Semasiology 2
Semasiology 2
Semasiology 2
Part II
Discussion Points
1. Figures of combination as SDs of semasiology. General characteristics and classification.
Figures of combination are SDs of semasiology. They are stylistically relevant semantic means of combining
lexical, syntactical and other units (including EM) belonging to the same or different language levels. The realisation of
the figures of combination is possible only in context. The most general types of semantic relations between words,
phrases and utterances forming the basis of semasiological SDs can be reduced to three: meanings can be 1) identical, or
2) different or else 3) opposite.
Classification of figures of combination. Figures of combination are stylistic devices of semasiology. They are
stylistically relevant semantic means of combining lexical, syntactical and other units (including expressive meanss)
belonging to the same or different language levels.
The three types of semantic interrelations are matched by three groups of figures, they are: figures of identity \aɪ
ˈdɛntɪti\ (simile \ˈsɪmɪli\, synonyms-substitutes \ˈsʌbstɪtjuːts\, synonyms-specifiers \ˈspɛsɪfaɪəz\), figures of inequality \
ˌɪni(ː)ˈkwɒlɪti\ (climax \ˈklaɪmæks\, anti-climax \ˌæntɪˈklaɪmæks\, pun \pʌn\, zeugma \ˈzjuːgmə\), figures of contrast \
ˈkɒntrɑːst\ (antithesis \ænˈtɪθɪsɪs\, oxymoron \ˌɒksɪˈmɔːrɒn\).
2. Figures of identity (equivalence). General characteristics.
– simile \ˈsɪmɪli\
– synonyms-substitutes \ˈsʌbstɪtjuːts\
– synonyms-specifiers. \ˈspɛsɪfaɪəz\
Figures of identity appear when language units, viewed as identical or similar by the speaker/ writer, are
combined within an utterance or a text.
Simile is an imaginative comparison, embodied in an explicit statement of partial identity (affinity,
likeness, similarity) of two objects belonging to different classes.
Simile is characterized by a definite formula or structure: it includes 1) the object named (the tenor); 2) the object
being used to name (the vehicle) and 3) the link word as a formal signal of comparison.
The links between the tenor and the vehicle are expressed mainly by the conjunctions like, as, as if, as though,
as…as, than. E.g: He stood immovable like a rock in a torrent (J.Reed).
Similes in which the link between the tenor and the vehicle is expressed by notional verbs such as to resemble, to
seem, to recollect, to remind of, to appear etc. are called disguised, because the likeness between the objects seems less
evident. In some cases, however, the formal markers of simile are completely absent: Mr. Witte’s method of paying off
debts would be a form of feeding a dog with bits of its own tail (Nesfield)).
The reason why the two objects are compared, their features in common – i.e. a ground for comparison – is either
mentioned explicitly or left to the intelligence and imagination of the recipient.
Similes forcibly set one object against another regardless of the fact that they may be completely ailien to each
other. As a result, a simile gives rise to a new, markedly subjective understanding of the object characterized. A simile is
the stronger the greater the obvious disparity between the two objects.
Simile should not be confused with simple (logical, ordinary) comparison.
Cf: She sings like a professional singer. She sings like a nightingale.
He talks French like a Frenchman. He talks French like a machine-gun.
Structurally identical they are semantically different: objects belonging to the same class are likened in a simple
comparison used to state an evident fact (the first example in the pairs above), while in a simile we deal with the likening
of objects belonging to two different classes, used for purposes of expressive evaluation, highly individual description.
Ordinary comparison takes into consideration all the properties of the two objects, stressing the one that is
compared; simile excludes all the properties of the two objects except one which is made common to them.
Both simile and metaphor are based on comparing two objects. Metaphor is often called a compressed simile
which differs from simile proper structurally. However, the difference between the two is not only structural but semantic
as well. Simile and metaphor differ in their linguistic nature:
1) metaphor aims at identifying the objects (she is a real flower); simile aims at finding some point(s) of
resemblance by keeping the objects apart (she is as fresh and pretty as a flower);
2) metaphor only implies the feature which serves as the ground for comparison; simile, more often than not,
indicates this feature, so it is semantically more definite.
A simile often repeated becomes trite and adds to the stock of language phraseology. In most of trite similes the
first element (the tenor) is missing with only the second (the vehicle) and the third (the ground) elements being given: the
first member language users are at liberty to supply. E.g.: as dead as a doornail; as mad as a March hare/ a hatter; as
cool as a cucumber. It goes without saying that stylistic analysis of the imaginative prose or poetry has nothing to do with
trite similes. A fresh simile, especially an elaborate one, discovering unexpected and striking similarities, is one of the
best image-creating devices.
A simile has manifold forms, semantic features and expressive aims. It can be a single compound word ( dog-
like), a simple sentence, a complex sentence with an adverbial clause of comparison. A simile may be combined with or
accompanied by another stylistic device, or it may achieve one stylistic effect or another. Thus it is often based on
exaggeration of properties described – a hyperbolic simile (She heaved away from the table like a pregnant elephant). His
eyes were no warmer than an iceberg – litotes; Brandon liked me as much as Hiroshima liked the atomic bomb – irony.
The classification of different synonymous replacements was proposed by M.D.Kuznets in a paper on synonyms
in English as early as 1947. She aptly remarked that on the whole, synonyms are used in actual texts for two different
reasons:
1) to avoid monotonous repetition of the same word in an utterance;
2) to make the description as exhaustive as possible under the circumstances, to provide additional shades of the
meaning intended.
The author called the two ways of using synonyms substitutes (replacers) and specifiers.
As it has been already mentioned substituting synonyms are resorted to for the sake of diversity, to avoid
monotony. Excessive recurrence of the same words makes the style poor – in a way it betrays a poverty of one’s
vocabulary. Interchange of denominations of the same thing in speech is called by English linguists “elegant variation”.
Sometimes it is not synonyms that replace one another, but words (phrases) with essentially different meaning,
which, however, can be regarded as ‘situational’ (contextual) synonyms. Thus, one and the same person can be referred to
as neighbour, student, brother, Richard, he, etc. The words are not synonyms, they only happen to signify the same
individual.
Synonyms-substitutes are usually placed at some distance from one another: they do not immediately follow one
another, mostly recurring in adjacent sentences or clauses.
Specifying synonyms, as suggested above, contribute to precision in characterizing the object of speech. They
mostly follow one another (in opposition to substitutes), although not necessarily immediately.
There are two ways of using specifying synonyms:
1) as paired synonyms (quick and sharp; safe and sound; bereavement and desolation);
2) as synonymic variations. Thus, roughly, the idea recurs, but it is not exactly the same idea: a subsequent
synonym complements its predecessor; both are complemented by the third, and so on. Each imparts some additional
features to the object, giving a fuller description of it. Sometimes, the speaker deliberately searches for the most fitting
synonym, as in what follows: E.g.: Joe was a mild, good-natured, sweet-tempered, easy-going, foolish dear fellow
(Dickens).
Synonymic variations not infrequently intensify the emotional value of the utterance. They are widely used in
fiction and publicistic style; in scientific prose and official style their usage is limited.
Additional Activities
I. Here is a list of 10 oxymorons. See how many you can match to make the correct phrases:
old news
pretty ugly
loyal opposition
civil war
small fortune
open secret
deafening silence
working vacation
sight unseen
industrial park
II. Some riddles are funny because they are puns. Puns are made with words that have double meaning. A pun
doesn’t make sense until you know both meanings of the word.
Read the riddles below and then write the two meanings of each underlined word.
Example: A: When is a car not a car?
B: When it is turning into a driveway.
Turning into means: 1. Becoming, transforming; 2. Turning to enter.
III. Some puns are made with homonyms – words that sound the same but are spelled differently. These puns
are not so funny in writing. You need to say them out loud in order to understand them completely.
Read these riddles out loud and then write the two meanings of each underlined word: