EARTH SCIENCE

Aluminum,
Potassium

Earth is divided into four main layers:

● Crust LITHOSPHERE
● Mantle - Is composed of the crust and the uppermost
● Outer Core part of the mantle
● Inner Core - It is a rigid layer that can break under stress
- Zone of rigid, brittle rock
Edmund Halley, an English astronomer and mathematician, - It is divided into separate plates which move
theorized that Earth is hollow and that there are inner very slowly in response to the “convecting”
concentric layers below the crust that float in gas. He said
that the core was about the size of Mercury and that these
part of the mantle.
layers were also inhabited. - It is composed of major and minor blocks,
Today, science confirms that the outer core of Earth is even called TECTONIC PLATES, that interact
bigger than Mercury.
and create the tectonic activities on Earth.
- The crust of the Earth is broken into many
1. CRUST pieces called PLATES. These plates “float”
- Oceanic and Continental on the soft, semi rigid asthenosphere.
- Less than 1% of the Earth’s
- Thinnest layer of the earth 2. MANTLE
- The outermost layer where life exists - It is the largest layer of the Earth at 2900km
- Made up of large amounts of silicon and thick. Makes up 80% of earth and carries
aluminum most of its mass
- Composed of plates on which the continents - It is composed of ferro-magnesium silicate
and oceans rest. These “ride” over molten rocks
mantle. - Below the crust, it is a semisolid, rocky, and
- It is a part of the Lithosphere. very hot layer
- Continental Crust: crust that makes up the - The middle mantle is composed of very hot
continents dense rock that flows like asphalt under a
- Oceanic Crust: crust that underlies the heavy weight. The movement of the middle
ocean floor mantle (asthenosphere) is the reason that
the crustal plates of earth move.
CATEGORY CONTINENTAL OCEANIC - Semi solid but capable of flow (like fudge)
Semi-Solid/Semi-Liquid
Rock Type Granite Basalt
- Elements Composition: Magnesium, Silicon,
Thickness 5-70km (thicker) 3-8km (thinner) Oxygen, and Iron
- The hot magma rises then cools and sinks
State Solid Solid
in the Earth’s surface
Crust Age 4 billion years 180 million years - Conveyor belt for the tectonic plates
older younger

Density Less Dense More Dense

ASTHENOSPHERE
- “Weak sphere”
Element Oxygen, Sodium, Iron, Magnesium, - Contains hot, molten rocks or magma
Composition Silicon, Calcium
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- Semi rigid part of the mantle that flows like - Thickness: 1271km
hot asphalt under a heavy weight.
Density, temperature, and pressure increase as
- It is a soft layer of the mantle on which depth increases
pieces of the lithosphere move.
- It is made up of solid rock that, like putty,
Marks boundaries between the layers of the earth:
flows slowly - at about the same rate your
● Mohorovicic Discontinuity - the interface
fingernails grow.
between the crust and the upper mantle
- It can deform and reshape driven by heat
● Gutenberg Discontinuity - marks the
energy, which circulates as CONVECTION
boundary between the lower mantle and the
CURRENTS, traveling upward from the hot
outer core
lower mantle to the cooler upper mantle.
● Lehmann Discontinuity - located between
- This heat transfer helps drive the movement
the liquid outer core and the solid inner
of tectonic plates, which manifests as
core.
earthquakes.
- Where convection currents are formed.
How far have scientists drilled into the earth? 7.6
miles
CONVECTION CURRENTS: The middle
Only 0.2% of the distance to the Earth’s core.
mantle “flows” because of convection
currents. These are caused by the very hot
How do we know so much about what’s under
material at the deepest part of the mantle
Earth's surface?
rising being less dense, then cooling,
- Through Indirect Evidence, mostly from
becoming more dense and sinking again.
seismic waves caused by earthquakes
These causes changes in the Earth’s
- Sometimes indirect evidence is the only
surface
option for scientists to develop a theory
3. OUTER CORE
- Only layer of Earth that is liquid
- Composition: Molten (liquid) metal that is
about 4,700 degrees celsius
- Thickness: 2,266 km (1,400 miles)
- State of Matter: Composed of metals nickel
and iron (liquid)
- Located about 1,800 miles beneath the
crust

4. INNER CORE
- Solid sphere made mostly of solid Iron and
has Nickel
- It is believed to be as hot as 6,650 degrees Several theories have been proposed to explain
celsius changes such as formation of different landforms,
- Extremely hot separation of continents, formation of new ocean
- Heat in the core generated by the floor, and movement of the lithospheric plates.
radioactive decay of uranium and other
elements ● Contraction Theory
EARTH SCIENCE

○ This theory suggested that as Earth 2. Matching Fossils

cooled after its formation, its surface 3. Rock Types and Structures
contracted and wrinkled, with these 4. Ancient Climates
wrinkles being the mountain ranges
on Earth’s surface. - Wegener could not provide an explanation
○ The theory assumed that all other of exactly what made the continents move.
features on Earth were formed New technology leads to findings which
during a single cooling event and then lead to a new theory called Plate
that the planet was relatively static, Tectonics.
without any significant change since
the cooling (and wrinkling) slowed to Plate Tectonics Theory
a halt. - The uppermost mantle, along with the
● Continental Drift Theory overlying crust, behaves as a strong, rigid
○ Proposed by Alfred Wegener in layer.
1912 - Explains that Earth’s lithosphere is
○ There once existed a single large composed of many independent massive
landmass or supercontinent he slabs of solid rocks called Plates, which
called Pangaea floats on an inner pliable mantle. This
○ Was rejected because Wegener movement is due to the convection currents
failed to provide compelling beneath the plates.
evidence for the mechanism that
drives the movement of plates.
Plate : One of numerous rigid sections of the
● Seafloor Spreading Theory lithosphere that moves as a unit over the material
○ By Harry Hess of the asthenosphere.
○ States that the seafloors or ocean
floors- not the continents- move and
carry the continents along.
● Theory of Plate Tectonics
○ Incorporates the continental drift
theory and the sea floor spreading
The regions between plates are aptly called plate
theory
boundaries. As the plates move, fractures called
faults develop on Earth’s crust.
Continental Drift
- Alfred Wegener’s continental drift
Types of Plate Boundaries:
hypothesis stated that the continents had
once been joined to form a single
1. Divergent Boundaries
supercontinent
- Also called “spreading centers”
- Wegener proposed that the supercontinent,
- Two plates move apart
Pangaea, began to break apart 200 million
- When two plates move away from
years ago and form the present
each other, a gap or rift between
landmasses.
them is created. If the gap eventually
widens, it then evolves into a rift
EVIDENCES:
valley.
1. The Continental Puzzle
EARTH SCIENCE

- Divergent boundaries between

oceanic plates produce mid-oceanic ● Convergent Boundaries
ridges, the mountain ranges formed A subduction zone (trench) occurs when one
underwater. oceanic plate is forced down into the mantle
- Any continent or landmass above a beneath a second plate
divergent plate boundary will be torn
apart into distinct landmasses. Oceanic Continental
2. Convergent Boundaries - Denser oceanic slab sinks into the
- Two plates move together asthenosphere
- Occurs when two plates slide toward - Pockets of magma develop and rise
each other and form either a - Continental volcanic arcs form in part by
subduction zone (if one plate moves volcanic activity caused by the subduction
underneath the other) or an orogenic of oceanic lithosphere beneath a continent
belt (if the two simply collide and - The oceanic plate goes down.
compress) - As the denser oceanic plate subducts
- An orogenic belt is a region of beneath the continental plate and descends
deformed rocks. into the mantle, the temperature increases,
3. Transform Fault Boundaries causing the rocks to melt and form magma.
- Two plates grind past each other Oceanic Oceanic
without the production/destruction of - Two oceanic slabs converge and one
lithosphere descends beneath the other
- Slides past each other - This kind often forms volcanoes on the
ocean floor.
Actions at Plate Boundaries: - Volcanic Island Arcs : form as volcanoes
emerge from the sea
● Divergent Boundaries - When two oceanic plates collide, a
Oceanic Ridges and Seafloor Spreading subduction zone is formed.
Continental Continental
Oceanic Ridges - These are continuous elevated - When subducting plates contain continental
zones on the floor of all major basins. The rifts at material, two continents collide
the crust of ridges represent the divergent plate - This kind of boundary can produce new
boundaries. mountain ranges such as the Himalayas.
- When two continental plates collide, no
Rift Valleys - These are deep faulted structures subduction happens. Instead, the continents
found along the areas of divergent plate suture themselves. The continental crust
boundaries. They can develop on the seafloor or on buckles and socks pile up, creating
land. mountain ranges.

Seafloor Spreading - produces new oceanic ● Transform Fault Boundaries

lithosphere - Most join two segments of a mid-ocean
ridge.
Continental Rifts - When spreading centers develop - At the time of formation, they roughly
within a continent, the landmasses may split into parallel the direction of plate movement
two or smaller segments, forming a rift.
EARTH SCIENCE

- They aid the movement of oceanic crustal MECHANISMS OF PLATE MOTION

material According to the theory of plate tectonics, the
- Earthquake refers to the shaking of Earth as plates on Earth’s crust continually move, although
a result of the breaking or shifting of the the speed at which they do so is small - about
rocks of the tectonic plates, which releases 2.5cm per year.
seismic energy.
- Faults are cracks on Earth’s crust, of which Driving Forces : either push tectonic plates toward
there are three types – normal fault, reverse one another or pull them apart
fault, and strike slip fault. Resisting Forces : act against the driving forces of
- The surface where the blocks slip past each plate tectonics.
other is called the fault plane.
Dip Slip Causes of Plate Motion:
- Refers to the movement of faults along the Scientists generally agree that convection occurring
angle of the fault plane. The angle of the in the mantle is the basic driving force for plate
movement is call dip, while the movement is movement.
the slip. ● Convective Flow
Strike Slip Fault Is the motion of matter resulting from changes in
- Nearly vertical fault planes or surfaces slide temperature.
in parallel but opposite directions ● Slab Pull and Ridge Push
Oblique Slip Fault Slab Pull : is a mechanism that contributes to plate
- Combination of strike slip and dip slip motion in which cool, dense oceanic crust sinks into
EVIDENCES FOR PLATE TECTONICS the mantle and “pulls” the trailing lithosphere along.
Paleomagnetism: Natural remnant magnetism in It is thought to be the primary downward arm of
rock bodies. This permanent magnetization convective flow in the mantle. Takes place when
acquired by rocks can be used to determine the subducting slab sinks into the hot mantle because
location of magnetic poles at the time rock become of a difference in temperature.
magnetized Ridge Push : causes oceanic lithosphere to slide
● Normal Polarity down the sides of the oceanic ridge under the pull
When rocks show the same magnetism as the of gravity. It may contribute to plate motion. Occurs
present magnetism field when the lithosphere is pushed up by the
● Reverse Polarity asthenosphere because of convection currents.
When rocks show the opposite magnetism as the ● Mantle Convection
present magnetism field. Caused by the rising of heat from the core toward
the mantle. Convection currents drive the plates
The discovery of strips of alternating polarity, which away from one another.
lie as mirror images across the ocean ridges, is Mantle Plumes are masses of hotter-than-normal
among the strongest evidence for seafloor mantle material that ascend toward the surface,
spreading. which may lead to igneous activity.
● Earthquake Patterns
● Ocean Drilling
● Hot Spots
A hot spot is a concentration of heat in the mantle
capable of producing the Hawaiian Islands. What is the Ring of Fire?
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- A zone along the edge of the Pacific Ocean - Mt. Shasta (California)
that has many volcanoes and earthquakes - Mt. Edgecumbe (Alaska)
- The horseshoes shaped belt stretches
about 25,000 miles from New Zealand Are the volcanoes in the Hawaiian Islands part of
northwest to the Philippines, northeast to the Ring of Fire?
Japan, east to Alaska, and south to Oregon, ● Mt. St. Helens (1980)
California, Mexico, and the Andes ● San Francisco Earthquake (1989)
Mountains of South America ● Mt. Popocatepetl (Mexico, 2012)
- A large ring of Stratovolcanoes circling the ● Mt. Fuji (Japan, 1707-08)
Pacific Ocean ● Mt. Pinatubo (Philippines, 1991)
● Mayon Volcano (Philippines, 2010)
How many Volcanoes and Earthquakes are in the ● Mt. Edziza (British Columbia, Canada :
ring of fire? 1340BP)
- About 350 historically active volcanoes ● Mount Paricutin (Mexico)
- Home to 452 volcanoes and 75% of world’s - The volcano is located in Mexico
active and dormant volcanoes and lies on the Trans-Mexican
- 90% of the world’s earthquakes Volcanic Belt
- 89% of world’s largest earthquake happen ● Chile (South America)
- Holds the record for the largest
How was the ring of fire made? earthquake ever recorded in 1960 at
- It is associated with a nearly continuous 9.5 magnitude
series of oceanic trenches, volcanic arcs, - Country along the boundary
and volcanic belts, and/or plate movement between the Nazca Plate and the
South American Plate, is an
What is affected? earthquake prone country.
● 4 Continents :
- Asia
- Oceania
- North America
- South America During an earthquake, energy travels through Earth
● 8 Tectonic Plates : in the form of seismic waves.
- Pacific Plate
- Cocos Plate 1. Focus/Hypocenter
- Nazca Plate - The point within Earth where the
- Philippine Plate rocks break and where seismic
- North American Plate energy is first released
- Eurasian Plate - It is found within the fault plane
- Indo Australian Plate - Location of the break of rocks
- South American Plate - Origin of earthquake
2. Epicenter
Best Known Dormant Volcanoes in the Ring of Fire: - The point on the crust of Earth
- Mt. Rainier (Washington, USA) directly above the focus
- Mt. Fuji (Japan) - Strongest earthquakes happen at
- Mt. Hood (Oregon) the epicenter
EARTH SCIENCE

- Mountain ranges can also form

TSUNAMI when an oceanic plate subducts
- A significant movement that generates large beneath a continental plate
ocean waves ● Volcanic Mountain Ranges
- Associated with underwater earthquakes - Usually have isolated peaks that
caused by oceanic-continental subduction formed for over thousands or
clue to vertical movement of the seafloor millions of years.
- Accumulated lava flows, pyroclast,
Seismic waves are significant in studying and other igneous rocks
earthquakes. Primary and Secondary waves help - Produced by Hotspot, causes
scientists locate the epicenter of an earthquake. magma to rise, pushing its way up,
P Waves travel faster than S waves. and accumulated in large amounts
The difference in their arrival time (recorded by - Hawaii Islands formation (summits of
seismograph) can be used to help determine the volcanoes)
distance of the epicenter. ● Erosion Formed Mountain Ranges
The longer the time interval is, the farther the - Do not form because of Earth’s
earthquake epicenter to a seismograph station. internal activity but because of rock
erosion or weathering
Seismic information are used to find the exact - Made up of sedimentary rocks
location of the epicenter. Using the triangulation ● Dome Mountain Ranges
technique, seismologists use the information - Result from the upwarping of
recorded from at least three seismographic stations tectonic plates and are not
to plot their respective distances and locate the accompanied by the collision of plate
epicenter. boundaries
- Isolated and large folds in flat
regions
- Formation of domes: elongated
structures in the crust
● Fault Block Mountain Ranges
Mountains are large landforms that rise well above
- The movement of normal faults
the ground and have steep slopes and a peek
causes tensional forces and can
generally higher than a hill.
uplift large blocks of crust to form
fault-block mountains
Orogenesis refers to the process of forming
- As the crust forms cracks, the block
mountains and mountain ranges. It involves the
that slides down because of gravity
collision of plates and forces of compression.
is called, graben, which usually
becomes a valley.
● Fold Mountains
- The horst refers to crustal blocks
- Are formed through plate
that do not slide down.
convergence.
- Continental subduction beneath
another continental plate
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- Cold air holds less water than warm

air. As the air cools, clouds form.
- As air temperature and evaporation
increase, clouds form.
- Process of formation of water vapor
- Clouds are visible water vapor
HYDROLOGIC OR WATER CYCLE ● Precipitation
- Water is constantly recycled through the - Water is released from clouds in the
hydrologic cycle form of rain, freezing rain, sleet,
- The water cycle is a continuous movement snow on hail.
of water on, above, and below the surface - It happens when clouds can no
of earth. longer hold water
- Water continuously circulates between and - The water then falls to earth
among the oceans, air, land, and all living because of gravity
things - Thunderstorms (imbalance of
charges) form when air is forced
● Evaporation upward at a very cool fast rate and
- The process by which water therefore cools very quickly.
changes from liquid to gas (water ● Surface Runoff
vapor) - Water that moves across the surface
- Water Vapor : water that turns into of the land and enters bodies of
gas freshwater
- The rate of evaporation depends on - Heavy pour of rain
how dry the air is and the - Causes soil erosion
temperature difference between air - Precipitation or melted snow that
and water. runs off over the landscape
- High Humidity: indicates high rate of - Occurs when the rate of precipitation
evaporation or snowmelt is greater than the rate
● Transpiration or Evapotranspiration of infiltration
- Plants lose water vapor through their - It flows to:
leaves - Sewers in some urban areas
- Process by which water evaporates - Retention Basins
from plants - Rivers, Lakes, Wetlands
- Evaporation and Transpiration are ● Infiltration
after combined into a single term - When rainwater infiltrates a porous
called Evapotranspiration substance
- Special type of evaporation that - Soil absorbs water
happens in plants (tiny opening in - Process by which water soaks into
plants, stomata) the ground
● Condensation - Faster on dry soils and in sandy
- A process by which water vapor in soils compared to wet and clay soils.
the air is changed into liquid water This is because the pore spaces in
- As air rises, it cools the sand are much larger than in the
EARTH SCIENCE

clay and can therefore transport ● 70% of earth is covered by water

more water. ● 96.5% of which is saltwater
● Percolation ● Only less than 3% is freshwater
- The process of movement and
filtration of rainwater into several POTABLE WATER
layers of soil and porous rocks - Unpolluted water suitable for drinking
- Soil holds water but is not usually - 25% of the world’s population do not have
saturated with water access to safe drinking water
- Groundwater is water stored in the
saturated part of soil or rock AQUATIC LIFE ZONES
● Aquifer
- It is where groundwater is stored for Terrestrial Biomes (land)
long periods of time. ❖ Determined by the amount of precipitation
1. Confined : bound by both and climate
impermeable top and bottom Aquatic Environments
layers of rocks. It gets its ❖ their unique inhabitants are shaped by key
water supply from rain and environment factors such as:
surface water, through a ➢ Sunlight’s ability to penetrate the
recharge zone, an area far water
from the confined aquifer ➢ Availability of other nutrients for
2. Semi Confined photosynthesis
3. Unconfined: near the surface ➢ Depth of the water
- Water Table is the upper layer of the ➢ Amount of dissolved oxygen
surface where rock and soil are ➢ Kind of bottom substrates
permanently soaked with water (composition)
Salinity
Humans disrupt the water cycle by pumping water ❖ Refers to the amount of dissolved salts an
from aquifers faster than the aquifers are naturally aquatic environment has
replenished. People pollute aquatic environments Division of Aquatic Life Zone
through runoffs that contain household, 1. Freshwater Ecosystem
commercial, and industrial wastes. - Little amount of dissolved salts
2. Marine Water Ecosystem
- High salt concentration
3. Estuaries
- Have mixture of saltwater and
freshwater characteristics
- Where sea and river meet
- Landform in the middle of the river

4 MAJOR TYPES OF ORGANISMS THAT

PARTICIPATE IN AQUATIC FOOD CHAIN AND
All living organisms depend on water for survival. FOOD WEB
The biological cells are made up of 70% water. 1. Planktons
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-Weakly or freely swimming Since the coastal zones support numerous

microscopic organisms found near activities, such as fishing and recreation, humans
the surface can easily disrupt this area, which can become the
- May be phytoplanktons(plants) or most vulnerable part of the ocean.
zooplanktons (animals) (planktons ● Open Sea Surface
that feed on other planktons) Extends from the end of the continental shelf to the
- Phytoplankton, as primary vast region of the ocean where no land is in sight. It
producers, serve as foundation of has several divisions based on the amount of light
aquatic food webs received by its organisms.
- They convert carbon dioxide from ● Deep Sea Water Zone
the atmosphere through Where it is dark and very cold with little dissolved
photosynthesis oxygen, occupies the lowest part of the ocean.
2. Nektons Organisms in this area are scavengers that feed on
- Are strong swimmers, which include whatever gets adrift in their path.
turtles, fish, squids, or sharks. Bioluminescence allows their bodies to glow to
3. Benthos either attract a mate or prey.
- Organisms residing mostly at the
bottom, specifically on the seafloor FRESHWATER ENVIRONMENTS
or seafloor sediments Freshwater ecosystems differ from marine
- Include both sessile (attached to one environments in terms of salinity, which is
place) such as barnacles and sea expressed as the amount of salt dissolved in water.
anemones and motile (has the ability The average marine salinity is 35 ppt, while
to move around) such as mussels, freshwater has less than 0.5 ppt
crabs, and lobsters.
4. Decomposers
Oceanographers study and explain complex
- Are mostly bacteria that degrade interactions between and among seawater,
organic compounds from dead freshwater, polar ice caps, atmosphere, and
bodies and waste of aquatic biosphere.
organisms.
In freshwater ecosystems, the temperature of the
MARINE ENVIRONMENTS water fluctuates easily. As such, oxygen supply can
An estimated 90% of all photosynthesis and be limited.
release of free oxygen take place in the oceans
All freshwater environments are strongly connected
Ecologists classify ocean habitats according to their to terrestrial habitats; thus, they are easily polluted
depth, type of ocean bed, and amount of light. through human activities.

3 Major Marine Communities : 3 ZONES OF LIFE IN THE FRESHWATER

COMMUNITY:
● Coastal Zone 1. Littoral Zone
Has warm and nutrient-rich waters that extend near - A shallow zone near the shore
the shallow edge of the continental shelf where aquatic plants live among
Coral Ecosystems are considered to be the most
productive areas on Earth.
EARTH SCIENCE

predatory insects, amphibians, and - Inland Freshwater Wetlands : marshes,

small fish. swamps, and bogs
2. Limnetic Zone - Saltwater Wetlands : lie along coastlines
- Refers to the area that is farther and include salt marshes and mangrove
from the shore but is still close to the swamps. Mangrove swamps are found in
surface tropical regions.
- Inhabited by floating algae,
planktons and fish KINDS OF WATER USE
3. Profundal Zone Almost all human activities require water. It is a vital
- Deepwater zone located below the resource in limited quantities.
range of effective light penetration.
Domestic Use of Water
Not all freshwater systems are deep enough to - The daily use of water in the household is
include a profundal zone. perhaps the most important use of water.
- Domestic water use is the water used in
OPEN AND INTERDEPENDENT ECOSYSTEM everyday household activities such as
Open Ecosystems are open to outside and drinking, batching, washing clothes, flushing
surrounding influences. They are also called toilets, food preparation or cooking,
interdependent ecosystems because they receive watering plants, and feeding animals.
nutrients from bordering land ecosystems. - Use of water in commercial establishments
- The demand for domestic water use in
ESTUARIES highly developed countries increases
- Refers to the area where rivers meet the exponentially.
open sea.
- Plants and algae in estuaries obtain the
nutrients that are washed from nearby land. - Agricultural Use of Water
- Estuaries are among the most productive - The agricultural industry consumes the most
ecosystems on earth water, requiring more than 100 times that of
- They serve wildlife habitats an average person’s needs.
- Filter sediments and nutrients - Surface or flood irrigation is common in
- Purify the water that drains off the land farms
- Contain porous salt marsh soils that absorb - Excessive water use from this sector has
floodwaters and help protect coastal dried out many lakes, rivers, and
communities from erosion. underground water
- Serve as hatching areas for many animals Industrial Use of Water
but sadly are regarded by some humans as - About 22% of the world’s water is used in
wastelands that could be drained and used industry
for housing and agriculture. - Hydroelectric power plants need water for
cooling processes
WETLAND - Most water pollution is attributed to
- Refers to an ecosystem where freshwater or industrial processes and heat from industrial
saltwater and land meet cooling facilities
- Scientists categorize wetlands as inland or In-Stream Use of Water
coastal
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- Off-Stream use refers to the domestic,

agricultural, and industrial uses of water that
require its removal from its source
- In-Stream use involves the use of water that
does not divert water from its source, such
as using river for recreation, hydropower
generation, and navigation

KINDS AND SOURCES OF WATER POLLUTION

Water Pollution refers to the contamination of
bodies of water brought about mostly by human
activities. It occurs when the pollutants are
discharged directly or indirectly into a water system,
changing its chemical, physical, or biological
properties, that make the water unusable or
potentially harmful
POLLUTION SOURCES
1. Point Source : pollutants come from an
identifiable source such as those
discharged by factories.
2. Nonpoint Sources : more difficult to trace.
3. Transboundary Pollution : comes from a
flowing source and reaches other places.