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Ezekiel Onibiyo
Nasarawa State University
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CULTURE, TRADITION, INDUSTRIALISATION AND DEMOCRATIC PROCESS IN NIGERIA: THE INFLUENCE OF MODERNISATION THEORY View project
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Research Paper
Abstract
World over, national security architecture formulated to curtail nuclear warfare are being modified to curtail
internal plethora of crimes and criminalities; terrorism, kidnapping, secessionism, banditry, of both regional
and international outreaches. Failure to adapt to these shift of threats from external to internal, signpost a
disconnectedness from the study of criminology and the society it is meant to shepherd. It was against this
background, that this study leverages on the Concentric Circles Theory to interrogate effects of criminology on
a nation, deconstructing effect on a nation into socio-economic effects and national security architecture effect.
This study adopts qualitative research design using exploratory research design of publicly available archive
documents; study also relies solely on secondary data. The research is conducted by examining literature
concerning criminology as seen in crime and criminalities in Nigeria. The literature was obtained through
searches in publicly available material. Literature from non-serial publications, official reports, and
conferences has been included particularly if they have been cited by other references in term of effects of
criminology on a state. Results that emanate from this study revealed that crimes and criminality are additional
taxes on socioeconomic wellbeing of the people, which erode away government legitimacy and the inability of
the Nigeria State to stem the tide. This study also submits that prevalence of organised crimes has further
showed the vulnerability of the Nigeria security architecture which is more unitary than of federal disposition.
The study recommends that all tiers of government should wean itself off corruption which aggravates
organised crimes by being seen transparent in policies, deed and good governance. Study also recommends the
need to evolve proactive, decentralized and integrated national security architecture with human security as a
referent.
Keywords: Concentric Circles Theory, Security Architecture, Socio Economic Development
Received 01 Sep., 2022; Revised 10 Sep., 2022; Accepted 12 Sep., 2022 © The author(s) 2022.
Published with open access at www.questjournals.org
I. Introduction
Crime and criminalities predate civilization, it is as old as humanity itself, hence the ability of the state
to understand, prevent and control crimes through arrays of instruments is ably provided by criminology.
Criminal activity pervades both the elitist and the poor with each exhibiting different aggravated level of crime
and criminalities, criminal activity acts like a tax on the entire economy, it does not only depresses domestic and
foreign direct investments, it reduces firms' competitiveness, and reallocates resources creating uncertainty and
inefficiency. The impact of criminology which creates corridor for state and other stakeholders to strengthen
capacity to control organised crime within their borders could be seen from political impact, proactive national
security architecture and social economic impact.
Impact of crime and criminalities milk away capability, capacity and needed legitimacy for state to
deliver on good governance. Developing states impacted by organised crimes have their political, economic and
social activities infiltrated by the dark networks of organised criminal that act as policy predators. The
complicity in internet fraud, drug cartel, extrajudicial killings, choice property confiscation and conversion, by
Arm Proliferation
Gun running is one dark trade that impact most non state actors‟ access to small arms and Light Weapon
(SALW). Local Production of Small Arms and Light Weapons with substantial capacities exist in Nigeria and
neighbouring countries. These weapons clandestinely distributed through networks within the country (Adekola,
2022; Koroma et al., 2013).
Kidnapping and Banditry
Kidnapping is deeply aggravated across regions in Nigeria, therefore days of ethnic profiling of this crime is
over as virtually all armed robbers have scaled up their operations into kidnapping as it is more profitable
Incessant Jail break
The unabated incidence of jail breaking in Nigeria is not only worrisome but has become a metric of assessing
successes of Nigeria‟s counterinsurgency operations against terror cells of Boko Haram, Islamic State of West
Africa Province and unknown gun men (Afuzie, 2022).
Drug Trafficking
This is one crime that oils all other criminal activities, hence a drug baron can decide to be paid off with guns to
be subsequently sold in the black market to gun runners. Government officials within high echelons of law
enforcement have been found complicit in this heinous crime of importing or drug rechanneling (Abdulaziz,
2022).
Money Laundering
The crime of corruption and money laundering, mostly rationalize as elitist crime is a proven nexus through
which organised crime operatives infiltrate and criminalize the state. There are cases where links could be
confirmed between public officials and organised criminal activity, such as money-laundering, fraud and drug
trafficking (Koroma et al., 2013).There are cases where links could be confirmed between public officials and
organised criminal activity, such as money-laundering, fraud and drug trafficking
Secessionism and Regional Agitations
The violent activities of separatist movements, secessionist bodies and regional agitators also aggravate the
nation‟s security architecture as the undercurrent generate tension, fears and flight from impacted region to less
impacted region. Sit at home orders churned out destabilizes businesses, education and socioeconomic activities.
Insecurity and loss of lives through uncontrolled arms proliferations becomes the order of the day in Nigeria
South East region (Centre for Democracy and Development in West Africa (CDD), 2022).
Herders and Farmers Clash
Pocketful of herders and farmers clash across the country left many dead, property loss and spike in mutual
suspicion along ethnic profiling; Fulani herders were seen as culpable in most of the crises (Ejiogu, 2019;
Global Terrorism Database, 2018). The Fulani herders response to climate change could be seen in unregulated
movement pattern from North East to other less climate impacted region thus aggravating resistance from other
sedentary farmers along the river banks.
Empirical Review
Criminology Impact on Nigeria’s Socio Economic Development
Adekoya and AbdulRazak (2017) employed theory of rational choice to explore the nexus between economic
growth and crime in Nigeria between the periods of 1970–2013. Study employed quantitative techniques of
*Corresponding Author: ADILBAKIRYA, Kwadai John 103 | Page
Effects of Criminology on A Nation: Evidence From Nigerias Socio-Economic And National ..
autoregressive distributed lag model. Results from analysis showed that crime affects economic growth at a 1%
and10% level of significance which translates to additional costs of living which stagnates income and slow
developmental programs, which impedes growth of the economy. Study only considers economic growth while
this study captures socio economic development
Asghar et al (2016) employed ordinary least squares tools to interrogate the impact of social, economic
and political factors and the event of 9/11 on crimes in Pakistan for the period 1984-2013. The study engaged
statistics tools three models of political, economic and social factors separately. Findings revealed that political
factors; corruption, law and order, 9/11 event, triggered increase in crimes, whereas government stability
reduces the crimes. Economic factors such as poverty increase crimes while human rights abuse and population
density increase crimes. Study concluded crime mitigation stems from focus on political, social and economic
problems faced by Pakistan.
Farrall et al. (2020) engaged criminological concepts of a “criminal career” and sociological concepts
such as the life course, to analyse the macro-level economic policies on individuals‟ engagement in crime. Study
deployed individual-level longitudinal data of Britons born in 1970 from childhood to adulthood and examines
their offending trajectories through the early 1980s to see the effects of economic policies on individuals‟
repeated offending. Study developed model with data from the British 1970 Birth Cohort Study that captures
individuals, families, and schools, accounting for national-level economic policies. Result from the study
disclosed that economic restructuring was a key causal factor in offending during the period. Study submitted
that criminologists should help explain offending careers and show how political choices in the management of
the economy encourage individual-level responses. Conclusions of study, done in developed clime cannot be
generalized in developing clime hence the need to engage local data for this study.
Hassan (2020) empirically probed the politicization on crime and its impact on the relationship between
law enforcement and the public. Results showed that the politicization of crime has created a false narrative that
distorts the racial and class composition of crime, unnecessarily favors use of force and confrontational contact
with the public, and compromises the integrity of crime statistics and their collection, as all these distort the core
objective of law enforcement; public safety
Kalloo (2018) exploratively examined the nexus between country‟s economy and crime epidemic in
Trinidad and Tobago. The study employed qualitative research design with reliance on secondary data. Findings
from study revealed that decline in global oil and gas prices triggered the economic downturn, thereby stunting
economic growth. Study submitted that failing judiciary and a largely unstructured criminal system contributed
in tarnishing the image of the duet nation.
Koroma et al. (2013) probed the linkages between organised crimes and governance in West Africa;
Gulf of Guinea, Gambia, Guinea Bissau and Senegal, Mano River Union, Burkina Faso; Mali and Niger. Study
employed qualitative study of official reports of law enforcement agencies, academic publications, newspaper
reports, and reports of governments and international agencies, supplemented by interviews with officials of
relevant security and regulatory agencies and experts. Study submitted that organised crime do aggravate
country‟s political landscape and influences policies of government since politicians are already influenced.
Study was regional, and did not capture socio economic impact which this study captures on a country specific
study.
Mojsoska and Dujovski (2017) probed the link between criminology and economics, analysing crime
rate and pattern on the gross domestic product in the Republic of Macedonia. The study employed qualitative
study approach in drawing lines of conclusion. Study submitted that crime is thoroughly associated with
poverty, widening income gap also aggravate crime rate even as crime produces material and non-material costs.
Findings revealed that the years with economic growth and increase in the income per capita were followed by
an increase in the crime rate. Study carried out in Macedonia did not capture aggravating impact of crime on
political system which this study captures.
Theoretical Review
Concentric Circle Theory
These are circles that lie in the same plain and have the same centre but different radii. The concentric
circles capture different and similar security nature that operate at various levels of environment (Russet et al,
2004). The thrust of the theory in relation to Nigeria‟s security architecture is that security management systems
should operate as much as practicable in security circles otherwise known as security communities as may be
applicable in the given environment. These security circles could be identified in the individuals, households,
communities, local government areas, states and the federal level.
It then means and requires that security management should be organized and administered critically in
all these circles to make for optimum national security delivery. Incidentally, this is contrary to the
constitutional position in Nigeria where security is exclusively placed on the central government at the moment.
The centralised authority to administered oil revenue is extended to administrations of all security agencies as
contained in the exclusive list of the constitution (Thomas & Aghedo, 2014).
With plethora of internal security challenges ravaging nations, as against external insurgency and wars.
It is then advisable for nations to primarily concentrate on internal security which is of human centered against
fear, wants and lacks, followed by those of their neighbouring or contiguous sub-regions before strategically
venturing in international security concerns. Viewed this way, players in each of the levels or circles constitute a
„security community‟ which should concentrate on the security of that community before considering those of
contiguous environments.
III. Methodology
This study engages exploratory research design to examine effects of criminology on a nation as
evidence in Nigeria‟s socio-economic security and the national security architecture. Study leverage on publicly
References
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[2]. Adekola, N. O. (2022). Influence of weak legislation and non state armed actors on proliferation: Evidence from terrorism in
Nigeria. Unpublished Work submitted to Department of Security and Strategic Studies of Institute of Governance and
Developmental Studies, Nasarwa State University Keffi, Nigeria.
[3]. Adekoya, A. F., & AbdulRazak, N. A. (2017). The dynamic relationship between crimeand economic growth in Nigeria.
International Journal of Management and Economics, 53(1), 47–64.
[4]. Adetunji, Y. (July 29, 2021). Abba Kyari: The Many „Sins‟ Of a Super-Cop, 4 Allegations Against Him. OgbomosoInsight.NEWS.
Retrieved from https://ogbomosoinsightonline.co
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[6]. Afuzie, N. O. (2022). Impact of recurrent waves of jailbreak by terror cell groups on the Nigeria security architecture.Journal of
Research in Humanities and Social Science, 10(8). Retrieved from http://questjournals.org/jrhss/papers/vol10-
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