Chap 02
Chap 02
Chap 02
1.1 INTRODUCTION;
Atoms of most elements (except noble gases) are not able to exist independently.
A group of two or more atoms known as molecules have independent existence.
Atoms of same element or of different elements can join together to form a molecule.
Example: A molecule of oxygen is formed by joining two atoms of oxygen (O2)
Example A molecule of water is formed by joining two atoms of hydrogen with one
atom of oxygen (H2O).
The attraction between atoms or ions to form a molecule is called chemical bond.
These molecules or ions aggregate in large numbers to form the matter.
a) Noble gases or inert gases like Helium (He), Neon (Ne), Argon (Ar), Krypton (Kr),
Xenon (Xe) and Radon (Rn) are the most stable elements because atoms of these
elements possess an octet structure i.e. eight electrons in the outer most orbit
(valence shell).
Nobe gas Atomic Electronic configuration Valence No of electrons in
number shell the valence shell
He 2 1s2 1s2 2
Ne 10 1s22s22p6 2s22p6 8
Ar 18 1s22s22p63s23p6 3s23p6 8
Kr 36 1s22s22p63s23p63d104s24p6 4s24p6 8
Xe 54 1s22s22p63s23p63d104s24p64d105s25p6 5s25p6 8
Rn 86 1s22s22p63s23p63d104s24p64d105s25p64f145d106s26p6 6s26p6 8
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b)The atoms of noble gases exist independently (mono atomic) and do not combine with the
atoms of other elements.
c)The atoms of other elements have no octet structure and hence try to attain eight electrons
in their valence shell by combining with other atoms.
Chlorine(Cl) 17 1s22s22p63s23p5 7
(2 ,8 ,7)
Nitrogen(N) 7 1s22s22p3 5
(2 ,5)
Magnesium 12 1s22s22p63s2 2
(2 ,8 ,2)
(Mg)
b) When two or more atoms combine to form a molecule the electrons in their
outermost orbits are rearranged in such a way as to achieve octet or duplet
structure of the nearest noble gas.
Example: Sodium (Na) has 11 electrons, 2 in the first orbit, 8 in the second and 1 in the third
orbit. If Na loses one electron, it would attain the same electronic configuration of its nearest
gas Neon (Ne).
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attain octet structure of
0 +1
Points to remember
The atoms of most elements combine to form molecules due to two reasons
a) To attain the octet structure of the nearest noble gas.
b) To form more stable molecules by losing energy.
a) The electrons present in the outermost shell of an atom are called valence electrons
because the combining capacity of the element (i.e. valency) depends upon the number
of these electrons.
b) All the electrons present in the inner orbitals (core of the atom) excluding valence
electrons are called core electrons which do not participate in chemical reaction.
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Lewis symbols for the elements of second period
The number of valence electrons (number of dots) helps to calculate the valency of the
element.
The valency is generally either equal to the number of dots in Lewis symbols or 8 minus
the number of dots or valence electrons.
Remember
Elements with lower atomic number try to attain two electrons ie duplet (instead of octet). It is called duplet rule.
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Types of Bonds
The type of bond formed between the atoms depends upon the way in which the combining
atoms attain octet structure in their valence shell.
(a) Ionic or electrovalent bond (b) Covalent bond (c)Coordinate covalent bond(d)Metallic
bond(e)Hydrogen bond(f)Van der Waal’s force of attraction
Remember
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Session-2 IONIC BOND OR ELECTROVALENT BOND
Ionic bond is formed by the transfer of one or more valence shell electrons from a metal
atom to the valence shell of a nonmetal atom.
The metal atom which has lost electron(s) is converted into a positive ion (cation)and
the nonmetal atom which gains electron(s) is converted into a negative ion (anion).
The cations and anions thus formed attain stable noble gas electronic configuration.
The negative and positive ions are held by electrostatic force of attraction.
A+B A+ B- or A+ B-
Cation Anion
Na(2,8,1) transfers it’s excess electron to Cl atom (2,8,7) and thus Na atom acquires the
configuration of Ne(2,8) and Cl acquires the configuration of Ar(2,8,8)
Na Na+ + e Cl Cl -
The positive sodium ion and negative chloride in are held by electrostatic force of attraction to
form ionic crystal.
Na + Cl Na + [Cl]-
(2, 8,1) (2,8,7) (2,8) (2,8,8)
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Similarly the formation of CaF2 may be shown as:
F [F]-
(2,7)
(2,8)
Ca : + [Ca+2]
(2, 8,8,2) (2,8,8)
F [F]-
(2,8)
(2,7)
One calcium has two valence electrons in the outermost orbit. These electrons are
transferred to two fluorine atoms which have seven electrons in their outermost. Calcium
forms calcium ions (cation) and fluorine forms fluoride ions (anions). The calcium ion and two
fluoride ions combine to attain the electronic configuration nearest noble gas .
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Names and symbols of some ions
Valency Name of ion Symbol Nonmetallic ion Symbol Polyatomic ions Symbol
symbol
Write the symbols of both positive ion and negative ion side by side with their
respective valencies or charges below their symbols.
The positive ion (metal ion) is written to the left and negative ion (nonmetal ion) to the
right .
The valencies or charges on the ion must balance. To achieve this cross the valencies
after removing the common factor. The numbers are to be placed at the right hand
bottom corner of each symbol.
When the number is more than one the polyatomic ion must be placed within the
bracket and the number has to be placed outside the bracket .
If the number placed at the right hand corner of the symbol is one then it should not be
written in the final formula.
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FORMULAE OF SIMPLE COMPOUNDS
While writing the chemical formulae for compounds, we write the constituent symbols
and their valencies as shown below.
Then we must cross over the valencies of the combining atoms after removing common
factors.
Examples:
Symbol H S
Symbol H Cl
Valency 1 2
Valency 1 1
Symbol Mg Cl Symbol Ca O
valency 2+ 1- valency 2+ 2+
Remove
Formula: CaO
valency 1+ 1- valency 2+ 1-
valency 1+ 2- valency 1+ 2-
valency 3+ 2- valency 2+ 2-
Formula: CaCO3
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SESSION-3 COVALENT BOND
Introduction
G.N.Lewis suggested that when two atoms having similar or almost similar
What is covalent
electro negativities can achieve a stable valence shell configuration (2 or 8 bond?
electrons in the outer shell) by sharing one or more valence electrons
between them. A covalent bond
is a force which
A bond formed by mutual sharing of electrons is called a covalent bond.
binds atoms of
During the formation of covalent bond the two combining atoms contribute
same or different
equal number of electrons for sharing. elements by
The shared electrons contribute equally two both the atoms and both the mutual sharing of
atoms attain octet number of electrons in the valence shell. electrons.
The shared electrons is represented by a dash (-) and is responsible for holding the two
atoms together.
The shared pair constitutes what is known as covalent bond.
The molecule formed is called covalent molecule (or covalent compound).
Points to remember
The number of electrons contributed by an atom for sharing to form a covalent bond is
called covalency.
The valence electrons which are not involved in sharing are known as non-bonding or
lone pairs.
When the atoms share one electron pair, the bond formed is called single covalent
bond.
If two electrons pairs are shared by the atoms, the bond formed is called double
covalent bond.
When the atoms share three electrons pairs, the bond is called triple covalent bond.
The double and triple covalent bonds are called multiple covalent bonds.
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Illustration of the formation of covalent bonds
a. Formation of hydrogen (H2) molecule.
Lewis structure
i. Electronic configuration of H atom is 1s1. for hydrogen
ii. Each hydrogen atom share one electron pair molecule
X
between them to attain the helium gas
H H
configuration (1s2) . H:H
iii. The two hydrogen atoms are thus joined by a
single covalent bond. H-H
b. Formation of oxygen (O2) molecule.
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POLAR AND NON POLAR MOLECULES
Non polar bond: if a covalent bond is formed between same atoms, the shared pair of electron
remain at the centre of two atoms. Such a covalent bond is called non polar covalent bond.
Shared pair at the centre
Ex: Cl : Cl
Non polar covalent bond in Cl2
Polar bond: If a covalent bond is formed between two different atoms (such as HCI or H2O etc), the
shared pair of electrons is slightly shifted towards more electronegative atom causing a slight charge
separation in the bond. Such a covalent bond is called polar covalent bond
Ex: H+δ : > CI-δ
(Polar covalent bond in HCI)
non Polar molecules.(illustration)
A:A A A A A
non polar
covalent molecule
symmetrical distrubution
of electron cloud
Some examples of molecules containing non polar covalent bonds are H2,Cl2,O2
etc.
Polar molecules(illustration)
Pull of B δ+ δ-
The examples of molecules containing polar covalent bonds are HCl, H2O,NH3 etc.
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Water as a polar solvent.
A polar solvent like water, ammonia etc. are having ability to cut the lines of force binding the
ions and thus separates them. This effect of a solvent is
measured by its dielectric constant. Point to remember
The dielectric constant of water (80) is
What is dielectric constant?
highest and hence its capacity to
The dielectric constant of a solvent is dissolve the ionic compounds is
its capacity to weaken the force of maximum. Therefore water is called as
attraction between the ions of a ionic universal solvent.
compound immersed in that solvent.
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Other types of bonds;
A hydrogen bond is the attractive force which binds Co-ordinate covalent bond: Coordinate covalent
hydrogen atom of one molecule with electronegative bond is formed of sharing of an electron pair
atom (F, O, or N) present in the same molecule or between the atoms where the shared pair of
another molecule. electrons is contributed by only one of the atoms.
Example: Hydrogen bonds in HF: Ex: 1) formation of NH+4: ammonium ion is formed
H+ – F-…….. H+ – F-…… H+ – F-……H+ – F-……. by the donation of lone pair of electrons by nitrogen
Hydrogen bonds to H+ ion
lone pair of nitrogen
H donatig to H+
Van der Waal’s force of attraction: ..
A weak inter atomic or intermolecular force of attraction
+
which holds the constituents together is called Van der H : N : H
Waal’s force of attraction.
2. The atoms of noble gases do not combine with other elements. Why?
3. Except noble gases, the atoms of other elements combine to form molecules. Why?
13 Write the symbols of the following radicals i) chloride ii)phosphate iii)oxide iv)iron( III)
radical v)magnesium radical vi)aluminum radical vii)nitride radical viii)hydride
18. Explain the solubility of ionic compounds in polar solvents with an example.
31.What is the theoretical difference between a sodium atom and a sodium ion? How are the
properties of sodium atom different from those of sodium ions?
33.Classify the following bonds as ionic or covalent. For those bonds that are covalent
,indicate whether they are polar or nonpolar.
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