BK Pandey 01

UNIT I
THEORY OF RELATIVITY
1
Theory of Relativity
1.1 INTRODUCTION
All the measurements in this universe are relative, for example, the length of a rod depends on the
relative difference of its end coordinates. Similarly, the time interval depends on the relative difference
between any two instants. In classical mechanics, bodies travel with the velocity much less than the
velocity of light. In this domain of physics, the fundamental quantities, viz., space, time, and mass
are absolute and invariant. It means that the length of an object is independent of the conditions under
which it is measured and the time interval between any two events has the same value for all the
observers irrespective of their state of motion. Similarly, the mass of the body does not depend on the
velocity of the body.
After the failure of the classical theory for the explanation of many new experimental facts, Albert
Einstein established the special theory of relativity in the beginning of twentieth century. According to
this theory, the fundamental quantities, i.e., space, time, and mass no longer remain constant or invariant
but depend on the state of motion. On the basis of the new concept of the theory of relativity, everything
in this universe is relative; nothing is absolute. All the states of rest and motion are relative. Position,
length, and time are relative. The theory of relativity predicts that the Newtonian mechanics is the limit-
ing case of the special theory of relativity.
The theory of relativity deals with the way in which observers in relative motion describe the physi-
cal phenomenon with respect to one another. The special theory of relativity touches all the branches
of modern physics, including high-energy physics, quantum theory, electromagnetic theory, and other
branches of science and technology.
In this chapter, the Galilean theory of relativity is discussed briefly along with the Michelson–Morely
experiment. The special theory of relativity is discussed in detail along with its important consequences.
1.2 CONCEPT OF THEORY OF RELATIVITY

The theory of relativity is mainly concerned with the correct measurement of things and events. Before
realising the data regarding an event, we should be clear about, what is an event? The universe is full of
dynamic objects, ranging from giant stars to tiny particles like electrons; nothing is static in this universe.
Due to their dynamicity, the objects of the universe may interact in a variety of ways. The interactions
of the objects are termed as events or happenings. Complete information of an event can be obtained by
knowing the facts about where the event is occurring (position), what is its time of occurrence (when),
and who is recording the data for it. A person who records the data for an event is known as an observer.
4 l Engineering Physics
The data, or the information, for an event depends on the choice of the coordinate system and the observer.
For example, an observer in Delhi would locate Taj in Agra with different coordinates as compared to
another observer in Mumbai. Note that an event does not belong to a particular inertial reference frame. An
event is just something that happens. Anyone in any reference frame may detect it and assign space–time
coordinates to it. In order to understand the above discussion, let us take the following example:
Take a point on the rim of a moving wheel on the ground. For the observer standing on the ground, the
path of the point will appear as a cycloid. However, for an observer sitting at the centre of the wheel, the
path of the point will be a circle, as it is shown in Figs. 1.1(a) and (b), respectively.

Fig. 1.1(a) Path of point on the rim Fig. 1.1(b) Path of point on the rim when
when observer is on the ground observer is at the centre of the wheel
1.3 FRAMES OF REFERENCE

In order to describe the motion of a body, we should essentially know with respect to what this motion
has been measured. If we imagine a coordinate system attached to a rigid body and describe the position
of any particle in space relative to it, then such a coordinate system is known as frame of reference. The
location of a point in space can be described by a position vector drawn from the origin of the coordinate
system to the point chosen in space. The position of the observer may or may not coincide with the origin
of the coordinate system, but there is no relative motion between the origin of the coordinate system and
the observer.
The simplest frame of reference is the Cartesian coordinate system. In this system, the position of a
point is described by coordinates (x, y, z) at any instant t. The position vector drawn from the origin to
the point is given as
→
r = xi + y j + z k
For the complete information of any event, we require its position and the time of occurrence in
a frame of reference. In this way, we require four coordinates (x, y, z, t) to describe the event. The
reference frame employed for this purpose is known as space–time frame of reference. Such a frame of
reference is shown in Fig. 1.2.
Y
P (x, y, z, t)
r
O X
Fig. 1.2 Space–time frame of reference

Theory of Relativity l 5
There are two types of frames of reference:
(i) Inertial or unaccelerated frames of reference
(ii) Non-inertial or accelerated frames of reference
1.3.1 Inertial Frames of Reference

The inertial frames of reference are those unaccelerated frames of reference in which Newton’s laws
hold good. In these frames of reference, a body is not acted upon by an external force. It remains in its
state of rest or uniform motion. In an inertial frame of reference, a body does not experience any external
force; therefore, its acceleration a is given by
→
→ d2 r Æ Æ
a = 2
= 0 (Because F = ma = 0 ) (1.1)
dt
S S
v P
r
r
O O
Fig. 1.3 S and S are intertial frames of reference
For further discussion, let us consider an inertial frame of reference S and another frame of reference
S (Fig. 1.3). Now, S is moving with constant velocity u with respect to S. Initially, at t = t = 0, S and
S were coinciding with each other. At any instant t, the position vectors for point P observed by the
observers O and O, respectively, can be related by the following expressions:

r = OO ′ + r ′

= ut + r ′

or r  = r − ut
Differentiating the above equation with respect to t (twice), we get
d 2r′ d 2r
= (Because u is constant)
or dt 2 dt 2
a = a
The above expression implies that the particle at point P experiences the same acceleration in both
the frames; it means that if the acceleration of the particle in frame S is zero, then its acceleration in S
will also be zero. On the basis of the above discussion, we may conclude that if S is an inertial frame,
then all those frames of reference that are moving with constant velocity with respect to it will be inertial
frames of reference.
1.3.2 Non-inertial Frames of Reference
Those accelerated frames of reference, in which Newton’s laws do not hold good are called non-inertial
frames of reference. In non-inertial frames of reference, the body experiences an additional acceleration
due to the accelerated motion of the frames of reference.
If the observed acceleration of a body of mass m in an inertial frame is a, then in such a frame, the
force experienced by the body is given by
F = ma
But in the case of accelerated frames of reference, F is not equal to ma; it means that the acceleration
of the body in the non-inertial frames will be other than a.
The earth is an example of a non-inertial frame of reference because it is spinning about its axis, and
simultaneously, it is moving in its orbit around the sun. Due to the rotation of the earth, the body which is at
rest on the surface of the earth experiences centripetal acceleration, which cannot be neglected, in all the cases.
In order to differentiate the inertial and non-inertial frames of reference, we can take the following example:
Suppose that S is an inertial frame and another frame S is moving with an acceleration a0 relative to
S. The acceleration of a paricle P, on which no external force is acting, will be zero in the frame S, but in
frame S , the observer will find that an acceleration –a0 is acting on it. Thus, in frame S , the observed
force on the particle is –ma0, where m is the mass of the particle. Such a force, which does not really
act on the particle but appears due to the acceleration of the frame, is called a fictitious, or pseudo force.
Here, fictitious force on the particle P is F = – ma0.
Hence, the accelerated frame Sis non-inertial with respect to the frame S because in this frame,
Newton’s law of inertia is not valid.
1.4 GALILEAN TRANSFORMATION EQUATIONS

When a point or an event is observed from two different frames, then it has different coordinates.
There are certain equations that can relate these coordinates. These equations are known as transforma-
tion equations. The equations which relate the coordinates of two inertial frames of reference are known
as Galilean transformation equations.
Case I In order to realise the Galilean transformation equations, let us consider an inertial frame
of reference S and another frame of reference S  moving with constant velocity u with respect to S
along the x-axis. For our convenience, we assumethat initially (at t = t= 0), S and S are coincid-
ing with each other. After time t, the observer (O) of frame S records the coordinates of point P as
(x, y, z, t), but at the same instant, the observer (O) of frame S records the coordinates of point P as
(x, y, z, t) [Fig. 1.4].
Now, the position vectors of the point P at any instant t can be related by the following equation:

r = r ′ + vt

or r ′ = r − vt (1.2)

or x′i + y ′ j + z ′k = xi + y j + zk – u ti

= ( x − ut ) i + y j + zk
S S
v P (x, y, z, t)
(x , y , z t )
r
O vt O
Fig. 1.4 Relative motion of S with respect to S along x- axis

Expressing in the coordinate form, the above equation can be given as
x ′ = x − ut 
y′ = y 
 (1.3)

z′ = z 
t′ = t 

Equation (1.3) gives the transformation equations of coordinates from one inertial frame to another, and
hence, they are referred as the Galilean transformation equations.
Case II In this case, we will derive the transformation equations between the coordinates of two
inertial frames of reference, where the motion of the second frame of reference is along all the directions
(x, y, z) simultaneously (Fig. 1.5). Let S and S  be two inertial frames of reference in such a way that
S  is moving with constant velocity v with respect to S having its components vx, vy , and vz , along x-,
y-, and z-axes, respectively. At any instant t, the observer of frame S records the coordinates of point
P as (x, y, z, t ) and the observer of frame S records the coordinates of the same point as (x, y, z, t ).
S S P( x, y, z, t )
Y
vxt ( x y , z , t )
r
O
vt
vyt
X
O
t
vz
Fig. 1.5 Relative motion of S with respect to S along all the axes
At the instant t, the radius vectors of point P from S and S can be related as

r = r ′ + OO ′

= r ′ + ut

or r ′ = r − ut (1.4)
The above equation may be expressed in terms of the following equation:
x � ′ i + y ′ j + z ′ k = xi + y j + z k − u i t − u j t − u k t
x y z
or = ( x − u x t ) i + ( y − u y t ) j + ( z − u z t ) k
Comparing similar terms of both sides, we get
x′ = x − u x t 
y′ = y − u y t 

z′ = z − u z t  (1.5)
t′ = t 
Equation (1.5) gives the Galilean transformation equations for such frames of reference which have their
relative motion along all the three axes simultaneously.
1.4.1 Consequences of Galilean Transformation Equations
Important consequences of the Galilean transformation equations are as follows:
(i) Transformation of length: Let S and S  be two inertial frames of reference in which S is moving
with velocity u relative to S along the x-axis. If the coordinates of ends of a rod are (x1, y1, z1) and
(x2, y2, z2) in frame S, and ( x1′ , y1′ , z1′ ) and ( x2′ , y2′ , z2′ ) in frame S, respectively, then the length
of the rod can be given as
L= ( x2 − x1 )2 + ( y2 − y1 )2 + ( z2 − z1 )2
When the rod is observed by an observer of frame S , then its end coordinates will be (x1, y1, z1 and
(x2 , y2, z2, respectively. The length of the rod in S  can be given as
L = ( x2′ − x1′ )2 + ( y2′ − y1′ ) 2 + ( z2′ − z1′ ) 2
= ( x2 − ut − x1 + ut )2 ( y2 − y1 )2 + ( z2 − z1 )2
Using the Galilean transformation equations in the above expression, we get
L′ = L
It means that the length of the rod remains invariant under the Galilean transformation.
(ii) Transformation of velocity (concept of relative velocity): As discussed in Section 1.4, the position
vectors of a point P at any instant, measured from different frames, can be related by the equation

r ′ = r − ut
Differentiating the above equation with respect to t, we get

d r′ dr
= –u
dt dt
or u= u – u (1.6)
where u and u are the velocities of the body observed in the moving and stationary frames of refer-
ence, respectively, and u is the relative velocity between S and S . Equation (1.6) is also known as the
Galilean law of addition of velocity because the velocity observed in the stationary frame is equal to the
sum of the velocity observed in the moving frame and the velocity by which it is moving.
(iii) Transformation of acceleration: From Eq. (1.6), we know that u= u – u.
Differentiating it, we get
du ′ du
= – 0 ( u is constant)
dt dt
i.e., a′ = a (1.7)
In this way, the acceleration is invariant under the Galilean transformation.
1.4.2 Newtonian Principle of Relativity
On the basis of fundamental concepts and experimental observations, Newton pointed out that the basic
laws of physics remain identical in all the inertial frames of reference. In other words, we can say that
the basic laws of physics remain identical in form in those frames of reference that are connected by the
Galilean transformation.
Solved Examples
Example 1.1
Calculate the fictitious force and the total force on a body of mass 6 kg if the frame of reference is moving
(i) vertically upwards and (ii) vertically downwards, with an acceleration of 5 m /s2.
Solution
Weight of the body = mg
= 6 (– 9.8) = –58.8 N
= 58.8 N downwards
(i) The fictitious force acting on it, when the frame of reference is moving in upward direction is
given as
– ma0
= – 6  5 = – 30 N
= 30 N downwards
Hence, the total force = 58.8 + 30 = 88.8 N downwards, i.e., the body appears to be heavier.
(ii) The fictitious force acting on the body during the downward motion
= – ma0
= 6  (– (–5))
= 30 N upwards
The net force experienced by the body = 58.8 – 30 = 28.8 N downwards so that it seems to be lighter.
Example.1.2
The earth, revolving around its own axis, is not an inertial frame of reference. If, however, we take it to
be so, what would be the error involved in 1 s in the position of a particle close to its surface? (Given
that radius of the earth = 6.4  108 cm.)
Solution
The particle which is close to the surface of the earth will experience a centripetal acceleration due to
the rotation of the earth about its own axis, whose value can be given as
a = w2R
2
 2p 
=  × 6.4 × 10 8 cm/s2
 24 × 60 × 60 
 2p 
= 3.4 cm/s2  because w = 
 T 
Thus, the acceleration of the particle will differ by 3.4 cm/s2 when it will be measured in true inertial
frame of reference. Due to this acceleration on the surface of the earth, the particle will be altered by a
distance 1/2 at 2 in time t.
Now, the altered distance S for the particle in 1 s can be given as
1 2
S= at
2
1
= × 3.4  (1)2
2
= 1.7 cm
Hence, the error involved in the position of the particle measured in earth’s frame will be 1.7 cm in
1 s.
Example 1.3
Using the Galilean transformation, show that the distance between two points (x1, y1, z1) and (x2, y2, z2)
remains invariant in two inertial frames.
Solution
Let S be a frame of reference which is moving with constant velocity u in x -direction relative to a
stationary frame S.
Let the coordinates of two points in frame S be (x1, y1, z1) and (x2, y2, z2), while those in frame S  be
(x1, y1, z1) and (x2, y2, z2).
From the Galilean transformation, we have
x 1 = x 1 – ut, y1 = y1 , z1 = z1
and x 2 = x 2 – ut, y2 = y 2, z2 = z2
Distance measured in frame S is
d= ( x2 - x1 )2 + ( y2 - y1 )2 + ( z2 - z1 )2
The distance between these two points in frame S  can be given as

d = ( x2¢ - x1¢ ) + ( y2¢ - y1¢ ) + ( z2¢ - z1¢ )
2 2 2
Substituting the values of x1 y1 z1, x2 y2, andz2 in the above equation, we get
d = ( x2 - x 1 )2 + ( y2 - y 1 )2 + ( z2 - z1 )2
= d
Hence, the distance between two points remains invariant under the Galilean transformation.
1.5 CONCEPT OF “LUMINIFEROUS ETHER” MEDIUM

The necessity of a medium for the propagation of mechanical waves forced the physicists of the
nineteenth century to think about the existence of a medium essential for the propagation of light and
other electromagnetic waves in the free space. Therefore, they assumed the presence of ether medium
in the entire universe including vacuum. This hypothetical universal ether medium is rigid, invisible,
massless, perfectly transparent, perfectly non-resistive, continuous, and stationary solid like steel having
a very high elasticity and negligible density. All the objects including the earth, moon, stars, etc., may
move freely through this hypothetical ether medium without any disturbance. Thus, it may be concluded
that ether provides a universal fixed frame of reference or absolute frame of reference with respect to
which all the measurements can be done.
Prior to the twentieth century, the ether hypothesis was an established concept for the successful
explanation of the phenomena of interference and diffraction. But this hypothesis was questioned after
the failure of the Galilean relativity for the laws of electrodynamics. This interrogative remark on this
hypothesis suggests the need of special theory of relativity.
1.6 NEED OF SPECIAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY
The laws of mechanics remain invariant under the Galilean relativity but the laws of electrodynamics
do not preserve their form under this theory. The failure of the Galilean theory of relativity in the case
of electromagnetism suggests the facts as mentioned below:
(i) The principle of relativity is meant only for the laws of classical mechanics. It is not applicable
for the laws of electromagnetism.
(ii) The principle of relativity is valid for the laws of classical mechanics as well as for the laws of elec-
trodynamics but the laws of electromagnetism need modification in accordance with the Galilean
transformations.
(iii) The principle of relativity is valid for the laws of classical mechanics as well as for the laws of
electromagnetics but Newton’s laws of classical mechanics need modification in accordance with
the Galilean transformations (Galilean theory of relativity).
(iv) There is the presence of universal ether medium that provides absolute frame of reference with
respect to which all the measurements are performed.
A number of experiments were conducted by different groups of scientists to check the validity of the
above options. In this regard, the experiments performed by Fizeau, Michelson and Morely, and Trouton
and Noble are of special importance. The results of these experiments are almost identical and discard
the presence of ether medium; these results suggest that the speed of light is constant and independent
of direction.
1.7 MICHELSON–MORELY EXPERIMENT
According to the electromagnetic theory, the speed of light in vacuum is c (3  108 m/s) in all directions.
Now, a natural question arises: with respect to which frame of reference is this statement true? If we are
considering an inertial frame of reference in which an observer is moving with speed u opposite to or along
the direction of the propagation of light, then the speed of light in the frame of observer will be given as
cr = c  u
It means, there should be an inertial frame in which the speed of light is c in all the directions or there
should be an absolute frame of reference. Any frame of reference which has relative motion with respect
to the absolute frame is not suitable for this purpose. Therefore, the universal ether medium is proposed
for the absolute frame of reference. The Michelson–Morely experiment was performed to determine
the speed of earth with respect to this frame so that the effect of observer’s motion on the speed of light
could be known.
The main objective of the Michelson–Morely experiment was to confirm the presence of a hypothetical
ether medium. They were interested to detect the relative motion between the earth and the ether medium.
Michelson and Morely repeated their experiment many times in different seasons at different places but
they got no relative motion between the earth and the ether. Since it was against the hypothesis of the
ether medium, so they declared it as negative result.
A schematic diagram of Michelson–Morely experiment is shown in Fig. 1.6 in which S is the source of
monochromatic light, P is the half-silvered glass plate inclined at 45°, M1 and M2 are the plane mirrors,
which are placed in horizontal and perpendicular directions, respectively, at the same distance from the
glass plate P, and T is the telescope used to see the interference pattern due to the superposition of light
beam reflecting back from mirrors M1 and M2.
M1 M1
1 ct l
vt
P
S
2 O P
1
M2
2
Fig. 1.6 Schematic diagram of Michelson–Morely experiment
A collimated beam of light from the source S is allowed to incident on the half-silvered glass plate P
which is inclined at 45° with respect to the incident beam. At the glass plate P, the light beam splits into
two beams. One is reflected in perpendicular direction, while the second one is transmitted in horizontal
direction. Both the beams strike at M1 and M2 normally and get reflected back to the glass plate P. After
reaching P, both the beams interfere with each other. The interference fringes are observed through the
telescope T.
Initially, the path difference between ray 1 and ray 2 is equal to twice the thickness of glass plate P
because ray 1 travels thrice through glass plate P, while ray 2 travels only once to arrive at P, for their
superposition. This path difference may be compensated by introducing a glass plate of same thickness
as of P in the path of ray 2. Hence, central maxima will be observed through telescope T.
Now, if we take the concept of relative motion between the ether and the earth into account, then
the time taken by ray 1 (in perpendicular direction) to traverse the path P to M1and M1 to P can be
calculated with the help of Fig. 1.6, according to which M1 is the new position of mirror M1 after time
t. Since the velocity of light is c relative to the absolute ether medium and u is the velocity of the earth,
the distance PM will be ct and the distance PO will be ut.
Now, from the right-angled triangle POM 1, we can write
c 2t 2 = u2t2 + l 2 (where l is the distance of M1 from P)
or (c2 – u2)t 2 = l2
l2
or t2 =
(c 2
− u2 )
l
or t=
c2 − u 2
The same time will be taken by ray 1 to traverse the path M1 P . Hence, the total time taken by ray
1 to traverse the path PM 1 P  will be given as
2l
t1 = 2t = 1/ 2
È u2 ˘
c Í1 - 2 ˙
Î c ˚
-1/ 2
2l È u 2 ˘
= Í1 - ˙
c Î c2 ˚
2l È u2 ˘
or t1 = Í1 + ˙ (Neglecting higher-order terms in binomial expansion) (1.8)
c Î 2c 2 ˚
Now, the time taken by the ray of light (ray 2) in horizontal direction can be given as
l l
t2 = +
c − u c +u
because the relative velocity between the light and the earth will be c – u and c + u when light is
approaching mirror M2 and again returning to P, respectively.
2lc
t2 =
c − u2
2
−1
2lc  u 2 
= 2 1 − 2 
c  c 
2l  u2 
or t2 =  1+ 2 (Neglecting higher-order terms) (1.9)
c  c 
Now, the time difference between ray 1 and ray 2 arriving at the glass plate P can be given as
 2l  u 2  2l  u 2 
t = t2 – t1 =  1 + 2  − 1 + 2  
 c  c  c 2c  
2l  u 2 
=  
c  2c 2 
lu 2
=
c2
Hence, the corresponding effective path difference will be
lu 2
x = c t = (1.10)
c2
When the whole apparatus is rotated by 90°, then the longer path ray takes the place of shorter ray
and vice versa. Hence, the path difference will be in opposite sense, i.e., − lu 2 c 2, and as a consequence
the effective path difference will be doubled,
2
i.e., x = 2 lu (1.11)
c2
Due to this path difference, number of fringe shift can be given as
2lu 2 / c 2 2lu 2
N = = (1.12)
λ λc 2
where lis the wavelength of the light used.
In their experiment, Michelson and Morely considered l = 11 m, u = 3  104 m/s, c = 3  108 m/s, and
l= 5300 10 –10 m. So, putting these values in Eq. (1.10), we get
2 ×11× (3×104 ) 2
N = = 0.4151 (1.13)
(3×108 ) 2 × 5.3×10− 7
It means, there should be a fringe shift of 0.4151 when the existence of the ether medium was taken into
account.
But to their utter surprise, experimentally no fringe shift was observed.
1.7.1 Negative Result of Michelson–Morely Experiment
According to the experimental setup, Michelson and Morely were expecting a fringe shift of 0.4151, as
it is calculated in Eq. (1.13). But Michelson and Morely were extremely surprised to see no fringe shift
in their experimental setup.
The negative results of the Michelson–Morley experiment indicated disagreement between the
experimental and theoretical calculations. It indicated that something was wrong with the proposed theory
of hypothetical ether medium. On the basis of these facts, it was concluded that there is no relative motion
between the earth and the ether. Hence, the hypothesis of the existence of stationary ether medium was
discarded, or disapproved.
1.7.2 Explanation of Negative Result
In order to explain the negative result of the Michelson–Morely experiment, a number of interpretations
were given by different groups of scientists. Here, we are giving a summary of three main explanations:
(i) Ether-drag hypothesis: According to this hypothesis, the moving earth drags the ether along with
it. Therefore, there is no relative motion between the earth and the ether; hence, there will be no
question of fringe shift. But this explanation was discarded because it is against the phenomenon
of stellar aberration.
(ii) Lorentz–FitzGerald contraction hypothesis: In the year 1892, Lorentz–FitzGerald gave their own
explanation for the negative result of the Michelson–Morely experiment. According to them, all
the material bodies are contracted in the direction of motion relative to the stationary ether by a
factor of (1 − u 2 c 2 ) . By taking this suggestion into consideration, the horizontal arm of the
Michelson–Morely experiment will appear of length l (1 − u 2 c 2 ) instead of l. It equalises the
time along the horizontal and perpendicular directions in the Michelson–Morely experiment, and
hence, there will be no fringe shift. Mathematically, we can realise the same time along M1 and
M2 as follows:
From Eq. (1.8), we know that
2l  u2 
t1 =  1 +  (along perpendicular direction)
c 2c 2 
and from Eq. (1.9),
2l  u 2 
t2 = 1 + 2  (along horizontal direction)
c  c 
2 2
According to the Lorentz–FitzGerald contraction, l will be l 1 − u / c along the horizontal direc-
tion. Hence,
u2
2l 1 −
c2
t2 =
 u2 
c 1 − 2 
 c 
−1 / 2
2l  u2 
= 1 −
c  
c2 
2l  u2 
= 1 +
c  
2c 2 
It concludes that t1 = t2
Although this explanation satisfies the experimental result of the Michelson–Morely experiment, even
then it was not accepted because the contraction hypothesis was purely mathematical. It was without
logic and experimental confirmation.
(iii) Constancy of speed of light: In 1905, Einstein suggested a true and simple explanation for the
negative result of the Michelson–Morely experiment. According to him, the speed of light is
constant, and it is independent of the position of the source and the observers. Using this expla-
nation for the Michelson–Morely experiment, we see that the time taken by the light to travel
the two paths (horizontal and perpendicular) in this experiment will be the same, and hence, no
fringe shift is expected.
Solved Examples
Example 1.4
What will be the fringe shift in the Michelson–Morely experiment if the effective path length of each path
is 9 m and the light used in the experiment is of wavelength 5000 Å. The velocity of earth is 3  104 m/s.
Solution
According to the ether theory, the fringe shift in the Michelson–Morely experiment can be given as
2lu 2 1
n =
c2 l
Given that l = 9 m, u = 3  104 m/s, c = 3 108 m/s, and l = 5000 Å = 5  10–7 m.
2 × 9 × (3×104 ) 2
n =
(3×108 ) 2 × (5 ×10−7 )
= 0.36
Hence, there will be a fringe shift of 0.36.
Example 1.5
In the Michelson–Morely experiment, what will be the observed relative velocity of earth and the ether,
if the two beams have a path of 9 m each and the wavelength of light used is 6000 Å for the expected
fringe shift of 0.40 fringe.
Solution
In the Michelson–Morely experiment, the expected fringe shift is given as
2lu 2
n =
c2l
or u = c l∆n
2l
Given that l = 9 m, l = 6000 Å, and n = 0.40.
u = (3  10 8) 6 ×10 − 7 × 0.4
2×9
= 3.46  104 m/s
1.8 POSTULATES OF SPECIAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY
In 1905, Einstein proposed the special theory of relativity, which is based on the two fundamental pos-
tulates given below:
(i) All the laws of physics have the same form in all the inertial frames of reference moving with
constant velocity relative to one another.
(ii) The speed of light is constant in all the inertial frames of reference and is independent of the
position of the source and the observer. It is equal to the speed of light in free space (vacuum);
numerically it is 3  108 m/s.
The first postulate is the extension of the Galilean hypothesis of invariance, or the Newtonian principle
of relativity, while the second postulate is an experimental fact.
1.9 LORENTZ TRANSFORMATION EQUATIONS

According to the new concept of the special theory of relativity, the Galilean transformations are not
suitable. Now, there is a need of new transformation equations based on the two postulates of Einstein’s
special theory of relativity. These equations are used to relate or transform the coordinates (space and
time) of an event from one inertial frame of reference to another. Since these equations were derived by
Lorentz, so these are known as Lorentz transformation equations of space and time.
In order to derive the Lorentz transformation equations, let us consider two inertial frames of reference
S and S ’, where S’ is moving with constant velocity u relative to S in x-direction, which is shown in Fig.
1.7. Let us consider that O and O’ are the positions of observers situated at the origins of frames S and
S ,’ respectively. As shown in Fig. 1.7, observer O records the coordinates of event P as (x, y, z, t), while
the observer O’ records the coordinates of the same event as (x’, y’, z’, t’). It is assumed that the time is
recorded from the instant when both the frames S and S ’ were coinciding with each other (i.e., from t = t=
0). In the derivation of new transformation equations, the measurement in the x-direction made in
frame S is proportional to that made in frame S ’. That is,
x = k(x – ut) (1.14) →
where k is the factor independent of x and t but may be the function of u .
Fig. 1.7 Lorentz transformation
The relation given in Eq. (1.14) has the merit of being linear in x and t, providing for a uniformly expanding
wavefront and admitting of one and only one interpretation in the frame S ’ for an observation made from
the frame S.
From the first postulate of the special theory of relativity, we know that the laws of physics remain in
the same form in all the inertial frames. On the basis of this postulate, we can write the same equation
for x which can be determined in terms of x’ and t’. Thus, we can write
x = k (x – (–ut ) (1.15)
Here, u has been replaced by –u because in this case, the observer has its position in frame S  so S 
will be stationary for him and it seems that S is moving with velocity u in –ve x-direction. Substituting
the value of x in Eq. (1.15) from Eq. (1.14), we get
x = k [k(x – ut) + ut ]
or = k2 (x – ut) + kut 
x – k2x = – k2ut + kut 
or (1–k2) x + k 2 ut = kut
(1 − k 2 )
or t= x + kt (1.16)
ku
Using the second postulate of the special theory of relativity, we can say that the speed of light is
constant (same) in frames S and S.
Let a light signal be given at the origin O at time t = t = 0. The distance travelled by the signal in
frames S and S can be given as follows:
In frame S,
x = ct (1.17)
and in frame S ,
x= ct (1.18
By putting the value of t  from Eq. (1.16) in Eq. (1.18), we get
2
 (1 − k ) x 
x = c  + kt 
 ku 
c (1 − k 2 ) x
= + ckt
ku
c (1 − k 2 ) x
k (x – ut) = + ckt [putting x = k(x – ut) from Eq. (1.14)]
ku
 c (1 − k 2 ) 
or k −  x = kut + ckt
 u k 
 c (1 − k 2 )   u
or 1 −  x = ct 1 + c 
 u k 2 
c (1 − k 2 ) u
1– =1+ [∵ x = ct from Eq. (1.17)]
uk 2 c
2
(1 − k ) u2
or 2 = −
k c2
1 u2
or −1 = −
k2 c2
1
or k= (1.19)
u2
1−
c2
Using the value of k in Eq. (1.14), we get
( x − ut )
x =
u2
1− 2
c
Now, by putting the value of k in Eq. (1.16), we get
ux
t− 2
t = c
u2
1− 2
c
Since there is no motion along the y- and z-axes, so it remains the same in both the frames S and S .
Thus, we may write
y = y
and z = z
Now, the relativistic space–time transformations are given as
ux
t− 2
( x − ut ) c (1.20)
x = , y = y, z = z, and t ′ =
2
u u2
1− 2 1− 2
c c
1.10 INVERSE LORENTZ TRANSFORMATION
If the coordinates of an event or a point are transformed from S to S , then these transformation equations
are known as inverse Lorentz transformation equations. These equations can be obtained from Lorentz
transformation equations by changing primed variables to unprimed and vice versa and u by –u. Thus,
the inverse Lorentz transformation equations can be given as
x′ + ut ′
x=
u2
1− 2
c
y = y′
z = z′
u x′
t′ + 2
t= c (1.21)
u2
1− 2
c
Note
It is observed that the Lorentz transformation equation reduces to the Galilean transformation equa-
tion when u << c. Because at this condition, the value of k will reduce to 1.
As we know that
1
k=
u2
1− 2
c
−1 / 2
 u2 
= 1 − 
 c2 
 u2 
1 + 
 2c 2 
1 (since u 2 c 2 will be very small when u << c, so u 2 2c 2 can be neglected.)
Thus, we get
x = (x – ut)
which is the Galilean transformation equation.
1.11 CONSEQUENCES OF LORENTZ TRANSFORMATION EQUATIONS

There are many important consequences of the Lorentz transformation but here, we will discuss it
regarding the lengths of bodies and the time intervals between given events.
1.11.1 Length Contraction

We can measure the length of a rod by taking the relative difference between its end points. Let us consider
two frames of reference S, and S , where S  is moving with velocity u along the x-axis relative to S. There
are two observers O and O at the origins of the stationary and the moving frames, respectively. Let us
consider a rod of proper length l0 placed in a moving frame of reference as shown in Fig. 1.8. Since the rod
is placed in a moving frame of reference, so its proper length will be realised by O by being in S , and it
is expressed as
l0 = x2 – x1 (1.22)
y
y¢
S S¢
v
lo
x¢1 x¢2
X1 X2
x
O O¢ x¢
z¢
z
Fig. 1.8 Length contraction

Now, if the x coordinates of the end points of that rod in frame S are measured to be x1 and x2 at the
same time t, then in this frame, the observed length of the rod is
l = x2 – x1 (1.23)
According to the Lorentz transformation equations, we know that
x1 − ut x2 − ut
x1 = and x2 =
2
u u2
1− 2 1− 2
c c
Using the values of x1 and x 2 in Eq. (1.22), we get
( x2 − ut ) ( x1 − ut )
l0 = –
2
u u2
1− 1−
c2 c2
x2 − x1
=
u2
1−
c2
Since x2 – x1 = l, so
l
l0 =
u2
1−
c2
or u 2 (1.24)
l = l0 1 −
c2
Since the factor 1 − u 2 c 2 is less than unity, so l < l0. It means that the length of the rod (l) as mea-
sured by an observer, relative to which the rod is in motion, appears smaller than its proper length (l0).
This change in length of the rod in the direction of motion is known as length contraction.
Due to the phenomenon of length contraction, a circle and a square in one frame of reference (sta-
tionary) appear to the observer in the other frame (moving) as ellipse and rectangle, respectively, as
shown in Fig. 1.9.
S
x
Reference frame
at rest a x
a
Square Circle
S
Shape of above
square and circle
Reference frame v when observed in
a – x moving frame
in motion
a (in +x direction)
v
–
Rectangle Ellipse
Fig. 1.9 Examples of length contraction
Solved Examples
Example 1.6
Show that x2 + y2 + z2 – c2 t 2 is invariant under the Lorentz transformation.
or
Show that the space–time interval between two events remains invariant under the Lorentz transfor-
mation.
Solution
We have to show that x2 + y2 + z2 – c 2t2 remains invariant, i.e., the form of expression remains as such
in the inertial frames S and S .
From the inverse Lorentz transformation, we know that
u x′
t′ + 2
x′ + ut ′ c
x= 2
, y = y, z= z, and t=
u u2
1− 2 1− 2
c c
Using these values of coordinates in the given expression, we get
2 2
   
   t ′ + u x′ 
 x′ + ut ′   c2 
 2 
+ y2 + z 2 – c2  
u 2
 1 −   1− u 
 c2   c2 
1  u 2 x′ 2 
= y 2 + z2 – 2 c 2t ′ 2 + + 2 u x ′ t ′ − x ′ 2
− 2u t ′ x ′ − u 2 2
t ′ 
 u  c2 
 1 − 
 c2 
 2
1
= y2 + z2 –   − x′ 2 + c 2t ′ 2  1 − u 
 u2    c2 
 1 − 
 c2 
= x 2 + y2 + z2 – c2t2
which shows that the expression remains the same in S. Thus the space–time interval remains invariant
under the Lorentz transformation.
Example 1.7
An observer O notes that two events are separated in space and time by 300 m and 4  10 –7 s, respec-
tively. How fast must an observer O  move relative to O in order that the events be simultaneous to O  ?
Solution
Using the Lorentz transformation, the time-span of two frames can be related by the following expression:
u
(t2 − t1 ) − ( x2 − x1 )
t2 – t1= c2
u2
1−
c2
For simultaneity,
t2– t1 = 0
u  300 m 
4 × 10−7 s −
c  3 × 108 m / s 
i.e., 0=
u2
1−
c2
u
or = 0.4
c
or u = 0.4c
= 1.2 × 108 m/s
Example 1.8
A light pulse is emitted at the origin of a frame of reference S  at time t= 0. If distance x from the
origin after a time t is given by x2 = c2t 2, transform this equation in terms of x and t. What important
inference can we draw from this result?
Solution
According to the given problem, we know that
x2 = c2t  2
Using the Lorentz transformation for x and t in the above equation, we get
2
 ux
c 2 t − 2 
( x − ut )2  c 
=
u2 u2
1− 1− 2
c2 c
2
ux
or (x – ut)2 = c 2  t − 
 c2 
u 2 x2
or x2 + u2t2 – 2xut = c2t2 + − 2 xut
c2
u 2 x2
or x2 + u2t2 = c2t2 +
c2
x 2u 2
or x2 – c 2 t2 + u2t2 – =0
c2
u2  2
or x2 – c2t 2 – 2 
x − c 2t 2  = 0
c
 u2 
or (x2 – c2t2 ) 1 −  = 0
 c2 
Since u  c, so (1 − u 2 c 2 )  0.
Hence, x 2 – c2t2 = 0
or x2 = c 2t2
This expression shows that the velocity of light is an absolute constant independent of the frame of
reference.
Example 1.9
Show that the circle x2 + y2 = a 2 in frame S appears to be an ellipse in frame S  that is moving with ve-
locity u relative to S.
Solution
In frame S, the equation of a circle in the stationary frame is
x2 + y2 = a2
In frame S ,
u2
x = x 1 − (Using length contraction)
c2
and y = y (because S  is moving along + ve x-axis)
Fig. Shape of a circle in moving frame
Substituting these values in the equation of circle, we get

x′ 2 y′ 2
+ =1
 u2  a2
a 2 1 − 2 
 c 
x′2 y ′2  u2 
or + = 1, where b 2
= a2 1−
 
b2 a2  c2 
This is the equation of an ellipse.
Example 1.10
How fast would a rocket have to go relative to an observer for its length to be contracted to 99% of its
original length?
Solution
From the formula of length contraction, we know that
u2
L = L0 1 −
c2
2
u2  L
or l– =  
c2  L0 
2
 L
u = c 1−  
L  0
According to the given data,
L 99
= = 0.99
L0 100
u = c 1 − (0.99)
2
Now
= 0.141 c
= 0.141 3 108 m/s
= 4.23 107 m/s
Example 1.11
A circular lamina moves with its plane parallel to the x–y plane of a reference frame S at rest.
Assuming its motion to be along the x-axis (or y-axis), calculate the velocity at which its surface area
would appear to be reduced to half to an observer in frame S.
Solution
Let the circular lamina be moving with velocity u in frame S along the x-axis. Now, the radius of lamina
will be contracted to R  along the x-axis, while it remains as such along the y-axis. Due to contraction
along the x-axis, the circular lamina will appear as an ellipse having its major and minor axes as R and
R along y- and x-axes, respectively.
In this way, the surface area will appear to be p RR, while the surface area of the circular lamina was
pR2 initially.
Since the new surface area has to be equal to half of its original area, so we can write
1
pRR = pR2
2
R
or R =
2
But from the concept of length contraction, we know that
u2
R  = R 1 −
c2
where u is the velocity of circular lamina with respect to S.
u2 R
Now, R 1− =
c 2 2
u2 1
or 1− 2
=
c 4
2
u 3
or 2
=
c 4
3
or u= c
2
= 0.864 c
= 2.598  108 m/s
Example 1.12
Calculate the percentage contraction in the length of rod in a frame of reference moving with velocity
0.8c in the direction parallel to its length.
Solution
The apparent length of the rod along the direction of motion can be given as
u2
L = L0 1 −
c2
Since u = 0.8c
1 − 0.64c 2
so L = L0
c2
= L0 1 − 0.64
= L0 0.36
L = 0.6 L 0
Now, the percentage contraction in length
L −L
= 0  100
L0
 L − 0.6 L0 
=  0   100
 L0
= 40 %
Hence, the percentage contraction in length is 40%.
Example 1.13
A rocketship is 100 m long on the ground. When it is in flight, its length is 99 m to an observer on the
ground. What is its speed?
Solution
If L0 is the proper length and L is the apparent length, then according to the length contraction formula,
u2
L = L0 1 −
c2
u2 L 99
or 1− = =
c 2 L0 100
2
 99 
or u =c 1− 
 100 
= 0.141 c
= 4.23  107 m/s
Example 1.14
Calculate the percentage contraction of a rod moving with a velocity of 0.8 c in a direction inclined at
60° to its own length.
Solution
Let L0 and L be the proper and the apparent lengths of the rod, respectively. The components of L along
and perpendicular to the direction of motion are L0 cos 60 and L0 sin 60, respectively.
Thus, the apparent length of the rod along the direction of motion will be given as
L0 cos 60 1 − (0.8)2
L0 L0
= 1 − 0.64 = 0.6 = 0.3 L0
2 2
Fig. The direction of motion and the effective length of rod along and perpendicular directions
The apparent length of rod along the perpendicular direction can be given as
= L0 sin 60°
3
= L0 (because there will be no change in the
2 length in the perpendicular direction)

Hence, the length of the moving rod is
1/ 2
 2  L0 3  
L = (0.3L0 ) +  
  2  
= 0.916 L0
L −L
Percentage contraction in length = 0  100
L0
L0 − 0.916 L0
% contraction = 100
L0
= 8.4%
1.11.2 Time Dilation
In view of the relativistic transformation equations, it is observed that the time interval between two
instants measured at the same place no longer remains constant or same. It depends on the position of
the observer and their relative motion. In order to derive the expression for time dilation, let us consider
a frame S that is moving along the x-axis with velocity u relative to S (Fig. 1.10). Now, if a clock at rest
in the frame S measures the times t1 and t2 of two events occurring at a fixed position x in this frame,
then the time interval between these events is known as proper time and is given as
 t= t2 – t1 (1.25)
If t1 and t2 are the times of same events recorded by a clock at rest in the frame S, then
t = t2 – t1 (1.26)
S frame S frame
Mirror
v Mirror
D L L
D
Event 2 Event 2
Event 1
Event 1
B B
B vt B
t
t = t2 – t1
t1 t2 t1
t2
t = t2 – t1
Fig. 1.10 The phenomenon of time dilation

Using the inverse Lorentz transformation in Eq. (1.26) for t1 and t2 , we get
u x′  u x′ 
t 2′ + 2  t 1′ + 2 
c c
t = –
u2 u2
1− 1−
c2 c2
(Events 1 and 2 appear at same position in frame S)
t2′ − t1′
=
u2
1−
c2
Dt ¢
Thus, t = (1.27)
u2
1−
c2
Since the factor 1 − (u 2 c 2 ) is less than 1, so 1 1 − (u 2 c 2 ) will be more than 1. It suggests that
t > t.
In this way we may conclude that the time interval measured in frame S is larger than the time inter-
val in the frame S . This effect is known as time dilation. Since the time interval between any two
events, i.e., t 1 and t2 in frame S  is less than the time interval between t 1 and t2 observed by the observer
in frame S for the same event occuring in S  frame. Thus, the time interval betweeen two events occur-
ing at a given point in the moving frame Sappears to be longer, or dilated, by a factor of 1 1 − (u 2 c 2 )
to an observer in frame S.
(i) Experimental verification of time dilation: Experimentally, it is verified that the time dilation is a
real effect. It can be justified by taking the example of meson decay.
A m-meson is an elementary particle whose mean lifetime is 2.2  10 –6 s in the frame in which it is at
rest. Such meson particles have their speed 2.994  108 m/s. These particles are created 8–10 km above
the surface of the earth in the atmosphere by fast cosmic ray particles. Usually, when these particles travel
with the velocity 2.994 10 8 m/s, then in time 2.2  10 –6 s, they can travel a distance
2.994  108  2.2  10–6 = 6.5868  102 m
= 658 m
Using the concept of time dilation for meson particles, the lifetime will be given as
t0 2.2 ×10 − 6
t= = = 34.8 10 –6 s
( 2.994×10 ) 8 2
2
u
1−
c2 1−
(3×108 )
2
With this lifetime (34.8  10 –6 s), the m-particles can travel a distance of 2.994  108 m/s 34.8  10–6 s
= 10.42 km.
The above calculation indicates that the m-meson particles can travel the distance from its existence
to the surface of the earth only when the time dilation will be taken into consideration. Since m-meson
particles are detected on the earth, so it is confirmed that the time dilation is a real effect.
(ii) Twin paradox: Let Chinu and Menu be two exactly identical twin brothers. Let Chinu goes on
a long space journey at a high speed in a rocket and Menu stay on the earth. The clock which is
with Chinu in space will appear to go slow than the clock with Menu on the surface of the earth,
in accordance with the expression of time dilation, i.e., t = t0 1 − (u 2 c 2 ) . In this way, when
Chinu returns back to the earth, he will find himself younger than Menu who was on the earth.
It follows from the above that the passage of time, and hence, also all physiological processes that
go with it, like pulse rate and heartbeats, and in fact, the process of ageing itself, are slowed down in a
fast moving reference frame. Indeed, if the velocity of the moving frame is u = c, the passage of time,
and hence, also the process of ageing will stop altogether!
Solved Examples
Example 1.15
A clock measures the proper time. With what velocity should it travel relative to an observer so that it
appears to go slow by 30 s in 12 h.
Solution
Let t 0 be the proper time and t be the apparent time for the moving frame of reference. Here, it is given
that the clock appears to go slow by 30 s in the moving frame. Hence, 12 h will appear as 12 h + 30 s in
the frame of reference where the clock appears to move.
Now, from the expression of time dilation we can write
t0
t=
u2
1−
c2
12 × 60 × 60
12 60 60 + 30 =
u2
1−
c2
u2 43200
or 1− 2 =
c 43230
= 0.999306
u2
or 1− = 0.998612
c2
u2
or = 1 – 0.998612
c2
= 0.001388
 u = c 0.001388
= c 0.0372
= 0.1116 10 8 m/s
= 1.12 10 7 m/s
Example 1.16
A clock keeps correct time. With what speed should it be moved relative to an observer so that it may
appear to loose 4 min in 24 h.
Solution
From the expression of time dilation, we know that t = t0 1 − (u 2 c 2 ) , where t 0 is the proper time
measured by the observer moving with clock, while t is the same time interval measured by the stationary
observer given that t 0 = 24  60 = 1440 min. Since the clock is losing 4 min in 24 h, so
t = 1440 + 4
= 1444 min
Now, putting the values of t and t0 in the above equation, we get
t0
1444 =
u2
1−
c2
u2 1440
or 1− =
c2 1444
= 0.9972
Squaring both sides, we get
u2
1− = 0.9945
c2
u2
or = 0.0055
c2
or u = 0.074 c
= 2.22 × 107 m/s
Example 1.17
The proper life of a p + meson is 5.0  10 –8 s. If a beam of these mesons of velocity 0.8 c is produced,
calculate the distance the beam can travel before the flux of the meson beam is reduced to 1 e2 times
the initial flux.
Solution
From the expression of time dilation, we know that
∆ t0
t =
u2
1− 2
c
5 ×10−8
=
2
 0.8 c 
1− 
 c 
t = 8.32 10–8 s
If N0 is the initial flux and N is the flux after time t, we have N = N 0 e−t /τ , where t is the mean life
in the rest frame.
N
Since we have to find out the distance travelled by the beam so that N = 20 , so at this condition,
e
N0
= N 0 e−t /t
e2
or e –2 = e−t /t
t
or =2
t
or t = 2t
where t is the mean life seen in the rest frame.
 t = 2 8.32 10 –8 s
If N0 is the initial flux and N is the flux after time t, we have
t = 1.66 10 –7 s
Now, the distance travelled by the beam is
S = 1.66 10 –7 0.8 3 10 8
= 39.84 m
Example 1.18
The mean lifetime of a m-meson when it is at rest is 22 10–6 s. Calculate the average distance it will
travel in vacuum before decay if its velocity is 0.8 c.
Solution
If the proper mean lifetime of the m-mesons is t0, then the apparent lifetime can be given as
t0
t=
u2
1− 2
c
and they can travel an average distance tu before decaying.
Now, the distance travelled by the m-mesons is given by
t0 v 2.2 × 10 − 6 × 0.8 × 3 × 108
S = =
u2 0.64 c 2
1− 1−
c2 c2
6.6 × 0.8 × 102 6.6 × 0.8 × 102
= =
0.36 0.6
 S = 8.8 102 m
Example 1.19
The proper mean lifetime of a +p meson is 5 10–8 s.
(i) Find the mean lifetime of the +p meson travelling with a velocity of 2.4  108 m/s.
(ii) Find the distance travelled by this +p meson during one mean lifetime.
Solution
t0 5 × 10−8 s 5 × 10−8 s
t=
(i) = =
u2 (2.4 × 108 ) 2 1 − (0.8) 2
1− 2
1− 8 2
c (3 × 10 )
−8
5 × 10 s
= = 8.34 10 –8 s
0.6
(ii) The distance travelled
= 2.4 108  8.34  10 –8
= 20.02 m
1.11.3 Relativity of Simultaneity
Let us consider two frames of reference S and S , where S is moving with velocity u relative to S. There
are observers O and O  at the origins of S and S respectively. Let two events be occurring simultane-
ously in frame S having their coordinates (x1, y1, z1, t1) and (x2, y2, z2, t2), respectively. It means, t1 = t2.
If t1 and t2 are the times of the two events observed by observer O by being in S , then from the Lorentz
transformation, we have
t1 − (u x1/c 2 ) t2 − (u x2 /c 2 )
t1 and t2 
u2 u2
1− 1−
c2 c2
t2 − t1 (u c 2 ) ( x2 − x1 )
Therefore, t2– t1 –
1 − (u 2 c 2 ) 1 − (u 2 c 2 )
Since the events are simultaneous in frame S, so t2 – t1 = 0. Using this value in the above equation,
we get
(u c 2 ) ( x1 − x2 )
 t =
1 − (u 2 c 2 )
i.e., t  0
It means that the events which are simultaneous in frame S observed by O are not simultaneous when
observed by observer O  being in S frame of reference.
Physical significance: According to the relative simultaneity, two events occurring
(i)
at x 1 and x 2 which are simultaneous to an observer in S do not appear so to the ob-
server S  but have some time interval between them. The magnitude of the time interval
depends upon both the distance between the two events and the velocity of frame S relative to
S. It indicates that simultaneity is not an absolute concept but a relative one, depending on the
motion of the observer. Hence, we can conclude that the time interval between the two events
depends on how far apart they occur in both space and time, i.e., their spatial and temporal sepa-
rations are entangled.
(ii) Simultaneity at low speed: If the relative speed of the observers is very less than the speed of
light, then the measured departures from simultaneity are so small that they are not noticeable.
Such is the case for all our experiences of daily living. That is why the relativity of simultaneity
is unfamiliar.
1.12 TRANSFORMATION OF VELOCITY COMPONENTS —VELOCITY ADDITION
The transformation equations relating the components of velocity observed by the observer in the mov-
ing and stationary frames of reference are known as addition of velocities. In order to derive these rela-
tions, let us consider two frames of reference S and S , with the frame S moving with constant relative
velocity u with S along +ve x-axis (Fig. 1.11). The observer in frame S measures the components of the
velocity of a moving particle as
dx , dx , dy
ux = uy = and uz =
dt dt dt
But the observer of the moving frame of reference records these components as
dx ′ dy ′ , dy ′
ux= ,u= and uz =
dt ′ y dt ′ dt ′
From the inverse Lorentz transformation equations, we know that
u x′
t′ +
x′ + ut ′ c2
x= , y = y, z = z, and t =
u2 u2
1− 1−
c2 c2
S S¢
v
Moving particle
(ux, uy, yz) in S
(ux¢ , uy¢ , y¢z) in S ¢
O O¢
S S¢
Fig. 1.11 The components of velocity in the frames S and S
Differentiating the expression of t with respect to t we get

u dx′
1+
dt c 2 dt ′
=
dt′ u2
1−
c2
dt ′  uu′ x 
or = γ 1+ 2  (1.28)
dt  c 
1
where g=
u2
1−
c2
We know that
d ( x)
ux =
dt
d
= g ( x′ + ut ′ ) 
dt 
 dx′ dt ′ u dt ′ 
= g  ⋅ + 
 dt′ dt dt 
dt ′
= g [u x′ + u ]
dt
dt ′
By putting the value of from Eq. (1.28), we get
dt
g (u x′ + u)
ux =
 uu ′ 
g 1 + 2x 
 c 
u ′x + u
or ux = (1.29)
uu x′
1+ 2
c
d ( y) d y ′ dt ′
Now, uy = =
dt dt ′ dt
Again putting the value of dt ′ dt in the above equation, we get

u ′y
uy = (1.30)
 uu ′ 
g 1 + 2x 
 c 
uz′
Similarly uz = (1.31)
 uu ′ 
g 1 + 2x 
 c 
Equations (1.29), (1.30), and (1.31) are known as the equations of addition of velocities.
The inverse equations of the addition of velocities are given as
ux − u uy uz
ux = , u= , u=
uu x y
 uu x  z
 uu 
1− 2 g 1 − 2  g 1 − 2x 
c  c   c 
Alternative Method
From the Lorentz transformation equations, we know that
 u x′ 
x = g (x + ut′), y = y′, z = z′, and t = g  t ′ + 2 
 c 
The differential form of the above equations can be given as
 u 
dx = g (dx′ + udt′), dy = dy′, dz = dz′, and dt = g  dt ′ + 2 dx′ 
 c 
dx dx′ + u dt ′
Now, =
dt u dx′
dt ′ + 2
c
 dx′ 
dt ′  +u
 dt ′ 
=
 u dx′ 
dt ′ 1 + 2 
 c dt ′ 
dx ′
+u
dx
or = dt ¢
dt u dx ′
1+ 2
c dt ′
u x′ + u
or ux =
u
1 + 2 u x′
c
dy dy ′
uy = =
dt  u 
g  dt ′ + 2 dx′ 
 c 
u ′y
=
 u 
g 1 + 2 u x′ 
 c 
dz dz ′
uz = =
dt  u 
g  dt ′ + 2 dx′ 
 c 
dz ′
=
 u dx′ 
g dt ′ 1 + 2 
 c dt ′ 
u z′
=
 u 
g 1 + 2 u x′ 
 c 
Solved Examples
Example 1.20
Two particles A and B are moving in opposite directions, each with a speed of 0.8 c, in laboratory frame
of reference. Find the velocity of one particle relative to the other?
Solution
Let the particle A have its velocity +0.8c in stationary frame of reference, while B is moving with velocity
–0.8c. Hence, u = 0.8 c; u is the velocity of the particle A observed with respect to the other particle, i.e.,
B acting as moving frame. Hence, u = – 0.8c. Using the velocity addition equation, we get
u +u
u = uu
1− 2
c
Fig. The motion of particles

u = + 0.8c
u = – 0.8c
0.8 c + 0.8c
u′ =
0.8c × 0.8c
1+
c2
1.6 c 1.6 c
= = = 0.98c
1 + 0.64 1.64
= 2.94 108 m/s
Example 1.21
An experimenter observes a radioactive atom moving with a velocity of 0.25c. The atom then emits a
b-particle which has a velocity 0.9 c relative to the atom in the direction of its motion. What is the veloc-
ity of the beta particle as observed by the experimenter?
Solution
According to the law of addition of velocity, the velocity of the b-particle as observed by the experi-
menter is given by
u′ + u
u=
u ′u
1+ 2
c
Here, u = 0.9c
and u = 0.25c
0.9 c + 0.25 c 1.15c
 u= = = 0.94 c
0.9 c × 0.25 c 1.225
1+
c2
= 2.82 108 m/s
Hence, the velocity of the b-particle as observed by the experimenter is 2.82  108 m/s.
Example 1.22
→
A particle has a velocity u′ = 3i + 4 j +12k m/s in a coordinate system moving with velocity 0.8c relative
to laboratory along +ve direction of x-axis.
→
Find u in a laboratory frame.
Solution
Since u = 3iˆ + 4 ˆj + 12kˆ
so ux = 3, u y=4, and uz= 12
and u = 0.8c
Now,
ux = u x′ + u = 3 + 0.8 c
(because the denominator is negligible compared
uu x′ (0.8 c ) × 3
1+ 2 1+ to the numerator)
c c2
= 0.8c = 2.4 108 m/s
2
u2  0.8 c 
u y′ 1− 4 1− 
c2  c 
uy = =
uu x′ (0.8 c ) × 3
1+ 2 1+
c c2
= 2.4 m/s (approx.) (because 2.4 c is negligible compared to 1)
2
u2  0.8 c 
u z′ 1− 12 1 −  2 
c2  c 
uz = = = 7.2 m/s (because 2.4 c << 1)
uu x′ (0.8 c ) × 3
1+ 1+
c2 c2
Example 1.23
Show that if in the S frame we have u y= c sin f and ux= c cos f then in frame S, u x 2 + uy2 = c2, where
S  is moving with velocity u relative to S.
Solution
Frame S is moving with velocity u relative to S in +ve x-direction. Using the inverse equation of addi-
tion of velocity, we can write
u2
u y′ 1−
u x′ + u c2
ux = and uy =
u′u u′ u
1 + x2 1 + x2
c c
Now, putting ux = c cos f and u′y = c sin f, we have
2  u2 
  c 2 sin 2 f 1 − 
 c cos f + u   c2 
2 2
u x + u y =   +
 1 + u cos f 
2
 u cos f 
 c    1 + 
 c 
1 c 2 + 2 cu cos f + u 2 (1 − sin 2 f )
= 2  
 u cos f 
1 + 
c 
1 c 2 + 2 cu cos f + u 2 cos 2 f 
= 2  
 u cos f 
1 + 
c 
c2  2u cos f u 2 2

= 2 1 + + cos f 
 u cos f   c c2 
1 + 
c
2
c2  u cos f 
= 2 
1+
 u cos f   c 
1 + 
c 
= c 2
1.12.1 Verification of Constancy of Speed of Light
Now, let us consider a particle (photon) moving with velocity c in frame S  i.e., u x = c. Let us put this
value of ux in Eq. (1.29) to obtain the value of ux , i.e., the velocity of same particle when observed from
a stationary frame of reference, which gives us
c+u
ux =
uc
1+ 2
c
(c + u )
or ux = (c + u ) = c
c
Thus, the velocity of the particle observed in frame S is the same as it is the observed by the observer
from frame S . In this way, we can conclude that the velocity of light (photon) is constant and it is inde-
pendent of the position of the source and the observer. Hence, the second postulate is consisted in the
relativistic velocity addition expression.
1.13 VARIATION OF MASS WITH VELOCITY

According to the Newtonian mechanics, the mass (inertia) of a body is constant and it is independent of
its velocity. It means, same force may produce same acceleration in a body irrespective of the state of
the body. In the special theory of relativity, it is observed that the law of velocity addition (components
of velocity) is not same as it is in the Newtonian or Galilean theory of relativity. Since momentum is
the product of the mass and the velocity, so the law of conservation of momentum will be violated if the
special theory of relativity is taken into account.
If anyone wants to preserve the law of conservation of momentum, then it can be done only at the
cost of variation of mass with velocity.
In order to derive the expression for the variation of mass, let us consider two inertial frames of
reference S and S , where S is moving with constant velocity u relative to S in the positive x-direction.
Suppose there are two elastic balls A and B exactly similar having same mass m in frame S . These balls
are approaching each other with the same speed (i.e., the ball A has its velocity u while the ball B has its
velocity –u). When the observer of frame S (i.e., O) records the mass and velocity of balls A and B, he
finds that it is m1, u1 and m2, u2 for the balls A and B, respectively, which has been shown in Fig. 1.12.
y y¢
S
v
S¢ Before the collision
A B
u1 u 2
u –u
m1 m2 m m
After the collision
(m + m)
x¢
O x O¢
Z¢ Z¢
Fig. 1.12 Frames S and S in which observers O and O observing the mass of A and B as m1,
m2 and m, m, respectively
When we apply the law of conservation of momentum for balls A and B in S frame, then we can write
momentum of ball A + momentum of ball B = momentum of coalesced mass,
i.e., mu + (–mu) = (m + m)  0
which shows that the law of conservation of momentum holds good for balls A and B in S  frame.
Now, when we apply the law of conservation of momentum for balls A and B by being in S frame of
reference, then we get
m1u1 + m2u2 = (m1 + m2)u (1.32)
because coalesced mass will be stationary in S  frame.
We can write the expressions for u1 and u2 using the law of velocity addition, according to which
u +u −u + u
u1 = and u2 =
uu uu
1+ 2 1− 2
c c
Using these values of u1 and u2 in Eq. (1.32), we get
 u +u   − u + u
m1  + m2 
uu  uu  = (m1 + m2) u
 1 +   1 − 
c2  c2 
   
 u +u   −u + u 
m1  − u  = m2 u − 
1 + uu   uu 
1 −
 c2   c 2 
 uu 2   uu 2 
u + u − u − 2   u − 2
+u −u
c  =m  c 
or m1   uu 
 uu  2
1− 2
 1+ 2   
 c   c 
  u2     u  2
 u 1 − 2    u 1 − 2  
c 
m1   c  =m  

 uu  2  uu 
 1+ 2   1− 2 
 c   c 
   
uu
1+ 2
m1 c (1.33)
or =
m2 uu
1− 2
c
Let us consider the value of the term,
2
 u + u
 
u12 c 
1− = 1− 2
c2  uu 
1 + 2 
c
u 2u 2 2uu u2 u2 2uu
1+ 4
+ 2
− 2
− 2
−
c c c c c2
= 2
 uu 
1 + 2 
c
 u2   u2 
1 − 2  1 − 2 
u12  c  c 
1− = 2 (1.34)
c2  uu 
1 + 2 
Similarly,  c 
 u2   u2 
 1 −  1 − 
u22  c2   c2 
1– = 2 (1.35)
c2  uu 
1 − 2 
c
Now, from Eqs. (1.34) and (1.35), we can write
2
u22  uu 
1− 1 + 2 
c2 c
=
u2  uu 
2
1 − 12  1 − 
c c2 
u22 uu
1− 1+
c 2
c2
or = uu (1.36)
u2 1− 2
1 − 12
c c
Comparing Eqs. (1.33) and (1.36), we get
u22
1−
m1 c2
=
m2 u12
1−
c2
u12 u22
or m1 1− 2 = m2 1 −
(1.37)
c c2
Since the LHS and RHS of the above equation are independent of each other, so both can be equated
to a constant quantity, i.e.,
u12 u22
m1 1 − = m2 1 − = m0
c2 c2
where m0 is the rest mass of ball A.
m0
Thus, m1 =
u12
1−
c2
m0
and m2 =
u22
1−
c2
Hence, for a body having its rest mass m0 moving with velocity u, we can write
m0
m= (1.38)
v2
1−
c2
where m is the mass of the body during its motion.
Equation (1.38) is the relativistic formula for the variation of mass with velocity. When u << c,
m = m0, as we found in our classical experiments. When u = c, m = ; it shows that no particle can have
its velocity equal to or greater than c. A graph showing the variation of mass with velocity has been
shown in Fig. 1.13.
m0
0 0.2c 0.4c 0.6c 0.8c 1.0c

u
Fig. 1.13 Variation of mass with velocity
Experimental Verification
In 1909, Bucher determined the ratio e/m as a function of velocity for fast electrons emitted from ra-
dioactive nuclei. He found that the mass of electron varies with its velocity, according to the relation
m0
m=
u2
1−
c2
1.14 MASS–ENERGY EQUIVALENCE
Mass–energy equation is the most important and significant relationship derived by Einstein from the
postulates of the special theory of relativity. This relation is also known as scientific signature of Einstein.
In order to derive this relation, let us consider a particle of rest mass m0. It attains the mass m when
acted upon by a force F to produce velocity u in the same direction. If the force F displaces the particle
through a small distance dx, then the work done dw can be given as
dw = F · dx
This work done will appear as the increment in the kinetic energy as dK. Hence, we can write
dw = dK = F · dx (1.39)
According to Newton’s second law of motion, we know that F = dp dt , where p is the momentum
of the particle.
d
Now, F= (mu ) (1.40)
dt
According to the theory of relativity, both m and u are variables in Eq. (1.40). Therefore,
du dm
F= m +u
dt dt
Substituting this value of F in Eq. (1.39), we get
du dm
dK = m dx + u dx
dt dt
dx dx
= m d u + u dm
dt dt
or dK = mudu + u2dm (1.41)
From the relativistic formula for variation of mass with velocity, we know that
m0
m=
u2
1− 2
c
or m (c – u ) = m02 c 2
2 2 2 (1.42)
Differentiating Eq. (1.42), we get
2m c2 dm – 2mu2 dm – 2m2 udu = 0
or c2 dm = mudu + u2 dm (1.43)
Comparing Eqs. (1.41) and (1.43), we get
dK = c2 dm (1.44)
If the kinetic energy is changing from 0 to K due to change in its mass from m0 to m, then
K m
c 2 dm
∫0 dK = ∫
m0
Thus, K = c2 (m – m0) (1.45)

This is the relativistic expression for kinetic energy of a particle. From the above relation, it is clear that
the increment in kinetic energy is due to the increment in the mass of the body on account of its relative
motion. m0c2 is known as the rest-mass energy, which may be considered as internal stored energy owf
the particle. Hence, the total energy of a moving particle is the sum of the kinetic energy and its energy
at rest, i.e.,
Total energy E = rest-mass energy + relativistic KE
= m0 c2 + (m – m0) c2
E = mc 2 (1.46)
The above relation is the well-known Einstein mass–energy relation.
Experimental Verification
There are many experimental evidences in support of the mass–energy relation, Some of them are as
follows:
(i) Electron–positron pair annihilation and electron–positron pair production are the direct proofs of
mass–energy equivalence.
e+ + e− = g
(Particle having mass) (Photon having energy only)

g  e+ + e−
(energy) (mass)
(ii) The mass–energy relation forms the basis for better understanding of nuclear phenomena like nuclear
reactions such as fission and fusion. The tremendous energy produced during the explosion of
atomic bombs is due to the conversion of mass into energy, according to this relation.
1.15 RELATIVISTIC RELATION BETWEEN ENERGY AND MOMENTUM

From the expression of the relativistic total energy of a particle moving with velocity u, we know that
E = mc2
m0 c 2
or E= (1.47)
u2
1−
c2
where m0 is the rest mass of the particle.
From Eq. (1.42), we can write
 u2 
E2 1 − 2  = m20 c4
 c 
2 2
or E 2 = E u + m20 c4 (1.48)
c2
As we know that p = mu
p
or u=
m
Using this value of u in Eq. (1.44), we get
E 2 p2
+ m02 c 4
E2 =
m2c2
= p2c2 + m 02 c4 (because E = mc2)
E = p 2 c 2 + m02 c 4
or (1.49)
This is known as the relativistic relation between the total energy E and the momentum p of the particle.
1.16 EXPRESSION OF RELATIVISTIC MOMENTUM

The expression of relativistic momentum is defined in a similar way as it is defined in classical mechanics,
i.e., as the product of mass and velocity. Hence, the expression of momentum can be given as
p = mu
In relativistic mechanics,
m0
m=
u2
1− 2
c
m0u
 p=
u2
1−
c2
Conservation of momentum is valid in the special theory of relativity just as in classical physics.
In relativistic mechanics, the Newton’s second law, when is parallel to (i.e., the force acting on
a particle), cannot be defined as the product of mass and acceleration (because mass no longer remains
constant with velocity) but as the time rate of change of its relativistic momentum. Thus,
dp d m0u
F= =
dt dt u2
1−
c2
 −1 / 2 
d   u2  
= m0 u 1− 2 
dt   c  
 
−3 / 2
du  u2 
= m0 1 −
dt  
c2 
This is known as relativistic form of Newton’s second law.
1.17 MASSLESS PARTICLES AND THEIR EXPLANATION

The particles having zero rest mass are known as massless particles. The existence of massless particle is
beyond the scope of classical physics. But according to the relativistic mechanics, the particles with zero
rest mass may exist. The energy and momentum of such a particle can be calculated with the expression
of relativistic total energy E, which is given as
E = m02 c 4 + p 2 c 2
where p is the momentum of the particle.
For a massless particle, m0 = 0
 E = pc
E
or p=
c
Since p is also equal to mu = Eu c 2 because m = E c 2 , therefore, u = c, that is, the velocity of a
massless particle is the same as that of light in free space. It indicates that a massless particle has mass
as long as it is in motion. On being stopped, they cease to exist—they are either absorbed completely or
changed into heat at the surface. Examples of massless particles are photons, neutrinos, and gravitons.
A particle which has its rest mass zero and has its mass during its motion can be explained on the
basis of the expression of variation of mass, i.e., m = m0 1 − (u 2 c 2 ) . Actually, during the motion of
the particle, the energy is converted into mass. It is also known as materialisation of energy, i.e., conver-
sion of energy into matter.
Example 1.24
What is the length of a metre stick moving parallel to its length when its mass is 3/2 times its rest mass.
Solution
Given that
3
m= m
2 0
Using the relativistic formula of mass, we can write
m0 3
= m0
u2 2
1− 2
c
u2 4
or 1 − 2
=
c 9
4
or u = c 1−
9
5
= c
9
c 5
=
3
Initial length of the metre stick is 1 m. Hence, the contracted length of the metre stick can be given as
u2
l = l0 1 −
c2
5 c2
= l0 1 −
9 c2
4
= l0
9
2l0
=
3
For l0 = 1 m
2
l = m
3
= 0.667 m
Example 1.25
A particle of rest mass m0 moves with speed c/ 2 . Calculate its mass, momentum, total energy, and
kinetic energy.
Solution
From the expression of the relativistic mass of the particle, we know that
m0
m=
u2
1− 2
c
m0
= = 2 m0 = 1.41 m0
c2
1− 2
2c
The momentum P of the particle is given by
c
P = mu = m0 2 × = m0 c
2
The total energy E of the particle is given by
E = mc2 = (1.41m0) c2 = 1.41m0c2
The kinetic energy K of the particle is given by
K = E – m0c2 = 1.41m 0c2 – m 0c2
= 0.41m 0 c 2
Example 1.26
The mass of a moving electron is 11 times its rest mass. Find its kinetic energy and momentum.
Solution
The kinetic energy of the particle is given by
K = mc2 – m0c2
Here, m = 11 m0, m0 = 9.1  10 –31 kg, and c = 3  108 m/s
 K = 11m0c2 – m0c2 = 10m0c2
= 10  9.1  10–31 (3 10 8)2
8.2 × 10−13
= 8.2 10–13 J = eV = 5.12 10 6 eV
1.6 × 10 −19
The momentum P of the particle is given by
P = mu
According to the relation between the variation of mass and velocity,
2
m0 u2 m 
m= or 1 − =  0
c2  m
u2
1−
c2
2
m 
or u = c 1 −  0
 m0 
2
 m 
= 3 108 1 −  0 
 11m0 
8
= 3  10  0.996
= 2.99 108 m/s
Hence, P = 11 m0  2.99  108 = 11  9.11  10–31  2.99  108
= 2.99 10–21 kg m/s
Example 1.27
How much does a proton gain in mass when accelerated to a kinetic energy of 500 MeV?
Solution
Kinetic energy K = (m – m0) c2
or mc2 = K + m0 c2
K
Gain in mass m – m0 = 2 = m
Here, it is given that c
K = 500 MeV
= 500 106  1.6  10–19 J
m0 = 1.6  10–27 kg and c = 3  108 m/s
500 × 106 × 1.6 × 10−19
m = = 8.89 10–28 kg
(3 × 108 )2
Example 1.28
How fast must an electron move in order that its mass equals the rest mass of the proton.
Solution
We know that
m0 m0  u2 
m= or =  1− 2 
u2 m  c 
1−
c2
 u2 
 u = c  1 − 2 
 c 
It is given that m0 = me = 9.1 10 –31 kg , m = mp = 1.67  10 –27 kg, and c = 3  108 m/s.
Putting these values in the above equation, we get
1−
(9.1¥10 )−31 2
u = 3 108 = 2.99 108 m/s

(1.67 ¥10 ) −27 2
Example 1.29
If the kinetic energy of a body is thrice of its rest-mass energy, then find its velocity.
Solution
From the expression of relativistic kinetic energy, we know that
K = (m – m0)c2
or mc2 = K + m0 c 2
In this case, K = 3 m0c 2
i.e., mc2 = 4m0c2
or m = 4m0
Using the relation,
m0
m=
u2
1− 2
c
  m 2   1 2 
u= c 1 −  0   = 3 108 1 −   
  m     4  
= 3  108
(3.8) = 0.95 c
4
8
= 2.9  10 m/s
Example 1.30
If the total energy of a particle is exactly thrice of its rest-mass of energy, what is the velocity of the particle?
Solution
Total energy of a particle is given by
E = mc 2
Here, it is given that
E = 3m0 c 2 = mc2
or m = 3m0
From the expression of the relativistic mass,
m0
m=
u2
1−
c2
= 3m0
 u2  1 u2 1
  1 −  = or 1 – =
 c2  3 c2 9
8 2
or u2 = ¥c
9
or u=
(
2 2 ¥ 3 ¥108 )
3
= 2.828  108 m/s
Example 1.31
Compute the mass m and speed u of an electron having kinetic energy 1.5 MeV. Given that the rest mass
of electron m0 = 9.1 10 –31 kg and the velocity of light in vacuum c = 3  108 m/s.
Solution
The relativistic kinetic energy can be expressed as
K = (m – m0) c2
K = 1.5 MeV = 1.5  106  1.6  10 –19 J
and m0 = 9.1  10 –31 kg
Using these values in the above equation of relativistic kinetic energy, we get
1.5 ¥106 ¥1.6 ¥10−19
(m – 9.1  10 –31) =
(3¥10 ) 8 2
1.5 ¥106 ¥1.6 ¥10−19

or m = 9.1  10–31 +
(3¥10 )
8 2
= 9.1 10 –31 + 2.667 10 –30

= 3.58 10 –30 kg
According to the relation between the variation of mass and velocity,
m0
m=
u2
1−
c2
2
u2 m 
or 1- =  0
c2  m
2
  m 2  9.1 ¥ 10 −31 
 u = c 1 −  0   = 3 ¥ 108 ¥ 1 −  
  m    3.58 ¥ 10−30 
= 3 108  0.935 = 3 ¥ 108 ¥ 0.967 = 0.97c

= 2.9 108 m/s
Example 1.32
Calculate the amount of work done to increase the speed of an electron from 0.6c to 0.8c. Given that the
rest-mass energy of electron = 0.511 MeV.
Solution
m0
K = (m – m0)2 = c 2 − m0
 u2 
1 − 2 
 c 
 −1 / 2 
 u2 
= c m0 1 − 2  2
− 1
 c  
 
Initial kinetic energy of the electron, when its velocity is 0.6c, is given by
 −1 / 2 
(0.6 c)2 
K1 = m0 c 2 1 −  − 1
 c2  
 
= m0 c 2 (1 − 0.36) −1 / 2 − 1
= m c 2 [1.25 − 1]
0
= m0c2 0.25
= 0.25 eV  0.511 (∵m0c2 = 0.511 MeV)
= 1.27  105 eV
Final kinetic energy, when the velocity of electron increases to 0.8c, is given by
 2  −1 / 2 
K2 = m0c2  1 −  0.8 c   − 1
   c   
   
= m0c2 (1 − 0.64)1 / 2 − 1
= m0c2 (0.36) −1 / 2 − 1
1
= m0 c2  
− 1
 0.6 
= m0 c2 [1.67 − 1]
= m0 c2 
= 0.511  0.67 eV
= 3.4 105 MeV (∵m0c2 = 0.511 MeV)

Hence, the amount of work to be done to increase the speed of electron from 0.6c to 0.8c is
K2 – K1 = [3.4 – 1.27]  105 eV
= 2.13  105 eV
or K = 2.13  105  1.6  10 –19 J
K = 3.4 10 –14 J
Hence, the amount of work to be done is 3.4  10 –14 J.
Example 1.33
Calculate the velocity of electrons accelerated through a potential of 1 million volts. Rest mass of an
electron = 9  10 –31 kg.
Solution
From the expression of kinetic energy, we know that
K = total energy – rest-mass energy
m0 c 2
= mc2 – m0c2 = – m0c2
2
v
1−
c2
 2  −1 / 2 
= m0 c2  1− u − 1
 c2 
 
 
KE = 1 MeV = 106 eV = 106 1.6 10 –19 J

= 1.6 10 –13 J

 −1 / 2 
 u2 
–13 –31 8 2
 1.6 10 = 9 10 (3 10 ) 1 − 2  − 1
 c  
 
−1 / 2
 u2  1.6 ¥10−13
or 1 − 2  −1 = = 1.975
 c  9 ¥10−31 ¥ 9 ¥1016
−1 / 2
 u2 
 1 −  = 2.975
 c2 
u2 1
or 1- =
c 2
(2.975)2
u2
or = 1 – 0.113 = 0.887
c2
u
or = 0.887 = 0.942
c
or u = 0.942 3 108
= 2.82 108 m/s
Example 1.34
Find the speed of 0.1 MeV electrons according to the classical and relativistic mechanics.
Solution
According to the classical mechanics, the kinetic energy is expressed as
1
K = mu2
2
or u= 2K m
Given that K = 0.1 MeV = 0.1  106 eV = 0.1  106 1.6 10–19 J and m = 9.1 10–31 kg.
2 ¥ 0.1 ¥ 106 ¥ 1.6 ¥ 10−19
Now, u=
9.11 ¥ 10−31
= 1.87  108 m/s
According to the relativistic mechanics, the KE of an electron is expressed as
K = mc2 – m0c2
or mc 2 = K + m0c2
m0 c 2
or = K + m0c 2
2
u
1−
c2
2
 u2   m0 c 2 
or 1 − 2  =  2
 c   K + m0 c 
2
 m0 c 2 
or u = c 1−  
 K + m0 c 2 
The rest-mass energy of electron is m0c2, i.e., 0.512 MeV.
and K + m0 c2 = 0.1 MeV + 0.512 MeV = 0.612 MeV
2
 0.512 
Hence, u = 3.0  108 1 −  = 3 ¥ 108 ¥ 0.548
 0.612 
= 1.64 108 m/s
Example 1.35
The binding energy of an electron to the proton is 13.6 eV. Find the loss of mass in the formation of 1
atom of hydrogen.
Solution
We know that the binding energy = loss of mass (m)  c 2
BE
or m = 2
c
Here, BE = 13.6 eV = 13.6 1.6 10 –19 J and c = 3 10 –8 m/s.
13.6 × 1.6 × 10−19
m = = 2.42 × 10−35 kg
(3 × 10 )
8 2
Example 1.36
Show that the momentum of a particle of rest mass m0 and kinetic energy KE is given by the expression
KE 2
p= + 2m0 × KE .
c2
Solution
From the energy–momentum relation, we know that
E 2 = m02c4 + p2c2
( )
2 4 2 2 1/ 2
or E = m0 c + p c (1)
The total energy E = rest-mass energy + kinetic energy
E = m0c2 + KE (2)
From Eqs. (1) and (2),
(m c )
2 4 1/ 2
0 + p2c2 = m0c2 + KE
Squaring both sides of this equation, we get
m02c4 + p2c2 = m02c4 + 2m0c2  KE + KE 2
or p2c2 = KE 2 + 2m0c2  KE
KE2
or p2 = + 2m0  KE
c2
KE2
or p= + 2m0 × KE
c2
Example 1.37
→
Show that the relativistic form of Newton’s second law, when F is parallel to u, is
−3/2
→ du  u2 
F = m0 1 −
dt  
c2 
Solution
From Newton’s second law, we know that
d
F= p
dt
d
= (mu)
dt
Using relativistic equation for the mass of body,
 
 
d  m0 
F= u 
dt  2
 1− u 
 c 2 
 −1 / 2 
d  u2 
= m0 1 − 2  u
dt  c  
 
 −1 / 2 −3 / 2 
 u2  du  1  u2   − 2u  du 
= m0 1 − 2  + u  −  1 − 2  ×
 2  dt 
 c  dt  2  c  c
 
−3/2
 u2  d u  u2  u2 
= m0 1 − 2  ⋅ 1 − 2  + 2 
 c  dt  c  c 
−3/2
du  u2 
= m0 1 −
dt  
c2 
Example 1.38
Show that if the variation of mass with velocity is taken into account, the kinetic energy of a particle
of rest mass m0 and moving with velocity u is given by
 −1 / 2 
2 u2 
KE = m0 c 1 − 2  − 1
 c  
Solution  
We know that the relativistic expression of kinetic energy is
KE = (m – m0 ) c2
= mc2 – m0c 2
m0
By putting m = , we get
u2
1−
c2
m0 c 2
KE = – m0c2
2
u
1−
c2
 −1 / 2 
 u2 
or 2
KE = m0 c 1 − 2  − 1
 c  
 
Example 1.39
Show that the massless particles can exist only if they move with the speed of light and their energy E
and momentum P must have the relation E = Pc.
Solution
A particle which has zero rest mass (m0) is called a massless particle. In classical physics, such particles
do not exist, while in relativistic mechanics, such particles may exist.
From the relation of relativistic energy and momentum, we know that
E= m0 2 c 4 + P 2 c 2
For massless particles, m0 = 0
Thus, E = Pc
E
or P=
c
Since P = mu
so for massles particles,
E
P=
c
mc 2
=
c
= mc
It shows that the massless particles have the same velocity as light in free space.
Example 1.40
Show that for small velocities, the relativistic kinetic energy of a body reduces to the classical kinetic
energy, which is less than the rest-mass energy.
Solution
KErelativistic = (m – m0 ) c 2
m0
= − m0 c 2
2
u
1− 2
c
 2  −1 / 2 
u
= m0 c 1 − 2  2
− 1
 c  
 
 u2 
= m0 c 2 1 + 2 + … − 1
 2c 
Now, neglecting higher-order terms because u << c, we get
u2
KE relativistic = m0 c 2 ¥
2c 2
1
= m0u 2
2
= KE classical
which is less than m0c2.
Example 1.41
Show that the quantity P 2 – ( E 2 c 2 ) remains invariant under the Lorentz transformation.
Solution
The quantity P2 – (E2/c2)will be invariant if P′2 – (E′2/c2) = P2 – (E2/c2) under the Lorentz transformation.
Now, P2 = Px2 + P y 2 + P z 2
2
 u 
 Px − 2 E 
 c  +P 2 +P 2
= 2 y y
u
1− 2
c
2
E ′2 (E − u Px )
and =
c2  u2 
c 2 1 − 2 
 c 
2
 u 
E ′2  Px − 2 E  (E − u px )
2
P2 – = c 2 2
 + Py + Pz −
c2 u2  u2 
1− 2 c 2 1 − 2 
c  c 
 2 u 2 2 2 Pxu E  1
 Px + 4 E − =n
 u 2   c c 2 
1 − 2 
 c 

 E 2 u 2 Px 2 2 Eu Px  2 2
− 2 − 2
+ 2  + Py + Pz
 c c c 
1  2  u 2  E 2  u 2 
=  Px 1 − 2  − 2 1 − 2   + Py 2 + Pz 2
 u 2    c  c  c  
1 − 2 
 c 
E2
= Px 2 + Py 2 + Pz 2 −
c2
E2
= P 2 −
c2
Thus, P 2 – ( E 2 c 2 ) remains invariant under the Lorentz transformation.
Example 1.42
Show that the electromagnetic wave equation
∂ 2f ∂ 2f ∂ 2f 1 ∂ 2f
+ + − =0
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2 c 2 ∂t 2
is not invariant under the Galilean transformation.
Solution
∂ 2f ∂ 2f ∂ 2f 1 ∂ 2f
Given that + + − = 0 (1)
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2 c 2 ∂t 2
According to the Galilean transformation,
x = (x – ut), y= y, z = z, t = t
∂x ¢ ∂x ¢ ∂t ¢ ∂y ¢ ∂z ¢
Now, = 1, = –u, = = =1
∂x ∂t ∂t ∂y ∂z
∂x ¢ ∂x ¢ ∂y ¢ ∂t ¢
and = = = == 0
∂y ∂z ∂x ∂x
From the chain rule,
∂f ∂f ∂x ′ ∂ f ∂ y ′ ∂f ∂ z ′ ∂f ∂ t ′ ∂f
= + + + =
∂x ∂x′ ∂x ∂y ′ ∂x ∂z ′ ∂x ∂ t ′ ∂x ∂x ′
∂ 2f ∂ 2f
and = (2)
∂x 2 ∂x′2
∂ 2f ∂ 2f
Similarly, = (3)
∂x′2 ∂y 2
∂ 2f ∂ 2f
= (4)
∂y ′2 ∂z 2
∂f ∂f ∂f because 
 
Moreover, = –u +  ∂f = ∂f ⋅ ∂x ′ + ∂f ⋅ ∂t ′ 
∂t ∂x′ ∂t ′
 ∂t ∂x ′ ∂t ∂t ′ ∂t 
∂ 2f ∂  ∂f  ∂  ∂f 
= –u  +  
∂t 2 ∂t  ∂x′  ∂t  ∂t ′ 
∂ 2f ∂t ′ ∂ 2f ∂t ′
= − u +
∂t ′∂x ∂t ∂t ′2 ∂t
∂ 2f ∂ 2f ∂ 2f ∂ 2f ∂ 2f
=– u + = − u + (5)
∂t 2 ∂t ′∂x′ ∂t ′ 2 ∂t ′∂x′ ∂t ′ 2
Putting the values from Eqs. (2), (3), (4), and (5) in Eq. (1), we get
∂ 2f ∂ 2f ∂ 2f u  ∂ 2f  1 ∂ 2f
+ + +   − = 0 (6)
∂x ′ 2 ∂y ′ 2 ∂z ′ 2 c 2  ∂t ′ ∂x ′  c 2 ∂t ′ 2
Since Eqs. (1) and (6) are not the same, hence, it is not invariant under the Galilean transformation.
1.18 FORMULAE AND HIGHLIGHTS

1. The path difference between the rays arriving at half-silvered glass plate in Michelson–Morely
experiment is lu 2 c 2 .
2. According to the Galilean transformation equations, x′ = (x – ut), y′ = y, z′ = z, and t′ = t.
3. According to the Lorentz transformation equations,
x − ut t − (u x/ c 2 )
x′ = , y′ = y, z′ = z, and t′ =
1 − u 2 / c2 1 − u 2 / c2
4. The length contraction equation for proper length l0 and observed length l is given as
u2
l = l0 1 −
c2
5. For the proper time t0 and observed time t, the time dilation is given as
t = t0 1 − (u 2 c 2 )
6. The transformation of the velocity components is given as
u′ + u u ′y u z′
ux = x , uy = , and uz =
uu ′  uu ′   uu ′ 
t + 2x g 1 + 2x  g 1 + 2x 
c  c   c 
7. The variation of mass with velocity is given as
m0
m= , where m0 is the rest mass.
u2
1− 2
c
8. The mass energy equivalence equation is given as
KE = Dmc2
9. The total energy is given as
E = mc2
10. The relativistic equation between the energy and momentum is given as
E2 = P2c2 + m02c4
11. The expression of relativistic momentum is given as
m0u
P = mu =
u2
1− 2
c
12. The relativistic form of Newton’s second law is given as
−3/ 2
dv  u 2 
F = m0 1 − 2 
dt  c 
13. The momentum of a particle of rest mass m0 and kinetic energy KE is given by the expression
(KE) 2
P= + 2m0 KE
c2
14. In inertial frames of reference, Newton’s laws hold good.
15. Non-inertial frames of reference are those accelerated frames of reference in which Newton’s
laws do not hold good.
16. According to the Galilean transformation equations, the length of a rod remains invariant.
17. The main objective of Michelson–Morely experiment was to confirm the presence of hypothetical
ether medium.
18. Michelson and Morely got negative result in their experiment.
19. According to the postulates of special theory of relativity,
(i) all the laws of physics preserve their form in all inertial frames of reference.
(ii) the speed of light is constant in all inertial frames of reference and is independent of the posi-
tion of the source and the observer.
20. Length contraction and time dilation are the consequences of Lorentz transformation equations.
21. A square in a moving frame of reference appears as a rectangle and a circle appears as an ellipse.
22. At low speed, the Lorentz transformation reduces to the Galilean transformation equations.
23. The events simultaneous in frame S observed by O are not simultaneous in frame S′ observed by
O′.
24. Equations of addition of velocities verify the constancy of the speed of light.
25. Mass of a body no longer remains constant in relativistic mechanics.
26. According to the mass–energy equivalence, the mass can be converted into energy.
27. Massless particles have zero rest mass.
28. Decay of p-meson supports time dilation.
29. Pair production and pair annihilation support mass–energy equivalence.
30. At low velocity, the relativity of simultaneity is unfamiliar.
Exercises
Section A
Theoretical Questions
1. What do you mean by a frame of reference? What are the differences between inertial and non-
inertial frames of reference?
2. What do you mean by transformation equation? Derive the Galilean transformation equation.
3. Show that the distance between any two points in two inertial frames is invariant under the
Galilean transformation.
4. Is earth an inertial frame of reference? If not, why?
5. What was the objective of conducting the Michelson–Morely experiment? Describe the experi-
ment. How is the negative result of the experiment interpreted?
6. What are the fundamental postulates of the special theory of relativity?
7. Using the postulates of the special theory of relativity, derive the Lorentz transformation equa-
tions.
8. Derive the inverse Lorentz transformation equations.
9. What do you understand by time dilation? Establish a relation for proper interval of time.
10. Deduce the expression of time dilation from the Lorentz transformation equations. Give an ex-
ample to show that time dilation is a real effect.
11. Deduce the expression of length contraction from the Lorentz transformation equations.
12. Obtain the relativistic formula for the addition of velocities and also show that the speed of light
is constant.
13. Show how the relativistic invariance of the law of conservation of momentum leads to the concepts
of the variation of mass with speed and the mass–energy equivalence.
14. Show that the mass of a body depends on its velocity. Deduce an expression for the variation of
mass with velocity.
15.
Establish Einstein’s mass–energy relation.
16.
Show that no signal can travel faster than light.
17.
Derive the inverse Lorentz transformation equations.
Prove the relation E2 – p2 c2 = m 02 c4, where p is the momentum.
18.
A nucleus of mass m emits a gamma photon of frequency n0. Show that the loss of internal energy
19.
 hv0 
by the nucleus is not hn0 but hv0 1 + 2
.
 2m0 c 
20. Give two physical examples of Einstein’s mass–energy equivalence.
Section B
Numerical Problems
1. Show that the electromagnetic wave equation,

∂ 2f ∂ 2f ∂ 2f 1 ∂ 2f
+ + − =0
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2 c 2 ∂t 2
in not invariant under the Galilean transformation.
2. Michelson and Morely used a monochromatic light of wavelength 5000 Å. What will be the expected
fringe shift on the basis of the stationary ether hypothesis if the effective length of each path is
10 m? (Velocity of earth = 3 104 m/s and c = 3  108 m/s) (Ans. 0.4)
3. In an inertial frame S, a red and a blue light are separated by a distance Dx = 2.45 km, with the
red light at the larger value of x. The blue light flashes, and 5.35 ms later the red light flashes.
Frame S is moving in the direction of increasing x with speed of u = 0.855c. What is the distance
between the two flashes and the time between them as measured in S .
(Ans. 2.078 km, 13.46 ms)
4. A woman sitting in a train pours a cup of coffee. She pours another cup of coffee after 10 min. The
train is moving in a straight line with a velocity of 20 m/s. What is the distance of separation between
the two pourings as measured by a person on the ground. (Ans. 12 km)
4
5. The space–time coordinates of two events as measured by O are x1 = 6  10 m, y = z1 = 0 m,
t1 = 4  10 –4 s and x2 = 18  104 m, y2 = z2 = 0 m, t2 = 2  10–4 s. What must be the velocity of
O  with respect to O if O  measures the two events to occur simultaneously. (Ans. 0.5c)
6. A spaceship 100 m long is travelling with velocity 0.8c. What would be the apparent length
assuming a Lorentz–FitzGerald contraction? (Ans. 60 m)
7. Calculate the percentage contraction of a rod moving with a velocity of 0.6c in a direction inclined
at 30° to its own length. (Ans. 27.9%)
8. If L0 is the proper length of each side of a cube, then what will be its apparent volume if it is
moving in +ve x-direction?
 v2 
3
 Ans. L0 1− 2 
 c 
9. A square of area 25 cm2 is at rest in the reference frame of O. Observer O  moves relative to O
with a speed of 0.8c and parallel to one side of the square. What does O  measure for the area.
(Ans. 15 cm2 )
10. A man leaves the earth in a rocketship that makes a round trip to the nearest star, which is 4 light
years away, at a speed of 0.9c. How much younger will he be on his return than his twin brother
who preferred to stay on earth. (Ans. 5 years)
11. Two space vehicles A and B are moving in the same direction with respective speeds of 2.7 
108 m/s and 2.85  108 m/s as observed by an observer on the earth. Calculate the relative speed
of the space vehicles as observed by the observers in the two space vehicles.
(Ans. 1.03  108 m/s)
12. A rocket A travels to the east and a rocket B travels to the west, with velocities 0.7c and 0.6c,
respectively, relative to the earth. What will be the velocity of rocket A measured from rocket B?
(Ans. 0.9155c)
13. At what speed, is the mass of a body 2.25 times its rest mass? (Ans. 2.68  108 m/s)
 3 
14. At what speed, does the mass of a body becomes twice its rest mass?  Ans. 2 c
 
15. What is the ratio of relativistic mass to the rest mass for (a) an electron and (b) a proton, when
they are accelerated from rest through a potential difference of 15 MV.
(Ans. (a) 30.35, (b) 1.015)
–31
16. An electron which has a mass of 9.31  10 kg moves with a speed of 0.7c. Find its relativistic
momentum and compare this with the momentum calculated from the classical expression.
(Ans. 2.738  10–22 kg m/s, 1.955  10–22 kg m/s)
17. An electron moves with a speed of 0.85c. Find its total energy and kinetic energy in eV.
(Ans. 0.973 MeV, 0.460 MeV)
18. Verify the relation 1 1 − (u 2 c 2 ) = 1 + ( Ekinetic m0 c 2 ).
19. Using transformation of velocities, show that with u2 = u x2 + u y2 and u′2 = u′x2 + u′y2, we can write
c2 – u2 = c 2 (c 2 − u ′ 2 ) (c 2 − u 2 )
(c 2 + u x′ u )2
20. Show that if in frame S we have ux = c cos f and u y = c sin f, then in frame S, u x2 + u y2 = c2,
where S  is moving with velocity u with respect to S.
21. Evaluate the amount of energy released in the fusion process of two neutrons and two protons to
form 2He4 nucleus when it is given that
proton mass = 1.00815 u
neutron mass = 1.00898 u
mass of 2He4 nucleus = 4.00387 u {1 u = 1.666 × 10–27 kg} (Ans. 28.49 MeV)
22. Calculate the following quantities:
(i) Mass loss if 1 kg of water at 0°C turns to ice at 0°C. (latent heat of ice = 0.80 kcal/kg)
(ii) Fractional mass gain when water is heated from 10°C to 70°C.
(iii) Annual loss in mass of the sun if approximately 2 cal of radiated energy is received by each
square cm of earth’s surface per minute. (the distance from the earth to the sun is about 150
 106 km)
(Ans. (i) 3.73  10–12 kg
(ii) 2.8  10–12 /kg
(iii) 1.3876  1017 kg)
23. Show that the velocity at which the mass of a particle is increased to n times its rest mass is
( )
n 2 − 1 n c.
24. Show that the total energy of a particle of momentum P and rest-mass energy E0 is given as
12
/
E = E0 1 + ( P 2 c 2 E0 2 )  .
 
25. Calculate the minimum energy of g -ray photons (in MeV) which cause electron–positron pair
production. (rest mass of electron or positron = 9.1  10–31 kg) (Ans. 1.02 MeV)
26. For what value of u c (= b) will the relativistic mass of a particle exceed its rest mass by a given
ratio R.
 R (2 + R) 
[ Hint : R = (m − m0 ) m0 ]  Ans. b = 
 1+ R 
Section C
Multiple Choice Questions
1. Inertial frames of reference are those in which

(a) Newton’s laws hold good (b) Maxwell’s laws hold good
(c) Stefan’s law holds good (d) none of these
2. Earth is
(a) inertial frame (b) non-inertial frame
(c) both (a) and (b) (d) neither (a) nor (b)
3. The objective of Michelson–Morely experiment was to detect the relative motion between
(a) the earth and moon (b) the earth and ether
(c) the earth and sun (d) the moon and sun
4. In their experiment, Michelson and Morely used
(a) interferometer (b) Bragg’s spectrometer
(c) diffractometer (d) polariser
5. In their experiment, Michelson and Morely got
(a) positive result (b) negative result
(c) existence of ether medium (d) both (b) and (c)
6. According to the second postulate of the special theory of relativity, the speed of light is
(a) constant (b) variable
(c) dependent on situations (d) none of these
7. Lorentz transformation reduces to Galilean transformation when
(a) u << c (b) u=c
(c) u > c (d) none of these
8. A cube moving along one of its faces at a very high speed will look like a
(a) rectangle (b) rectangular parallelopiped
(c) sphere (d) cube
9. An electron is chased by a photon. The speed of the electron is 0.9c. Their relative velocity is
(a) 0.1c (b) 0.9c
(c) c (d) 1.8c
10. The apparent length of one a metre stick, as measured by an observer at rest, when the stick is
moving along its length with a velocity of 3c 2 will be
(a) 0.8 m (b) 0.7 m

(c) 0.6 m (d) 0.5 m
11. At what speed would the mass of an electron become double of its rest mass?
(a) 1.3  108 m/s (b) 2.6  108 m/s
8
(c) 1.9 10 m/s (d) 2.25  108 m/s
12. Which of the following is not invariant under the Galilean transformation?
(a) space interval (b) time interval
(c) mass (d) momentum
13. The rest mass of photon of energy E is
(a) zero (b) Ec2
(c) E/c2 (d) c2

E
14. If a03 is the rest volume of a cube, then the volume viewed from a reference frame moving with
uniform velocity u parallel to one edge of the cube will be
3/ 2
3 3
 u2 
(a) a0 1 − 2 
a0 2 (b)
 c 
 u2  u2
a03 1 − 2  (d)
(c) a03 1 − 2
 c  c
15. The special theory of relativity deals with the events in the frames of reference which move with
constant
(a) speed (b) velocity
(c) acceleration (d) momentum
16. In which of the following frames of reference, the acceleration of the particle is zero in the absence
of applied force ?
(a) inertial (b) non-inertial
(c) Cartesian (d) non-Cartesian
17. On the annihilation of a particle and its antiparticle, the energy released is E. What is the mass of
each particle?
E/c2 (b)
(a) E/2c2
E/c (d)
(c) E/2c
18. A body moves with 0.2c velocity. The ratio of the moving mass to rest mass is
(a) 1.2 (b) 1.02
(c) 0.2 (d) 1.0
19. According to simultaneity, when two events which are simultaneous in the stationary frame are
observed from a moving frame of reference, then they appear
(a) simultaneous (b) not simultaneous (c) none of these
20. The relativistic form of Newton’s second law is
−3 / 2 −1 / 2
du  u2  du  u2 
F = m0
(a) 1 − F = m0
(b) 1 −
dt  
c2  dt  
c2 
du  u2  du  u2 
F = m0
(c) 1 − F
(d) = m 1 −
dt   dt  
0
c2  c2 
21. Decay of p-mesons is the example which shows that
(a) time dilation is a real effect (b) time dilation is not a real effect
(c) length contraction is real (d) length contraction is not a real effect
22. Examples of massless particles are
(a) hydrogen and helium (b) photons and neutrino particles
(c) carbon and nitrogen (d) none of these
2 2 2
23. E – p c remains invariant under
(a) Lorentz transformation (b) Galilean transformation
(c) Fourier transformation (d) none of these
24. Kinetic energy of a particle in relativistic mechanics is given as
(a) KE = mc2 (b) KE = m0c2
(c) KE = mc2 (d) KE = m 02 c4
25. Total energy of a particle in relativistic mechanics can be given by
E = mc2 (b)
(a) E = mc 2
E = m0c 2 (d)
(c) E = m 02 c 4
Answers
1. (a) 2. (b) 3. (b) 4. (a) 5. (b) 6. (a)
7. (a) 8. (b) 9. (c) 10. (d) 11. (b) 12. (d)
13. (a) 14. (d) 15. (b) 16. (a) 17. (b) 18. (b)
19. (b) 20. (a) 21. (a) 22. (b) 23. (a) 24. (a)
25. (a)
Section D
Fill in the Blanks
1. Einstein proposed the general theory of relativity in the year ............... .
2. An observer moved with a speed c/2 towards a stationary source of light; the speed of light ap-
pearing to the observer is ............... .
3. If two photons of light are approaching each other, then their relative speed will be ............... .
4. The rest mass of a photon of energy E is ............... .
5. The special theory of relativity deals with the events in the frames of reference which move with
constant ............... .
6. Equivalent energy of a mass equal to 1 u is ............... .
7. A source of light moves with velocity c/3 towards a stationary observer. The observed speed of
light must be ............... .
8. Lorentz transformation of time coordinate is given as ............... .
9. When u << c, then the Lorentz transformation reduces to the ............... .
10. The earth is an example of ............... frame of reference.
11. No particle can have its velocity more than the velocity of ............... .
12. Decay of m-meson supports ............... .
13. Of the two twin brothers, one goes on a relativistic tour and comes back. The brother on tour will
become ............... .
14. The postulates of the special theory of relativity are applicable to the ............... .
15. The velocity of earth around the sun is ............... .
16. Einstein proposed the special theory of relativity in ............... .
17. The Michelson–Morely experiment was performed to measure the speed of earth relative to
............... .
18. The total relativistic energy of a body of rest mass m0 is ............... .
19. The relativistic kinetic energy of a body is given as ............... .
20. One kilogram of mass is completely converted into heat energy. The heat produced in kilocalories
will be ............... .
21. A particle of rest mass m0 moves with speed c/ 2 . Its mass can be given as ............... .
22. The volume of a cube, the proper length of each edge of which is l0 when it is moving with a
velocity u along one of its edges, can be given as ............... .
Answers
1. 1916 2. c
3. c 4. zero
5. velocity 6. 931 MeV
t − (u x / c 2 )
7. c 8. t¢ =
1 − (u 2 / c 2 )
9. Galilean transformation 10. non-inertial
11. light 12. time dilation
13. younger 14. inertial frame of reference
15. 30 km/s 16. 1905
17. ether 18. E = mc2
19. Ek = mc2 20. 2.1  1013
u2
21.
2 m0 22. l03 1 −
c2

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UNIT I

1.2 CONCEPT OF THEORY OF RELATIVITY

1.3 FRAMES OF REFERENCE

Fig. 1.2 Space–time frame of reference

1.3.1 Inertial Frames of Reference

Fig. 1.3 S and S are intertial frames of reference

1.4 GALILEAN TRANSFORMATION EQUATIONS

Fig. 1.4 Relative motion of S with respect to S along x- axis

L = ( x2′ − x1′ )2 + ( y2′ − y1′ ) 2 + ( z2′ − z1′ ) 2

The distance between these two points in frame S  can be given as

1.5 CONCEPT OF “LUMINIFEROUS ETHER” MEDIUM

Fig. 1.6 Schematic diagram of Michelson–Morely experiment

1.9 LORENTZ TRANSFORMATION EQUATIONS

Fig. 1.7 Lorentz transformation

1.11 CONSEQUENCES OF LORENTZ TRANSFORMATION EQUATIONS

1.11.1 Length Contraction

Fig. 1.8 Length contraction

Fig. Shape of a circle in moving frame

Substituting these values in the equation of circle, we get

Fig. 1.10 The phenomenon of time dilation

1.12 TRANSFORMATION OF VELOCITY COMPONENTS —VELOCITY ADDITION

Fig. 1.11 The components of velocity in the frames S and S

Differentiating the expression of t with respect to t we get

Again putting the value of dt ′ dt in the above equation, we get

Fig. The motion of particles

1.13 VARIATION OF MASS WITH VELOCITY

0 0.2c 0.4c 0.6c 0.8c 1.0c

Fig. 1.13 Variation of mass with velocity

Thus, K = c2 (m – m0) (1.45)

(Particle having mass) (Photon having energy only)

1.15 RELATIVISTIC RELATION BETWEEN ENERGY AND MOMENTUM

1.16 EXPRESSION OF RELATIVISTIC MOMENTUM

1.17 MASSLESS PARTICLES AND THEIR EXPLANATION

u = 3 108 = 2.99 108 m/s

1.5 ¥106 ¥1.6 ¥10−19

= 9.1 10 –31 + 2.667 10 –30

­­= 3 108  0.935 = 3 ¥ 108 ¥ 0.967 = 0.97c

= m0 c 2 (1 − 0.36) −1 / 2 − 1

= m0c2 (1 − 0.64)1 / 2 − 1

= m0c2 (0.36) −1 / 2 − 1

= 3.4 105 MeV (∵m0c2 = 0.511 MeV)

1.18 FORMULAE AND HIGHLIGHTS

1. Show that the electromagnetic wave equation,

1. Inertial frames of reference are those in which

(a) 0.8 m (b) 0.7 m

(c) E/c2 (d) c2

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= 3 108  0.935 = 3 ¥ 108 ¥ 0.967 = 0.97c