1. Thin Airfoil Theory - Charles R.

O’Neill

Lift is created by the combined effect of the wing's shape (its camber) and the flow of air it
creates over its geometry. This combined effect makes it complicated to solve for flight
properties of the wing. The thin airfoil theory can be used for the calculation of section flight
properties like lift coefficient, moment coefficient etc., for wings. The idea is to superimpose a
vortex distribution along a lifting line to create an equivalent and easier system to solve for the
properties. Thin airfoil theory explains the effects of vortex distribution in a thin airfoil structure,
which can be used to calculate lift coefficient (CL), moment coefficient (CM), zero lift angle of
attack (𝛂L=0) etc.

Charles O’Neill made the calculations for a cambered airfoil NACA 2412 by using thin airfoil
theory, which gave the following results: Lift at zero angle of attack: C L(𝛂=0)=0.2275, zero lift
angle of attack: 𝛂L=0=-2.07°. Abbott and Doenhoff performed experimental calculations for the
same NACA 2412 airfoil and obtained the following results: Lift at zero angle of attack:
CL(𝛂=0)=0.25, zero lift angle of attack: 𝛂L=0=-2°. The error on the theoretical results was merely
9% at most. By observing the calculations of thin airfoil theory and comparing it with the
experimental data yielded for NACA 2412 airfoil, it is convincing to say that the thin airfoil
theory is an extremely simple and fast yet accurate enough method for obtaining flight properties
for small angles of attack.

2. Demonstration of effectiveness and limitations of thin airfoil theory in the aerodynamic

study of airfoil characteristics - N.A. Ahmed

Aerodynamics is a study of magnificent phenomena that surround us and makes the seemingly
magical aircrafts, spacecraft and rockets function as we desire. However, aerodynamics can also
become eccentric at times, which is why it has been a challenge to impart the knowledge of this
science to the students. To tackle this, Ahmed has developed an experimental programme to
depict the pros and cons of one of the simplest yet very useful aerodynamics theories developed
by Prandtl: the thin airfoil theory. 

Ahmed carried out theoretical as well as experimental calculations to study the advantages and
limitations of this theory using the NACA 23012 as reference. The calculations for obtaining the
characteristic curves of CL vs 𝛂, CM,0.25c vs 𝛂, and CD vs CL were performed and the analysis
yielded the following conclusions:
 Advantages: Thin airfoil theory is effective in predicting the constants like zero lift angle
of attack (𝛂L=0), CL and CM,0.25c at various 𝛂 before the airfoils stall.
 Limitations: This theory falls short in predicting the drag of the airfoil which can
however be calculated by using experimentation or other tools.
Thin airfoil theory when complimented with experimental findings fulfills all the requirements
we need to design and implement the airfoil for different applications.
3. Viscous Thin Airfoil Theory – John E. Yates
The classical thin airfoil theory discussed studied the effects of the geometric thickness in
various characteristics of the two dimensional flow over an airfoil. The viscous thin airfoil theory
developed by Yates now accounts for the effects of both the geometric thickness and viscosity.
Yates devised a theory of oscillating thin airfoils in incompressible viscous flow by using Kernel
function along with modal expansion technique to obtain the solution of the flow problem. Effect
of viscosity reduces the singularity of Kernel function to derive a unique solution for airfoils of
any cross section without using any other specific conditions like the Kutta condition. This
ensures a general solution of a real (viscous) flow problem.

Viscous thin airfoil theory calculations for cusped airfoils with small thickness concurs with the
potential flow theory. Lift slope is in viscous flow is larger and does not follow the expected
trend as observed in experimental calculation for increasing thickness/chord ratio. This is due to
the geometric thickness effects which forms an effective thickness of aft section due to mean
boundary layer displacement. Therefore, trailing edge bluntness has to be considered in case of
the viscous thin airfoil theory to make it agreeable with experimental data.

4. Unsteady Viscous Thin Airfoil Theory – John E. Yates

Yates studied the thin airfoil theory for unsteady viscous flows. It was well known that viscosity
is the most crucial factor missing in the potential flow theory. With the addition of unsteady
viscous effects, disagreement from smooth Kutta flow at trailing edge may occur without a
change in overall aerodynamic loads necessary for aeroelastic analysis.

As we know that for the viscous effects considerations, we must consider for the leading edge
bluntness, to prevent the additional leading edge load and total circulation, which is found to be
1
in order of which is experimentally supported in magnitude and trend for high Re lift
ln ⁡(R e )
curve data. For Re >1000, the results for the airfoil data are essentially same with exception at the
trailing edge where pressure loading is more for viscous flow.

5. Unsteady Thin Airfoil Theory Revisited for General Deforming Airfoil – C.O. Johnson,
W.H. Mason, C. Han
A general deforming airfoil is modelled as a morphing wing developed as two quadratic curves
with arbitrary coefficients. Aerodynamic calculations are carried out in such a airfoil under the
effect of transient as well as steady state deformations with the help of unsteady thin airfoil
theory. The results obtained by this general model holds good for a extended range of airfoils
with different camber line shapes, including airfoils with leading edge and trailing edge flaps.

Unsteady thin airfoil theory is derived from the Von Karman and Sears' theory and aerodynamic
calculations were done for both transient and oscillatory deformations in an airfoil. Steady state
lift is found to increase as the location of maximum camber is shifted towards the trailing edge.
However, if there are airfoils with two different variable camber configuration, the rate of change
of camber line magnitude can produce either positive or negative lift which is determined by the
way the morphing is actuated.
6. Thin Airfoil Theoretical Interpretation for Gurney Flap Lift Enhancement – Tianshu
Liu
Gurney flaps are small strips that are fitted at the trailing edge on pressure side and kept
perpendicular to the chord line. It is used in small air vehicles as a means for increasing the lift.
Thin airfoil theory is applied on airfoils with Gurney flaps to study the changes or increase in lift
and pitching moment as compared to airfoils without the flap. Thin airfoil theory proved to be
efficient method of explaining the effects of lift enhancement by Gurney flaps as a special
camber effect. This analysis using thin airfoil theory can therefore also be applied to other
trailing edge devices used for lift increment.

The Gurney flap induces a vortex at the trailing edge which partially pulls the flow leaving the
trailing edge downwards, which as a result increases the lift. A separation bubble forms just
upstream of the flap that creates flow deflection. Thus, thin airfoil theory derivation is modified
by adding a short deflected segment at the end of the main vortex segment. This deflection of
vortex sheet segment is known as hydrodynamic deflection.

The results as obtained by Liu shows that the lift and pitching moment increment is directly
proportional to the square root of normalized gurney flap height and the ratio of increments of
lift to the pitching moment is constant which is equal to -4.

7. The Reversibility Theorem for Thin Airfoil in Subsonic and Supersonic Flow – Clinton
E. Brown
Thin airfoils have been studied in different ways by different researchers throughout the years.
Some applications of airfoils include reversible flow operations, for example: helicopter rotors,
wind turbines etc. Brown studied the reversibility theorem for thin airfoils in both subsonic and
supersonic flow regimes. The study yielded the results that the lift slope is essentially the same
for both subsonic and supersonic flow when the flow direction is reversed. Moreover, the
reversal of thin airfoil does not affect thickness drag, damping-in-roll parameter and damping-in-
pitch parameters. Furthermore, this theorem does not apply for pitching-moment coefficient, lift
coefficient due to pitching and the camber constant terms like 𝛂L=0 .

However, this theorem is only valid for the given conditions:

 Flow velocity at trailing edge is finite
 There are no restrictions in the plan form of airfoil
 The reversal refers to complete system rather than an individual airfoil
 Boundary conditions are satisfied in the horizontal plane of the wing

8. Subsonic flow over thin airfoil in ground effect – Mohamed Serry, Amjad Tuffaha
The problem addressed in this paper is the compressible flow over a thin airfoil in the ground
effects. To approach a solution, we derive a singularity equation also known as Possio equation,
which relates the jump in pressure along the chord of the airfoil to its downwash. After the
derivation of this equation, we check for the existence and uniqueness of the solution and hence
the solution is obtained. The aerodynamic forces in case of compressible flow over airfoil near
ground are calculated along with the divergence speed of continuum wing structure.
We obtain the following results:
L=f ( ρ , U , b ,θ , M , c)
Where; ρ = Density of air
M =f ( ρ , U , b ,θ , M , a , c) U ¿=
√
π GJ
2L δ

U = Speed of air
2b = chord length
θ = Angle of attack
M = Mach number
a = Location of center of rotation of airfoil
c=2 z 0 √1−M = characteristic parameter
2

2z0 = Span length

GJ = Torsional Stiffness of the wing
L = Span of the wing

The general shape of variation of lift and moment of the airfoil with respect to the parameter c is
approximately traced as:
L
M

9. Subsonic Flow over thin oblique airfoil at zero lift – Robert T. Jones
This paper gives the calculation for the pressure distribution over thin oblique airfoils at subsonic
speed. In the study of swept-back wing, it was found out that the pressure distribution essentially
remained the same for both subsonic (M<1) and supersonic (M>1) flows. It is assumed that the
pressure distribution component due to thickness of airfoil remains unaffected by span or aspect
ratio of the wing.

In case of oblique thin airfoils, a finite amount of positive drag exists at the root section of the
wing which has higher thickness and comes in contact with the flow first. Similarly, there exists
a negative drag around the tip sections of the wing. Therefore, the span-wise distribution of drag
is same when compared with supersonic cases. However, the net pressure drag in case of
subsonic speed is found to be zero.
10. Solution of unsteady subsonic thin airfoil problem – Marc H. Williams
The expressions for lift coefficient, moment coefficient and other various parameters like the
acoustic directivity pattern, total acoustic power, plunge, pitch, gust etc., are derived for the
solution of a thin airfoil problem subjected to simple harmonic disturbances in uniform subsonic
free stream.

11. Transient Flow in Infinitely Thin Airfoil Cascade – F. Hermet, N. Binder, J.

Gressier
The application of vibrating flow is very prominent in industries but has not been studied
accurately yet. Thus, to understand the concerned problem, it is studied on extreme transient
flow conditions inside of a thin airfoil cascade tunnel, in which the pulsating effect is caused by
sudden changes in inlet conditions. A skeletal bladed two dimensional turbine blade cascade is
used to study the effects of change in inlet conditions subjected to turbine blades in an engine,
which occurs especially when isochoric combustion chambers are used.

The direct effect of pulsed flow is unsteady loading on the turbine blades which causes two
indirect effects, which are overflow and overloading. It is important to optimize the pulsed flow
cycle to take advantage of an unsteady forcing.

12. Transonic Flow of moist air around a thin airfoil with equilibrium condensation -
Jang-Chang Lee, Zvi Rusak
This paper deals with the non-linear relationship between the transonic flow, thickness ratio,
small angle of attack of airfoil and small amount of moisture in air. The water vapor
condensation is assumed to be adiabatic and reversible i.e., isentropic. This approach helps in
analysis of aerodynamic study of transonic flight in humid atmosphere. The study shows that the
heat released during condensation of moisture affects the flow properties and thus aerodynamic
performance of the wings.

The concerned problem is modeled as a small-disturbance model and is analyzed by using the
method of asymptotic analysis. The condensate mass fraction is written as a function of the
velocity potential. Two parameters are derived to govern the whole problem which are:

i. Classical transonic parameter (K): It describes the change in free-stream speed from the
sonic speed (M=1) in terms of thickness ratio.
ii. Humidity parameter (Kw): It describes the amount of moisture in air in terms of thickness
ratio.

From the asymptotic analysis and numerical studies, the study gives an acceptable result that
says: the humidity effect acts simply as an increase in Mach number in a similar dry airflow
condition. In other terms, the moist airflow is equivalent to a dry airflow with Mach number
greater than the original flow Mach number ( M ∞ > M ∞ ¿. Therefore, the aerodynamic
performance parameters can be simply calculated by using this theoretical approach.

13. Transonic Flow of moist air around a thin airfoil with non-equilibrium and
homogeneous condensation - Jang-Chang Lee, Zvi Rusak
The study of relationship among the transonic flow, thickness ratio, angle of attack and amount
of moisture in air is extended from equilibrium condensation to non-equilibrium and
homogeneous condensation. The similarity parameters that govern the problem are derived from
asymptotic analysis and transonic small-disturbance (TSD) equation. The condensation of vapor
releases energy to the airflow which alters the thermodynamics and hence the aerodynamics
performance of airfoil.

The similarity parameters that affect the solution to the problem are:
i. Classical transonic parameter (K): It describes the change in free-stream speed from the
sonic speed (M=1) in terms of thickness ratio.
ii. Humidity parameter (Kw): It describes the amount of moisture in air in terms of thickness
ratio.

iii. Supersaturation parameter (S∞=1/Kpg): It describes the ratio of freestream vapor pressure
to saturation pressure.
iv. Kt : It describes the ratio of convective time of flow to characteristic time of
condensation.
v. Number of molecules in a characteristic droplet (n c): It is a function of freestream
temperature.

The theoretical analysis agrees acceptably with the numerical studies. However, this is limited by
the amount of heat that is possible to add to steady transonic flow without it being unstable.

14. Transonic inviscid flow past thin airfoil: A new numerical method and global stability
analysis using MatLab - Rui M. S. Pereira, Jitesh S. B. Gajjar
A new numerical method is introduced in this paper for calculating transonic flow over thin
airfoils. The method is based on finite difference method in stream-wise direction with
simultaneous spectral collocation in opposite direction. This method uses steady Karman-
Gunderlay equation to solve the problem of transonic inviscid flow. This method is accurate and
fast for calculation of symmetrical airfoils as well as airfoils with stronger shocks (latter one
having more iterations but still robust). For the case of lifting airfoils, mach number or angle of
attack increases, thus the solution is decoupled and flow above and below the airfoil is
computed.

15. Supersonic-Transonic flow generated by thin airfoil in a stratified atmosphere - G.

Pechuzal, J. Kevorkian
A stratified atmosphere is the atmosphere divided into different spheres. The solution for flow of
air over an airfoil near the ground in supersonic speed with steady, frictionless, non-heat
conducting flow field is devised. As the airfoil is flying in a weak wind gradient (rate of increase
of wind strength with unit increase in height), the flow slowly becomes transonic below the
airfoil.
The flow undergoes expansion in two ways, which are:
i. Multiple scale expansion: It occurs in flow in outer supersonic regime.
ii. Inner transonic expansion: It occurs in a thin layer of atmosphere.
The solution is derived for supersonic flow of air and it is used to show that the solution for
transonic flow regime obeys with the supersonic solution as well or their solutions are same.
Furthermore, the transonic solution helps clarify the small velocity existent at ground, around the
point of minimum local Mach number.
16. Low Reynold's number flow dynamics of thin airfoil with an actuated leading edge –
Kevin J. Drost, Heather Johnson, Sourabh V. Apte, James A. Liburdy
Micro air vehicle having varied applications, therefore, the study to improve its efficiency is of
concern. This paper studies a promising mechanism to control and improve the efficiency of
MAV at low Re, which is the use of oscillatory actuation of leading edge. The leading edge is
made into a flap by hinging it at 30% of chord. This allows for the angle of attack to vary
without the change in attitude of the flight. The effects of variation in angle of attack on flow
field and aerodynamic performance was observed by modelling a thin flat airfoil at 20º angle of
attack at low Re (14700).

The results shows that the actuation of leading edge reduces the angle of attack without much
alteration in lift. However, the increased camber reduces the drag significantly. The lift-to-drag
ratio is increased as a result and upto 27% increase in L/D ratio was observed. The leading edge
stall condition and unsteady lift behavior is also influenced by the leading edge actuation. It also
reduces the vortex strength and reduces the strength of the separation bubble.

17. Propulsion by an Oscillating Thin Airfoil at Low Reynolds Number - Roel Muller,
Akira Oyama, Kozo Fujii, Harry Hoeijmakers
The forward motion or thrust producing mechanism of an airfoil is possible through moving an
airfoil in a pitching or heaving motion, at low Reynold's number. The mechanism of thrust
production differs from thrust produced by pitching and heaving.

For heaving:
The dependency of thrust on reduced frequency of heave and amplitude of heave is examined.
The vortex generated by the leading edge of the airfoil is major contributor to thrust. The
vortices sit around the airfoil for a long period of time which results in thrust being created. The
varied parameters for thrust due to heave are;
2 πfc
i. Reduced frequency (k = ): varied from 0.2 to 4.
U∞
ii. Non-dimensional amplitude (h): varies from 0.125 to 2.5 percentage of chord.

For pitching:
The thrust depends upon reduced frequency and center of rotation variation. The major
contributor to the thrust is the effect of coupled acceleration and instantaneous inclination of
airfoil. The vortices created by pitching around the leading edge is negligible. However, if the
airfoil is pitched at leading edge, the vortices are created but they are not close to airfoil to
generate significant thrust. When the airfoil is pitched about its leading edge and airfoil is
accelerated upwards, the flow accelerated downwards. This creates a pressure gradient with
higher pressure in upper surface and lower pressure in lower surface, creating an effect of thrust.
The varied parameters for thrust due to pitch are:
i. Reduced frequency (k): varies from 0 to 2.6
ii. Pitching amplitude (α ¿ : varies from 10º to 20º.
iii. Center of rotation: varies from leading edge to trailing edge.