston. The atmosphere
also presses down on the piston. In equilibrium, the upward force PA on the piston by the gas in the cylinder,
where A is the piston’s area, exactly balances the downward force Mg plus the air-pressure force Patmos A.
Consequently, the gas pressure inside the cylinder is:
This pressure is independent of the temperature of the gas or the height of the piston, so it stays constant as long
as M is unchanged.
If the cylinder is warmed, the gas will expand and push the piston up. But the pressure, determined by mass M,
will not change. This process is shown on the P – V diagram as the horizontal line 1 → 2. We call this an isobaric
expansion. As isobaric compression occurs if the gas is cooled, lowering the piston. An isobaric process appears
on a P – V diagram as a horizontal line.
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Figure 2.1.5.3 Isobaric Process 1-2: PV Diagram
An example of the isobaric process includes the boiling of water to steam or the freezing of water to ice. In the
process, a gas either expands or contracts to maintain constant pressure and hence the net amount of work is done
by the system or on the system. The amount of heat dQ is partly used in increasing the temperature dT and partly
used in doing external work.
Work Done
The work done is found from the equation;
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Figure 2.1.5.4 Work Done in an Isobaric Process
Since the pressure is constant in an isobaric process, the integral becomes
If the gas expands, V f <V i so that ∆ V < 0, and the work that is done by the gas is negative.
The work done by the gas is represented on the P-V diagram by the rectangular area under the isobaric path on the
diagram. Whether the area is positive or negative, depends on whether the gas expands or is compressed.
2.1.6 Isentropic Process
Figure 2.1.6 Isentropic Process on a T-s Diagram 1-2
Isentropic process is an idealized thermodynamic process that is both adiabatic and reversible. The work transfers
of the system are frictionless, and there is no transfer of heat or matter. Such an idealized process is useful in
engineering as a model of and basis of comparison for real processes.[7] This is idealized as reversible processes
do not occur in reality; thinking of a process as both adiabatic and reversible would show that the initial and final
entropies are the same, thus, the reason it is called isentropic (entropy does not change). Thermodynamic
processes are named based on the effect they would have on the system (ex. isovolumetric: constant volume,
isenthalpic: constant enthalpy). Even though in reality it is not necessarily possible to carry out an isentropic
process, some may be approximated as such.
The word "isentropic" can be interpreted in another way, since its meaning is deducible from its etymology. It
means a process in which the entropy of the system remains unchanged, as mentioned this requires the process to
be both adiabatic and reversible. However, this could also occur in a system where the work done on the system
includes friction internal to the system, and heat is withdrawn from the system in just the right amount to
compensate for the internal friction, so as to leave the entropy unchanged. However, in relation to the universe,
the entropy of the universe would increase as a result.
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2.1.7 Quasi Equilibrium Process
When a process proceeds in such a manner that the system remains infinitesimally close to an equilibrium state at
all times, it is called a quasi-static, or quasi equilibrium process. A quasi-static process can be considered as a
sufficiently slow process that allows the system to adjust itself internally so that properties in one part of the
system do not change any faster than those at other parts.
Quasi means almost or near to. Quasi–Static process means very nearly static process. Let us consider a system of
gas contained in cylinder. The gas held by a moving piston. A weight W is placed over the piston. Due to the
weight, the gas in cylinder is compressed. After the gas reaches equilibrium, the properties of gas are denoted by
p1, v1, t1. The weight placed over the piston is balanced by upward force exerted by the gas. If the weight is
removed, then there will be unbalanced force between the system and the surroundings. The gas under pressure
will expand and push the piston upward till it touches the stops. The properties at this state after reaching
equilibrium are p2, v2, t2. But the intermediate states passed through by the system are non-equilibrium states
which cannot be described by thermodynamic coordinates. In this case we only have initial and final states and do
not have a path connecting them.
Figure 2.1.7.1 Quasi Equilibrium Process: PV Diagram
Suppose, the weight is made of large numbers of small weights. And one by one each of these small weights are
removed and allowed the system to reach an equilibrium state. Then we have intermediate equilibrium states and
the path described by these sates will not deviate much from the thermodynamic equilibrium state. Such a
process, which is the locus of all the intermediate points passed by the system is known as Quasi-static process. It
means, this process is almost near to the thermodynamically equilibrium process. Infinite slowness is the
characteristic feature of quasi-static process.
24
Figure 2.1.7.2 Quasi Equilibrium Process: PV Diagram
25
2.1.8 Activity

1. Explain the differences between thermodynamic processes: Isothermal, Adiabatic, Isochoric, Isobaric,
and Isentropic. And a write summary in a table form.
2. Does Isentropic mean Adiabatic? Explain your answer.
26
2.1.9 References

Call#: TJ 265 M 67 2000
Published: 2000
Boles
Borgnakke
Borgnakke
27
LESSON 4
ZEROTH LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
Learning Outcomes
 Define Zeroth Law Thermodynamics and explain the principle of thermal Equilibrium
 Understand the significance of Zeroth Law Thermodynamics in our real-life
2.2.1 Introduction
Zeroth law of thermodynamics is one of the four laws of thermodynamics. The credit for formulating the law goes
to Ralph H. Fowler. Interestingly, the zeroth law of thermodynamics was actually developed much later than the
original three laws. However, there was some confusion regarding the nomenclature, whether it should be named
the fourth law or some other name. The complication arose because the new law gave a much clearer definition of
the temperature and basically replaced what the other three laws had to state. Fowler finally came up with the
name to end this conflict.
The zeroth law of thermodynamics frames an idea of temperature as an indicator of thermal equilibrium.
2.2.2 Principle
Consider three systems namely A, B and C. If the system A and B are in thermal equilibrium separately and A
and C are in thermal equilibrium separately, then B and C should be in thermal equilibrium.
When two bodies at different temperatures are brought in to contact, after some time, they attain a common
equilibrium and are then said to exist in thermal equilibrium. This law is the basis for temperature measurement.
Figure 2.2.2 Zeroth Law Illustration
There are also various ways to state the zeroth law of thermodynamics. However, in simple terms, it can be said,
“Systems that are in thermal equilibrium exist at the same temperature”.
Zeroth law of thermodynamics takes into account that temperature is something worth measuring because it
predicts whether the heat will transfer between objects or not. This is true regardless of how the objects interact.
Even if two objects are not in physical contact, heat still can flow between them, by means of radiation mode of
heat transfer. Whereas, zeroth law of thermodynamics states that, if the systems are in thermal equilibrium, no
heat flow will take place.
Thermal Equilibrium
28
Temperature is a property that distinguishes thermodynamics from other sciences. This property can distinguish
between hot and cold. When two or more bodies at different temperatures are brought into contact then after some
time, they attain a common temperature and they are said to exist in thermal equilibrium.
Systems are said to be in thermal equilibrium if there is no heat transfer, even if they are in a position to transfer
heat, based on other factors. For example, if we put food in the refrigerator overnight then that food is in thermal
equilibrium with the air of that refrigerator. Heat no longer flows from food to the air or from the air to the food,
this state is known as thermal equilibrium.
Significance of Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
 The zeroth law is incredibly important as it allows us to define the concept of a temperature scale.
 It is by the property of temperature that we can make out the difference between hot and cold body.
 The zeroth law of thermodynamics can be used to compare temperature of several bodies.
 The Zeroth law of thermodynamics is the basis for measurement of temperature and setting its scale.
 Zeroth Law is very simple to understand and one may underestimate its importance, but it is this law that
has given us crucial bases for measurement of an important property such as temperature. In fact, we can
say that thermometer is the gift of Zeroth law of thermodynamics.
2.2.3 Application
The law is important for the mathematical formulation of thermodynamics or more precisely for stating the
mathematical definition of temperature. This law is mostly used to compare temperatures of different objects.
If we want to measure the accurate temperature, a reference body is required and a certain characteristic of that
body which changes with temperature. The change in that characteristic may be taken as an indication of a change
of temperature. That selected characteristic is known as thermodynamic property.
Nonetheless, the most common application of the zeroth law of thermodynamics can be seen in thermometers. We
can observe the zeroth law in action by taking a very common thermometer having mercury in a tube. As the
temperature is increased this mercury expands since the area of the tube is constant. Due to this expansion, the
height is increased. Now, the increase in the height of the mercury label shows the changes in temperature and
basically helps us to measure it.
There are different kinds of thermometers that can be used depending on their thermometric property. They are as
follows.
Thermometer Thermometric Property
Constant volume gas thermometer Pressure
Constant pressure gas thermometer Volume
Electrical resistance thermometer Resistant
Thermocouple Thermal emf
Mercury -in -glass thermometer Length
29
Table 2.2.3 Different kind of Thermometer
2.2.4 Activity
1. Define and site a real-life experience where you can relate the Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics.
30
2. The use of electric heaters to heat up living spaces in colder countries is said to be
thermodynamically inefficient. Discuss the reasons.
3.
31
2.2.5 Laboratory Experiment
EXPERIMENT 2
WHAT MAKES ICE MELT FASTEST?
2.2.5.1 Abstract
If you live in a place that gets cold in the winter, you have probably seen trucks out spreading a mixture of sand
and salt on the streets after a snowfall to help de-ice the road. Have you ever wondered how this works? This
basic chemistry project can give you some clues.
2.2.5.2 Objective
 To determine which added material will make ice melt fastest.
2.2.5.3 Introduction
If you have ever made homemade ice cream the old-fashioned way using a hand-crank machine, you probably
know that you need ice and rock salt to make the cream mixture cold enough to freeze. Similarly, if you live in a
cold climate, you have seen the trucks that salt and sand the streets after a snowfall to prevent ice from building
up on the roads. In both of these instances, salt is acting to lower the freezing point of water, and changing what
phase of matter the water is (i.e., turning solid ice into liquid water).
For the ice cream maker, because the rock salt lowers the freezing point of the ice, the temperature of the ice/rock
salt mixture can go below the normal freezing point of water. This makes it possible to freeze the ice cream
mixture in the inner container of the ice cream machine. For the salt spread on streets in wintertime, the lowered
freezing point means that snow and ice can melt even when the weather is below the normal freezing point of
water. Both the ice cream maker and road salt are examples of freezing point depression.
Table salt (technically sodium chloride, or NaCl) when mixed with water is an example of a chemical solution. In
a solution, there is a solvent (the water in this example), and a solute (the salt in this example). A molecule of the
solute dissolves (goes into solution) because the force of attraction between the solute molecule and the solvent
molecules is greater than the force of attraction between the molecules of the solute. Water (H2O) is a good
solvent because it is partially polarized. (This polarization is caused by the distribution of electrons in the water
molecule; specifically, its hydrogen ends have a partial positive charge, and the oxygen end has a partial negative
charge.) Because water molecules are partially polarized, it is possible for them to arrange themselves around ions
(which are molecules or atoms that have a charge), like the sodium (Na+) and chloride (Cl-) ions that make up
table salt. This is why there is a greater attraction between the water molecules and the molecules of salt than
there is between the molecules of salt by themselves, and why the water can dissolve the salt to create a salty
solution.
Other substances when mixed with water can also lower its freezing point. The amount by which the freezing
point is lowered depends only on the number of molecules dissolved, not on their chemical nature. This is an
example of a colligative property. In this science project, you will investigate different substances to see how they
affect the rate at which ice cubes melt. You will test substances that dissolve in water (i.e., soluble substances),
like salt and sugar, as well as a substance that does not dissolve in water (i.e., an insoluble substance), specifically
sand. Which substances will speed up the melting of the ice?
2.2.5.4 Questions
32
1. What is freezing point depression? When does it happen?

2. How are solutions made?
3. Which of the suggested test substances are soluble in water?
4. Which of the suggested test substances are insoluble in water?
2.2.5.5 Materials and Equipment
 Identical bowls or saucers (4)

 Ice cubes (12). They should all be the same size and shape.
 Salt (¾ tsp.)
 Sugar (¾ tsp.)
 Sand (¾ tsp.)
 ¼ teaspoon measuring spoon
 Timer or clock
 Refrigerator. You will want an empty shelf that can hold all four bowls, unstacked, at the same time.
 50 mL graduated cylinder, or smaller size.
 Large cup with a spout, such as some measuring cups. Alternatively, you could use a funnel that fits in
the graduated cylinder.
 Optional: Masking tape and a permanent marker for labeling the bowls
 Lab notebook
2.2.5.6 Experimental Procedure
Tip: As you do your experiment, take a few pictures of yourself in action and of your experimental setup. Use the
pictures to help make your science fair display board more interesting and informative.
1. Get the salt, sugar, sand, and measuring teaspoon ready to use nearby.
a) Once you have set up the ice cubes in their bowls, you will want to quickly add the substances to
the ice cubes so that they do not melt before adding the substances.
2. Into each of the four bowls, quickly place three ice cubes. Arrange the ice cubes so that only the corners
are touching, forming a triangular shape, as shown in Figure 2.1.14, below.
b) Tip: If you are using ice cubes from a tray, it helps to let the tray sit at room temperature a little
(for about five minutes) so that the ice cubes more easily come out of the tray and do not break
into pieces.
33
Figure 2.2.5.6.1 Arrange three ice cubes in each bowl so that just the corners of the ice cubes touch each other.
3. Carefully sprinkle ½ teaspoon (tsp.) of salt over the ice cubes in one bowl, as shown in Figure 3, below.
Then sprinkle ½ tsp. of sugar over the ice cubes in another bowl, and ½ tsp. of sand over the ice cubes in
the third bowl. Do not sprinkle anything over the ice cubes in the fourth bowl — it will be your control.
Figure 2.2.5.6.2 Sprinkle salt, sugar, sand, or nothing over the ice cubes in each bowl.
4. Move each bowl to an empty shelf in the refrigerator. If any of the ice cubes no longer form a triangular
shape in their bowl, gently nudge the ice cubes to make a triangle again.
a) You are doing this experiment in the refrigerator because it is easier to see the effects of
colligative properties at colder temperatures. To think about why this is, imagine melting an ice
cube on a hot, paved road compared to melting it in the refrigerator. The hot temperature of the
34
road will make all of the ice cubes melt very quickly, which makes it harder to see the relatively
minor effects of colligative properties on how fast the ice cubes melt.
5. Note the starting time in your lab notebook. Tell other people who may use the refrigerator that you are
doing a science project and to not leave the refrigerator door open long as this could change the
temperature of the refrigerator.
6. Check on the ice cubes every hour. When the ice cubes in one of the bowls have become at least half
melted, take out all four bowls from the refrigerator and move on to step 7. (Be sure to take the bowls out
before the ice cubes in two or more bowls have completely melted.)
a) Depending on how cold your refrigerator is, it may take about four hours for the ice cubes to
become at least half melted.
b) While you are waiting, make a data table like Table 2.1.14 in your lab notebook.
Table 2.2.5.6 Make a data table like this one in your lab notebook to record your results in. Note that the liquid
measurements should be recorded in milliliters (mL).
7. Carefully pour the liquid water from one of the bowls into a cup with a spout, such as a large measuring
cup. Make sure the ice cubes stay in the bowl, but get as much liquid into the cup as possible. Then
carefully pour the liquid from the cup into the graduated cylinder. Record how much liquid was in the
bowl (the amount of ice melted) in the data table in your lab notebook. After recording your results, clean
out and dry the cup and graduated cylinder.
a) Alternatively, you could use a funnel instead of a cup with a spout and funnel the liquid directly
into the graduated cylinder from the bowl.
8. Repeat step 7 with the three other bowls.
a) When pouring the liquid from the bowl with the sand, try to leave as much sand in the bowl as
possible.
9. Now let the ice cubes completely melt in their bowls (you can leave them at room temperature). Once all
of the ice cubes are melted, repeat steps 7–8 (but this time you will not need to worry about keeping the
ice cubes in the bowls). Record the amount of liquid remaining in each bowl in your data table.
10. Calculate the total amount of water (originally in ice cube form) that was in each bowl. To do this, add
the "amount melted" to the "amount remaining" for each bowl. Record the total amount for each bowl in
your data table.
a) For example, if the amount melted was 65 mL and the amount remaining was 25 mL, the total
amount would be 90 mL.
11. Calculate the percentage of ice that was melted (when you first took the bowls out of the refrigerator) for
each bowl. Do this by dividing the amount melted by the total amount.
a) For example, if 65 mL was melted, and the total amount was 90 mL, dividing 65 mL by 90 mL
would give you 0.72, which is the same as 72%. This means that 72% of the ice melted.
12. Clean out and dry the bowls. Then repeat steps 1–11 at least two more times so that you have done at
least three trials total.
13. Did any of the substances you tested consistently speed up the melting of the ice (compared to the melting
rate of plain ice cubes with nothing added)? If so, can you explain your results?
35
14. Now you are ready to create your science fair display board! If you need help making your display board,
a downloadable display board template for this project is available for purchase below. The template
provides step-by-step guidance for creating all the usual sections of a display board: title, abstract,
background information, question, hypothesis, variables, results, conclusions, and acknowledgements.
2.2.5.7 Variations
 Does the melting rate depend on the amount of solute added? Design an experiment to find out.
 Investigate the effect of temperature on how colligative properties melt the ice cubes. To do this, try your
experiment at different temperatures, such as room temperature or outside on a hot day. Be sure to
monitor the temperature regularly throughout your experiment.
 Do other substances help melt the ice cubes more quickly or slowly? Identify some substances to try and
then repeat this experiment.
 Do you think salt would melt ice in your freezer? Why or why not? Try it and find out.
5.
36
2.2.5.8 References

Call#: TJ 265 M 67 2000
Published: 2000
Boles
Borgnakke
Borgnakke
Laboratory Experiment
 https://www.sciencebuddies.org/science-fair-projects/project-ideas/Chem_p049/chemistry/what-makes-
ice-melt-fastest#makeityourown
37
MODULE 3
FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS,

SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS,
THIRD LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
38
LESSON 4
FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

LEARNING OUTCOMES:
 Understand the concept and principles of the First Law of Thermodynamics

 Learn about the significance and limitations of First Law
 Describe the theory behind the PMM1
 Define and explain the necessity of Heat and Work in the First Law
3.1.1 Introduction
The laws of thermodynamics are not like theorems in mathematics, which can be proved by deduction or
inductive logic. They are based on experimental facts. So far, no experimental evidence is available to cast any
doubt on the correctness of these laws. The first law of thermodynamics deals with the conservation of energy of
a system which undergoes a change of state as a result of work and heat interactions.
A series of experiments carried out by Joule between 1843 and 1848 form the basis for the first law of
thermodynamics. Of the several experiments carried out by Joule, the paddle wheel experiment is considered as
the classic. In Joule’s experiment, a known amount of water was taken in a rigid and insulated vessel. The vessel
was provided with a paddle wheel driven by a mass m. Work was done on the system (water in the vessel) by
lowering the mass m, through a distance (Z1-Z2). The work done on the system was computed in terms of the
change in potential energy of mass m. The thermometer immersed in the water was used to determine the change
in the state of the system. The temperature of water was found to increase after work had been performed on the
system. Once the system had come to “rest”, it was brought in to contact with a water bath and the system was
allowed to come to the initial state. The amount of energy transferred as heat from the system to the bath was
estimated in terms of the temperature rise of the bath. In this particular experiment, the system underwent a series
of processes and was restored to the initial state. In other words, it went through a cyclic change.
Figure 3.1.1.1 Schematic Arrangement of Joule’s Paddle Wheel Experiment
39
A s a result of these experiments, Joule found that the net work done on the system was always proportional to the
net energy removed from the system as heat, irrespective of the type of work interaction, the rate at which work
was done on the system, and the method employed for transferring the energy in the form of work in to thermal
energy.
That is:
Net Heat Transfer=Net Work Transfer
∮ δ Q (¿ System )=δ W (On System)
The first law of thermodynamics can be stated as: whenever a system undergoes a cyclic change, however
complex the cycle may be, the algebraic sum of the work transfers is equal to the algebraic sum of energy
transfers as heat.
It is inconvenient to specify every time whether work is done by the system or on the system, energy is transferred
as heat from the system or to the system. Hence we adopt the following sign convention for work and heat. Work
done by a system on its surroundings is assigned a positive sign and work done by the surroundings on the system
is assigned a negative sign. The energy transfer as heat from surroundings to system is assigned a positive sign,
and energy as heat from system to its surroundings is assigned a negative sign.
Figure 3.1.1.2 Energy Balance in a System
3.1.2 Significance of First Law of Thermodynamics
o The first law of thermodynamics is an expression of the principle of conservation of energy. The first law
expresses that energy can be transformed (i.e. changed from one form to another), but cannot be created
or destroyed.
3.1.3 Limitation of First Law Thermodynamics

 The first law of thermodynamics is a law of conservation of energy only. It does not specify the direction
of the process.
 First law of thermodynamics does not stipulate any restriction in the efficiency of heat to work
conversion.
40
 All spontaneous process proceed in one direction only. The first law of thermodynamics does not deny
the feasibility of a spontaneous process reversing itself.
 The spontaneous processes proceed in one direction only and they never proceed in the reverse direction
on their own. Het always flows from a body at a higher temperature to a body at a lower temperature,
water always flows downwards. The reverse of these never happens spontaneously. The first law of
thermodynamics does not rule out the feasibility of spontaneous process reversing on its own. Therefore,
to explain the phenomenon of certain processes proceeding in one particular direction only, we need
another law. This law is called second law of thermodynamics.
3.1.4 Perpetual Motion Machine of Fist Kind (PMM1 or PMMFK)
Perpetual motion machine of first kind does not exist because such machines violate the first law of
thermodynamics. Perpetual motion machine of first kind (PMM1) is a cyclically operating device which delivers
work without requiring any interaction with the surroundings. Since the device does not interact with the
surroundings 𝛿Q = 0 and hence 𝛿W = 0 , which means no work is done. Such machines will produce the energy
by itself and as we know that according to the law of energy conservation, energy could not be created or
destroyed but could be converted from one form of energy to other form of energy.
Therefore, a machine that does not follow the first law of thermodynamics or law of conservation of energy could
be termed as perpetual motion machine of first kind i.e. PMM1
Figure 3.1.4.1 Graphical representation of PMM1

Before discussing the second law of thermodynamics in detail, it is necessary to define few terms.
3.1.5 Heart and Work
Energy can be divided in to two types Stored energy (chemical, electrical, mechanical (potential and kinetic)) and
Transit energy (heat and work)(Energy interchange between system and its surroundings) .
Heat (Q)
Is defined as the form of energy that is transferred between two systems (or a system and its surroundings) by
virtue of a temperature difference. That is, an energy interaction is heat only if it takes place because of a
temperature difference. Then it follows that there cannot be any heat transfer between two systems that are at the
same temperature, therefore Heat is energy in transition. It is recognized only as it crosses the boundary of a
system. Thus, in thermodynamics, the term heat simply means heat transfer.
Work(W), like heat, is an energy interaction between a system and its surroundings. Energy can cross the
boundary of a closed system in the form of heat or work. Therefore, if the energy crossing the boundary of a
closed system is not heat, it must be work. Heat is easy to recognize: Its driving force is a temperature difference
between the system and its surroundings. Then we can simply say that an energy interaction that is not caused by
a temperature difference between a system and its surroundings is work.
41
A thermal reservoir is a large system from which a finite quantity of energy can be extracted as heat or to which a
finite quantity of energy can be added as heat without changing its temperature.
Heat Source: Supply thermal energy (infinite amount) without changing its temperature. Example: Sun,
Industrial Furnace etc..
Heat Sink: Can absorb thermal energy (infinite amount) without changing its temperature.
Example: Atmosphere
A heat engine is an energy conversion device. It is a cyclically operating device and its primary objective is the
conversion of heat in to work. Heat engine receives heat energy from high temperature source, delivers some
work and rejects the rest of the energy as heat to a low temperature sink.
3.1.6 Activity
1. Explain first law of thermodynamics, its limitations and how these limitations are addressed by second
law of thermodynamics.
a) Explain the concept of thermodynamic equilibrium.
b) State first law of thermodynamics for a closed system undergoing a cycle. In a cyclic process,
heat transfers are +14.7 kJ, -25.2 kJ, -3.56 kJ and +31.5 kJ. What is the network for this cyclic
process?
2. On a hot summer day, a student turns his fan on when he leaves his room in the morning. When he returns
in the evening, will the room be warmer or cooler than the neighboring rooms? Why? Assume all the
doors and win- dows are kept closed.
3. For a cycle, is the net work necessarily zero? For what kind of systems will this be the case?
4. What are the different mechanisms for transferring energy to or from a control volume?
42
3.1.7 References

Call#: TJ 265 M 67 2000
Published: 2000
Boles
Borgnakke
Borgnakke
43
LESSON 5
SECOND AND THIRD LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

LEARNING OUTCOMES:
 Understand the Second law of Thermodynamics.

 Identify valid processes as those that satisfy both the first and Second laws of Thermodynamics.
 Describe the Kelvin–Planck and Clausius statements of the second law of thermodynamics.
 Discuss the concepts of perpetual-motion machines.
 Distinguish between Reversible and Irreversible Processes-, Low- and High-Grade Energy
 Apply the second law of thermodynamics to cycles and cyclic devices.
 Describe the Carnot cycle.
 Examine the Carnot principles, idealized Carnot heat engines, refrigerators, and heat pumps.
 Describe the Third Law of Thermodynamics
 Define Enthalpy and Internal Energy
3.2.1 SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

There are two statements of the second law of thermodynamics.
Kelvin Plank Statement
It is impossible for a heat engine to produce net work in a complete cycle if it exchanges heat only with bodies at
a single fixed temperature.
The Kelvin Plank statement tells us that it is impossible to construct an engine which, while operating cyclically,
absorbs a certain amount of energy as heat from a high temperature reservoir (source) and converts all of it in to
work. Thus, the Kelvin Plank statement implies that no heat engine can have 100% efficiency. This does not
violate the first law of thermodynamics either.
The Kelvin plank statement of second law of thermodynamics tells the impossibility of PMM II. Perpetual motion
machines of second kind (PMM II or PMMSK) are those which does not obey second law of thermodynamics.
They absorb energy as heat from a single thermal reservoir and delivers equivalent amount of work continuously,
meaning a 100% efficiency. PMM II is a hypothetical device. They do not exist.
Figure 3.2.1.1 Perpetual Motion Machine of the Second Kind
44
Clausius Statement
It is impossible to construct a device that, working cyclically, will produce no other effect than the transfer of
energy in the form of heat from a low temperature body to high temperature body.
3.2.1.1 SIGNIFICANCE OF SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
o Second law of thermodynamics does not stipulate any restriction in the efficiency of heat to work
conversion.
o The Clausius statement of second law of thermodynamics tells that spontaneous process cannot proceed
in the reverse direction.
Terms Derived From the Second Law of Thermodynamics
Energy can be divided into two groups:
A. High Grade Energy
The energy which can be fully converted into useful work.
Example: Mechanical work, Electrical Energy, Water Power, Wind Power, Tidal Power
B. Low Grade Energy
The energy which cannot be converted into useful work.
Example: Heat or Thermal Energy, Heat derived from combustion of fossil fuels.
Available Energy
The second law of thermodynamics tells that all the energy absorbed as heat by an engine cannot be converted in
to work. The portion of the energy supplied as heat which can be converted in to work is called available energy.
It is also called “exergy”.
Unavailable Energy
The portion of the energy supplied as heat which cannot be converted in to work is called unavailable energy. It is
also called “anergy”.
The Second Law of Thermodynamics distinguishes between reversible and irreversible process.
A reversible process is one which is performed in such a way that at the conclusion of the process, both the
system and surrounding may be restored to their initial state, without producing any changes in the rest of the
universe.
The process which can occur in only one direction is called irreversible process. An irreversible process cannot be
reversed without causing permanent changes in the surroundings.
45
The characteristics of irreversible process are:
i. An irreversible process can be carried out in only one direction. During an irreversible process, the
system is not in equilibrium.
ii. During an irreversible process, the system is not in equilibrium.
Examples of Reversible Process Examples of Irreversible

Motion without friction Motion with friction
Expansion or compression with no pressure Expansion or compression with finite pressure
difference between the system and surroundings difference
Energy transfer as heat with no temperature Energy transfer as heat with finite temperature
difference across the system boundary difference across the system boundary
Mixing of matter at different state
Mixing of different gases
Spontaneous Process
3.2.1.2 IRREVERSIBILITIES
A process becomes irreversible due to the presence of irriversibilities.
Irriversibilities are caused due to the presence of Mechanical friction, Magnetic hysteresis, Electrical resistance,
Viscosity, Inelasticity etc...which are un avoidable. These irriversibilities increases the “entropy” of the system.
Entropy is a new property defined by second law. Entropy is a measure of the "disorder" of a system. It is
represented by “S”. The higher the disorder, the greater the entropy. Entropy is a point function. It is a property of
the system. As mentioned earlier the second law of thermodynamics distinguishes between a reversible and
irriversible process. It does so with the help of entropy.
It is very difficult to identify a reversible process, but irreversible process can be easily identified. In irreversible
process due to the presence of irriversibilities the entropy always increases. By checking whether the entropy
increases or not, we can tell a process is irreversible or not. Irriversible process increases the entropy of the
universe. This is called principle of increase of entropy.
3.2.1.3 CARNOT CYCLE & CARNOT ENGINE
A cycle consisting of only reversible process are called reversible cycle. Carnot cycle is practically not
possible. It is used as a reference or model for heat engine cycles as it gives maximum efficiency. It is
used to compare actual heat engine cycle efficiencies.
An engine which works on Carnot cycle is called Carnot engine. It’s a hypothetical engine and is not
practically possible to construct. It consist of all reversible process and engine works at a slow rate
converting thermal energy to work. The concept of Carnot engine serves as a means to compare and
measure the performance of other engines.
Consider a closed system that consist of a gas contained in an adiabatic piston cylinder device. The
insulation of cylinder is head is such that it may be removed to bring the cylinder in to contact with
reservoirs to provide heat transfer. The four reversible process that make up the Carnot cycle are
46
Figure 3.2.3.1 Carnot Cycle Illustration
Figure 3.2.3.2 Carnot Cycle in TS Diagram
Process 1-2 : Reversible Isothermal Expansion. Initially (state 1) the temperature of the gas is T 1 and the
cylinder head is in close contact with a source at temperature T 1. The gas is allowed to expand slowly doing work
on the surroundings. As the gas expands the temperature of the gas tends to decrease. But as soon as the
47
temperature drops by a small amount ‘dT’, some heat flows from the reservoirs in to the gas, raising the gas
temperature to T1. Thus, the gas temperature is kept constant at T 1. Since the temperature difference between the
gas and the reservoir never exceeds a differential amount ‘dT’ ,This is a reversible heat transfer process. It
continues until the piston reaches position 2. The amount of total heat transferred to the gas during this process
Q1.
Process 2-3: Reversible Adiabatic Expansion. At state 2, the reservoir that was in contact with the cylinder head
is removed and replaced by insulation so that the system becomes adiabatic. The gas continues to expand slowly,
doing work on the surroundings until its temperature drops from T1 to T2.(State 3).
Process 3-4: Reversible Isothermal Compression. At state 3, the insulation at the cylinder head is removed, and
the cylinder is brought in to contact with a sink at temperature T 2. Now piston is pushed inward by an external
force, doing work on the gas. As the gas is compressed, its temperature tends to rise. But as soon as it rises by a
small amount dT, heat flows from the gas to the sink, causing the gas temperature to drop to T 2. Since the
temperature difference between the gas and the sink never exceeds a differential amount dT, this is a reversible
heat transfer process. It continues until the piston reaches state 4. The amount of heat rejected from the gas during
this process is Q2
Process 3-4: Reversible Adiabatic Compression. State 4 is such that the low temperature reservoir is removed
and the insulation is put back on the cylinder head, and as a result the gas is compressed in a reversible manner,
the gas returns to its initial state (state 1). The temperature rise from T 1 to T 2.
Q 1−Q 2 T 1 −T 2
The efficiency of the Carnot Cycle is ηCarnot = =
Q1 T1
3.2.1.4 PRACTIVALLITY OF CARNOT ENGINE
 Carnot engine is not a practical engine. It is an ideal engine and is used as a reference engine.
 During isothermal process the engine should run slowly at around 10 revolutions per minute(rpm). During
adiabatic process the engine should run fast at 1000 rpm. Both of these should happen alternately within
each cycle. There is no mechanism in this universe which can make a device run slow and fast alternately.
 During isothermal process the head of the engine should act as a perfect heat conductor. During adiabatic
process the head of the engine should act as a perfect insulator. There is no material in this universe
which can act as a conductor and insulator alternately.
Hence, such a system is not practically possible.
3.2.1.5 CLAUSIUS INEQUALITY
When a system undergoes a complete cyclic process,
δQ
≤0
T
This is known as Clausius inequality.
48
3.2.2 THIRD LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
Third Law of Thermodynamics state that:
The entropy of a pure crystalline substance at absolute zero temperature is zero.
The third law of thermodynamics is also referred to as Nernst Law. It provides the basis for the calculation of
absolute entropies of the substance.
3.2.2.1 INTERNAL ENERGY (U)
In thermodynamics, the internal energy of a system is the energy contained within the system, excluding the
kinetic energy of motion of the system as a whole and the potential energy of the system as a whole. It keeps
account of the gains and losses of energy of the system that are due to changes in its internal state.
The internal energy of a system can be changed by transfers of matter or heat or by doing work. It is a point
function. It is an extensive property.
3.2.2.2 ENTHALPY (H)
A thermodynamic quantity equivalent to the total heat content of a system. It is equal to the internal energy of the
system plus the product of pressure and volume. It is a point function. It is an extensive property.
49
3.2.3 ACTIVITY
1. A mechanic claims to have developed a car engine that runs on water instead of gasoline. What is your
response to this claim?
2. Describe an imaginary process that satisfies the first law but violates the second law of thermodynamics.
3. Describe an imaginary process that satisfies the second law but violates the first law of thermodynamics.
4. Describe an imaginary process that violates both the first and the second laws of thermodynamics.
5. Are the efficiencies of all the work-producing devices, including the hydroelectric power plants, limited by the
Kelvin–Planck statement of the second law? Explain.
6. The use of electric heaters to heat up living spaces in colder countries is said to be
thermodynamically inefficient. Discuss the reasons.
50
3.2.4 Reference

Call#: TJ 265 M 67 2000
Published: 2000
Boles
Borgnakke
Borgnakke
51
MODULE 4
APPLICATION OF THERMODYNAMICS
52
LESSON 6
APPLICATION OF THERMODYNAMICS AND SOURCES OF POWER
LEARNING OUTCOMES
 Know the application of Thermodynamics

 Classify power sources as Renewable or Non-Renewable
3.1.1 APPLICATION OF THERMODYNAMICS
Practically every aspect of our lives involves the interaction between matter and energy, and therefore is subject
to the study of thermodynamics. Today, one cannot imagine life without refrigeration or electric power
generation, both arising from our understanding of thermodynamic principles. All modern transportation is based
upon our application of the principles of thermodynamics in gasoline, diesel, and jet engines.
Other Applications included:
o Aircraft and Propulsion Systems

o Alternate Energy Systems
o Automobile Engines
o Combustion Systems
o Steam and Gas Turbines
o Power Production
o Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning Systems
o Compressors, Pumps
o Cooling of Electronic Equipment
3.1.2 SOURCES OF POWER
There are nine major areas of energy resources. They fall into two categories: non-renewable and renewable.
Non-renewable energy resources, like coal, nuclear, oil, and natural gas, are available in limited supplies. This is
usually due to the long time it takes for them to be replenished. Renewable resources are replenished naturally and
over relatively short periods of time. The five major renewable energy resources are solar, wind, water (hydro),
biomass, and geothermal.
Figure 3.1.2.1 Classification of Power Sources
53
Figure 3.1.2.2 Differences of Renewable and Non-Renewable Energy
3.1.3 HISTORY OF POWER PRODUCTION
Coal/Fossil Fuels
About 300 million years ago, enormous ferns and other prehistoric plants were common on the swamp-like earth.
When those plants died and fell to the ground, they were covered with water and they slowly decomposed. As
decomposition took place in the absence of oxygen, much of the hydrogen content of the matter was eroded away,
leaving a material rich in carbon. The material was compressed over the years by sand and dirt, leaving the form
of carbon known as coal. Fossil fuels are also formed by such process under the earth over millions of years.
Figure 3.1.3.1 Coal/Fossil Fuel Power Plant

Nuclear
54
Certain elements undergo radioactive decay. Harnessing this nuclear energy and transforming it into electricity is
one way to generate substantial power. Nuclear power is controversial because the material used can be dangerous
and resultant waste products are toxic. Accidents that take place at nuclear power plants, such as Chernobyl, are
devastating to local populations and environments. Still, many nations have adopted nuclear power as a
significant energy alternative.
As opposed to nuclear fission, where particles decay into smaller particles, scientists are continuing to study
feasible ways of harnessing nuclear fusion for power production.
Figure 3.1.3.2 Basic Working Principle of Nuclear Power Plant
Advantages
 Nuclear power costs about the same as coal, so it's not expensive to make.
 The amount of fuel required is quite small, therefore there is no problem of transportation, storage etc.
 Does not produce smoke or carbon dioxide, so it does not contribute to the greenhouse effect.
 Produces huge amounts of energy from small amounts of fuel.
 Produces small amounts of waste.
 Nuclear power is reliable.
Disadvantages
 The fuel used is expensive and is difficult to recover.

 The fission by-products are generally radioactive and may cause a dangerous amount of
radioactive pollution.
 Although not much waste is produced, it is very, very dangerous. It must be sealed up and buried
for many years to allow the radioactivity to die away.
 The initial capital cost is very high as compared to other power plants.
 The cooling water requirements of a nuclear power plant are very heavy.
55
LESSON 7
POWER PRODUCTION IN THE FUTURE

LEARNING OUTCOMES
 Know the usefulness of Thermodynamics in power production

 Understand the advantage and dis-advantages of the different type of power production
4.2.1 POWER PRODUCTION IN THE FUTURE
Hydropower
Figure 4.2.1.1 Example of a Hydroelectric Power Plant
The use of hydropower involves using the kinetic motion in water as it flows downstream, part of the normal
water cycle of the Earth, to generate other forms of energy, most notably electricity.
Dams use this property as a means of generating electricity. This form of hydropower is called hydroelectricity.
Waterwheels were an ancient technology which also made use of this concept to generate kinetic energy to run
equipment, such as a grain mill, though it was not until the creation of modern water turbines that the principle of
electromagnetic induction was used to generate electricity.
Advantages
 Inexhaustible fuel source

 Minimal environmental impact
 Viable source--relatively useful levels of energy production
56
 Can be used throughout the world
Disadvantages
 Smaller models depend on availability of fast flowing streams or rivers.

 Run-of-the-River plants can impact the mobility of fish and other river life.
Geothermal
The Earth generates a lot of heat while going about its normal business, in the form of subterranean steam and
magma among others. The geothermal energy generated within the Earth's crust can be harnessed and transformed
into other forms of energy, such as electricity.
Figure 4.2.1.2 Example of a Geothermal Power Plant
Advantages
 Theoretically inexhaustible energy source.

 No pollution.
 Often an excellent supplement to other renewable sources.
 Does not require structures such as solar panels or windmills to collect the energy can be directly used to
heat or produce electricity (thus very cheap)
Disadvantage
 Not available in many location

 Not much power vent
57
Solar
The sun is the single most significant source of energy to the planet Earth, and any energy that it provides which
isn't used to help plants grow or to heat the Earth is basically lost. Solar power can be used with solar voltaic
power cells to generate electricity. Certain regions of the world receive more direct sunlight than others, so solar
energy is not uniformly practical for all areas.
Figure 4.2.1.3 Simple Solar Power Generation Set Up
Advantages

 No pollution
 Often an excellent supplementary to other renewable resources
 Versatile is used for powering items as diverse as solar cars and satellites
Disadvantages
 Very diffuse source means low energy production – large numbers of solar panels (and thus large land
areas) are required to produce useful amounts of heat or electricity
 Only areas of the world with lots of sunlight are suitable for solar power generation
58
Wind
Figure 4.2.1.4 Simple Wind Power Generation Set Up
Modern windmills can transfer the kinetic energy of the air flowing through them into other forms of energy, such
as electricity. There are some environmental concerns with using wind energy, because the windmills often injure
birds who may be passing through the region.
Advantages

 No pollution
 Often an excellent supplement to other renewable sources
Disadvantages
 Very diffuse source means low energy production – large numbers of wind generators (and thus large
land areas) are required to produce useful amounts of heat or electricity
 Only areas of the world with lots of wind are suitable for wind power generation
 Relatively expensive to maintain
Tidal Energy
Tides are caused by the gravitational pull of the moon and sun, and the rotation of the earth. Near shore, water
levels can vary up to 40 feet. Only a few locations have good inlets and a large enough tidal range- about 10 feet-
to produce energy economically. The simplest generation system for tidal plants involves a dam, known as a
barrage, across an inlet. Sluice gates on the barrage allow the tidal basin to fill on the incoming high tides and to
59
empty through the turbine system on the outgoing tide, also known as the ebb tide. There are two-way systems
that generate electricity on both the incoming and outgoing tides.
Figure 4.2.1.5 Sample of Tidal Power Generation Set Up
Advantages
 It is an inexhaustible source of energy.

 Tidal energy is environment friendly energy and doesn't produce greenhouse gases.
 As 71% of Earth’s surface is covered by water, there is scope to generate this energy on large scale.
 We can predict the rise and fall of tides as they follow cyclic fashion.
 Efficiency of tidal power is far greater as compared to coal, solar or wind energy. Its efficiency is around
80%.
 Maintenance costs are relatively low.
 Tidal Energy doesn’t require any kind of fuel to run.
 The life of tidal energy power plant is very long.
 The energy density of tidal energy is relatively higher than other renewable energy sources.
Disadvantage
 Cost of construction of tidal power plant is high.

 There are very few ideal locations for construction of plant and they too are localized to coastal regions
only.
 Intensity of sea waves is unpredictable and there can be damage to power generation units.
 Influences aquatic life adversely and can disrupt migration of fish.
 The actual generation is for a short period of time. The tides only happen twice a day so electricity can be
produced only for that time.
 Frozen sea, low or weak tides, straight shorelines, low tidal rise or fall are some of the obstructions.
 This technology is still not cost effective and more technological advancements are required to make it
commercially viable.
60
 Usually the places where tidal energy is produced are far away from the places where it is consumed.
This transmission is expensive and difficult.
 Tidal Energy is thus a clean source of energy and doesn't require much land or other resources as in
harnessing energy from other sources. However, the energy generated is not much as high and low tides
occur only twice a day and continuous energy production is not possible.
Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC)
Oceans cover 70 percent of the Earth, and water is a natural solar energy collector. OTEC, or ocean thermal
energy conversion, aims to exploit this fact and use the temperature differences between surface water heated by
the sun and water in the ocean's chilly depths to generate electricity.
Advantages
 Power from OTEC is continuous, renewable and pollution free.

 Unlike other forms of solar energy, output of OTEC shows very little daily or seasonal variation.
 Drawing of warm and cold sea water and returning of the sea water, close to the thermocline, could be
accomplished with minimum environment impact.
 Electric power generated by OTEC could be used to produce hydrogen.
 Tropical and sub-tropical island sites could be made free from pollution caused by conventional fuels for
electricity generation.
 OTEC system might help in enrichment of fishing grounds due to the nutrients from the unproductive
deep waters to the warmer surface waters.
 A floating OTEC plant can generate power even at mid sea and can be used to provide power for off
shore.
Disadvantages
 Capital investment is very high.

 Due to small temperature difference in between the surface water and deep water, conversion efficiency is
very low about 3-4%.
 Low efficiency of these plants coupled with high capital cost and maintenance cost makes them
uneconomical for small plants
Fuel Cells
They can generate electricity using only hydrogen and oxygen and are pollution free. An automobile running on
hydrogen fuel cells would not only be more efficient than one powered by an internal combustion engine, its only
emission would be water.
61
Figure 4.2.1.7 Schematic of a PEM Fuel Cell Operation
Advantages
 Available and Renewable

 Non Toxic
 Very Powerful
 Doesn’t Contribute to Climate Change
 Cheap Maintenance
Disadvantages
 Costly to Produce
 Flammable
 Still not fully developed
62
4.2.2 ACTIVITY
1. Differentiation of Renewable and Non-Renewable Energy

2. Identification of the different type of Renewable Energy and its applications, advantages and
disadvantages of its technology
3. Defining of the different type of power resources and compare their advantages and disadvantages
63
4.2.3 Reference
Call#: TJ 265 M 67 2000
Published: 2000
Boles
Borgnakke
Borgnakke
64
POST-TEST
Direction: Multiple Choice. Please read carefully and encircle the letter that correspond to the BEST answer/s.
ENCIRCLE the letter of your answer. If none, write NONE OF THE ABOVE
1. They can generate electricity using only hydrogen and oxygen and are pollution free. An automobile running
on hydrogen fuel cells would not only be more efficient than one powered by an internal combustion engine, its
only emission would be water.
a. Hydrogen Power Plant b. OTEC
c. Fuel Cell d. Geothermal
2. Aims to exploit this fact and use the temperature differences between surface water heated by the sun and water
in the ocean's chilly depths to generate electricity.
a. Oceanic Technology Energy Conversion b. OTEV
c. Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion d. OTEC
3. One of its disadvantage is: Frozen sea, low or weak tides, straight shorelines, low tidal rise or fall are some of
the obstructions.
a. Tidal Power Conversion System b. Tidal Waves Conversion
c. Tidal Froze Conversion System d. Tidal Shorelines Conversion
4. Thermodynamics is a wide branch of discipline. Which branch of thermodynamics studies the changes of
enthalpy of a reaction?
a. Thermochemistry b. Electrochemistry
c. Photochemistry d. Biochemistry
5. Steam that comes from beneath the earth’s surface is harness and covert to electricity.
a. Steam Power Plant b. Geothermal Power Plant
c. Saturated Steam Power Generation d. Geothermal Steam Power
6. The heat source of a Nuclear Power Plant.
a. Nuclear Heat Source b. Nuclear Power Source
c. Nuclear Reactor d. Nuclear Heat Generator
7. The word "thermodynamics" can be broken into 2 parts, namely "thermo" which means heat and "dynamics"
which suggests in constant equilibrium or not static. Apart from the heat change that chemists are interested in,
what other element or factor that they also study?
a. Atomic Configuration b. Gas Released
c. Gravimetric Analysis d. Work Done
8. Is the energy contained within the system, excluding the kinetic energy of motion of the system as a whole and
the potential energy of the system as a whole. It keeps account of the gains and losses of energy of the system that
are due to changes in its internal state.
a. Internal Energy b. Enthalpy
c. Entropy d. Kinetic Energy
9. The First Law of Thermodynamics can be expressed mathematically by the equation delta U = q + w, where
delta means change, U is internal energy, q is heat and w is work. What is the alternative name for this law?
a. The Law of Ultimate Energy b. Law of Net Loss of Energy
c. The Law of Constant Energy d. Law of Conservation of Energy
10. A system is separated from its surroundings or universe by a boundary. In thermodynamics, there are 3 types
of systems. An isolated system does not allow any heat and matter transfer between the system and its
surroundings. On the other hand, for an open system, it allows both heat and matter transfer. What is the name
given to the system that allows heat transfer but prevents matter transfer?
a. A Closed System b. A Thermo System
c. A Stubborn System d. A Matter System
11. In thermodynamics, an isobaric process refers to a process that is carried out under constant pressure.
Moreover, the terms isochoric and isothermal refer to constant volume and constant temperature respectively.
What is the terminology used to describe a process that is carried out without any transfer of heat?
65
a. Adiabatic b. Exact
c. Infinitesimal d. Conversion
12. The total energy of a system, E consists of 3 types of energy. Which of the following is NOT one of them?
a. Resting Energy b. Kinetic Energy
c. Internal Energy d. Potential Energy
13. Pressure, volume, internal energy, entropy and Gibb's free energy are all state functions because their values
are dependent only on the initial and final state of the system, regardless of the route taken. On the contrary, non-
state functions are so-called because their values depend on the route taken. What are the two examples of non-
state functions?
a. Enthalpy and Heat b. Work and Heat
c. Enthalpy and Temperature d. Work and Temperature
14. Carnot cycle consists of ______.
a. Two constant volume and two reversible adiabatic processes
b. Two constant pressure and two reversible adiabatic processes
c. Two isothermal and two reversible adiabatic processes
d. One constant volume, one constant pressure and two reversible adiabatic processes
15. The term thermodynamics was coined by
a. Newton b. James Prescott Joules
c. Wilhelm Röntgen d. William Thomson
66

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SOUTHERN LEYTE STATE UNIVERSITY -SAN JUAN

San Juan, Southern Leyte

JOWITZ C. CERO, M.E., M.T.E.

The content of this workbook is taken from

The workbook is designed to introduce

III Module 1 Introduction to Thermodynamics 1-15

Lesson 2 Viewpoints in thermodynamics, thermodynamic

IV Module 2 Thermodynamic processes and Zeroth law of thermodynamics 16-37

Lesson 3 Thermodynamics process 17

V Module 3 First, Second and Third Law of Thermodynamics 38-51

VI Module 4 Application of Thermodynamics 52-64

1. Carnot cycle consists of

c) both of the mentioned

At the end of this module, the students will be able to:

 Explain the basic concepts of Thermodynamics Systems

1.1.1 Introduction of Thermodynamic Systems

Surroundings: Everything external to the system is called surroundings.

Figure 1.1.1.1 Bounded System Figure 1.1.1.2 Thermodynamic System

Universe: Combination of system and surroundings.

Figure 1.1.1.3 System Boundary Illustration

1.1.2 Types of Thermodynamic Systems

Figure 1.1.2.1 Open System: Car Engine

Figure 1.1.2.2 Open System: Piston – Cylinder Assembly

Figure 1.1.2.3 Comparison between Open, Closed, and Isolated Systems

Write your answers in the space provided.

SLSU – San Juan Library Textbook

Fundamental of Engineering Thermodynamics

Other References and Textbooks

VIEWPOINTS IN THERMODYNAMICS, THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTY, STATE, PATH

At the end of this module, the students will be able to:

1.2.1 Viewpoints in Thermodynamics

Table 1.2.1 The behavior of matter can be studied at two levels

1.2.2 Thermodynamic Properties

1.2.3 State, Process & Path

Figure 1.2.3.1 A System at two different States

1.2.4 Point and Path Thermodynamic Function

Figure 1.2.4 Thermodynamic Process 1-2

Write your answers in the space provided.

1.2.6 Laboratory Experiment

KEEP YOUR CANDY COOL WITH THE POWER OF EVAPORATION!

1. How does sweat cool your body down?

2. What are some ways people use evaporation to keep cool?

1.2.6.5 Materials and Equipment

 Paper towel (6 sheets)

1.2.6.6 Experimental Procedure

SLSU – San Juan Library Textbook

Fundamental of Engineering Thermodynamics

Other References and Textbooks

At the end of this module, the students will be able to:

 Explain and understand the different Thermodynamic Processes

2.1.2 Isothermal Process

Figure 2.1.2 Isothermal Process: PV Diagram A-B

2.1.3 Adiabatic Process

Figure 2.1.3 Adiabatic Process Diagram 1-2

 The system must be perfectly insulated from the surrounding.

2.1.4 Isochoric Process

Figure 2.1.4 Isochoric Process: PV Diagram 1-2

2.1.5 Isobaric process

Figure 2.1.5.1 Isobaric Process: PV Diagram A-B

An isobaric process is also called constant pressure process.