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Written by James G.Stallcup, Sr.
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Copyright© 2016 by GRAYBOY, Inc.
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ISBN: 978-1-62270-153-7
Printed in the United States of America

01 02 03 04 05 06 07 5 4 3 2 1
Introduction
This book is intended for all who are interested and work in a daily capacity with
these subjects. It is also designed to help the student in his search for learning.
For this reason, the book is profusely illustrated to help visualize for the reader
the points referenced in the text while joining theory and practice into a closer
relationship.
For user friendly and easy study, Stallcup’s Generator, Transformer, Motor, and
Compressor has been divided into three parts and they are as follows:
Part I: Generators
Part II: Transformers
Part III: Motors
Review questions have been provided at the end of each chapter. To purchase
the answers to the review questions, please go to the GRAYBOY website at
www.grayboyinc.com.
iv
Table of Contents
Part I. GENERATORS
Chapter 1
Magnetism and Electromagnetism........................................................ 1-1
Chapter 2
Generator Principles.............................................................................. 2-1
Chapter 3
Generators and the National Electrical Code® ...................................... 2-1
Chapter 4
Emergency System Generators............................................................ 4-1
Chapter 5
Legally Required and Optional Standby Systems................................. 5-1
Chapter 6
Generators Supplying Essential Loads for Hospitals............................ 6-1
Part II. TRANSFORMERS
Chapter 7
Transformer Theory............................................................................... 7-1
Chapter 8
Installing Transformers.......................................................................... 8-1
Chapter 9
Transformer Vaults................................................................................ 9-1
Chapter 10
Sizing Transformers and Connections................................................. 10-1
Chapter 11
Protecting Transformers....................................................................... 11-1
Chapter 12
Secondary Ties..................................................................................... 12-1
Chapter 13
Windings and Components.................................................................. 13-1
Part III. MOTORS
Chapter 14
Motor Theory........................................................................................ 14-1
Chapter 15
Types of Motors.................................................................................... 15-1
Chapter 16
Design Letters and Code Letters.......................................................... 16-1
Chapter 17
Starting Methods.................................................................................. 17-1
Chapter 18
Overcurrent Protection for Individual Motors........................................ 18-1
Chapter 19
Overload Protection for Individual Motors............................................ 19-1
Chapter 20
Motor Feeder and Branch-Circuit Conductors...................................... 20-1
Chapter 21
Control Circuit Conductors and Components....................................... 21-1
Chapter 22
Connecting Controls for Operation....................................................... 22-1
Chapter 23
Troubleshooting Motor Windings and Components............................. 23-1
Chapter 24
Compressor Motors ............................................................................. 24-1
Annex
Troubleshooting Tables .........................................................................A-1
Abbreviations .......................................................................................A-17
Glossary of Terms ...............................................................................A-21
vi
Part One
Generators
From the small standby unit to the largest hydroelectric plant, today’s world demands
speed, light, and power. The generator is the device that converts mechanical energy
into electrical energy and supplies power where needed. The generator can be
designed and installed to provide the starting point for power to an electrical service,
as well as the backup power when things go wrong.
Engine-driven generators that are fueled by diesel, gasoline, or natural gas commonly
produce and provide alternative emergency or standby power when normal power
systems fail. Gas-turbine generators are also used to create such power.
A facility with engine-driven generators provides the necessary power for human
safety as well as the protection of property, while maintaining continuous operation
of specific types of equipment.
The design requirements for selecting an on-site generator differ depending upon
the generator's use.
For example, generators can be utilized as emergency systems, standby

power systems, or other power sources when used in health care facilities.
A portable generator can provide power for construction, remodeling, maintenance,

or making repairs on equipment.
Part I covers the theory of generators, the various types, and the rules and regulations
of the National Electrical Code® pertaining to their design and installation.
1
Magnetism and
Electromagnetism
Magnetism is one of the fundamental forces involved in the use of electricity.

Therefore, it is imperative that electricians, technicians, and maintenance
personnel obtain a good understanding and knowledge of the subject.
THEORY OF MAGNETS
A magnet is an object that attracts magnetic substances such as iron or steel, by producing an
external magnetic field that reacts with a magnetic substance. A permanent magnet maintains an
almost constant magnetic field without the application of any magnetizing force. As an example,
for many years, some magnetized substances show practically no loss of magnetic strength and
therefore maintain such strength.
MAGNETIC FIELDS
A magnetic field is assumed to consist of invisible lines of force that leave the north pole of a magnet
and enter the south pole. The direction of this force is used only to establish rules and references
for such operation.
This action is indicated, for example, by the fact that a north pole will repel another north pole and
be attracted by a south pole and vice versa.
NATURAL MAGNETS
A natural magnet is called a lodestone, or “leading stone.” The natural magnet gets its name from
being used by early navigators to determine direction.
Stallcup's® Generator, Transformer, Motor and Compressor
When a lodestone is freely suspended, one end always the current flow stops. When the magnet is withdrawn, the
points in a northerly direction. Because of this action, one current reverses and the current flows in the opposite
of the lodestones is called the “north-seeking” and the other direction. The current induced in the coil is caused by the
the “south-seeking” end. The terms are better known as the field of the magnet as it cuts across the turns of wire in the
north and south poles. The reason that a freely suspended coil.
magnet assumes a north-south position is that the earth is
a large magnet and its magnetic field exists over its entire
surface. Theory Tip: If a piece of soft iron is placed in the
magnetic field of a permanent magnet, it takes on the
For example, the magnetic lines of force leave same characteristics as the permanent magnet and
the earth at a point near the south pole and enters becomes magnetized. (See Figure 1-2)
near the north pole. Therefore, since the north
pole of a magnet is attracted to the south pole of
another magnet and repels another north pole,

one can understand that the magnetic pole near
the geographic north pole of the earth is actually a
south pole, and that the pole near the geographic

south pole of the earth is actually a north pole. (See
Figure 1-1)

Figure 1-2. The above illustrates a permanent magnet,

magnetizing a piece of soft iron that is placed in its magnetic
field.

Figure 1-3(a) illustrates that the north pole of the coil is
adjacent to the north pole of the bar magnet and opposes the
Figure 1-1. The above illustrates the magnetic field of a insertion of the magnet into the coil. However, the instant that
magnet and its relationship to the earth’s magnetic field. the magnet begins to move out of the coil, current induced
in the coil changes to the opposite direction. This is due to
PERMANENT MAGNETS the field of the coil being reversed.
Certain metallic alloys such as hard steel have the ability Note, the south pole of the coil field is now adjacent to the
to retain magnetism and are able to do so due to the fact north pole of the bar magnet and opposes the withdrawal
they are difficult to magnetize. Hard steel is more difficult of the magnet as shown in Figure 1-3(b).
to magnetize than soft iron because of the internal friction
among the atoms. If such a substance is placed in a strong
magnetic field and struck with a hammer, the atoms become
aligned with the field. When the substance is removed from MAGNETIC FIELD
the magnetic field, it retains its magnetism and becomes a
permanent magnet. The field of force existing between the poles of a magnet is
called a magnetic field. The lines of force of this field may
be demonstrated by placing a stiff paper over a magnet and
sprinkling iron filings on the paper.
ELECTROMAGNETS
See Figure 1-4 for a detailed illustration of the lines of force
A bar magnet can be pushed into a coil of wire (solenoid) for magnetic circuits. A magnetic force, known as magnetic
and current flows in a certain direction as the magnet moves flux, travels from north to south in invisible lines.
into the coil. However, as soon as the magnet stops moving,
1-2
Magnetism and Electromagnetism
For example, if a soft iron bar is placed across the Note, this can be easily demonstrated by the use of the
poles of a magnet, almost all the magnetic lines of left-hand rule, which is based on the true direction of current
force (flux) go through the bar, and the bar becomes flow. (See Figure 1-5)
magnetized. (See Figure 1-2)

Figure 1-5. When a wire is grasped in the left hand, the
thumb points from negative to positive poles, one finger

points in the direction of the magnetic field and the index
finger in the direction of movement.
When a current-carrying conductor is formed into a loop,

the loop takes on the properties of a magnet.

For example, one side of the loop will be a north

pole and the other side will be a south pole.
Figure 1-3(a) and (b). The current flows in a magnet when
magnets are induced by a changing magnetic field. Where a soft-iron core is placed in the loop, the magnetic
lines of force will magnetize the iron core and it becomes a

magnet. When a wire is formed into a coil and connected to

a source of power, the fields of the separate turns join and
travel through the entire coil. (See Figure 1-6)

Theory Tip: When a coil is grasped in the left hand with

the fingers pointing in the direction of current flow, that

is, from negative to positive, the thumb will point toward
the north pole of the coil.

Figure 1-4. The magnetic lines of force between the poles

of a magnet are called a magnetic field.

ELECTROMAGNETICS

An electric current flowing through a conductor creates a

magnetic field around the conductor. When a wire is grasped
in the left hand with the thumb pointing from negative to Figure 1-6. When a conductor is formed into a coil and
positive poles, the magnetic field around the conductor is connected to a source of power, the magnetic fields of each
in the direction that the fingers are pointing. separate turn add and travel through the entire coil.
1-3
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

The transfer of electric energy from one circuit to another

without the aid of electric connections is known as induction.
When electric energy is transferred by means of a magnetic

field, it is known as electromagnetic induction.

Electromagnetic induction occurs whenever there is a rela-
tive movement between a conductor and a magnetic field,

that is, when the conductor is cutting across magnetic lines

of force and is not moving parallel to them.

Note, this relative movement may be accomplished in two
ways (1) by using a stationary conductor and a moving
field and (2) by using a moving conductor with a stationary Figure 1-8. The above illustrates the basic action that takes
field. A moving field may be created by a moving magnet or place in generators to produce electricity.
by changing the value of the current in an electromagnet.
(See Figure 1-7)

Figure 1-7. The above illustrates the transfer of electric
energy by means of a magnetic field and conductor. This
process is called electromagnetic induction.
Figure 1-9. The above illustration represents the left hand
rule for generators.
GENERATOR ACTION
TYPES OF POWER
Figure 1-8 illustrates the basic principle action of a gen-
erator. As the conductor moves through the field, a voltage All electric power supplied by generators or batteries may
is induced in it. be divided into two general groups as follows:
(1) Alternating-current (AC) unit
Note, the same action occurs if the conductor is station-
ary and the magnetic field is moved. The direction of the (2) Direct-current (DC) unit
induced voltage depends on the direction of the field and
can be verified by applying the left-hand rule for generators.
(See Figure 1-9)
ALTERNATING-CURRENT (AC)
Theory Tip: When using the left-hand rule for
POWER
generators, extend the thumb, forefinger, and middle
finger of the left-hand so that they are at right angles to
Alternating-current power sources feed electricity directly to
one another. Then turn the hand so that the index finger
the electrical network to which the lights, motors, appliances,
points in the direction of the magnetic field and the thumb
and other equipment are connected. Generators are usually
points in the direction of the conductor movement. The
used between the power source and the line instead of
middle finger will then be pointing in the direction of the
batteries. However, in most cases, a battery is used for
induced voltage and flow of current.
engine-starting purposes only.
1-4
Magnetism and Electromagnetism
Generators and batteries with additional equipment can be ARMATURE VOLTAGE
utilized to produce the following voltage levels.
2,400 V 13,800 V
4,160 V
(1) 1000 volts or less 12,470 V
DELTA
13,200 V 13,800 V
• Single-phase 13,800 V
120 volts, two-wire 13,800 V 4160 V
120/240 volts, three-wire L1
240 volts, two-wire 2400 V L2
• Three-phase WYE
2400 V
240 volts, three-wire GEC
N
120/208 volts, four-wire 4160 V
120/240 volts, four-wire GES
2400 V 4160 V
480 volts, three-wire THE GENERATOR IS
L3
OPERATING AT OVER 600 V.
277/480 volts, four-wire ARMATURE VOLTAGE
600 volts, three-wire

(2) Over 1000 volts Figure 1-10(b). The above illustrates the most popular
• Three-phase voltages used to supply loads requiring voltages rated over
2,400 volts 1000 volts.
4,160 volts
12,470 volts
13,200 volts or 13,800 volts DIRECT-CURRENT (DC) POWER
See Figures 1-10(a) and (b) for a detailed illustration of the Direct-current power sources feed electricity directly to
different voltages supplying electrical systems. the line to which the lights, motors, appliances, and other
equipment are connected. There are limitations to direct-
THREE- OR FOUR-WIRE GENERATORS current power sources.

Single-Phase Three-Phase For example, they will only operate ordinary light

bulbs, motors, and appliances that are designed

for direct current, and motors of the universal type.

Direct-current power may also feed fluorescent

bulbs, but only if they are installed with a special

converter. Because, direct-current power sources

cannot operate any equipment designed for

alternating current, they are not usable as a standby

for most emergency systems. (See Figure 1-11)

Generator Tip: Direct-current power sources are

NOTE:

normally used to supply special types of equipment

including accessories, etc.
ALTERNATING-CURRENT (AC) POWER
Figure 1-10(a). The above illustrates the most popular

voltages used at 1000 volts or less.
1-5

Figure 1-11. The above illustrates the different types of

direct-current generators. For more details, see Chapter 2.
1-6
Name Date
Chapter 1: Magnetism and Electromagnetism
Section Answer
1. A magnet is an object that _____ magnetic substances such as iron or _____________ _____________
steel by producing an external magnetic field that reacts with a magnetic
substance.
(a) attracts (b) repels
(c) forces (d) none of the above .
2. A magnetic field is assumed to consist of invisible lines of force that leave _____________ _____________
the _____ pole of a magnet and enter the south pole.
(a) polar (b) south
(c) north (d) none of the above
3. The field of force existing between the poles of a magnet is called a(n)_____ _____________ _____________
field.
(a) invisible (b) magnetic
(c) core (d) pole
4. The transfer of electric energy from one circuit to another without the aid of _____________ _____________
electric connections is known as _____.
(a) magnetism (b) electromagnetism
(c) induction (d) none of the above
5. When electric energy is transferred by means of a magnetic field, it is known _____________ _____________
as _____ induction.
(a) electromagnetic (b) magnetic
(c) invisible (d) none of the above
6. Low voltage is considered 1000 volts or less while high voltage is considered _____________ _____________
over _____ volts.
(a) 500 (b) 750
(c) 600 (d) 1000
7. The voltage to ground on 4160 volt is considered _____ volts. _____________ _____________
(a) 240 (b) 480
(c) 1000 (d) 2400
8. The voltage on 13,800 volt corner ground is considered _____ volts. _____________ _____________
(a) 8000 (b) 12,470
(c) 13,200 (d) 13,800
9. Unlike poles attract while like does do not _____. _____________ _____________
(a) attract (b) pull
(c) both (a) and (b)
10. A permanent magnet will set up a magnetic field in a piece of soft _____. _____________ _____________
(a) rock (b) PVC
(c) iron (d) clad
1-7
2
Generator Principles
The conversion of mechanical to electrical energy occurs in the generator

by the rotation of a magnetic field that intersects the windings and induces
a voltage. In generators, the growth and collapse of the magnetic field is
accomplished by physically moving or revolving the fixed field, called the
primary winding, past the conductors (secondary winding). Naturally, the
stronger the field, the higher the voltage and the weaker the field, the lower
the generated voltage. The contents of this chapter deals with the basic
operation of generators.
BASIC OPERATION OF GENERATORS
The basic AC generator consists of a loop of wire that is free to rotate in a magnetic field. The loop
of wire is called the armature, and the magnetic field is called the field. The armature is turned by
an element called the prime mover. The prime mover can be water, steam, or wind turbines, an
engine, or an electric motor depending on the application and use.
Note, the terms armature and field are electrical terms. Electrically, the armature windings are those
windings that are connected to the load. The field windings are those windings that are used to
create the magnetic field. The rotor always rotates and the stator is always stationary.
The armature loop is connected to slip rings. Such slip rings have an electrical conducting brush
that slips over the surface of the ring as the armature rotates through the field. (See Figure 2-1)
As the armature rotates in the field, a voltage is generated

brushes are so mounted that each brush contacts each
that can be utilized to supply a transformer and a switchgear
segment of the commutator, which revolve simultaneously
that can be used to step the voltage up or down. Loads are
with the loop.
then supplied by the switchgear voltage or the transformer
voltage. (See Figure 2-2)
Note, the rotating parts of a DC generator, the coil and two
piece commutator, are called an armature.
Note, AC generators are usually referred to as alternators.
Alternators generate most of the electrical power used in
The switching action of the commutator segments makes the
modern-day electrical systems.
output of the DC generator produce direct current, with no
part of the output current going in reverse direction as would

occur in an AC generator. At the instant each brush contacts
two segments of the commutator, a direct short circuit is

produced. If an electromotive force (EMF) were generated,

a high current would flow in the short circuit, which would
cause an arc and thus could damage the commutator. To

prevent this from happening, the brushes must be placed
in the exact position where the short will occur when the

generated EMF is zero. In a DC generator, this position is

called the neutral plane. (See Figure 2-3)

MAXIMUM V MAXIMUM V
2

+ 3 5
1

4
MAGNETIC

FIELD
(LINES OF FLUX)

1/4
0
TURN
ARMATURE AT ARMATURE AT
POSITION 1 POSITION 2
V IS ZERO V IS MAXIMUM
3/4
Figure 2-2. The above illustrates a generator driven by a
1/2
TURN
TURN motor and such generator is supplying a transformer and
ARMATURE AT panelboard. Note, the transformer can be used to step up
ARMATURE AT POSITION 4
POSITION 3 V IS MAXIMUM or step down the voltage to serve the switchgear.
V IS ZERO

Figure 2-1. The above illustrates an armature rotating

through the flux of a magnetic field and completing a full BRUSHES
turn with an entire output of voltage.
Brushes ride on the surface of the commutator and form
the electrical contact between the armature coil and the
BASIC OPERATION OF DIRECT- external circuit. Brushes are made of high-grade carbon
CURRENT (DC) GENERATORS and are held in place by brush holders. The brushes are
insulated from the frame and are free to slide up and down
By replacing the slip rings on a basic AC generator with in their holders so that they can follow the surface of the
two semicylindrical segments called a commutator and commutator. The pressure of the brushes may be varied and
connecting two stationary brushes on opposite sides of their position on the commutator as well may be adjusted
the commentator, a basic DC generator is obtained. The for neutral plane position.
2-2
By this operation, current flows out of the exciter armature

through the cross-hatched brush to the main generator field

winding and returns through the other brush to complete

the circuit.

As the armature continues to turn through 180 degrees,

current flows in the opposite direction in the armature.

The current is now flowing from the shaded section of the
armature to the unshaded side, and the unshaded section

of the commutator is now touching the cross-hatched brush.

It is by this action of the commutator that DC voltage/current
is produced.

COMMUTATION

As an armature revolves in a DC generator, the armature

coil cuts through the magnetic lines of force (magnetic

flux) and a voltage is induced in them that appears at the
brushes. As the commutator segments (to which the coils
are connected) pass the brushes, current is drawn from the

segments. This is due to voltage being induced when the
coil passes the field poles. Coils that are in the interpole
spaces are shorted momentarily, and the connection to the
coils are reversed to allow DC current flow. (See Figure 2-4)

ARMATURE REACTION
There is an EMF generated in a moving armature that
opposes the magnetic field used to produce the electrical
output. The neutral plane of the armature is perpendicular
to the lines of force, or flux field, when there is no current

in the armature.
Figure 2-3. The above illustrates a loop of wire rotating The effect of armature reaction can be minimized or
through the flux field of a magnetic field and completing one overcome by shifting the brush assembly as follows:
revolution of 360 degrees.
(1) By using chamfered poles,
(2) By using commutating poles,
(3) By using pole face windings, or
COMMUTATOR
(4) By any combinations of the above
A commutator is a mechanical rectifier that is nothing
more than a slip ring split into segments. The ends of the Basically, the procedure for eliminating such shift in the
rotating armature coil are attached to each segment of the neutral plane is actually nullifying the change.
commutator.
For example, the entire brush assembly can be
Figure 2-3 shows the commutator cutting through the adjusted to bring the brushes in line with the shifted
magnetic field, with current flowing in one direction toward neutral plane. Because the neutral plane shifts with
the commutator. the load, this means shifting the brushes every time
the load changes. Note, this method is not practical.
Note, the current is flowing from the unshaded side of the
armature to the shaded side and the cross-hatched brush A more practical method is that the poles be slightly
is touching the shaded section of the commutator while chamfered. In other words, the radial distance between
the other brush is touching the unshaded section of the the pole face and the armature is increased slightly at the
commutator. edges of the poles.
2-3
The effect of this procedure produces an increase in the

air gap at the edges of the poles, which offsets to some

extent the tendency of the field to shift due to the armature

reaction. (See Figure 2-5)
Another method is to place the commutating poles in the

interpolar spaces; such poles are smaller and narrower than

the main field poles, and their winding is in series with the

armature. They are so connected that their field opposes

the field created by the armature reaction.

The final method is to design the faces of the main field pole
so they are slotted longitudinally with the windings placed in

the slots. These windings are then connected so that their
field opposes the field created by the armature.

See Figure 2-6 for a detailed illustration of using interpoles

and windings to correct armature reaction.

To produce electricity, the armature must be mounted Figure 2-5. The above illustrates the problems of armature
between so that the magnetic force (flux)
generated by the electromagnet will be cut by the
reaction; by shifting the position of the brushes so that they
rotating armature. are in the neutral plane when the generator is producing its
normal load current, the generator operates properly under

a fairly constant load.
make sliding contact so that they may contact

the commutator and carry generated electricity to the
load.

The commutator acts as a reversing switch as the
armature rotates in the different fields.

As a result of the switching action, the current output is
a series of maximums and minimums with current
flowing in only

Figure 2-6. The above illustrates the use of interpoles

and windings to correct the problems due to the armature

reaction of generators.

GENERATED VOLTAGE

The voltage output of generators can be generated for

single-phase or three-phase use. The frequency of the
Figure 2-4. The above illustrates the main purpose and generated power is directly related to the speed of the
use of the armature brushes, the commutator, and their generator, which in turn, is directly related to the prime
relationships in a generator to produce DC voltage. mover speed.
2-4
The voltage output will have a sine-wave pattern in the field Note, there are three sets of conductors, A(1) and A(2),
poles that turn at a constant speed. The sinusoidal voltage B(1) and B(2), and C(1) and C(2). Each set of conductors
is sinusoid because the field flux that intersects the windings is located 120 degrees apart, with each group of conductors
produces a voltage that grows and collapses with each generating a single-phase voltage. Since the groups are
rotation of the field poles. (See Figure 2-7) spaced 120 degrees apart, the single-phase voltage of each
group is electrically spaced 120 degrees from the other two.
SINGLE-PHASE OUTPUT The total output of the three single-phase voltages produces
a three-phase output.
Single-phase output is obtained by having one set of
armature windings in the stator. A two-pole, single-phase A four pole generator requires two north poles and two south
generator consists of a north pole and a south pole with poles on the rotor, with a three-group set of conductors on
conductors that are part of a continuous armature conductor the stator.
(winding) that fills the slots in the stator.
See Figure 2-8 for a detailed illustration of a two-pole and
Note, the stator slots are separated mechanically and four-pole generator producing a three-phase output.
electrically by 180 degrees. When the flux from the north
pole intersects the A(1) side of the conductor in Figure
2-7, the flux returning to the south pole intersects the A(2)
side of the conductor, resulting in generation of a peak

voltage between A(1) and A(2). When the north and south

poles are perpendicular to the plane of the A(1) and A(2)
conductors, no lines of force are intersecting the conductors

and the voltage difference between A(1) and A(2) is zero.

One complete revolution of the rotor through 360 degrees
is considered one cycle.

See Figure 2-7 for a detailed illustration of a two-pole

generator producing a single-phase output.

Figure 2-8. The above illustrates two- and four-pole

generators with the windings of the four-pole generator
connected in a wye configuration.
THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A

GENERATOR AND MOTOR
Figure 2-7. The above illustrates a single-phase generator In comparing a generator with a motor, there are similarities
that is used to supply single-phase power of 120/240 volts. that must be pointed out and discussed.
For example, a generator is a machine that

THREE-PHASE OUTPUT converts the mechanical power of a prime mover
into electrical energy, expressed in kilowatts (kW).
Three-phase output can be produced in a rotating field In comparison, a motor is a machine that converts
having two or four poles as shown in Figure 2-8. As electrical energy into mechanical energy and
illustrated, the rotating field is equipped with one north and delivers this energy in the form of horsepower to
one south pole. the shaft of a driven load.
2-5
TYPICAL SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR GENERATOR EXCITERS

A typical synchronous generator consists of field windings The value of the AC voltage generated by a synchronous
supplied by DC voltage that are mounted on a rotor and machine is controlled by varying the current in the DC field
rotated inside of a stationary winding called the armature. windings, while frequency is controlled by the speed of
The generator shaft is turned by a mechanical prime mover. rotation.
As the generator shaft turns, the magnetic field is rotated,
causing flux to intersect the armature winding and induce Power input is controlled by the torque applied to the
an EMF. The rotation of the field causes the induced EMF generator shaft by the driving engine. It is by this procedure
to increase and decrease, which produces a voltage at that the synchronous generator controls the power in which
the terminals of the armature winding. By connecting the it generates.
terminals of the armature winding to an electrical load, an
alternating current will flow. (See Figure 2-9) Synchronous generators normally use a brushless exciter,
which is nothing more than a small AC generator mounted
on the main shaft. The AC voltage generated is rectified
by a three-phase rotating rectifier assembly, also on the

shaft. This DC voltage is applied to the main generator

field, which is also mounted on the main shaft. A voltage
regulator controls the exciter field current, which controls
the field voltage. In this manner, a well-controlled generator
output can be obtained. (See Figure 2-10)

DC EXCITERS
This type of exciter operates on the principle of an AC voltage
being induced in a coil that is rotating in a magnetic field.
Figure 2-9. The above illustration shows an excitation A commutator added to the output connection makes this
diagram and synchronous generator. device a DC generator. The process by which AC voltage is
induced and by which the AC voltage is then converted to
DC voltage is called rectification. (See Figure 2-10)
TYPICAL SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR

A typical synchronous motor consists of the same elements
as the generator.

For example, a rotating magnetic field stator is
mounted inside of a stationary armature winding

with an additional motor that has an induction
winding that is used for starting and it is mounted
on the surface of the rotor. During motor start-up,
no direct current is applied to the field winding rotor;

instead, an alternating current is supplied to the
terminals of the armature winding, which creates a

magnetic field in the winding. Because this field is
served by an alternating current, it travels around Figure 2-10. The above illustrates a synchronous generator
the armature winding at the same frequency as with a DC exciter.
the supplying current. The rotating armature field
induces a current in the winding on the surface of
the rotor which develops a torque that causes the IN COMPARISON
rotor to turn and the motor to start as an induction
motor. When the speed is near the synchronous In selecting a generator for various applications, synchronous
speed of the motor, direct current is then applied generators are normally applied instead of induction
to the rotating field and the motor is brought up to generators because induction generators operate at
synchronous speed. (See Page 15-14) a fixed power factor. As a result of this characteristic,
2-6
induction generators must always operate in parallel with

synchronous machines or capacitors to correct power factor.
However, a synchronous generator is capable of correcting

power factor while delivering a constant frequency with an
over-adjustment of the field current and power.

TYPICAL INDUCTION GENERATOR

A typical induction generator is essentially the same as that

of an induction motor in that they both have a squirrel-cage
rotor and wound stator. When this machine is driven above

its designed synchronous speed, it becomes a generator.
When operated at less than synchronous speed, it functions
as a motor. Because induction generators do not have an
exciter, they must operate in parallel with the utility. This Figure 2-11. The above lists the advantages and
outside power source provides the reactive power for disadvantages of an induction generator.
generator operation.
GASOLINE ENGINES
Note, its frequency is automatically locked in with the
utilities. Gasoline engines are economical up to about 100 kW.
Initial costs are comparatively low, and they have reliable
An induction generator is also a popular choice for use starting ability.
when designing and installing cogeneration systems, which
operate in parallel with the utility.
DIESEL ENGINES
ADVANTAGES
Diesel engines are very popular due to their reliability,
An induction generator offers several advantages over a ruggedness, low maintenance, economical operation,
synchronous generator and they are as follows: and the low initial cost for larger units. For industrial and
commercial applications, diesel engines are built in sizes
(1) Voltage and frequency are controlled by utilities.
up to about 2000 kW. For the needs of a prime power
(2) Regulations are not required. installation, they come in sizes up to 20,000 horsepower
or greater.
(3) Construction of generator allows high reliability
and requires little maintenance.
(4) Only a minimum of protective relays and controls GASEOUS FUEL ENGINES
are necessary.
Gaseous fuel engines are comparable to diesel engines,
DISADVANTAGES except that the normal gas supply is subject to interruption
in the event the supply line is damaged. To compensate
The major disadvantage of an induction generator is that for this problem, an on-site propane gas tank is usually
it is difficult to operate alone as a standby or emergency used to provide an alternate fuel supply should the normal
generator. (See Figure 2-11) supply be lost.
GAS TURBINE ENGINES

TYPES OF ENGINES
Gas turbine engine sets have had success as on-site power
Fuel availability determines the type of the engine-generator sources for heavy loads ranging from about 500 kW or
set to be used. If a certain type fuel is already in use at the greater. They are small in weight, and due to their lack of
site, a generator set using the same fuel is usually selected vibration, they can be installed on floors or on roofs.
and utilized.
Gas turbine engines have the ability to burn a wide variety
If the generator set is located in an area where public utilities of fuels, either liquid or gas. If needed, they come as dual-
are not available, liquid petroleum gas or diesel fuel are fuel sets, such as natural gas and diesel, or natural gas and
normally the types of fuel sources used. liquid petroleum gas.
2-7
See Figure 2-12 for a detailed illustration of the various THREE-PHASE GENERATORS
kinds of engine-generator sets.
A three-phase generator has three separate windings that
For the same reason above, synchronous motors are are placed in the slots of the stator core. The windings
selected over induction motors for applications where are arranged so three voltages are produced that are 120
constant speed is necessary. Induction motors will decrease electrical degrees apart. In a two-pole generator, each
in speed as a mechanical load is applied and this decrease phase winding is divided into two parallel groups, and in a
in speed causes a decrease of counter electromotive force, four-pole generator, each phase is divided into four parallel
which allows more current to be supplied by the source. phase groups. These phase groups are connected to the
Because of a separate DC supply, a synchronous motor main and neutral leads by parallel rings. These rings are
always runs at synchronous speed, even if the load is located at the stator winding and positioned at the collector
increased. end for proper continuity. (See Figure 2-14)

L1

MAGNETIC L2
CIRCUIT YOKE
b L3
e o e
b b
e
MAGNETIC
FIELD WYE
Figure 2-12. The above illustrates the types of engines that BRUSHES ARMATURE
are most used, based on the types of fuel used.
L1
COLLECTOR
SINGLE-PHASE GENERATORS RINGS
e b
b e
e b
A single-phase generator consists of a rotating magnet DELTA
L3
called the field, which is inside a stationary winding called an L2
armature. The rotating magnet is generally an electromagnet
that is wound on a cylindrically shaped shaft called the
rotor. The rotor is elongated on one end and to this end a
coupling is attached to connect the generator to a prime
mover. The stator core is contained in the generator frame Figure 2-14. Windings are shown connected in wye and
and the bearings are mounted on end plates, which are delta configurations on rings to demonstrate how easily
called bearing brackets. The armature winding exits the they can be connected.
generator frame through insulated terminals known as
bushings. These terminals are attached to the generator
frame in a compartment called a terminal box. The power OPERATION
leads from the load are connected in the box to the terminal
loads of the armature. (See Figure 2-13) Three-phase generators are much more efficient than
comparably sized single-phase generators.

For example, as the magnetic field rotates across
the armature winding, an electromotive force is
induced in the armature winding. The rotation of

the field causes this induced electromotive force

to increase and decrease at the terminals of the
armature winding. As the rotor spins, three sets of
AC voltages are generated in the stator windings

as the rotor turns through the magnetic field. These

voltages are equal in amplitude, but they are shifted

in phase by 120 electrical degrees from each other.
When the terminals of the armature winding are

connected to complete a circuit through a load, such
Figure 2-13. The above illustrates a single-phase generator as the primary winding of a three-phase transformer,
supplying either 120 volts or 240 volts to specific loads. an alternating current will flow and supply the load.
2-8
COMPONENTS OF AN Adequate pressure is applied at intervals during the stacking

operation to produce a tight core. Heavy end plates and
AC GENERATOR nonmagnetic finger plates are used at the ends of the core
to maintain adequate pressure at all times.
The following components are considered major elements of
an AC generator that electrical personnel must understand:
(1) Stator, TERMINATION BOX
(2) Rotor,
(3) Cooling system, This component, of the generator frame, is located either
on the bottom or the top of the frame. Contained in the
(4) Exciters, and
termination box are the six lead bushings. These bushings
(5) Commutator. are designed to serve two purposes. They provide a
gastight penetration in the generator frame for the three
line leads and the three neutral leads that make up both
STATOR ends of the three phases of the stator winding. Secondly,
such bushings are used to insulate the high-voltage leads
The following items are the most pertinent elements to from the generator frame, which is at ground potential. (See
consider about the stator components of an AC generator: Figure 2-15) For trouble shooting, see Table A-8.
(1) Mechanical components, bearings, shafts, etc.
(2) Wye-connected windings, and
(3) Delta-connected windings.
MECHANICAL COMPONENTS

The most important mechanical components of an AC
generator are as follows:

(1) The frame,
(2) The core,

(3) Termination box, and
(4) The winding (coils).
FRAME
The stator frame, called the housing, is fabricated from steel

plates and bars electrically welded into a rigid box section.
A short piece of ductwork is provided on the bottom of the

frame through which ventilating air can be discharged. Holes
drilled and tapped around the edges of the duct provides
a means for attaching the necessary ductwork. Port holes
with a removable glass serve as windows for the inspection
of the end windings during operation. Figure 2-15. The above illustration shows the main
components that are necessary to operate an AC generator.
CORE
The stator core is basically built up of low-loss segmental WYE-CONNECTED SYSTEMS

silicon steel laminations and assembled on bars that span
the entire length of the core. Both sides of the laminations Generator stator windings are typically connected in a wye
are treated with an insulating material to prevent short- configuration. Line leads numbered T1, T2, and T3 are the
circuiting the laminations. Vent spacers are built-in with the line leads connected to the phase conductors and T4, T5,
laminations at intervals to provide radial passages through and T6 are the grounded (neutral) leads tied together and
the core for the ventilating air. usually connected to ground. (See Figure 2-16)
2-9
EXCITER SHUNT
PHASE L1 L2 L3 projecting poles with concentrated windings and cylindrical
LEADS
FIELD
SLIP RINGS
poles, which are equipped with distributed windings.
1 2 3456
ALTERNATING
DC
V
ROTOR The rotor selected is based on the characteristics of the
generator.
EXCITER
ARMATURE
CONNECTIONS
TIE TOGETHER
For example, large, low-speed generators usually
4, 5, AND 6 are designed with salient pole rotors. However,
1, 2, AND 3 ARE PHASE LEADS
generators operating at 1800 rpm (four-pole) or
3600 rpm (two-pole) use cylindrical rotors.
Figure 2-16. The above illustrates a generator that has its

windings connected in a wye configuration.
SALIENT POLE ROTORS
DELTA-CONNECTED SYSTEMS Salient pole rotors can be built with either laminated poles or
solid poles. The constructions of such poles are as follows:
The delta connection is made by connecting terminals 1 to
6, 2 to 4, and 3 to 5. Phase leads are then connected to LAMINATED POLES
terminals 1, 2, and 3 accordingly. The generator windings
when connected in a delta configuration reduces the line-to- This type of construction is more efficient because the
line voltage. However, the available line current is increased. magnetic lines of flux travel through the laminated core in
(See Figure 2-17) a perpendicular direction to the field winding. This reduces
iron losses and provides a more efficient magnetic coupling
to the laminated core of the stator winding.

SOLID POLES

This type of construction is utilized where the rating of the
generator requires less concentrated flux density.

CYLINDRICAL POLES

This type of construction is utilized in high-speed generators.

These rotors generally carry higher field ratings and are
Figure 2-17. The above illustrates a generator that has its more rigid. The surface of these rotor bodies is grooved
to reduce surface currents and to increase heat transfer to
windings connected in a delta configuration.
the cooling medium of air or hydrogen. Radial slots for the
field windings are machined in the rotor body and the field
TYPES OF ROTORS coils are imbedded in slots. [See Figures 2-18(a) and (b)
for the types of rotors]
To impose the magnetic field on the rotor, poles are utilized
that consist of stacked magnetic iron laminations (to reduce
eddy currents) with copper conductors wrapped around COOLING SYSTEMS
the iron. These poles are excited by a direct current. Poles
built in this manner reduce the problem created by eddy The types of cooling systems normally used for AC
currents. The rotor poles must be arranged in pairs with a generators are air-cooled, air-to-water heat exchanger,
minimum arrangement of one pair of poles. The pairs are and gas-to-water heat exchanger. Each type is explained
located 180 electrical degrees apart. As the north pole of the as follows:
magnetic field of the rotor intersects one phase group of the
stator winding, the south pole of the rotor intersecting the AIR-COOLED
diametrically opposite portion of the same phase winding.
The construction of the rotor is primarily determined by the A natural, air-cooled generator uses outside air, at ambient
speed of operation. temperature, as a cooling medium. Such air is circulated
through the stator and rotor by propeller-type blowers on
To accomplish this purpose, two basic rotor constructions for both ends of the rotor. The warm air exiting the stator and
generators are available. They are salient poles, which have rotor is exhausted back outside the generator in a complete
2-10
cycle. In other words, air passes through only one time.

(See Figure 2-19)

Generator Tip: This type of cooling system sometimes

requires air filters on the intake to minimize the
contaminants that can get into the generator. Such filters
can get dirty and can thus restrict air flow. To prevent
this problem, proper maintenance must be provided.

Figure 2-19. The above shows a generator engine cooled

by either air or water.

AIR-TO-WATER HEAT EXCHANGER
Figure 2-18(a). The above illustrates the difference between
a salient pole rotor and cylindrical pole rotor. A generator with an air-to-water heat exchanger is different
from the air-to-air heat exchanger type. The warmer air
coming out of the stator and rotor is circulated across
a cooler that consists of a number of copper tubes with
circular fins around the outside diameter of the tubes. Water
circulated through the tubes removes the heat from the air
being passed over the outside of the tubes.
Note, a source of cooling water must be pumped through

these coolers.
Generator Tip: This type of air circulation reduces the
problem of contaminants getting into the generator,
because the same air is being recirculated through the
Figure 2-18(b). The above is a detailed illustration of an generator constantly.
AC generator with a salient pole rotor.
GAS-TO-WATER HEAT EXCHANGER

AIR-TO-AIR HEAT EXCHANGER
This system has many advantages over other types because
A generator with an air-to-air heat exchanger is different it uses hydrogen as a cooling means.
from the natural cooled type: the heat exchanger constantly
For example, hydrogen has lower density and
recirculates the same air through the stator and rotor.
better thermal conductivity to reduce windage loss
Note, such circulation keeps the generator windings cleaner as well as increasing heat transfer output per unit
than a system that does not recirculate the same air. volume.
Generator Tip: This type of air circulation eliminates Generator Tip: The benefit of having a closed gas
the need for a filter system, but does require additional system is that it reduces dirt and moisture combination
secondary air-cooling equipment. in the machine and achieves quieter operation.
2-11
OTHER EXCITERS tripping and taking the generator off the line, if it becomes
necessary. (See Figure 2-21)
The commutator illustrated in Figure 2-3 requires a great
deal of maintenance and has been replaced primarily by
the following devices:
STATIC EXCITATION

Static excitation uses power from the main generator

output, which is fed back to the voltage regulator through
an excitation transformer to produce the DC field current for

the field windings on the generator rotor. The direct current

is then connected to the field windings of the generator's

rotor through collector rings. A closed-loop feedback circuit

allows the voltage regulator to monitor and regulate the

output of the generator.

BRUSHLESS EXCITATION Figure 2-21. The above illustrates a voltage regulator
receiving signals and using such signals to regulate the
The brushless excitation method eliminates the inherent
desired voltage level.
inefficiencies of slip rings and brushes. The exciter in the
brushless excitation system consists of an alternating
current generator with a rotating armature and a stationary
magnetic field. The alternating current generated in the MANUAL SYNCHRONIZATION OF
rotating armature is converted to direct current by a rectifier, GENERATORS
which is mounted on the same shaft as the armature.
A simple device, capable of monitoring instantaneous
Note, the brushless exciter uses a permanent magnet voltage between generators and recognizing a voltage
generator as a pilot exciter to supply power to the voltage difference, is a neon lamp. A common circuit arrangement
regulator. (See Figure 2-20) that uses three neon lamps to monitor and indicate voltage
differences between two three-phase generators is often
GENERATOR
EXCITER
used.
The circuit in generator 1 is supplying current to the load

T1 T2 T3 F1 F2 and generator 2 is about to be synchronized and connected
BRUSHLESS EXCITER TO
PERMANENT STATIONARY FIELD LOAD in parallel with generator 1. The three neon lamps are
MAGNET connected across the open contacts of the tie breaker
GENERATOR
OUTPUT to monitor and indicate voltage differences between the
CT FEEDBACK
respective phases for the two generators. When the lamps
(CT = CURRENT XFMR)
VT FEEDBACK
indicate that the generators are matched or synchronized,

VOLTAGE (VT = VOLTAGE XFMR) the tie breaker is closed and the generators are connected
REGULATOR in parallel.
TO CONTROL AREA
When the neon lamps are continuously dark, the generators
are usually in exact and continuous synchronization. (See
Figure 2-20. The above illustrates a generator with a voltage Figure 2-22)
regulator and a brushless excitation system.
For installations where the voltages of the generators are
greater than 480 volts, step-down potential transformers
REGULATOR must be used to reduce the voltage to the neon lamps to
a safe level.
The function of a regulator is to use the feedback signals
from the voltage potential transformers (PTS) and current Note, when transformers are utilized for this purpose,
transformers (CTS – connected in series) to keep the care must be exercised to properly connect the secondary
generator voltage at the desired usable level. Its function leads of the potential transformers before energizing the
also protects from sudden load swings or voltage spikes by generators.
2-12
LOAD Note, a special interlock circuit is used for the tie circuit
breaker to prevent it from closing until synchronization has
been established.
TIE
BREAKER
Automatic synchronization is mainly used for permanent
NEON
FOR SIMPLICITY, THE
installations where the phase rotation of the generator's
LAMPS
GROUNDED (NEUTRAL) lines is known to be correct. Just like (similar) the manual
CONDUCTOR IS NOT SHOWN.
process of synchronization, the automatic process
GENERATOR 1 GENERATOR 2
controls adjust the parameters of the generator that is to
be connected in parallel with the generator that is already
on-line. (See Figure 2-23)
Figure 2-22. The above shows the procedure for manually
synchronizing two generators supplying a load.
AUTOMATIC SYNCHRONIZATION OF
GENERATORS
The difference between automatic and manual
synchronization is that automatic synchronization uses
some form of logic circuitry to automatically monitor, adjust,
and connect the generators. The logic circuitry automatically
controls the generator to speed it up or to slow it down
and to regulate the generator field current to increase or
decrease the voltage.
PARALLELING
LINES
SPEED TRIM
POT
FOR TROUBLESHOOTING,
SEE
LOAD SHARING ACTUATOR

SIGNAL FOR & SPEED CONTROL & LINKAGE
LOCAL OUTPUT
BUS ERROR
SYNCHRONIZER
SYSTEM
SIGNAL FOR
BUS FUEL FEED
VOLTAGE RATE
MAGNETIC GENERATOR BEING
CIRCUIT GENERATOR PICKUP CONNECTED IN PARALLEL
BREAKER VOLTAGE (MONITORS SPEED) WITH ANOTHER
GENERATOR
LOAD
SUPPLIED

Figure 2-23. The above illustrates the procedure for automatic synchronization of two generators supplying a load.
2-13
Name Date
Chapter 2: Generator Principles
Section Answer
1. A prime mover can be _____. _____________ _____________

(a) water (b) steam
(c) wind turbine (d) all of the above
2. A commutator is a mechanical _____ that is nothing more than a slip ring split _____________ _____________
into segments.
(a) brush (b) rectifier
(c) armature (d) magnet
3. As an armature revolves in a DC generator, the armature coil cuts through _____________ _____________
the _____ lines of force and a voltage is induced in them that appears at the
brushes.
(a) magnetic (b) invisible
(c) mechanical (d) electromagnetic
4. The effect of armature reaction can be minimized or overcome by shifting the _____________ _____________
brush assembly as follows:
(a) by using chamfered poles (b) by using commutating poles
(c) by using pole face windings (d) by any combination of the above
5. Single-phase output is obtained by having one set of armature windings in the _____________ _____________
_____.
(a) armature (b) rectifier
(c) stator (d) brushes
6. A two-pole, single-phase generator consists of a north pole and a south pole _____________ _____________
with conductors that are part of a continuous _____ conductor (winding) that
fills the slots in the stator.
(a) armature (b) rectifier
(c) stator (d) brush
7. Three-phase output can be produced in a rotating field having two or _____ _____________ _____________
poles.
(a) three (b) four
(c) five (d) six
8. A typical synchronous generator consists of field windings supplied by DC _____________ _____________

voltage that are mounted on a rotor and rotated inside of a stationary winding
called the _____.
(a) stator (b) magnet
(c) rectifier (d) armature
9. The value of the AC voltage generated by a synchronous machine is controlled _____________ _____________
by varying the current in the _____ field windings.
(a) magnetic (b) AC
(c) DC (d) armature
2-15
Section Answer
_____________ _____________ 10. DC exciters operate on the principle of a(n) _____ voltage being induced in a
coil that is rotating in a magnetic field.
(a) magnetic (b) AC
(c) DC (d) armature
_____________ _____________ 11. Gasoline engines are economical up to about _____ kW.
(a) 50 (b) 75
(c) 100 (d) 150
_____________ _____________ 12. For industrial and commercial applications, diesel engines are built in sizes
up to about _____ kW.
(a) 1000 (b) 2000
(c) 3000 (d) 5000
_____________ _____________ 13. A single-phase generator consists of a(n)_____ magnet called the field.
(a) rotating (b) stationary
(c) electro (d) stator
_____________ _____________ 14. A three-phase generator has three separate windings that are placed in the
slots of the stator _____.
(a) winding (b) armature
(c) rectifier (d) core
_____________ _____________ 15. The stator _____, called the housing, is fabricated from steel plates and bars
electrically welded into a rigid box section.
(a) coils (b) core
(c) frame (d) termination box
_____________ _____________ 16. The stator _____ is basically built up of low-loss segmental silicon steel
laminations and assembled on bars that span the entire length of the core.
(a) coils (b) core
(c) frame (d) termination box
_____________ _____________ 17. Generator stator windings are typically connected in a _____ configuration.
(a) wye (b) delta
(c) single-phase (d) three-phase
_____________ _____________ 18. Salient pole rotors can be built with _____ poles.
(a) laminated (b) solid
(c) all of the above (d) none of the above
_____________ _____________
19. A gas-to-water heat exchanger uses _____ as a cooling means.
(a) air (b) water
(c) hydrogen (d) none of the above
_____________ _____________
20. _____ synchronization is mainly used for permanent installations where the
phase rotation of the generator’s lines is known to be correct.
(a) Automatic (b) Manual
(c) Logic (d) Regulator
2-16
3
Generators and the
National Electrical Code®
In addition to the requirements of Article 445, generators shall comply with
the requirements of other Sections of the National Electrical Code® (NEC®),
most notably are Articles 215, 225, 230, 250, 700, 701, 702, and 705.
Articles 215, 225, and 230 deal with generators when they are used to supply
service equipment and feeders. Article 250 addresses the special grounding
techniques based on where the generator is installed and used. Article 700
contains the rules for generators that are utilized when supplying power to
emergency systems. Articles 701 and 702 pertain to generators that serve
legally required and optional standby systems. Article 705 is used when
generators are connected in parallel with the utility power sources to serve
as an interconnected electric power production source.
LOCATION OF GENERATORS
445.10
One of the first requirements is that the generator be suitable for the location where it is installed.
Basically, standard-type generators are designed to operate indoors in dry places. The requirements
of 430.14 shall be met to help protect the operation of generators. If generators are installed in
hazardous locations or used to supply special equipment, the requirements of Articles 500 through
503, 505, 510 through 517, 520, 525, 530, 665, and 695 shall also be complied with.
Note: For more information on the location of generator exhaust, review NFPA 37, "Standard For
The Installation And Use OF Standard Combustion Engines and Gas Turbines".
NAMEPLATE MARKINGS windings. All generator exciters are usually separately

excited. In most installations, DC as well as AC units are
445.11 normally operated without overcurrent protection. (See
Figure 3-1)
To aid designers and electrical personnel every generator
OCPD
shall have a nameplate that contains the following
information: GENERATORS AND
L1
THEIR ASSOCIATED
(1) The manufacturer’s name and rating frequency, WIRING AND
EQUIPMENT L2
SHALL BE PROTECTED
(2) Number of phases (if of alternating current) and FROM OVERLOADS L3
power factor, N
(3) The subtransient and transient impedances,

(4) The rating in kilowatts and kilowatt amperes,
(5) The normal volts and amperes corresponding to THIS PROTECTION CAN BE BY:
1. INHERENT DESIGN,
the rating, 2. CIRCUIT BREAKERS,
3. FUSES, OR
(6) The rated revolutions per minute, 4. OTHER ACCEPTABLE
OVERCURRENT PROTECTIVE
(7) Insulation system class, ambient temperature or MEANS, SUITABLE FOR THE
CONDITIONS OF USE.
temperature rise, and time rating.

Such information shall be used when designing, installing,
and maintaining generators in residential, commercial, and
industrial applications. Figure 3-1. Generators and their elements shall be
protected from overloads, short circuits, and ground faults.
Note: Nameplates or manufacturer's instructions shall
provide the following information for all stationary generators CONSTANT-VOLTAGE GENERATORS
and portable generators rated more than 15 kW.
445.12(A)
(1) Subtransient, transient, synchronous, and zero
sequence reactances The basic rule requires DC generators to have overcurrent
(2) Power rating category protection. However, AC generators may be so designed
that on a high overload the voltage of the generator falls
(3) Insulation system class
off, thereby reducing the overload current to a safe value.
(4) Indication if the generator is protected against For this reason, the NEC does not always require overload
overload by inherent design, an overcurrent protection for all AC generators.
protective relay, circuit breaker, or fue
(5) Maximum short-circuit current for inverter- There are installations where overload protection can
based generators, in lieu of the synchronous, be omitted. In some cases, it is considered better to risk
subtransient, and transient reactances damage to the exciter rather than have the generator shut
down through operation of an exciter overcurrent protection
Marking shall be provided by the manufacturer to indicate device. (See Figure 3-2)
whether or not the generator neutral is bonded to its frame.

Where the bonding is modified in the field, additional

marking shall be required to indicate whether the neutral

is bonded to the frame.

OVERCURRENT PROTECTION FOR
GENERATORS

445.12

Constant-voltage generators, except for AC generators and

exciters, are protected from overload by inherent design,
circuit breakers, fuses, protective relays, or overcurrent
protective means suitable for the condition of use. (AC

generators are exempt from the need of overcurrent
protection.) This is due to impedance that limits the short- Figure 3-2. The above illustrates when overcurrent
circuit current to a value that is not damaging to their protection is required for generators.
3-2
Generators and the National Electrical Code®
Generator Tip: Generators that produce a constant

GENERATORS OPERATING
voltage (most commonly used generators are of this AT 65 VOLTS OR LESS
type) are required to be protected from overloads. This 445.12(C)
may be accomplished by using overcurrent protective
devices such as fuses, circuit breakers, etc. or by in- A generator operating at 65 volts or less, and driven by an
herent design. individual motor, shall be considered adequately protected
by the motor overcurrent protection device, where such
overcurrent protection device will operate when the
TWO-WIRE GENERATORS generators are delivering not more than 150 percent of the
generator's full-load current. (See Figure 3-4)
445.12(B)
Two-wire DC generators shall be permitted to have
Generator Tip: If the fuse(s) or circuit breaker protecting
overcurrent protection in one wire, if the overcurrent
the motor is set to operate when the generator is 50
protection device is activated by the entire current and not
percent or less overloaded, no protection is required in
the current in the shunt coil. However, the overcurrent device
the generator leads. However, if the generator voltage
shall not, under any circumstances, open the shunt coil.
is above 65 volts, it is the intent of the NEC to require
separate overcurrent protection for the generator.
Generator Tip: The NEC does not permit an overcur-
GENERATOR OPERATING
rent protection device in the generator's positive lead AT 65 VOLTS OR LESS
only, because an overcurrent device in the positive GENERATOR SHALL BE
lead would not always be actuated by the entire current CONSIDERED AS PROTECTED BY
THE OCPDs PROTECTING THE
generated. Note, an overcurrent protection device is not MOTOR IF THESE DEVICES WILL
OPERATE WHEN THE GENERATOR
permitted for the shunt field. If the shunt field circuit were INDIVIDUAL MOTOR IS DELIVERING NOT MORE THAN
to open and the field was at full strength, a dangerous DRIVING GENERATOR 150% OF ITS FULL-LOAD RATED
CURRENT
high voltage would be induced, which might damage
the generator. (See Figure 3-3)

Figure 3-4. The above illustrates the protection of

generators operating at 65 volts or less.

BALANCER SETS

445.12(D)

Balancer sets consist of two smaller DC generators

used with a larger two-wire generator. The two balancer
generators are connected in series across the two-wire main
generator lines. A neutral tap (point) is brought out from the
midpoint connection between the two balancer generators.
Note, each of the two balancer generators carries about

one-half of any unbalanced load condition.
With such an arrangement, where there is a heavy

unbalance in the load, the balancer generators may
become overloaded, while there is no overload on the main
generator. The balancer generators shall be equipped with

an overload device that will actuate the main generator
Figure 3-3. The above illustrates overcurrent protection for disconnect if the balancer generators should become
two-wire DC generators. overloaded. (See Figure 3-5)
3-3
TWO-WIRE,
Generator Tip: Balancer sets shall be equipped with DC GENERATOR
overload devices that disconnects the three-wire system GENERATOR IS USED IN E1
in case of an excessive unbalanced condition. Three- CONJUNCTION WITH
BALANCER SETS TO OBTAIN E
wire direct current generators shall be provided with NEUTRAL FOR THREE-WIRE,
overcurrent protection devices, one in each armature DC SYSTEM E2
lead arranged to disconnect the three-wire circuit in BALANCER SETS
case of heavy overloads or extreme unbalanced current THE SYSTEM SHALL BE
EQUIPPED WITH OCPDs THAT
conditions. WILL DISCONNECT THE THREE-
WIRE SYSTEM IN CASE OF
EXCESSIVE UNBALANCING OF
THREE-WIRE, DC GENERATORS
445.12(E)
ENGINE
As in two-wire generators, the overcurrent protection

device protecting a three-wire generator shall be capable of
taking the full generator current. When equalizer leads are
provided, the overcurrent protection device, if not properly
installed in the circuit, might take only a part of the GENERATOR
generator current. To help solve this problem, three-wire
DC generators operating in parallel are equipped with two
equalizer leads. The overcurrent protection devices shall be Figure 3-5. The above illustrates balancer sets used with
so placed in the circuit that they will take the full generator a generator to disconnect the system if an excessive
current without tripping open the circuit. unbalanced current condition should occur.
A two-pole breaker placed ahead of the junction of the main
and equalizer leads can provide such protection. However,

a four-pole circuit breaker with two poles for the main leads

and two poles for the equalizer leads can also be used,

provided such circuit breaker is actuated by the full current

flow of the generator. (See Figure 3-6)

Generator Tip: These generators which are either

shunt wound or compound wound shall be provided with
overcurrent protection devices in each armature lead.
Such devices shall sense the entire armature current
and be multipole devices that open all the poles in the
event of an overcurrent condition.

Figure 3-6. The above illustrates the overcurrent protection

EXCEPTION TO (A) THROUGH (E) requirements for three-wire DC generators.
445.12(A) THROUGH (E), Ex.
There are cases where a generator fails and it is less of a AMPACITY OF CONDUCTORS FROM
hazard than disconnecting it when an overcurrent condition GENERATORS
occurs. In such instances, the AHJ may permit the generator
to be connected to a supervision panel with an annunciator
445.13
or alarm, instead of requiring overcurrent protection. Ungrounded (phase) conductors from a generator shall be
sized at no less than 115 percent of the nameplate current
value. Grounded (neutral) conductors can be calculated
and sized according to 220.61 and 215.2(A)(2). (Table
310.15(B)(16), or the over 2000 volt Tables.) Ungrounded
(phase) conductors shall be capable of carrying ground-fault
currents and shall be sized in accordance with 250.30(A).
[Also, see 310.15(B)(5)(c)]
3-4

For example, a generator with 100 amp output shall

have conductors with an ampacity of at least 115

amps respectively (100 A x 115% = 115 A). For the
definition of a neutral conductor and neutral point,

see Article 100. (See Figure 3-7)

Figure 3-8. The above illustrates the procedure for sizing

the conductors from a generator to a load using the 100

percent multiplier.

PROTECTION OF LIVE PARTS

445.14
Live parts of generators operated at more than 50 volts-to-

ground shall not be exposed to accidental contact where

accessible to unqualified persons. The basic rule is that
live parts of generators shall not be exposed to accidental

contact. Such live parts are as follows:

(1) Brushes,

(2) Collector rings, and

(3) Other live parts.

See Figure 3-9 for a detailed illustration pertaining to this
rule.

Figure 3-7. The above illustrates the procedure for sizing

conductors from a generator to a load using 115 percent

multiplier.

PREVENTING OVERLOAD CONDITIONS
445.13, Ex.

The conductors shall be protected at 100 percent of the
rated generated current (100 amps). However, to do so,
the design or operation of the generator shall be such as to
prevent overloading. Therefore, an ampacity of 100 percent
loading is all that is permitted.

For example, a generator with 100 amp output shall

have conductors with an ampacity of at least 100
amps (100 A x 100% = 100 A) and the load limited Figure 3-9. The above illustrates the requirements for
to this value. (See Figure 3-8) generators with exposed parts.
3-5
GUARDS FOR ATTENDANTS

445.15
If generators operate at more than 150 volts-to-ground, no
live parts shall be permitted to be exposed to contact by

unqualified personnel. Section 430.233 requires insulating

mats or platforms around motors.

Note, these protective items are also required for generators
when the generator voltage is greater than 150 volts-to-

ground. (See Figure 3-10)

Generator Tip: Generators and controllers shall be
guarded against accidental contact only by location
as specified in 430.232 and 430.233, and because
adjustments or other maintenance may be necessary
during the operation of the apparatus, suitable insulating Figure 3-11. The above illustrates the rules for installing
mats or platforms are to be provided so that a qualified bushings to protect conductors passing through the
person cannot readily touch live parts unless standing openings of enclosures.
on the mats or platforms.
GENERATOR TERMINAL HOUSINGS
GENERATORS OR CONTROLLERS
OPERATING AT OVER 150 445.17
VOLTS-TO-GROUND
WORKER SERVICING Generator terminal housings shall comply with 430.12.

AC OR DC GENERATORS GENERATOR Where a horsepower rating is required to determine the
required minimum size of the generator terminal housing,
the full-load current of the generator shall be compared
with comparable motors in Table 430.247 through Table
430.250. The higher horsepower rating shall be used
whenever the generator selection is between two ratings.
INSULATING
MAT
For example, a 460 volt, three-phase generator
WHERE NECESSARY FOR
with an output of 345 amps shall be rated at 361
FOR WORKING SPACE
THE SAFETY OF ATTENDANTS, amps with a horsepower of 300 per Table 430.250.
THE REQUIREMENTS OF
SHALL APPLY
DISCONNECTING MEANS REQUIRED

FOR GENERATORS
Figure 3-10. Insulating mats or platforms shall be provided
for attendants servicing a generator when the voltage is
445.18(A)
greater than 150 volts-to-ground.
A disconnecting means shall be required for generators to
disconnect the generator and all protective devices and
BUSHINGS control apparatus.
445.16 Note, the disconnecting means shall be capable of being

locked (lockable) in the open position. (See Figure 3-12)
Where wires pass though an opening in an enclosure,
conduit box, or barrier, a bushing shall be used to protect A disconnecting means with a permanent locking means
the conductors from the edges of an opening having sharp for the generator shall not be required if the driving means
edges. The bushings shall have smooth, well-rounded for the generator can be readily shut down and there is no
surfaces where they may be in contact with the conductors. other generator or other source of voltage in parallel with it
If used where oils, grease, or other contaminants may be per 445.18(B)(1) and (B)(2) and 110.25.
present, the bushing shall be made of a material that will
not be deleteriously affected. (See Figure 3-11) Note, For cord and plug-connected generators, see
445.18(A) in the NEC.
3-6
GENERATORS SUPPLYING
MULTIPLE LOADS
700.10(B)(5)(a)
A single generator supplying more than one load, or multiple

generators operating in parallel, shall be permitted to supply
either of the following:
(1) A vertical switchboard with separate sections
(2) Individual enclosures with overcurrent protection
tapped from a single feeder for load separation
and distribution if a generator(s) is provided with
Figure 3-12. A disconnecting means shall be required to overcurrent protection meeting the requirements
disconnect all protective devices and control apparatus of 240.15(A).
from generator.
See Figures 3-13(a) and (b) as well as Figures 4-6(a)
through (6)(c) for a detailed illustration pertaining to
generator supplying multiple loads.
Figure 3-13(a). A single generator source supplying power to a vertical switchboard with separate sections.
3-7
Figure 3-13(b). A single generator source supplying separate enclosures.
GROUND-FAULT CIRCUIT- BONDED NEUTRAL GENERATORS

INTERRUPTER PROTECTION FOR 445.20(B)
RECEPTACLES ON 15 kW OR Bonded generators shall be provided with GFCI protection
SMALLER PORTABLE GENERATORS on all 125-volt, 15- and 20-ampere receptacle outlets. The
445.20(A) AND (B) Informational Note to 445.20(B) refers you to 590.6(A)
(3) for GFCI requirements for 15-kW or smaller portable
All 125-volt, single-phase, 15- and 20-ampere receptacle generators used for temporary electric power and lighting.
outlets that are a part of a 15-kW or smaller portable The Exception to 445.20(A) and (B) notes that if the
generator either shall have ground-fault circuit-interrupter generator was manufactured or remanufactured prior to
protection for personnel integral to the generator or January 1, 2015, listed cord sets or devices incorporating
receptacle or shall not be available for use when the listed GFCI protection for personnel identified for portable
125/250 volt locking-type receptacle is in use. If the use shall be permitted (See Figure 3-15)
generator does not have a 125/250-volt locking-type
receptacle, this requirement of GFCI protection shall apply. Note: Receptacle outlets that are a part of a 15kW or smaller
(See Figure 3-14) portable generator shall have listed ground-fault circuit-
interrupter protection (GFCI) for personnel integral to the
generator or receptacle as indicited in either 445.20(A) or (B)
UNBONDED (FLOATING NEUTRAL)

GENERATORS PORTABLE GENERATORS
445.20(A) 15 KW OR LESS
702.12(B) AND 590.6(A)(3)
Unbonded generators with both 125-volt and 125/250-volt
receptacle outlets shall have listed GFCI protection for Where a portable generator, rated 15-kW or less, is
personnel interal to the generator or receptacle on all 125- installed using a flanged inlet or other cord- and plug-type
volt, 15- and 25-ampere receptacle outlets. connection, a disconnecting means shall not be required
where ungrounded conductors serve or pass through a
In the Ex. to 445.20(A), GFCI protection shall not be building or structure. (See Figure 3-15)
required where the 125-volt receptacle outlet(s) is
interlocked such that it is not available for use when any Note: For generators greater than 15 kW, see 703.12(A)
125/250-volt receptacle(s) is in use. and 445.18(B).
3-8
Figure 3-14. The requirements for GFCI protection for receptacles on 15kW or smaller portable generators are illustrated
above.
Figure 3-15. A disconnecting means shall not be required where ungrounded (phase) conductors serve or pass through
a building structure where a portable generator, rated 15kW or less, is installed using a flanged inlet or other cord- and
plug-type connection. Note: For generators greater than 15 kW and permanently installed, see 250.35(A) and (B) as
well as 702.12(A).
3-9
GENERATORS INSTALLED IN PARALLEL

445.18(C)
Where a generator is instaled in parallel with other

generators, the provisions of 445.18(A) shall be capable of
isolating the generator outupt terminals from the paralleling
equipment. The disconnecting means shall not be required
to be located at the generator. (See Figure 3-15)
Figure 3-16. The illustration above is a clarification for the requirements for generator disconnecting means and the
disconnecting of the prime mover. A remote shutdown means, in the event of an emergency, shall be provided. Section
445.18(C) clarifies that where generators are installed in parallel it is not necessary to provide a
3-10
Name Date
Chapter 3: Generators and the National Electrical Code®
Section Answer
1. Each generator shall be provided with a nameplate that contains: _____________ _____________
(a) the manufacturer’s name (b) number of phase
(c) the rated revolutions per minute (d) all of the above
2. Two-wire, DC generators shall be permitted to have overcurrent protection _____________ _____________

in _____ conductor(s) only if the overcurrent device is activated by the entire
current generated other than the current in the shunt field.
(a) 1 (b) 2
(c) 3 (d) 4
3. A generator operating at _____ volts or less, and driven by an individual _____________ _____________
motor, shall be considered adequately protected by the motor overcurrent
protection device, where such overcurrent protection device will operate when
the generators are delivering not more than 150 percent of the generator’s
full-load current.
(a) 50 (b) 65
(c) 100 (d) 250
4. Ungrounded (phase) conductors from a generator shall be sized at not less _____________ _____________
than _____ percent of the nameplate current value.
(a) 80 (b) 100
(c) 115 (d) 125
5. Where the design and operation of the generator prevent overloading, the _____________ _____________
ampacity of the conductors shall not be less than _____ percent of the
nameplate current rating of the generator.
(a) 80 (b) 100
(c) 115 (d) 125
6. Live parts of generators operated at more than _____ volts-to-ground shall not _____________ _____________
be exposed to accidental contact where accessible to unqualified persons.
(a) 50 (b) 120
(c) 150 (d) 277
7. If generators operate at more than _____ volts-to-ground, no live parts shall _____________ _____________
be permitted to be exposed to contact by unqualified personnel.
(a) 50 (b) 120
(c) 150 (d) 277
8. Where wires pass through an opening in an enclosure, a _____ shall be used _____________ _____________
to protect the conductors from the edges of an opening having sharp edges.
(a) sleeve (b) connector
(c) filling compound (d) bushing
9. The disconnecting means for a generator shall be capable of being locked in _____________ _____________
the _____ position
(a) closed (b) open
(c) rotating (d) none of the above
3-9
Section Answer
_____________ _____________ 10. A single generator supplying more than one load, or multiple generators
operating in parallel, shall be permitted to supply either of the following:
(a) A vertical switchboard with separate sections
(b) Individual enclosure with overcurrent protection tapped from a single
feeder for load separation and distribution
(c) Neither (a) nor (b)
(d) Both (a) and (b)
3-10
4
Emergency System
Generators
This chapter covers systems that are legally required to be installed and
supply loads essential to safety and life, such as emergency lighting, essential
refrigeration and ventilation, and signaling systems. Emergency systems are
also installed in places of assembly, such as theaters, schools, stadiums, or
locations where large numbers of people may gather. Such systems must be
designed to assure safe evacuation by providing electric power for adequate
emergency lighting, proper fire detection, reliable operation of fire pumps,
dependable alarm signals, communications, etc.
GENERATOR SET
700.12(B)(1) THRU (B)(6)
A generator is supplied by a prime mover acceptable to the AHJ and sized as covered in 700.4. The
generator shall have automatic starting of the prime mover when the normal source of power fails, and
shall have a transfer switch for all electrical equipment supplied by the emergency circuit. To prevent
immediate retransfer in cases of short-time restoring of the normal source of power, a time-delay
feature allowing for a 15-minute setting shall be provided.
Internal combustion engines used as the prime movers shall have an on-site fuel supply that will
function at full demand for not less than 2 hours of operation. Fuel transfer pumps shall be connected
to the emergency power system where power is needed for the operation of the fuel transfer pumps
to deliver fuel to a generator set day tank.
Prime movers are not to rely solely on public utility gas PURPOSE AND SCOPE OF
systems for the fuel supply. Automatic transferring means
shall be provided for transferring from one fuel supply to EMERGENCY GENERATORS
another when a dual fuel supply is used. 700.1
The same types of emergency systems might not be suitable
Generator Tip: When acceptable to the AHJ, other than for all applications. The conditions must be evaluated as to
on-site fuels shall be permitted to be used when there is whether the emergency system will be needed for a long
a low probability of the failure of the on-site fuel delivery period of time or a short period of time, and how much
system and the power from the outside electrical utility capacity the emergency system must have to supply the
company occurring at the same time. emergency demands.
In the case of interruption of service to a hospital, whether

If a storage battery is used for control or signal power or as from within or without, the emergency system might be
a means of starting prime movers, it shall be suitable for that required to provide a large amount of power for a long period
type of service and equipped with an automatic charging of time. Such a situation requires a complete evaluation of
means independent of the generator set. A battery charger the possible needs, the type of system, and its capacity to
shall be connected to the emergency system where the serve loads and comply with the requirements of the NEC.
battery charger is required for the operation of the generator
set. Dampers shall be connected to the emergency system
where power is required for the operation of dampers used
to ventilate the generator set. Generator Tip: Emergency systems are usually
installed in places of assembly to provide illumination in
Note, monthly check of batteries should be done. the event of a normal power outage so that there will be
a means of safe exit and panic control in those buildings
When an emergency generator requires more than 10 that may be occupied by a large number of people. Such
seconds to develop power, an auxiliary power supply shall places of assembly are hotels, theaters, sports arenas,
be permitted to energize the emergency system until the health care facilities, and similar institutions.
regular generator is capable of picking up the load. For
documentation requirements, see 700.5(E). (See Figure
4-1) Emergency systems may supply power for ventilation that
may be essential for sustaining life, for fire protection and
alarm systems, elevators, fire pumps, safety communications,
or industrial processes where interruption of current can
cause serious life, safety, or health hazard problems.
For maintenance requirements, see 700.3(C) as well as

700.3(F). (See Figure 4-2)

Figure 4-2. A generator set can be used to supply

Figure 4-1. The above illustration lists the rules for a emergency loads such as places of assembly, special types
generator set under certain conditions of use. of equipment, industrial related loads, and similar loads and
equipment.
4-2
Emergency System Generators
SIZING GENERATORS TRANSFER SWITCH AND EQUIPMENT

700.4(A) 700.5(A) THRU (D)
The capacity of the emergency system shall be sized The transfer switch (600 volts or less) and equipment shall
adequately to handle the requirements of all the equipment be automatically operated, be listed for emergency system
to be operated simultaneously without overloading the use, and be approved by the AHJ. When installing the
generator. The equipment shall be designed and fully transfer equipment, it shall be so designed and installed
capable of handling the available fault current at its so that accidental interconnection of the normal and the
terminals. For local shielding requirements, see 700.4(B) emergency source will not occur with the operation of
(See Figure 4-3) the transfer equipment. Automatic transfer switches shall
be electrically operated and mechanically held. Transfer
equipment may supply only emergency loads. For
documentation, see 700.5(E). (See Figure 4-4)

Generator Tip: A means for isolating the transfer switch

shall be permitted. If isolation switches are installed,

inadvertent parallel operations are to be avoided.

PADMOUNT TRANSFORMER NOTE: SEE FIG. 5-3 FOR 3-POLE
GROUNDING.

OUTSIDE FACILITY

BJ
INSIDE FACILITY

GEC ON-SITE

GENERATOR

4-WIRE

GE SERVICE

GEC
MAIN FOR SERVICE

EQUIPMENT
H

N GE

G SBJ
N
GEC EGC G
GE 4-POLE ATS OCPD
N N
Loads In Panel
G
HP, 480 V
HP, 480 V
HP, 480 V EGC
= 62 A TRANSFER
= 25 A PANELBOARD N SWITCH
= 122 A 700.5
OUTPUT G INs
TO INDUSTRIAL LOADS
THAT ARE CRITICAL
TRANSFER SWITCH AND EQUIPMENT

NEC 700.5(A) THRU (D)
Figure 4-4. A four-pole transfer switch can be used to supply

critical loads in different facilities.
EMERGENCY
GENERATOR SET
NOTE: LARGEST MOTORS ARE CONNECTED

TO START IN SEQUENCE AT 125 PERCENT AND
ALL OTHER LOADS AT 100 PERCENT.
WIRING IDENTIFICATION
SIZING GENERATORS
700.10(A)
NEC 700.4(A)
All boxes and enclosures that contain emergency circuits
Figure 4-3. Sizing an emergency generator set to supply shall be marked so that they will be readily identified as
loads at an industrial process area. being a part of the emergency circuit or system.
4-3
WIRING SYSTEMS • Wiring from an emergency source to supply any com-

bination of emergency, legally required, or optional
700.10(B) loads in accordance with (a), (b), (c) or (d):
Emergency source wiring, including its source of (a) From separate vertical switchboard sections, with
disconnecting overcurrent protection devices supplying or without a common bus, or from individual
the emergency load, shall be kept entirely separate from disconnects mounted in separate enclosures.
all other wiring and equipment, raceways, cables, and
(b) The common bus or separate sections of the
cabinets that contain other than emergency wiring. Wiring
switchboard or the individual enclosures shall
of two or more emergency circuits supplied from the same
be permitted to be supplied by single or multiple
source shall be permitted in the same raceway, cable, box,
feeders without overcurrent protection at the
or cabinet. These systems shall be located and designed to
source.
avoid damage due to vandalism, flooding, icing, and other
adverse conditions. (See Figure 4-5) Exception to 700.10(B)(5)(b): Overcurrent
protection shall be permitted at the source or for
the equipment, provided the overcurrent protection
is selectively coordinated with the downstream
overcurrent protection.
(c) Legally required and optional standby circuits shall
not originate from the same vertical switchboard
section, panelboard enclosoure, or individual
disconnect enclosure as emergency circuits.
(d) It shall be permissible to utilize single or multiple
feeders to supply distribution equipment between
an emergency source and the point where the
combination of emergency, legally required, or
optional loads are separated.
See Figures 4-6(a), (b), and (c) for a detailed illustration

pertaining to emergency wiring systems mixed with other
power.
Figure 4-5. Emergency wiring and normal power shall not be
permitted to occupy the same raceway, cable tray, cable, etc.
WIRING SYSTEMS
700.10(B)(1) THRU (B)(5)
The emergency wiring system shall be permitted to be mixed
with other power under any of the following conditions.
• In transfer equipment enclosures, the transfer equip-

ment shall supply only emergency loads.
• In exit or emergency luminaires, a supply from two

sources shall be permitted.
• In a common junction box attached to exit or emer-

gency luminaires, a supply from two sources shall
be permitted in a listed load control relay supplying
exit or emergency luminaires.
• In a common junction box attached to unit equipment,

that contains only the branch circuit supplying the
unit equipment and the emergency circuit supplied Figure 4-6(a). Emergency source supplying a switchboard
by the unit equipment shall be permitted. with vertical sections used to separate wiring.
4-4
Figure 4-6(b). Emergency source supplying separate enclosures used to separate wiring.
Figure 4-6(c). Multiple feeder sources from emergency generator supplying single separate enclosures used to separate
wiring.
FEEDER WIRING PROTECTION Feeder wiring shall meet one of the follllowing conditions:
700.10(D)(1)
• Be installed in spaces or areas that are fully protected
Emergency systems shall meet the additional requirements by an approved automatic fire suppression system.
in 700.10(D)(1) through (D)(3) in assembly occupancies
for not less than 1000 persons or in buildings above 75 • Be a listed electrical circuit protective system with a
ft (23 m) in height with any of the following occupancy minimum 2-hour fire rating.
classes: assembly, educational, residential, detention and
correctional, business, and mercantile.
4-5
Note, UL guide information for electrical circuit

protection systems (FHIT) contains information on
proper installation requirements to maintain the fire
rating.

• Be protected by a listed thermal barrier system
for electrical system components with a maximum
2-hour fire rating.

• Be protected by a listed fire-rated assembly that has
a minimum fire rating of 2 hours and contains only
emergency wiring circuits.
• Be encased in not less than 2 in. (50 mm) of concrete.
FEEDER-CIRCUIT EQUIPMENT
700.10(D)(2)
Equipment for feeders (including transfer switches,

transformers, and panelboards) shall be located either Figure 4-7. Generator control wiring installed between the
in spaces fully protected by approved automatic fire transfer equipment and the emergency generator shall be
suppression systems (including sprinklers, carbon dioxide kept entirely independent of all other wiring.
systems) or in spaces with a 2-hour fire resistance rating.
GROUNDING
700.7(B)
GENERATOR CONTROL WIRING
700.10(D)(3) A warning sign shall be installed at the normal power
service equipment where removal of a grounding or bonding
connection in normal power source equipment interrupts the
Control conductors installed between the transfer equipment grounding electrode conductor connection to the alternate
and the emergency generator shall be kept entirely power source(s) grounded conductor. The warning sign
independent of all other wiring and shall meet the conditions shall include the following:
of 700.10(D)(1). (See Figure 4-7)
WARNING!
Note: The integrity of the generator control wiring shall SHOCK HAZARD EXISTS IF GROUNING ELECTRODE
be continuously monitored. Loss of integrity of the remote CONDUCTOR OR BONDING JUMPER CONNECTION
start circuit(s) shall initiate visual and audible annunciation IN THIS EQUIPMENT IS REMOVED WHILE ALTERNATE
of generator malfunction at the generator local and remote SOURCE(S) IS ENERGIZED.
annunciator(s) and start the generator(s). (See Figure 4-8)
COORDINATION Note, for the different methods used to ground a generator,

see pages 6-5 through 6-10 in Chapter 6 of this book.
700.32 AND 701.27
DISCONNECT FOR OUTDOOR
Emergency system(s) overcurrent devices shall be
selectively coordinated with all supply side overcurrent GENERATOR SETS
protective devices. 700.12(B)(6), 701.12(B)(5), AND 702.12
Selective coordination shall not be required between two Where an outdoor housed generator set is equipped with
overcurrent devices located in series if no loads are con- a readily accessible disconnecting means located within
nected in parallel with the downstream device. sight of the building or structure supplied, an additional
disconnecting means shall not be required where
ungrounded (phase) conductors serve or pass through the
Note, for a similar requirement, see 701.27 (legally required
building or structure. The disconnecting means shall meet
standby systems).
the requirements of 225.36. (See Figure 4-9)
4-6
DISCONNECT FOR OUTDOOR

GENERATOR SETS
700.12(B)(6) AND Ex.
The generator set disconnecting means shall not be required
to be located within sight of the buliding or structure served
for installations under single management, where conditions
of maintenance and supervision ensure that only qualfied
persons will monitor and service the installation and where
documented safe switching procedures are established and
maintained for disconnection. (See Figure 4-10)
Figure 4-10. This illustration shows the disconnecting

means requirements for outdoor generator sets under sin-
gle management.
Figure 4-8. This illustration shows the warning sign

requirements for emergency systems where a grounding
or bonding connection is removed at the normal power
source equipment.
Figure 4-9. If a disconnecting means is located at an outdoor generator as described in 700.12(B)(6), an additional
disconnecting means at the bulding is not requred. Also, review the Ex. to 700.12(B)(6).
4-7
Name Date
Chapter 4: Emergency System Generators
Section Answer
1. To prevent immediate retransfer in cases of short-time restoring of the normal _____________ _____________
source of power, a time-delay feature allowing for a _____ minute setting shall
be provided for emergency system generators.
(a) 10 (b) 15
(c) 20 (d) 30
2. Internal combustion engines used as the prime movers for emergency system _____________ _____________
generators shall have an on-site fuel supply that will function at full demand
for not less than _____ hours of operation.
(a) 1 (b) 1-1/2
(c) 2 (d) 2-1/2
3. When an emergency generator requires more than _____ seconds to develop _____________ _____________
power, an auxiliary power supply shall be permitted to energize the emergency
system until the regular generator is capable of picking up the load.
(a) 10 (b) 15
(c) 20 (d) 30
4. An emergency system shall have adequate capacity and rating for all loads _____________ _____________
to be operated _____.
(a) automatically (b) manually
(c) simultaneously (d) nonsimultaneously
5. Feeder wiring for emergency system generators shall be permitted to be a _____________ _____________
listed electrical circuit protective system with a minimum _____ hour fire rating.
(a) 1 (b) 2
(c) 3 (d) 4
6. Feeder wiring for emergency system generators shall be permitted to be _____________ _____________
encased in not less than _____ in. of concrete.
(a) 1 (b) 2
(c) 3 (d) 6
7. Feeder wiring for emergency system generators shall be permitted to be _____________ _____________
protected by a listed thermal barrier system for electrical system components
with a minimum _____ hour fire rating
(a) 1 (b) 2
(c) 3 (d) 4
_____________ _____________
8. Equipment for feeders shall be located either in spaces fully protected by _____
automatic fire suppression systems or in spaces with a 1-hour fire resistance
rating.
(a) identified (b) labeled
(c) listed (d) approved
_____________ _____________
9. Generator control wiring installed between the transfer equipment and the
emergency generator shall be kept entirely _____ of all other wiring.
(a) labeled (b) approved
(c) independent (d) none of the above
4-9
Section Answer
_____________ _____________ 10. Emergency systems shall meet the additional requirements in 700.9(D)(1) and
700.9(D)(2) in assembly occupancies for not less than _____ persons.
(a) 100 (b) 250
(c) 500 (d) 1000
4-10
5
Legally Required and
Optional Standby Systems
This chapter covers legally required standby systems that are classified by
municipal, state, federal, and/or other codes, or by any governmental agency
having jurisdiction.
In the event that there is a failure of the normal power source, these systems
are intended to supply power automatically to special selected loads that are
not classified as emergency systems.
Legally required standby power systems also supply such loads as heating
and refrigeration systems, communications systems, ventilation and smoke
removal systems, sewage disposal, lighting, and industrial processes that,
when stopped during a power outage, could create hazards or hamper rescue
or firefighting operations.
This chapter also covers optional standby systems intended to protect private
business or property where life safety does not depend on the performance of
the system. Optional standby systems are not those systems that are classified
as emergency or legally required standby systems. These systems serve as
an alternate power source for industrial and commercial buildings, farms, and
residences by supplying such loads as heating and refrigeration systems, data
processing and communications systems, and industrial processes that, when
stopped during any power outage, could cause discomfort, serious interruption
of the process, or damage to the product or process.
PART III – LEGALLY REQUIRED

STANDBY SYSTEMS
GENERAL REQUIREMENTS
701.12

In selecting a legally required standby generator,

consideration shall be given to the type of service to be
rendered, whether of short-time duration or long-time

duration.

Consideration shall also be given to the location or design,
or both, of all equipment to minimize the hazards that

might cause complete failure due to floods, fires, icing, and
vandalism.

Generator Tip: The assignment of the degree of

reliability of a recognized legally required standby Figure 5-1. This illustration sows the rules for a generator
supply system depends on the careful evaluation of the
set under certain conditions of use. Note: For maintenance
variables at each particular installation.
reirements, see 7001.3(C).
GENERATOR SET
701.12(B)(1) THRU (B)(5) PURPOSE OF LEGALLY
A generator set driven by a prime mover shall be sized
REQUIRED STANDBY SYSTEM
by 701.4 and be acceptable to the AHJ. A means shall be 701.2
provided for automatically starting the prime mover upon
failure of the normal service and to automatically transfer Legally required standby systems are those required
all electrical circuits. A time-delay feature permitting a by municipal, state, federal, or by other codes, or any
15-minute setting shall be provided to avoid retransfer in governmental agency having jurisdiction, the intent of
case of a short-time reestablishment of the normal source. which is to supply power to selected loads other than those
classified as emergency systems. In the event that the
Where internal combustion engines are used as the prime normal power source fails, this system shall provide the
mover, an on-site fuel supply shall be provided with a fuel necessary power.
supply of not less than 2 hours full-demand operation. Fuel
transfer pumps shall be connected to the legally required
standby power system where power is needed for the
operation of the fuel transfer pumps to deliver fuel to a
LEGALLY REQUIRED STANDBY
generator set day tank. SYSTEMS – WHERE USED
701.2, IN
Prime movers are not to solely depend upon a public utility
gas system for their fuel supply or municipal water supply Typical installations of legally required standby systems
for their cooling systems. Automatically transferring of one are intended for operation to serve loads such as heating,
fuel supply to another where dual fuel supplies are used refrigerator systems, communications systems, ventilation
shall be provided. and smoke removal systems, sewage disposal, and
industrial processes, which, if the normal operation of the
Generator Tip: Where acceptable to the AHJ, the use normal power supply fails, could create hazards or hinder
of other than on-site fuels shall be permitted where there rescue or firefighting operations. (See Figure 5-2)
is a low probability of a simultaneous failure of both the
off-site fuel delivery system and power from the outside
electrical utility company.
SIZING GENERATORS
Where a storage battery is used for control or signal power, 701.4
or as the means of starting the prime mover, it shall be
suitable for the purpose and be equipped with an automatic A legally required standby system shall have adequate
charging means independent of the generator set. (See capacity and rating for supplying all equipment intended to
Figure 5-1) be operated at the same time.
5-2
Legally Required and Optional Standby Systems
The alternate power source shall be permitted to supply circuits. This will prevent tampering or interference with the
legally required standby and optional standby loads when operation of the overcurrent protection devices and circuits.
these loads are automatically picked up for load shedding so
as to ensure power to the legally required standby circuits.
(See Figure 4-3) Generator Tip: The alternate power source that
PRIME MOVER LISTED
supplies legally required standby systems shall not be
TRANSFER SWITCH required to have ground-fault protection of equipment
with automatic disconnecting means per 701.26. For
selectively coordinated of supply side overcurrent
TO HEATING, A/C,
SMOKE REMOVAL, protection devices, see 700.28.
SEWAGE, INDUSTRIAL
PROCESS, ETC.
NOTE: SEE FIG. 4-4 FOR 4-POLE
PADMOUNT TRANSFORMER GROUNDING SCHEME.
LEGALLY REQUIRED OUTSIDE FACILITY
STANDBY GENERATOR SET
INSIDE FACILITY

GEC LEGALLY REQUIRED

STANDBY
GENERATOR
Figure 5-2. This illustration shows the loads that are served
by a legally required standby system. GE
4-WIRE
SERVICE
MAIN FOR SERVICE
EQUIPMENT
TRANSFER SWITCHES HOT
NEUTRAL
AND EQUIPMENT G
N
701.5(A) THRU (D) GEC EGC G
GE 3-POLE ATS OCPD

Automatic transfer equipment shall be listed for legally N N
required standby use. The automatic transfer equipment G 600 V
shall be so designed so that no accidental connection of OR LESS
the normal and alternate sources of supply occurs at the EGC
LISTED
same time in the operation of any transfer equipment. The PANELBOARD N TRANSFER SWITCH
701.5(C)
AHJ shall approve the transfer equipment, per 110.3(B). G INs
TO INDUSTRIAL LOADS
Isolation equipment shall be permitted to be used to isolate THAT ARE CRITICAL
the transfer equipment. However, if isolation equipment is TRANSFER SWITCHES AND EQUIPMENT
used, any inadvertent parallel operation shall be avoided. NEC 701.7(A) THRU (C)
Automatic transfer switches (ATS) shall be electrically
operated and mechanically held. (See Figure 5-3) Figure 5-3. A three-pole transfer switch shall be permitted
to be used to supply critical loads in different facilities.
WIRING LEGALLY

REQUIRED STANDBY SYSTEMS

701.10

Legally required standby system wiring shall be permitted
to occupy the same raceways, cables, boxes, and cabinets
with other general wiring systems. This is a big advantage

over emergency wiring systems, which are not permitted
this privilege. (See Figure 5-4)
OVERCURRENT PROTECTION

DEVICES – ACCESIBILITY
701.25

Figure 5-4. Legally required standby wiring shall be
Only authorized persons shall be permitted to have access permitted to occupy the same raceway, cable tray, and
to overcurrent protection devices of legally required standby cable as power wiring.
5-3
GROUNDING

701.7(B)

A warning sign shall be installed at the normal power

source equipment where removal of a grounding or bonding

connection in normal power source equipment interrupts the

grounding electrode conductor connection to the alternate
power source(s) grounding (neutral) conductor. The sign

shall state the following:

WARNING:
SHOCK HAZARD EXISTS IF GROUNDING ELECTRODE

CONDUCTOR OR BONDING JUMPER CONNECTION
IN THE EQUIPMENT IS REMOVED WHILE ALTERNATE

SOURCE(S) IS ENERGIZED.
Figure 5-5. Optional standby generators shall be permitted
to be used to supply any loads except those supplied by
PART I – OPTIONAL STANDBY emergency and legally required standby generator sets.
SYSTEMS AND THE PURPOSE OF
OPTIONAL STANDBY GENERATOR AVAILABLE SHORT-CIRCUIT CURRENT
SYSTEMS 702.4(A)
702.2 Optional standby system equipment shall be suitable for
the maximum available short-circuit current at its terminals.
Optional standby systems are intended only for the
protection of business or property and do not include places
where life safety is dependent on the performance of the
SYSTEM CAPACITY
system. They may be operated manually or automatically. 702.4(B)
With brownouts and blackouts over the country, many The calculations of load on the standby source shall be
individuals and especially ranches, farms, and dairy made in accordance with Article 220 or by another approved
operations may have a standby source of power to eliminate method.
losses and unscheduled outages from the loss of power.
MANUAL TRANSFER EQUIPMENT
OPTIONAL STANDBY SYSTEMS – 702.4(B)(1)
WHERE USED Where manual transfer equipment is used, an optional
702.2, IN standby system shall have adequate capacity and rating
for the supply of all equipment intended to be operated at
Optional standby systems are typically installed to provide one time. The user of the optional standby system shall be
an alternate source of electrical power for facilities such permitted to select the load connected to the system.
as industrial and commercial buildings, farms, ranches,
and residences, heating or refrigeration systems, data AUTOMATIC TRANSFER EQUIPMENT
processing and communications systems, and industrial
processes, which, if stopped during a power outage, could
702.4(B)(2)
cause interruption to the process or damage to the product,
Where automatic transfer equipment is used, an optional
etc. (See Figure 5-5)
standby system shall comply with the following:
• Full load
SIZING OPTIONAL STANDBY • Load management
GENERATORS
FULL LOAD
702.4(A) AND (B)
702.4(B)(2)(a)
The following shall be considered for sizing generators:
• Available short-circuit current The standby source shall be capable of supplying the full
• System capacity load that is transferred by the automatic transfer equipment.
5-4
LOAD MANAGEMENT

702.4(B)(2)(b)

Where a system is employed that will automatically manage
the connectged load, the standby source shall have a

capacity sufficient to supply the maximum load that will be
connected by the load management system. [See Figure

5-6(a) and (b)]

TRANSFER SWITCHES AND

EQUIPMENT
702.5

Transfer equipment shall be suitable for its intended use, Figure 5-6(a). Optional standby generators shall be
and designed and installed so as to prevent an accidental permitted to be used to supply specific loads and not the
connection with the normal or alternate sources of power. entire load supplied by the electrical system.
The AHJ shall give approval of such transfer equipment.
(See Figure 5-7)
GROUNDING
702.7(B)
WIRING OPTIONAL STANDBY
A warning sign shall be installed at the normal power
SYSTEMS source equipment where removal of a grounding or bonding
702.10 connection in normal power source equipment interrupts the
grounding electrode conductor connection to the alternate
power source(s) grounded (neutral) conductor. The sign
The wiring from the optional standby equipment shall be
shall state the following:
permitted to be in the same raceways, cables, boxes, and
cabinets as other general wiring. This is a big advantage WARNING:
over emergency systems, which do not allow such SHOCK HAZARD EXISTS IF GROUNDING ELECTRODE
privileges. (See Figure 5-8) CONDUCTOR OR BONDING JUMPER CONNECTION
IN THE EQUIPMENT IS REMOVED WHILE ALTERNATE
SOURCE(S) IS ENERGIZED. [See Figure 5-9(a) and (b)]
Figure 5-6(b). This requirement clarifies the installation of manual transfer and automatic transfer applications for optional
standby systems.
5-5
NONSEPARATELY DERIVED SYSTEM

702.11(B)
Where a portable optional standby source is used as a
nonseparately derived system, the equipment grounding
conductor shall be bonded to the system grounding
electrode.
For detailed illustrations describing these grounding

requirements, see Figures 6-15, 6-16 and 6-17 in Chapter
6 of this book. Also, review 250.35(A) and (B) below.
GROUNDING OF PERMANENTLY
Figure 5-7. Transfer switches used to transfer the generator INSTALLED GENERATORS
power to the premise can be accomplished by a manual or
automatic means.
250.35(A) AND (B)
A conductor that provides an effective ground-fault current
path shall be installed with the supply conductors from a
permanently installed generator(s) to the first disconnected
means as follows:
SEPARATELY DERIVED SYSTEM

250.35(A)
Where the generator is installed as a separately derived
system, the requirements in 250.30 shall apply.
NONSEPARATELY DERIVED SYSTEM

250.35(B)
A supply-side bonding jumper shall be installed between the
generator equipment grounding terminal and the equipment
Figure 5-8. The wiring of optional standby systems shall
grounding terminal, bar, or bus of the disconnecting mean(s)
be permitted to be run with the power wiring of the facility.
if the generator is installed as a nonseparately derived
system, and overcurrent protection is not integral with
the generator assembly. The supply-side bonding jumper
PORTABLE GENERATOR GOUNDING shall be sized per 250.102(C)(1) based on the size of the
702.11 conductors supplied by the generator. (See Figure 5-9 for
a description of the above requirements.)
The following shall be considered for portable generator
grounding: Note, for the different methods used to ground a generator,
• Separately derived system see pages 6-5 through 6-9 in Chapter 6.
• Nonseperately derived system
SIGN FOR POWER INLET
SEPARATELY DERIVED SYSTEM 702.7(C)
702.11(A)
Where a power inlet is used for a temporary connection to a
Where a portable optional standby source is used as portable generator, a warning sign shall be placed near the
a separately derived system, it shall be grounded to a inlet to indicate the type of derived system that the system
grounding electrode in accordance with 250.30. is capable of, based on the wiring of the transfer equipment.
The sign shall display one of the following warnings:
5-6
WARNING:
FOR CONNECTION OF A SEPARATELY DERIVED
(BONDED NEUTRAL) SYSTEM ONLY
or
WARNING:
FOR CONNECTION OF A NONSEPARATELY DERIVED
(FLOATING NEUTRAL) SYSTEM ONLY
[See Figure 5-9(b)]
Figure 5-9(a). A separately derived system shall be grounded where transfer equipment is provided that includes switching
the grounded (neutral) conductor, and where the grounded (neutral) conductor is not solidly interconnected to the service
supplied grounded (neutral) conductor, it shall not be considered a separately derived system.
Figure 5-9(b). A warning sign requires a power inlet used for a temporary connection to a portable generator.
5-7
Name Date
Chapter 5: Legally Required and Optional Standby Systems
Section Answer
1. Where a legally required standby is used, a time-delay feature permitting a _____________ _____________
_____minute setting shall be provided to avoid retransfer in case of a short-
time reestablishment of the normal source.
(a) 10 (b) 15
(c) 20 (d) 30
2. Where internal combustion engines are used as the prime mover for legally _____________ _____________
required standby systems, an on-site fuel supply shall be provided with a fuel
supply of not less than _____ hours full-demand operation.
(a) 1 (b) 1-1/2
(c) 2 (d) 2-1/2
3. Where a system is employed that will _____ manage the connected load, the _____________ _____________
optional standby source shall have a capacity sufficient to supply the maximum
load that will be connected by the load management system.
(a) automatically (b) manually
(c) simultaneously (d) nonsimultaneously
4. Where an optional standby system is used, transfer equipment shall be _____ _____________ _____________
for its intended use.
(a) identified (b) listed
(c) approved (d) suitable
5. Where a portable optional standby source is used as a nonseparately derived _____________ _____________
system, the equipment grounding conductor shall be bonded to the _____
grounding electrode.
(a) system (b) bonding
(c) copper (d) aluminum
6. A locking type power inlet for temporary connection of generator with cord and _____________ _____________
plug eliminates requirements for _____ protection of 125 volt outlets.
(a) GFCI (b) AFCI
(c) GFPE (d) none of the above
7. The code calls for a grounding warning sign to be placed at the service _____________ _____________
equipment when the generator is _____ as a non-separately derived system.
(a) serviced (b) classified
(c) fed (d) none of the above
8. A _____ that is permanently installed is required to comply with certain rules _____________ _____________
in the NEC.
(a) transformer (b) feeder
(c) generator (d) none of the above
9. Calculations for a standby power source must comply with Article _____ of _____________ _____________
the NEC.
(a) 90 (b) 100
(c) 110 (d) 220
5-9
Section Answer
_____________ _____________ 10. Overcurrent protection devices for legally required standby systems must be
_____ the user.
(a) accessible to (b) unaccessible to
(c) near (d) none of the above
5-10
6
Generators Supplying Essential
Loads for Hospitals
This chapter covers essential electrical loads that are designed to be supplied
by all types of alternate power sources, all distribution systems, and ancillary
equipment that have been designed to ensure electrical power continuity to
designated areas and functions of a health care facility when the normal power
source is disrupted. It shall also be designed to minimize the disruption of
power in the internal wiring system.
Note, the essential electrical systems used in hospitals are the emergency
system and the equipment system, respectively.
TRANSFER SWITCHES
517.31(B) AND 517.42(B)
Feeders or branch circuits that conform to Article 700 and are intended to supply power from an
alternate source to a limited number of designated functions that are vital for the protection of life
and for the patient’s safety, shall operate within 10 seconds of the interruption of the normal power
source per 517.32(B).
Note, for a list of definitions pertaining to hospitals see 517.2 in the NEC.
LIFE SAFETY BRANCH TRANSFER SWITCHES

517.2 517.31(B)
The life safety branch is a subsystem of the emergency Each branch of the essential electrical system shall be
system consisting of feeders and branch circuits that meet served by at least one transfer switch. This is illustrated in
the requirements of Article 700. The intent is to provide Figures 517.31(A) and 517.31(A) and (B), which should be
adequate power needs to ensure safety to the patients carefully reviewed. One transfer switch shall be permitted
and other personnel. These circuits shall automatically be to serve more than one branch of the essential system, up
connected to the alternate power sources upon interruption to 150 kVA, as illustrated in Figure 517.31(B. The exact
of the normal supply of power. number of transfer switches for a facility shall be based
on a good engineering design that considers load, switch
design, switch reliability, and dependability. (See Figure 6-2)
CRITICAL BRANCH
517.2
The critical branch is a subsystem of the emergency system
consisting of feeders and branch circuits supplying energy to
task illumination, special power circuits, and receptacles that
are selected to serve those areas where proper functioning
is essential to patient care. Such circuits shall be connected
to an alternate power source by means of one or more
transfer switches that are energized from the temporary
power source when the normal power source is interrupted.
EQUIPMENT BRANCH
Figure 6-2. The number of transfer switches required is
517.44(A) AND (B) based on the type, number, and amount of loads served.
The equipment branch consists of feeders or branch circuits
arranged for delayed automatic or manual connection to the
power source. This ordinarily serves the three-phase power OPTIONAL LOADS
loads as defined in 517.2. 517.31(B)(1) AND (B)(2)
This equipment branch is used to supply power to major Loads supplied by generating equipment not specifically
pieces of electrical equipment that are essential for either listed in 517.31(D), 517.32, 517.33, and 517.34 shall be
hospital operations or patient care. (See Figure 6-1) served by their own transfer switch. Such loads shall not be:
(1) transferred if the transfer will overload the
generating equipment and
(2) automatically shed upon generating equipment
overloading conditions.
See Figure 6-3 for details of such rules.
WIRING REQUIREMENTS
517.31(C)(1) THRU (C)(3)
Certain rules shall be applied to wiring that is routed to
locations where the life safety and critical branches of the
emergency system are used. Such wiring shall be separated
from other wiring. However, in some cases, junction boxes,
Figure 6-1. The equipment system shall supply certain types luminaires, and transfer switch wiring shall be permitted to
of critical loads in hospitals. be mixed. (See Figure 6-4)
6-2
Generators Supplying Essential Loads for Hospitals
These systems shall be limited to circuits that are essential (4) Wiring of two or more emergency circuits supplied
to maintaining life and safety. There are two parts of this from the same branch and same transfer switch.
emergency system:
(1) Life safety branch and Note, the wiring of the equipment system shall be permitted
(2) Critical branch. to share raceways, etc. with other wiring systems that are
not part of the emergency system.
See Figure 6-5 for the rules of installing the wiring

(separately) of the life safety and critical branches per
517.31(C)(1).
Figure 6-3. Transfer switches shall not be overloaded when

transferring from the normal power to the emergency power.
Figure 6-5. This illustration shows the requirements for

installing the wiring of the life safety and critical branches.
ISOLATION AND PROTECTION

517.31(C)(2) AND (C)(3)
Isolated power systems that are installed in anesthetizing
locations or in special environments shall be supplied by an
individual, dedicated circuit supplying no other loads. For
Figure 6-4. This illustration shows that general wiring shall mechanical protection, the wiring of an emergency system
not be run in raceways, etc. with emergency wiring. shall be installed in nonflexible metal raceways, Type MI
cable, or Schedule 80 RNC.
SEPARATION FROM OTHER CIRCUITS 517.31(C)(3)(1) THROUGH (5)

517.31(C)(1) THROUGH (C)(3)
Cords of appliances and other pieces of equipment
The life safety and critical branches of the emergency connected to the emergency system are exempt from
system shall not be permitted to be installed in a common such rules. The secondary circuits of communications or
raceway, enclosure, or box with any other wiring systems, signaling systems that are supplied by transformers do not
except in one of the following conditions: have to be enclosed in metal raceways, except as required
(1) In transfer equipment enclosures, by Chapters 7 and 8.
(2) In the exit or emergency luminaires that are supplied Schedule 80 (PVC), rigid nonmetallic conduit, and Schedule
by two sources, 40 PVC encased in at least 2 in. (50 mm) of concrete or
(3) In a common junction box attached to exit or electrical metallic tubing shall be permitted, except for
emergency luminaires such as in “(2)" above, and branch circuits that serve patient care areas.
6-3
Listed flexible metal raceways and listed cable assemblies SOURCES OF POWER
shall be permitted to be used as a wiring method if they
are installed in listed prefabricated medical headwalls, 517.30(A) AND (B)
listed office furnishings, or where necessary for flexible
connections to equipment. Basically, essential systems are required to have a minimum
of two sources of power available. One may be the normal
Note, review (1) thru (5) to 517.31(C)(3) very carefully source and the other may be the alternate source(s) for use
when the normal power is interrupted, or may be a generator
before installing the above wiring methods in such areas.
set(s) driven by a prime mover and located on the facility.
Where the normal power consists of a generating unit(s)
on the premises, the alternate source may be another
generating set(s) or an external utility source. Extreme care
CAPACITY OF SYSTEMS shall be exercised in the location of equipment to protect it
517.31(D) from damage, floods, etc. (See Figure 6-7)
Essential electrical systems shall be sufficient to supply any

demand placed on them. In the past, this normally meant
that they were over-engineered and provided more than
enough capacity under any and all conditions of use.
These feeders, in the past, were usually calculated by the

rules of Articles 215 and 220. However, the 1996 edition
of the NEC permits the use of demand calculations to be
used for sizing the generator set or sets if based on the
following criteria:
(1) Prudent demand factors and historical data, or
(2) Connected load, or
(3) Feeder calculation procedures described in
Article 220, or
Figure 6-7. This illustration shows the power sources
(4) Any combination of the above.
permitted to be used for the normal power supply.
See Figure 6-6 for a detailed illustration of the rules for

calculating such loads. Generator Tip: Facilities whose normal source of power
is obtained from two or more central stations experience
electrical service reliability that is greater than that of
facilities whose normal supply of power are served from
only a single source. Such a source of electrical power
consists of power supplied from two or more electrical
generators or two or more electrical services supplied
from separate utility distribution networks that have local
power in the input sources and that are arranged so as
to provide mechanical and electrical separation. This is
so that a fault between the facilities and the generating
source will not be likely to cause the interruption of more
than one of the service feeder facilities.
GENERATOR GROUNDING FOR 480 V

TO 1000 V SYSTEMS
250.36(A) THROUGH (G)
When a high-impedance grounded neutral system is
utilized for a 480 volt to 1000 volt system in compliance with
Figure 6-6. Emergency generators shall be permitted to be 250.36(A) through (G), the grounding connections shall be
sized by demand factors, historical data, or calculations per made by the rules and regulations of this section, as follows:
Article 220 of the NEC.
6-4
High-Impedance Grounded Neutral Systems GENERATOR GROUNDING OF

1000 VOLTS OR MORE
• The grounding impedance (usually a resistor) shall 250.187(A) THROUGH (D)
be installed between the system neutral point and
the grounding electrode conductor. The neutral
All high-voltage electrical systems utilizing an impedance-
point may be that of a wye transformer connection,
grounded neutral technique shall comply with the following:
or a neutral point may be derived from a 480 volt
delta system by the use of a zigzag grounding
High-Impedance Grounded Neutral Systems
autotransformer.
• The grounding impedance shall be inserted into
• The grounded system conductor from the neutral
the grounding conductor between the grounding
point to the grounding impedance shall be fully
electrode and the neutral point of the supply
insulated for it to operate at a substantial voltage
transformer or generator.
above ground.
• The neutral of this type of system shall be identified
• The system shall not be connected to ground except
and insulated with the same insulation as the phase
through the grounding impedance.
conductors.
• The neutral conductor from the neutral point to
• The system neutral conductor shall be permitted to
the grounding impedance shall be permitted to be
be connected to the neutral grounding impedance.
installed in a separate raceway.
• In this kind of system, equipment grounding
• The equipment bonding jumper (the connection
conductors shall be permitted to be connected to
between the system equipment grounding
the ground bus and grounding electrode conductor,
conductors and the grounding impedance) shall
and brought to the system ground. It shall be
be an unspliced conductor run from the first system
permitted to be bare.
disconnect or overcurrent device of the system to
the grounded side of the grounding impedance.
See Figure 6-8 for a detailed illustration of high-impedance
grounding.
• The grounding electrode conductor shall not be
connected at any point from the grounded side
of the impedance to the equipment ground bus
or terminal at the service equipment or the first
disconnecting means.
• Where the grounding electrode conductor

connection is made at the grounding impedance,
the equipment bonding jumper shall be sized per
250.66, based on the size of the service entrance
conductors for a service or the derived phase
conductors for a separately derived system. If the
grounding electrode conductor is connected at the
first system disconnecting means or overcurrent
device, the equipment bonding jumper shall be
sized the same as the grounded system conductor
in 250.36(B).
See Figure 6-8 for the grounding methods most often used
to ground industrial electrical power sources.
Figure 6-8. The above illustrates the rules for high-

impedance grounding of generators rated 1000 volts or less.
Note, the same rules apply per 250.187 for grounding
generators of 1000 volts or greater.
6-5
SEPARATELY DERIVED SYSTEMS PERMANENTLY INSTALLED

250.30 AND IN 1 AND IN 2 GENERATORS
250.35
Separately derived systems, as covered in 250.20(B) or
(B), shall be grounded as specified in 250.30(A). Where an A conductor that provides an effective ground-fault current
alternate source such as an on-site generator is provided path shall be installed with the supply conductors from a
with transfer equipment that includes a grounded conductor permanently installed generator(s) to the first disconnecting
that is not solidly interconnected to the service-supplied mean(s) as follows:
grounded conductor, the alternate source (derived system)
shall be grounded in accordance with 250.30(A).
IN 1 SEPARATELY DERIVED SYSTEM

An alternate ac power source such as an on-site generator 250.35(A)
is not a separately derived system if the grounded conductor
is solidly interconnected to a service-supplied system Where the generator is installed as a separately derived
grounded conductor. An example of such situations is system, the requirements in 250.30 shall apply.
where alternate source transfer equipment does not include
a switching action in the grounded (neutral) conductor
and allows it to remain solidly connected to the service- NONSEPARATELY DERIVED SYSTEM
supplied grounded conductor when the alternate source is
operational and supplying the load served. 250.35(B)
IN 2 A supply-side bonding jumper shall be installed between the

For systems that are not separately derived and are not generator equipment grounding terminal and the equipment
required to be grounded as specified in 250.30, see 445.13 grounding terminal, bar, or bus of the disconnecting mean(s)
for minimum size of conductors that carry fault current. where the generator is installed as a nonseparately derived
(See Figure 6-9) system, and overcurrent protection is not integral with the
generator assembly. The supply-side bonding jumper shall
be sized per 250.102(C) based on the size of the conductors
supplied by the generator. (See Figure 6-10)
Figure 6-9. This section clarifies that a separately derived systems, such as a generator, shall be grounded where
transfer equipment is provided that includes switching the grounded (neutral) conductor and where the grounded (neutral)
conductor is not solidly interconnected to the service-supplied grounded conductor.
6-6
Figure 6-10. This section addresses the installation of supply-side bonding jumpers (based on ungrounded conductors)
and equipment grounding conductor(s) (based on OCPD) for permanently installed generators that may or may not be
separately derived systems.
METHODS OF GROUNDING
250.130(A) AND (B)
The decision to ground or not to ground a generator is
a choice that designers will have to make at one time or
another during their careers. By definition, an ungrounded
system is a system that has no intentional connection
to ground. A grounded system is a system that has an
intentional connection to ground.
A generator that has no intentional connection to ground is

known in the industry as an ungrounded system. However,
it is connected to ground through the stray capacitance of
the ungrounded (phase) conductors. If a ground fault does
not occur, the neutral of an ungrounded system operates
close to ground potential. The neutral voltage is held at
such potential by the balanced stray capacitance between Figure 6-11. This illustration shows the grounding
each ungrounded (phase) conductor and ground. (See of electrical equipment supplied from a grounded or
Figure 6-11) ungrounded generator set.
6-7
PURPOSE OF GENERATOR
GROUNDING

250.4(A)(1) THROUGH (A)(5)

One of the most important, but usually the most

misunderstood and controversial elements of an industrial

electrical power system design, is the subject of grounding.

The term grounding is often used to describe circuit and

system and equipment grounding, although each has

different objectives.

Electrical systems and circuit conductors are grounded to

limit voltage due to lightning, line surges, or unintentional
contact with other “higher” voltage lines. System grounding Figure 6-12. This illustration shows the importance of
ensures longer insulation life for electrical equipment such grounding electrical systems for personnel safety.
as motors, generators, and transformers by suppressing
overvoltages associated with different types of faults.
System grounding also stabilizes the voltage-to-ground

under normal operation and improves protection of the
electrical system by providing fast and selective operation
EQUIPMENT PROTECTION
of protective devices in the event of ground faults. 210.20(C), TABLE 240.3, AND 250.4
Equipment grounding consists of a network of grounding Proper system grounding improves the protection of
conductors used to ground nonelectrical conductive material equipment by:
that encloses or is adjacent to energized conductors. Similar • Providing a low-impedance return path for ground
to circuit and system grounding, equipment grounding also fault current necessary for the operation of the
limits the voltage-to-ground and provides fast and selective overcurrent protection devices,
operation of overcurrent protection devices in the event
• Improving differential relay protection of motors,
of ground faults. The two major objectives of generator
generators, and transformers,
grounding are as follows:
• Limiting voltage on the system to line-to-ground
(1) To improve personnel safety and
magnitudes,
(2) To improve protection of equipment.
• Minimizing transient overvoltages to acceptable
levels,
PERSONNEL SAFETY • Allowing the use of grounded-neutral type arresters,
and
250.4(A)(1) THROUGH (A)(5)
• Reducing electrical arc/flashes or blast hazards.
An equipment grounding system improves personnel safety
and protects personnel from electrical shock and other See Figure 6-13 for the benefits of grounding and bonding
hazards as follows: equipment for safety.
• Reducing electric shock hazards,
• Providing adequate current-carrying capability to
carry the high currents produced by a ground fault
without creating a fire or explosive hazard to the
electrical equipment or its elements,
METHODS OF HIGH-IMPEDANCE
• Providing a low-impedance return path for ground-
fault current necessary for the operation of the GROUNDING
overcurrent protection devices, and
The following grounding methods are normally used for
• Limiting voltage on the system to line-to-ground
grounding generators:
magnitudes.
• Solidly grounded generators,
See Figure 6-12 for the rules pertaining to personnel safety • Resistance-grounded generators, and
grounding and bonding. • Reactance-grounded generators.
6-8
RESISTANCE-GROUNDED
GENERATORS
In resistance-grounded systems the neutral is connected to
ground through a resistor. There are two types of resistance-
grounded systems:
(1) Low-resistance grounding and
(2) High-resistance grounding.
LOW-RESISTANCE GROUNDING
Low-resistance grounding is accomplished by inserting
a resistance between a generator grounded (neutral)
conductor and ground. When a line-to-ground fault occurs,
the voltage across the resistor equals the normal line-to-
Figure 6-13. This illustration shows the benefits of grounding neutral voltage of the system and the ground-fault current
the noncurrent-carrying metal parts of equipment. equals the line-to-neutral voltage divided by the size of the
grounding resistor. (See Figure 6-15)

SOLIDLY GROUNDED GENERATORS
A solidly grounded system has an intentional and direct

connection to ground normally through the middle wire or

neutral point of a generator's winding.

Note, there is no intentional impedance added in the path
from the neutral-to-ground.

In solidly grounded systems, line-to-ground fault currents
can be very high and they may exceed three-phase fault
currents. Solidly grounding generators are sometimes used

in industrial facilities; however, it is not always the preferred
grounding scheme for generators by most designers. (See Figure 6-15. Low-resistance-grounded generators allow the
Figure 6-14) designer to regulate the amount of fault-to-ground current
flowing in the system.
Note: Finding fault current

FC = fault current
L to NV = line-to-neutral voltage
V of gd.R = Size of the grounding resistor
L to NV
Formula: FC =
V of gd. R

HIGH-RESISTANCE GROUNDING

This grounding scheme is accomplished by sizing a resistor
to provide a resistive fault current slightly greater than or
Figure 6-14. A solidly grounded generator allows the equal to three times the normal current flowing in the stray
maximum current available to flow and trip the overcurrent line-to-ground capacitance per ungrounded phase. (See
protection devices. Figure 6-16)
6-9
PORTABLE GENERATORS
250.34(A)

The frame of a portable generator shall not be required to

be connected to a grounding electrode as derived in 250.52
if it supplies only the equipment on the generator or cord-
and-plug-connected equipment connected to receptacles
mounted on the generator, provided all the following

conditions are complied with:

• An equipment grounding conductor is installed to
bond the receptacles to the frame of the generator.

• The equipment grounding conductor in the cord is
Figure 6-16. The above illustrates the characteristics of installed to bond the exposed noncurrent-carrying
high-resistance-grounded generator systems. metal parts of the equipment to the frame of the
generator.
See Figure 6-18 for a detailed illustration when applying

these requirements.
REACTANCE-GROUNDED GENERATORS

This grounding scheme is one in which a reactor is connected
250.34(A)
between the system grounded (neutral) conductor and

ground. Reactance grounding of generators is only used
to limit ground-fault current to a value no greater than the
generator three-phase fault-current level. Therefore, it is

used in very few applications. When selecting the grounding
technique, verify the size of the generator and its use. 250.34(A)
GROUNDING LOOP
For example, is the generator small or large and
590.6(A), Ex.
fed from a utility transformer or a separately derived

system? Is such generator used as the sole supply? 590.6(A), Ex.
The size of the generator and the way it is supplied
PORTABLE GENERATORS
or used usually determines its grounding scheme. NEC 250.34(A)
(See Figure 6-17)
Figure 6-18. The frame of a portable generator shall not be
required to be connected to a grounding electrode as defined
in 250.52 if it supplies only the equipment on the generator or
cord-and-plug connected equipment to receptacles mounted
on the generator.

TRANSFER SWITCH IS NOT PROVIDED

702.5, Ex.

Transfer equipment shall be required for all standby systems
subject to the provisions of Article 702 and for which an
electric-utility supply is either the normal or standby source.

Temporary connection of a portable generator without

transfer equipment shall be permitted where conditions of
maintenance and supervision ensure that only qualified

persons service the installation and where the normal supply
is physically isolated by a lockable disconnect means or by
Figure 6-17. This illustration shows the use of reactance-
disconnection of the normal supply conductors.
grounded systems to ground generators.
(See Figure 6-19)
6-10

TEMPORARY CONNECTION PERMITTED

TO A 2 OR 3 POLE CB WHEN:

702.5, Ex.
TRANSFER SWITCH IS NOT PROVIDED

702.5, Ex.
Figure 6-19. The requirements for conditions where a transfer switch is not required.
PORTABLE GENERATOR GROUNDING PORTABLE GENERATOR GROUNDING

FOR SEPARATELY DERIVED SYSTEMS FOR NONSEPARATELY DERIVED
702.11(A) AND 250.30, IN 1 SYSTEMS
702.11(B) AND 250.30, IN 2
In installations, where the generator operates as a
separately derived system and the transfer switch interrupts The grounding requirements for portable, optional type
all conductors, including the grounded circuit conductor, the generators that are nonseparately derived systems and
generator shall comply with the normal grounding electrode where the transfer switch only interupts the ungrounded
requirements outlined in 250.30. (phase) conductors are covered in this section of the NEC.
In this installation, the equipment grounding (bonding)
Note, this rule consummates the intent that an independent conductor shall be bonded to the grounding electrode
connection to the premises grounding electrode system in system. (See 250.30, IN 2) (See Figure 6-21)
the standby panelboard be provided. (See 250.30, IN 1)
(See Figure 6-20)
Figure 6-20. This illustration shows the grounding of a Figure 6-21. This illustration shows the grounding of a
portable generator used as a separately derived system. portable generator used as a nonseparately derived system.
6-11
Name Date
Chapter 6: Generators Supplying Essential Loads for Hospitals
Section Answer
1. The branches of the emergency system shall be installed and connected to _____________ _____________
the alternate power source so that all functions for the emergency system shall
be automatically restored to operation within _____ seconds after interruption
of the normal source.
(a) 5 (b) 10
(c) 15 (d) 30
2. Each branch of the emergency system and each equipment system shall have _____________ _____________
_____ or more transfer switches.
(a) 1 (b) 2
(c) 3 (d) 4
3. One transfer switch for an emergency system shall be permitted to serve one _____________ _____________
or more branches or systems in a facility with a maximum demand on the
essential electrical system of _____ kVA.
(a) 100 (b) 120
(c) 150 (d) 200
4. If the generator is installed as a nonseparately derived system, and overcurrent _____________ _____________
protection is not integral with the generator assembly, a _____ bonding jumper
shall be installed between the generator equipment grounding terminal bar and
the equipment grounding terminal, bar, or bus of the disconnecting means.
(a) system (b) equipment
(c) attached (d) supply-side
_____________ _____________
5. Low-resistance grounding is accomplished by inserting a(n) _____ between
a generator neutral and ground.
(a) resistance (b) inductance
(c) capacitance (d) reactance
6. High-resistance grounding is accomplished by sizing a(n) _____ to provide a _____________ _____________

resistive fault-current slightly greater than or equal to three times the normal
current flowing in the stray line-to-ground capacitance per ungrounded phase.
(a) capacitor (b) inductor
(c) resistor (d) reactor
7. Temporary connection of a portable generator without transfer equipment shall _____________ _____________
be permitted where conditions of maintenance and supervision ensure that
only _____ persons service the installation.
(a) approved (b) qualified
(c) identified (d) nonqualified
8. The life safety branch and _____ branch of the emergency system shall be _____________ _____________
kept entirely independent of all other wiring and equipment.
(a) emergency (b) common
(c) transfer (d) critical
6-13
Section Answer
_____________ _____________ 9. Where encased in not less than _____ in. of concrete, Schedule 40 PVC conduit
shall be permitted to be installed for the wiring of the emergency system.
(a) 1 (b) 2
(c) 3 (d) 6
_____________ _____________ 10. Proper system grounding improves the protection of equipment by:
(a) Improving differential relay protection of motors, generators, and
transformers
(b) Limiting voltage on the system to line-to-ground magnitudes
(c) Reducing electrical arc/flashes or blast hazards
(d) All of the above
6-14
Part Two
Transformers
A vital part of maintaining an uninterrupted electrical service is the transformer. In a
period of great industrial activity there are likely to be unusual power demands. New
types of industrial machinery, and high-energy efficient motors and equipment that
create new uses for electricity are likely to impose greater loads, thereby making
transformers even more vital to meeting customer needs. Dependable operation
of transformers is therefore becoming increasingly necessary.
Transformers are used for the transmission of electrical power from the generating
plant and ultimately to the consumer. A step-down transformer is used for electrical
energy in the form of alternating current (AC) at a high voltage and stepped down
to a lower voltage. A step-up transformer is used for electrical energy in the form
of alternating current (AC) at a low voltage and stepped up to a higher voltage.
The National Electrical Safety Code (NESC) provides the requirements for utility
owned transformers, while privately owned transformers not only adhere to the
NESC, but, in some cases to the National Electrical Code®.
Part II reviews the basic theory, operation, construction, and troubleshooting

procedures that are necessary for a full understanding of the performance of a
transformer.
7
Transformer
Theory
Transformer windings are connected in either series or parallel to obtain the
different voltages required for supplying various loads. Basic voltages are 120
volt, single-phase; 120/240 volt, single-phase; 120/208 volt, three-phase; and
277/480 volt, three-phase. Higher voltages are available for other applications.
These voltages are usually 2400/4160 volts, three-phase; 12,470 volt, three-
phase; and 13,800 volts, respectively.
To obtain the different voltage levels for a transformer and to supply the various
loads, the windings are connected in either series or parallel. These windings
or loads must be balanced between phases and from each phase-to-neutral
to prevent possible overloads. Transformer windings are generally connected
in a wye or in an open or closed delta-connected system. The primary and
secondary sides of the transformer may have combination connections in
order to obtain different voltage configurations.
TRANSFORMER PRINCIPLES The transformer voltage, amperage, and turns ratio are
determined by the ratio of the number of turns on the primary
The amperage of a single-phase transformer is found by windings to the number of turns on the secondary windings.
dividing the kVA rating of the transformer by the primary or The transformer kVA or volt-amp rating is the same value
secondary voltage. This calculation determines the amount for the primary and secondary outputs. (See Figure 7-2)
of current that a transformer will deliver, under normal
operating conditions, when supplying various loads.

For example: What is the amperage for a 20 kVA

transformer with a 240 volt, single-phase secondary

output?

Step 1: Finding amperage of Secondary
A = (20 kVA x 1000) ÷ 240 V

A = 83 amps

Solution: The transformer amperage is 83

amps for the secondary output.

For example: What is the amperage for a 20 kVA

transformer with a 480 volt, single-phase secondary
output?

Step 1: Finding amperage of Secondary

A = (20 kVA x 1000) ÷ 480 V

A = 42 amps

Solution: The transformer amperage is 42
amps for the secondary output.

The voltage, current, and impedance are determined by the Figure 7-1. The output voltage and amperage is determined
number of turns on the primary and secondary windings of a by the number of turns on the primary and the secondary
transformer. Based upon the number of turns on the primary of a transformer.
and secondary windings of a transformer, the following
characteristics of the voltage, current, and impedance shall
apply:
WINDINGS
Number of turns are the same Depending on the job to be performed, a transformer
winding can be connected in a number of ways. Depending
(1) Input voltage and output voltage are the same
on the desired voltage, two or more transformer windings
(2) Impedance remains constant can also be connected together in a number of ways. The
(3) Input current and output current are the same most commonly used transformer connections are delta
and wye. When applying voltage configurations for these
connections, high-voltage systems are connected in series
Fewer turns on the primary than the secondary and low-voltages systems are connected in parallel.
(1) Voltage is stepped up
(2) Current is stepped down SINGLE-PHASE OUTPUT
Fewer turns on the secondary than the primary When the secondary of a transformer supplies 120/240 volt,
(1) Voltage is stepped down single-phase loads, there will be 120 volts between either
(2) Current is stepped up one of the phase lines and the neutral. When the secondary
of a transformer supplies 120/240 volt, single-phase loads,
there will be 240 volts between both the phase lines.
See Figure 7-1 for applying the number of turns on the
primary and secondary of a transformer. Lighting, receptacle, and appliance loads are supplied
7-2
Transformer Theory
from the 120 volt lines. Water heaters, air conditioning, When all three ungrounded power conductors and neutrals
and electrical heating are supplied from the 240 volt lines. are connected to form a wye-connected secondary, the
transformer's output produces a three-phase voltage. When
Note, these transformers may be connected for 120 volt or connecting only two ungrounded power conductors plus a
240 volt, single-phase systems. neutral to a wye-connected supply, the voltage obtained will
be a single-phase system.

The ungrounded phase-to-phase voltage for a wye-

connected transformer is the same, but the coil voltage is

equal to the square root of 3 (1.732) divided into the phase-

to-phase voltage. Each phase leg is connected through the

winding to a common connection where they all meet to form

a wye-connected secondary. (See Figure 7-4)

Figure 7-2. The voltage, amperage, and number of turns
in transformer windings are determined by applying the
proper formula.
Figure 7-3. Phase-to-phase voltage for a wye-connected

WYE-CONNECTED TRANSFORMERS transformer is found by multiplying the phase-to-neutral
voltage by square root of 3 (1.732). Phase-to-neutral
The voltage between phase-to-phase and phase-to-neutral voltage is found by dividing the phase-to-phase voltage
will always be the same on a wye-connected, three-phase, by the square root of 3 (1.732). (The above is a 1000 volt
four-wire transformer. The voltage of the power conductors system or less.)
(phase-to-phase) will always be more than the voltage
between any one of the phase conductors and the neutral. BALANCED CURRENT FLOW
For example, if the voltage between the power The winding voltage in a wye-connected system is not the
conductors of any two phases for a 120/208 volt, same as the phase-to-phase voltage. The winding voltage
three-phase, four-wire transformer is 208 volts, the is multiplied by the square root of 3 (1.732) to find the
voltage from any phase power conductor to ground phase-to-phase voltage or by dividing the phase-to-phase
will be 120 volts. The voltage between any two voltage by 1.732 to find the winding's voltage. The flow of
phase conductors for a wye-connected transformer current in the windings of a wye system is the same as the
is derived by multiplying the voltage-to-ground by line current. (See Figure 7-5)
the square root of 3 (1.732). The voltage from any
phase conductor to ground for a wye-connected The windings in a wye system will develop more heat than
transformer is derived by dividing the phase-to- delta-connected windings because they are pulling the
phase voltage by the square root of 3 (1.732). (See same current as the line. The windings of a delta-connected
Figure 7-3) system only pulls 58 percent of the line current.
7-3

carries approximately the same amount of current as the
ungrounded (phase) conductors. Therefore, per 220.61, a

reduction in ampacity is not allowed.

NEUTRAL CURRENT FLOW

A 120/208 volt or 277/480 volt wye-connected system is

different from a 120/240 volt, single-phase or 120/240

volt delta-connected system when determining the flow

of current in the grounded (neutral) conductor. To find the
amount of current flow in the grounded (neutral) conductor

of a 120/208 volt or 277/480 volt wye-connected system,

use the formula in Figure 7-6 and replace the values as
necessary to calculate another neutral value.

Figure 7-4. The winding voltage in a wye-connected

transformer system can be found by dividing the phase-to-

phase voltage by the square root of 3 (1.732).

Figure 7-6. This illustration shows the procedure for finding

the current in amps for the neutral of a three-phase, four-
wire wye-connected system.

Figure 7-5. The flow of current in a wye-connected system

is the same in the windings as the line current. DELTA-CONNECTED
TRANSFORMERS
UNBALANCED CURRENT FLOW A delta-connected system is a good installation when
used for short-distance distribution systems. This type
The grounded (neutral) conductor of a three-wire, 120/208 of system is most commonly used for neighborhood and
volt feeder is required to be the same size as the ungrounded small commercial loads close to the supplying substation.
(phase) conductors for a feeder derived from a four-wire, In a delta-connected system only one voltage is available
120/208 volt system. The reason is that the grounded between any two lines. The coil voltage in a delta-connected
(neutral) conductor of a three-wire circuit consisting of system is the same as the phase-to-phase voltage.
two ungrounded (phase) conductors and the grounded The windings of a delta-connected transformer may be
(neutral) conductor to a four-wire, three-phase system connected by one of the following:
7-4
Transformer Theory
(1) Open connected delta systems or For example, if the current of each phase is 150
amps, the coil current would be 87 amps (150 A x
(2) Closed connected delta systems. 58% = 87 A). (See Figure 7-8)
A triangle is used to show a delta-connected system. A

wire from each connection point of the triangle represents

a three-phase, three-wire delta system. Between any two
wires the voltage is the same. (See Figure 7-7)

Figure 7-7. Between any two conductors the voltage is 480
volts. The winding voltage is also 480 volts.
Figure 7-8. The winding current of a balanced delta-
connected system is found by multiplying the phase (line)
amperage by 58 percent.
OPEN DELTA-CONNECTED WINDINGS
Only two transformers are used when connecting the
windings of an open delta-connected system. One UNBALANCED CURRENT FLOW
transformer is always larger than the other due to 120 volt
loading. When the current flow in a delta-connected system is
unbalanced, the current flow in L1 is found by the square
root of the other winding currents (B2 + C2 + BC). The current
CLOSED DELTA-CONNECTED WINDINGS flow in L2 and L3 is found by substituting the appropriate
winding current values. (See Figure 7-9)
Three transformers are used when connecting the windings
of a closed delta-connected system. Depending on the
three-phase and single-phase loads served when using a
closed delta-connected system, one transformer may be NEUTRAL CURRENT FLOW
larger than the other two.
The unbalanced current in a four-wire, three-phase delta-
connected system is carried by the neutral between phases
BALANCED CURRENT FLOW A and C. This portion of a delta-connected system has only
120 volt ungrounded (phase) conductors.
The winding voltage and phase-to-phase voltage are the
same in a delta-connected system. The winding current and
Note, 120 volts is derived from tapping one of the 240 volt
line current are not the same in a delta-connected system. In
windings. From the tap to each outside phase conductor
a delta-connected system the flow of current has two paths
(phases A and C) 120 volts is derived. The current flow in
to follow at each closed end where the phase conductors
phase B must travel through one 240 volt and one 120 volt
terminate. The amount of current in a delta-connected
winding to reach the tap, which is connected to ground. The
winding is 58 percent of the line current measured on each
208 volts (phase B to ground) is derived by measuring the
phase. The multiplier (58 percent) is found by dividing 1 by
voltage-to-ground (120 V + 240 V = 360 V) and dividing by
the square root of 3 (1÷ √3 (1.732) = 58%).
√3 (360 V ÷ 1.732 = 208 V). (See Figure 7-10)
7-5

BALANCING LOADS ON

TRANSFORMER WINDINGS

The loads connected to single-phase and three-phase
transformers must be balanced as evenly as possible.

Branch-circuit loads in panelboards shall be divided as

evenly as possible on phases A, B, and C to assure that

transformer windings are not overloaded.

SINGLE-PHASE LOAD BALANCING

Single-phase, three-wire transformer systems have a

secondary voltage of 120/240 volts. One of the windings

can be overloaded if loads are not distributed as evenly as

possible on each 120 volt winding. Where a 240 volt winding
is center-tapped and connected to ground, there will be two

120 volt windings for a transformer. The 30 kVA, single-

phase transformer is balanced for each 120 volt winding.

Dividing by 2 (30 kVA ÷ 2 = 15 kVA) will derive a capacity
of each 120 volt winding. Each balanced 120 volt winding
can be loaded to 15 kVA or less. Proper balancing of the
Figure 7-9. As illustrated, the current flow of an unbalanced 30 kVA transformer prevents the winding from overheating.
delta-connected system in L1 is found by the square root of (See Figure 7-11)
the other winding currents (B2 + C2 + BC). The current flow
in L2 and L3 is found by substituting the appropriate winding For example, the 30 kVA transformer has a
current values. 120/240 volt secondary to serve loads of 24 kVA at
240 volts and two 3 kVA loads at 120 volts. Each
120 volt winding must be divided as evenly as pos-
sible to balance the single-phase load. The 240 volt
loads must be balanced using the same procedure.
To prevent overheating of windings, the loads must

be properly balanced. The load is unbalanced if the

two 120 volt, 3 kVA loads are connected to one 120

volt winding instead of one load to each winding.

THREE-PHASE LOAD BALANCING

Three-phase, four-wire transformer systems usually have a
secondary voltage of 120/208 volts or 277/480 volts. When

balancing the load, each phase of a three-phase transformer
must be considered as a single-phase transformer.

For example, a 40 kVA transformer has a 120/208
volt secondary to serve five loads of 12 kVA, 8 kVA,

6 kVA, 5 kVA, and 3 kVA at 120 volts, single-phase.
Each 120 volt phase of the 40 kVA transformer can

be loaded up to 13.3 kVA (40 kVA ÷ 3 = 13.3 kVA).
(See Figure 7-12)

DERATING FOR HIGH ALTITUDE

High-altitude operation of distribution transformers can also
Figure 7-10. This illustration shows that only two 120 volt be a problem. Dry-type transformers are air cooled and
circuits and one 208 volt circuit-to-ground are produced in require a flow of fresh air in and around the transformer
a four-wire, three-phase, delta-connected system. windings to maintain normal operating temperatures. At
7-6
Transformer Theory
very high altitudes, the air becomes thinner and transformer For derating the load capacity of motors installed in high
cooling is not as efficient as at lower latitudes. The NEMA altitudes, see title head "TEMPERATURE RISE" on page
standard is based on normal operation at an altitude of 19-2.
3300 ft above sea level. So, for every additional 330 ft the
transformer load capacity must be derated by 3/10 of one
percent (.3%) for safe and reliable loading. (See Figure
7-13)

Figure 7-11. To prevent overheating, single-phase transformer loads must be balanced (as close as possible) phase-
to-ground and phase-to-phase.

120 V PHASE LOADS
120 V PHASE LOADS
NOTE:
NOTE:

7-6.
SEE FIGURE
SEE FIGURE 7-6.

Figure 7-12. Each 120 volt phase of the 40 kVA transformer must not exceed 13.3 kVA (40 ÷ 3 = 13.3 kVA). A neutral
load of 13.3 kVA or less is permitted, which will not overload windings.
7-7

Figure 7-13. This illustration shows the rule-of-thumb method for determining the FLC in amps for transformers installed
in high altitudes. Note: For reducing the load in amps for motors installed in altitudes above 3,300 ft, see page 19-2 in
this book.
7-8
Name Date
Chapter 7: Transformer Theory
Section Answer
1. When the secondary of a transformer supplies 120/240 volt, single-phase _____________ _____________
loads, there will be _____ volts between either one of the phase lines and the
neutral.
(a)120 (b) 240
(c) 277 (d) 480
2. When the secondary of a transformer supplies 120/240 volt, single-phase _____________ _____________
loads, there will be _____ volts between both the phase lines.
(a) 120 (b) 240
(c) 277 (d) 480
3. The windings of a delta-connected system only pulls _____ percent of the line _____________ _____________
current.
(a) 33 (b) 42
(c) 58 (d) 67
4. The ungrounded phase-to-phase voltage for a wye-connected transformer is _____________ _____________

the same but the _____ voltage is equal to the square root of 3 divided into
the phase-to-phase voltage.
(a) coil (b) winding
(c) primary (d) secondary
5. The grounded (neutral) conductor of a three-wire, 120/208 volt feeder is _____________ _____________
required to be the same size as the _____ conductors for a feeder derived
from a four-wire, 120/208 volt system.
(a) grounded (b) equipment
(c) bonding (d) ungrounded
6. _____ transformer(s) are used when connecting the windings of a open delta- _____________ _____________
connected system.
(a) One (b) Two
(c) Three (d) Four
7. _____ transformer(s) are used when connecting the windings of a closed _____________ _____________
delta-connected system.
(a) One (b) Two
(c) Three (d) Four
8. The winding voltage and phase-to-phase voltage are the same in a _____________ _____________
_____-connected system.
(a) delta (b) wye
9. Single-phase, three-wire transformers have a secondary voltage of _____ _____________ _____________

volts.
(a) 120/208 (b) 120/240
(c) 277/480 (d) 600
7-9
Section Answer
_____________ ____________ 10. Three-phase, four-wire transformer systems usually have a secondary voltage
of _____ volts.
(a) 120/208 (b) 277/480
(c) Both (a) and (b) (d) none of the above
8
Installing
Transformers
Transformers and transformer vaults shall be designed, installed, and
protected per Article 450 in the National Electrical Code®. Based upon design
and type, a transformer installation can be located either inside of a building
or outside, sometimes exposed to adverse weather conditions.
Transformers are installed to provide a level of safety for nonqualified

personnel as well as for qualified personnel.
Note, a provision of accessibility shall also be designed into the installation.
Other safety factors include ventilation of transformer vaults and the

compliance of minimum fire-resistant standards for the walls, doors, and roof
that are associated with a transformer installation.
MARKING
450.11
Transformers shall be provided with a marking on the nameplate giving the following information:
(1) Name of manufacturer,
(2) Rated kVA,
(3) Frequency,
(4) Primary and secondary voltage,
(5) Impedance for transformers rated 25 kVA and higher,
(6) Clearances for transformers with ventilating openings,
(7) Amount and kind of insulating liquid, and
(8) Dry-type transformers, temperature class for the insulation system.
GUARDING
450.8

Transformers shall be permitted to be isolated in a room or

accessible only to qualified personnel to prevent accidental
contact with live parts. To safeguard live parts from possible
damage, the transformer shall be elevated. The following
are acceptable means of safeguarding live parts as required
in 110.27(A) and 110.34(E):

(1) Transformers shall be permitted to be isolated in
a room or accessible only to qualified personnel,

(2) Permanent partitions or screens shall be permitted

to be installed, and
(3) Transformers shall be elevated at least 8 ft (2.5 m)
above the floor to prevent unauthorized personnel

from contact.
Figure 8-1. The general rule of 450.13 requires transformers
to be readily accessible for maintenance, repair, and service.
Transformer Tip: Signs indicating the voltage of
See AHJ for this requirement.
live exposed parts of transformers, or other suitable
markings, shall be used in areas where transformers

are located.
450.13(A)
VENTILATION OF TRANSFORMERS
450.9
Transformers shall be located and installed in rooms or

areas that are not subject to exceedingly high temperatures
to prevent overheating and possible damage to windings.

Transformers with ventilation openings shall be installed 450.13(A)
so that the ventilating openings are not blocked by walls or
other obstructions that could block air flow.
ACCESSIBILITY OF TRANSFORMERS
450.13
Transformers shall be located where readily accessible to
TABLE 110.26(A)(1) 110.26(A)(1)
qualified personnel for inspection and maintenance. Where 110.34(A)

it is necessary to use a ladder, lift, or bucket truck to get to
a transformer, it shall not be considered readily accessible.
See definition of readily accessible in Article 100. (See
Figure 8-1) HUNG FROM WALL OR CEILING
NEC 450.13(A)
Figure 8-2. Transformers hung from a wall or ceiling shall
not be required to be readily accessible.
HUNG FROM WALL OR CEILING
450.13(A)
MOUNTED IN CEILING
Dry-type transformers not over 1000 volts and located on 450.13(B)
open walls or steel columns shall not be required to be
readily accessible. It is permissible to gain access to this Dry-type transformers not over 1000 volts and 50 kVA shall
type of installation using a portable ladder or bucket lift. be permitted to be installed in hollow spaces of buildings.
(See Figure 8-2) The transformers cannot be permanently closed in and there
8-2
Installing Transformers
shall be some access to the transformers, but they do not

have to be readily accessible per Article 100. It was not
clear in the 1993 or previous editions of the NEC whether
dry-type transformers not exceeding 1000 volts, nominal,
and rated 50 kVA or less were permitted to be installed in
the space above suspended ceilings with removable panels,
even if the transformer was accessible and provided with
proper working clearances.
Note, the space where the transformer is installed shall

comply with the ventilation requirements of 450.9 and be
designed by the rules of 450.21(A) and (B). If such ceiling
space is used as a return air space for air conditioning,
300.22(C) shall be reviewed and the provisions of this
section shall also be complied with. (See Figure 8-3) Figure 8-3. Transformers mounted in a ceiling shall not be
required to be readily accessible.
Transformer Tip: The two exceptions to the general

rule are for dry-type transformers. These exceptions DRY-TYPE TRANSFORMERS
do not apply to oil- or askarel-filled transformers due to
the damage of possible oil spillage or the threat of fire INSTALLED INDOORS
because of a rupture occurring in the case. 450.21
The rules for installing dry-type transformers indoors can
be summed up as follows:
• Dry-type transformers greater than 112-1/2 kVA and
DISCONNECTING MEANS having Class 155 or higher insulation systems shall
450.14 have a fire-resistant, heat-insulating barrier placed
between transformers and combustible material, or,
A disconnecting means shall be located either in sight or if no barrier, shall be separated at least 6 ft (1.83
in a remote location for transformers other than Class 2 or m) horizontally and 12 ft (3.7 m) vertically from the
Class 3 transformers. The disconnecting means shall be combustible material per 450.21(B), Ex. 1. (See
lockable and the location field marked on the transformer Figure 8-5)
where located in a remote location. (See Figure 8-4)
Figure 8-4. This illustration shows the requirements of the disconnecting means for transformers other than class 2 or
class 3 transformers.
8-3
• Dry-type transformers greater than 112-1/2 kVA and

having Class 155 or higher insulation systems shall 450.21(B)
be installed in a fire-resistant transformer room per

450.21(B), Ex. 2. (See Figure 8-6)

• Dry-type transformers rated 112-1/2 kVA or less

and 1000 volts or less shall have a fire-resistant,
450.21(B), Ex. 2
heat-insulating barrier between transformers and
combustible material, or, without a barrier, shall be
separated at least 12 in. (300 mm) from the com- TOTALLY
ENCLOSED
bustible material where the voltage is 1000 volts TYPE
or less per 450.21(A). (See Figure 8-7)
• Dry-type transformers rated 112-1/2 kVA or less
and 1000 volts or less shall not be required to have

a 12 in. (300 mm) separation or barrier if they are
450.21(B)
completely enclosed, except for vent openings.
(See Figure 8-8) DRY-TYPE TRANSFORMERS INSTALLED INDOORS
OVER 112-1/2 kVA
• All indoor dry-type transformers of over 35,000 volts NEC 450.21(B), Ex. 2
shall be installed in a vault. Vault requirements shall Figure 8-6. Dry-type transformers greater than 112-1/2 kVA
fully comply with Part III to Article 450. (See Figure and having Class 155 or higher insulation systems shall be
8-9) installed in a fire-resistant transformer room.
112-1/2 kVA OR LESS

450.21(A)
ROOM

450.21(B), Ex. 1 450.21(A)
NOT
TOTALLY
ENCLOSED
SPACING REQUIREMENTS OVER 112-1/2 kVA TYPE
450.21(B), Ex. 1
12' (3.7 m)
6' (1.83 m) 6' (1.83 m)

NOT
TOTALLY
ENCLOSED
TYPE

TRANSFORMER NEC LOOP

NOT
TRANSFORMERS 450.21(A) TOTALLY
ENCLOSED
kVA OR LESS TYPE
kVA TRANSFORMERS 450.21(B)
450.21(B), Ex. 1 450.21(A)
kVA
TRANSFORMERS 450.21(C)
DRY-TYPE TRANSFORMERS INSTALLED INDOORS DRY-TYPE TRANSFORMERS INSTALLED INDOORS

OVER 112-1/2 kVA NOT OVER 112-1/2 kVA
NEC 450.21(B), Ex. 1 NEC 450.21(A)
Figure 8-5. Dry-type transformers greater than 112-1/2 kVA Figure 8-7. Dry-type transformers rated 112-1/2 kVA or
and having Class 155 or higher insulation systems shall less and 1000 volts or less shall have a fire-resistant, heat
have a fire-resistant, heat-insulating barrier placed between insulating barrier between transformers and combustible
transformers and combustible material, or, if no barrier, shall material, or, without a barrier, shall be separated at least
be separated at lease 6 ft (1.83 m) horizontally and 12 ft 12 in. (300 mm) from the combustible material where the
(3.7 m) vertically from the combustible material. voltage is 1000 volts or less.
8-4
LESS FLAMMABLE LIQUID-

INSULATED TRANSFORMERS

450.23

Transformers using a “listed” high fire point liquid shall be

TOTALLY
ENCLOSED permitted to be installed indoors, but only in “noncombustible”
TYPE 450.21(A), Ex. areas of “noncombustible” buildings. The NEC sets the
minimum fire point at 300°C (572°F). This is the minimum
temperature at which the liquid ignites. Such transformers
shall be permitted to be installed indoors, for voltages up to
DRY-TYPE TRANSFORMERS INSTALLED INDOORS 35,000. Higher voltages require a vault if they are installed
NOT OVER 112-1/2 kVA
NEC 450.21(A), Ex. indoors. This is due to the safety required because of the
higher voltage and associated equipment. (See Figure 8-10)
Figure 8-8. Dry-type transformers rated 112-1/2 kVA or
less and 1000 volts or less shall not be required to have a
12 in. (300 mm) separation or barrier if they are completely
enclosed except for vent openings.

450.21(C)

450.21(C)
RATED
OVER
35,000 V
NEC LOOP NEC LOOP

450.42 450.46
450.43 450.47
450.45 450.48
Figure 8-10. Transformers using a “listed” high fire point
DRY-TYPE TRANSFORMERS INSTALLED INDOORS liquid shall be permitted to be installed indoors, but only in
OVER 35,000 VOLTS “noncombustible” areas of “noncombustible” buildings. The
NEC 450.21(C)
NEC sets the minimum fire point at 300°C (572°F).
Figure 8-9. All indoor dry-type transformers over 35,000
volts shall be installed in a vault.
NONFLAMMABLE FLUID-INSULATED
TRANSFORMERS
DRY-TYPE TRANSFORMERS
450.24
INSTALLED OUTDOORS
450.22
Transformers using a “dielectric” nonflammable liquid shall
be permitted to be installed indoors in any location, for
Dry-type transformers installed outdoors shall have voltages up to 35,000. Higher voltages require a vault, when
weatherproof enclosures. See the definition in Article 100 installed indoors due to the safety required for the higher
for the difference between “weatherproof” and “watertight.” voltage and associated equipment.
For the purpose of this section, a nonflammable dielectric

fluid is one that does not have a flash point or fire point, and
is not flammable in air.
8-5
ASKAREL-INSULATED • Indoor, oil-filled transformers greater than 1000

volts shall be installed in a vault, with the following
TRANSFORMERS INSTALLED exceptions, where, regardless of voltage, a vault
INDOORS is not required:
450.25 (a) Electric furnace transformers with a total rat-
ing of 75 kVA or less shall be permitted to be
Askarel is a liquid that does not burn; therefore, it is safer located in a fire-resistant room.
than oil for use as a transformer liquid. However, arcing (b) Oil-filled transformers shall be permitted to
in askarel produces greater gases that are nonexplosive. be installed in a building without a vault,
provided the building is accessible to quali-
Askarel-insulated transformers of over 25 kVA shall be fied personnel only and is used solely for
furnished with a relief vent such as a chimney to relieve the providing electric service to other buildings.
pressure built up by gases that may be generated within
• If suitable provisions are taken to prevent a possible
the transformer.
oil fire from igniting other materials, oil-filled trans-
formers of 1000 volts or less shall be permitted to
In rooms that are well ventilated, the vent may be discharged
be installed without a vault. When installed without
directly to the room. In rooms that are poorly ventilated, the
a vault, the total kVA ratings of all transformers al-
vent shall be piped to a flue or chimney that is capable of
lowed in a room or section of a building is limited
carrying the gases out of the room. Or, as an alternative
to 10 kVA for nonfire-resistant buildings and to 75
to such ventilating, the transformer can be fitted with a
kVA for fire-resistant buildings.
gas absorber placed inside the case. When there is a gas
absorber, the vent may also be discharged to the room.
See Figure 8-12 for installation rules when applying Ex.'s
1 thru 6 to 450.26.
Askarel transformers of more than 35,000 volts shall be
installed in a vault because the oil and higher voltage are a
hazard to unqualified personnel. (See Figure 8-11)

Figure 8-11. Askarel-insulated transformers of over 25 kVA Figure 8-12. Oil-insulated transformers rated at 112-1/2
shall be furnished with a relief vent such as a chimney to kVA or less that are installed in detached buildings and
relieve the pressure built up by gases that may be generated accessible only to qualified personnel shall be installed in a
within the transformer. vault with reinforced concrete at least 4 in. (100 mm) thick.
OIL-INSULATED TRANSFORMERS
OIL-INSULATED TRANSFORMERS INSTALLED OUTDOORS
INSTALLED INDOORS 450.27
450.26
When oil-filled transformers are installed on or adjacent to
The rules for installing oil-insulated transformers indoors combustible buildings or material, the building or material
can be summed up as follows: shall be safeguarded from possible fire originating in a
8-6
transformer. Fire-resistant barriers, water-spray systems, MODIFICATION OF TRANSFORMERS

and enclosures for the transformers are approved
safeguards if, where used, they are installed by the rules 450.28
of the NEC. [See Figures 8-13(a) and (b)]
When modifications are applied to a transformer in an
Also, review 450.27, Items 1 thru 4 very carefully when existing installation, the following rules and regulations shall
designing and installing oil-insulated transformers outdoors. be adhered to:
(1) The type of insulating liquid installed shall be
marked on the transformer.
(2) Any modifications shall comply with applicable
requirements for the modified transformer.

Figure 8-13(a). When oil-filled transformers are installed on or

adjacent to combustible buildings or materials, the building or material
shall be safeguarded from possible fire originating in a transformer.

Figure 8-13(b). Fire-resistant barriers, water-spray systems, and enclosures for the
transformers are approved safeguards if, where used, they are installed by the rules of the NEC.
8-7
Name Date
Chapter 8: Installing Transformers
Section Answer
1. Transformers shall be provided with a marking on the nameplate that gives _____________ _____________
the following information:
(a) name of manufacturer (b) frequency
(c) amount and kind of (d) all of the above
insulating liquid
2. Transformers shall be elevated at least _____ ft above the floor to prevent _____________ _____________
unauthorized personnel from contact. (50 to 300 V)
(a) 6 (b) 8
(c) 10 (d) 12
3. Dry-type transformers shall be located where _____ to qualified personnel for _____________ _____________
inspection and maintenance.
(a) identified (b) accessible
(c) readily accessible (d) none of the above
4. Dry-type transformers not over 1000 volts and _____ kVA shall be permitted _____________ _____________
to be installed in hollow spaces of buildings.
(a) 25 (b) 50
(c) 75 (d) 100
5. Dry-type transformers installed indoors and rated 112-1/2 kVA or less shall have _____________ _____________
a separation of at least _____ in. from combustible material unless separated
from the combustible material by a fire-resistant, heat-insulated barrier.
(a) 2 (b) 6
(c) 12 (d) 18
6. All indoor dry-type transformers of over _____ volts shall be installed in a vault. _____________ _____________
(a) 25,000 (b) 30,000
(c) 35,000 (d) 50,000
7. Less flammable liquid-insulated transformers shall be permitted to be installed _____________ _____________

indoors, for voltages up to _____.
(a) 35,000 (b) 50,000
(c) 75,000 (d) 80,000
8. Askarel-insulated transformers of over _____ kVA shall be furnished with a _____________ _____________
relief vent to relieve the pressure built up by gases that may be generated
within the transformer.
(a) 10 (b) 15
(c) 20 (d) 25
9. An oil-insulated transformer of _____ kVA or less shall be permitted to supply _____________ _____________
a voltage of 1000 volts or less that is an integral part of charged particle
accelerating equipment.
(a) 50 (b) 75
(c) 80 (d) 90
8-9
Section Answer
_____________ _____________ 10. Where the nominal voltage does not exceed 1000 for an oil-insulated
transformer, a vault shall not be required if suitable arrangements are made to
prevent a transformer oil fire from igniting other materials and the total capacity
does not exceed _____ kVA in a section of the building.
(a) 10 (b) 20
(c) 25 (d) 50
8-10
9
Transformer
Vaults
Vaults are used to house dry-type transformers that are rated over 35 kV or
transformers filled with combustible material used as an aid in cooling their
windings.
Vaults shall be designed and built with specific rules and regulations.
Wherever possible, transformer vaults shall be located at an outside wall of

the building. This rule is intended to allow ventilation direct to the outside
without the use of ducts, flues, etc. per 450.45.
WALLS, ROOFS, AND FLOORS

450.42
The rules for construction of vaults are set forth in this section. Floor, walls, and roof shall be of fire-
resistant material such as concrete and capable of withstanding heat from a fire within for at least
three hours. A 6 in. (150 mm) thickness is specified for the walls and roof. The floor, when laid and
in contact with the earth, shall be at least 4 in. (100 mm) thick. Walls, roofs, and floors shall have
at least a three-hour fire rating. (See Figure 9-1)

Figure 9-1. Floors, walls, and roofs shall be of fire-resistant
material such as concrete and capable of withstanding heat Figure 9-2. Where ventilation is direct to the outside, without
from a fire within for at least three hours. A 6 in. (150 mm) the use of ducts or flues, the vent opening shall have an area
thickness is specified for the walls and roof. The floor, when of at least 3 sq. in. (1900 mm2) for each kVA of transformer
laid and in contact with the earth, shall be at least 4 in. (100 capacity, but never less than 1 sq. ft (0.1 m2) in area.
mm) thick.
DRAINAGE
DOORWAYS
450.46
450.43(A) THRU (C)
Drains shall be provided for vaults containing more than
The door to a transformer vault shall be built according to 100 kVA transformer capacity to drain off oil that might
the standards of the National Fire Protection Association, accumulate on the floor due to a leak in a transformer
which requires a three-hour fire rating. The door sill shall caused by an accident. This rule is designed to prevent a
be at least 4 in. (100 mm) high. This is to prevent any oil fire hazard from occurring.
that may accumulate on the floor from running out of the
transformer room and moving to other areas. Doors shall
be kept locked at all times to prevent access of unqualified WATER PIPES AND ACCESSORIES
persons to the vault. 450.47
Piping for fire protection within the vault or piping to water-
Transformer Tip: Personnel doors shall swing out and cooled transformers shall be premitted to be present in a
be equipped with panic bars, pressure plates, or other vault. No other piping or duct system shall enter or pass
devices that open under simple pressure per 450.43(C). through. Valves or other fittings of a foreign piping or
duct system shall not be permitted in a vault containing
transformers. (See Figure 9-3)
VENTILATION OPENINGS STORAGE IN VAULTS

450.45(A) THRU (E) 450.48
Where ventilation is direct to the outside, without the use No storage of any kind shall be permitted to be in a vault
of ducts or flues, the vent opening shall have an area of other than the transformers and equipment necessary for
at least 3 sq. in. (1900 mm2) for each kVA of transformer their operation. This typically means that transformer vaults
capacity, but never less than 1 sq. ft (0.1 m2) in area. The are not to be used as warehouses or storage areas but are to
vent opening shall be fitted with a screen or grating and contain transformers and accessories only. The reasons that
an automatic closing damper. If ducts are used in the vent the vault is to be kept clear are the high voltage and safety
system, the ducts shall have sufficient capacity to maintain measures needed for personnel servicing such equipment.
a suitable vault temperature. (See Figure 9-2) Also, consideration shall be given to foreign materials being
a threat of fire under certain conditions. (See Figure 9-4)
9-2
Transformer Vaults
Figure 9-3. Piping for fire protection within the vault or

piping to water-cooled transformers shall be permitted to
be present in a transformer vault. No other piping or duct
system shall enter or pass through.
Figure 9-4. No storage material of any kind shall be placed

in a vault other than the transformers and the equipment
necessary for their operation.
9-3
Name Date
Chapter 9: Transformer Vaults
Section Answer
1. Floor, walls, and roof of a transformer vault shall be made of fire-resistant _____________ _____________
material such as concrete and shall be capable of withstanding heat from a
fire within for at least _____ hours.
(a) 2 (b) 3
(c) 4 (d) 6
2. The walls and roof of a transformer vault shall have a thickness of at least _____________ _____________
_____ in.
(a) 2 (b) 3
(c) 4 (d) 6
3. The floor of a transformer vault, when laid and in contact with the earth, shall _____________ _____________
be at least _____ in. thick.
(a) 2 (b) 3
(c) 4 (d) 6
4. The door sill of a transformer vault shall be at least _____ in. high. _____________ _____________
(a) 2 (b) 3
(c) 4 (d) 6
5. Personnel doors of transformer vaults shall swing out and be equipped with _____________ _____________
_____ that are normally latched but open under simple pressure.
(a) panic bars (b) pressure plates
(c) both (a) and (b) (d) neither (a) nor (b)
6. Where ventilation is directed to the outside for a transformer vault, without the _____________ _____________
use of ducts or flues, the vent opening shall have an area of at least _____
sq. in. for each kVA of transformer capacity.
(a) 1 (b) 3
(c) 5 (d) 6
7. Doors to transformer vaults shall be kept locked at all times to prevent access _____________ _____________
of _____ persons to the vault.
(a) unqualified (b) qualified
(c) authorized (d) identified
8. Which of the following shall be permitted to be installed in a transformer vault. _____________ _____________
(a) duct system (b) storage
(c) valves for foreign piping or duct (d) piping for fire protection
9. Vent openings for a transformer vault shall be fitted with a screen or grating _____________ _____________
and a(n) _____ closing damper.
(a) automatic (b) manual
(c) listed (d) identified
10. The door to a transformer vault shall be built with a minimum _____ hour fire _____________ _____________
rating.
(a) 2 (b) 3
(c) 4 (d) 6
9-5
10
Sizing Transformers
and Connections
The total volt-amps of all loads in a building shall be used to size a transformer.
Depending on the load requirements of a building, single-phase and three-
phase voltage may be used to supply the building. The windings are connected
in the configurations necessary to supply voltage load requirements of the
facility. Many times, in this chapter, the transformer secondary conductors are
referred to as tap conductors. Even though they are also called secondary
conductors.
SIZING WYE-CONNECTED SECONDARIES
The size transformers required to supply a wye-connected secondary system can be found by
applying the following:
(1) Adding the total single-phase and three-phase loads together for an individual transformer.
(2) Dividing the load in VA by 1/3 (.33) to derive three transformers.
The kVA rating of three transformers, if they are separately connected together, will add up to one
individual transformer. Using this method, a single transformer rating can be sized and selected
from the total volt-amps. One transformer with three windings is sized by adding the total VA of all
the loads together and selecting the transformers kVA rating based on this value per Table 12A
from the Troubleshooting Tables in the back of this book. (See Figure 10-1)

Figure 10-2. Sizing closed delta-connected transformers
Figure 10-1. Sizing wye-connected transformers with single- with single-phase and three-phase loads.
phase and three-phase loads.
SIZING CLOSED DELTA-CONNECTED SIZING OPEN DELTA-CONNECTED

SECONDARIES SECONDARIES
The size transformer required to supply a closed delta- Open delta-connected secondary systems can be
connected secondary system can be found by multiplying determined by calculating the single-phase load at 100
the following: percent and the three-phase load at 58 percent, and using
this total value to size the transformer. By adding these two
• Multiply the single-phase load in VA by 67 percent. loads together, the size of a mid-tap transformer can be
• Multiply the three-phase load in VA by 33 percent. determined. A power transformer can be sized by calculating
the three-phase load at 58 percent, which is the reciprocal
• Add the kVA load of (a) and (b) together to derive the of the square root of 3 (1 ÷ 1.732 = 58%). This reduced total
two lighting and power transformers. is then used to size the power transformer, which will be
• Multiply the single-phase and three-phase loads in smaller in rating than the lighting and power transformer.
VA by 33 percent. (See Figure 10-3)
• Use this total in kVA to derive the two power SIZING AUTOTRANSFORMERS
transformers.
Autotransformers are used to boost or buck voltage by
See Figure 10-2 for the rules and regulations for sizing multiplying the nameplate kVA by 1000 and then dividing by
the transformer used in a closed delta-connected system. the secondary voltage. Autotransformers shall be equipped
with kVA, amperage, and secondary voltage rating having
enough capacity to supply the load served.
For more information on autotransformers, see 210.9,

215.11, 450.4, and 450.5.
10-2
Sizing Transformers and Connections
See Figure 10-4 for a detailed procedure for sizing an

For example: What is the secondary amps for an autotransformer to supply a motor circuit in a commercial
autotransformer rated 2.5 kVA with a secondary or industrial application.
voltage of 24 volts? The supply voltage is boosted
from a 208 to 230 volt, single-phase system. Note, the supply voltage used is too low for the motor to
operate properly. The autotransformer is to be used to boost
the voltage from 185 volts to 208 volts.
Step 1: Finding secondary amps
Sec. A = (kVA x 1000) ÷ secondary V See Figure 10-5 for a detailed procedure for sizing an
Sec. A = (2.5 kVA x 1000) ÷ 24 V autotransformer to supply a motor circuit in a commercial
Sec. A = 104 or industrial application.
Note, the supply voltage is too high for the motor to

Solution: The secondary amperage is operate properly. The voltage can be reduced by a buck-
104 amps. type autotransformer if the supply voltage is too high. The
autotransformer is used to reduce the voltage from 269
For example: By multiplying the output volts by the volts to 240 volts.
secondary amps, then dividing by 1000, the kVA of
the autotransformer can be sized.

Step 1: Finding secondary kVA
kVA = (output V x secondary A) ÷ 1000
kVA = (230 V x 104 A) ÷ 1000
kVA = 23.9
Solution: The kVA of the load

is 23.9 kVA.

Note, the size of the autotransformer shall be

capable of handling a load of 23.9 kVA.

For example: What is the required rating for an

autotransformer with a 24 volt secondary voltage

serving a 230 volt motor with a connected load of

12,000 volt-amps?

Step 1: Finding amps

A = load served ÷ supply V

A = 12,000 VA ÷ 230 V

A = 52

Step 2: Sizing VA (Round Up kVA)
AXFMR = A x secondary V Figure 10-3. Sizing open delta-connected transformers with
AXFMR = 52 A x 24 V single-phase and three-phase loads.
AXFMR = 1248 VA
Solution: The autotransformer shall

supply a load of 1.25 kVA. SIZING CONNECTIONS FROM THE
(1248 ÷ 1000 = 1.25 kVA) SECONDARY OF TRANSFORMERS
240.21(B) AND (C)
Transformer Tip: The autotransformer shall have a
Overcurrent protection devices of circuits shall be located
rating of at least 1248 VA with a transformation voltage
at the point where the service to those circuits originates.
of 24 volts, and supply a load of 12,000 VA.
However, it shall be permitted to make connections from
10-3
the secondary side of transformers. Such conductors shall derived systems for industrial locations shall be sized
be designed and installed by the rules and regulations of per 240.21(C)(2), (C)(3), and (C)(6). Outside transformer
240.21(B) and (C). Sizing connections, not over 25 ft (7.5 connections shall be sized per 240.21(C)(4) and 240.92(D).
m) long, shall be designed and installed per 240.21(B)(3) Overcurrent protection shall be provided by 450.3(B) and
and (C)(5). Transformer secondary conductors of separately Table 430.3(B). (See Figure 10-6)

Figure 10-4. Sizing and selecting an autotransformer to boost the supply voltage to the motor.
10-4

Figure 10-5. Sizing and selecting an autotransformer to buck the supply voltage to the motor.
10-5

240.21(C)(2)

240.21(C)(3)

240.21(C)(6)

240.21(C)(4)

408.58
SIZING CONNECTIONS FROM THE SECONDARY OF TRANSFORMERS

NEC 240.21(B) AND (C)
Figure 10-6. The illustration above shows the four most used transformer connections that are utilized to supply electrical
systems with transformer secondary conductors. [For industrial installations, see 240.21(C)(3) and 240.92(C) and (E).]
Overcurrent protection for panelboards shall comply with

SIZING CONNECTIONS NOT OVER the provisions outlined in 408.36, including Ex. 1, Ex. 2,
10 FT (3 m) LONG and Ex. 3, whichever applies. The maximum number of
240.21(C)(2) overcurrent devices shall be permitted to be determined
per 408.54 and 408.55(A), Ex. 1.
Conductors shall be permitted to be connected, without
overcurrent protection at the connection, to a feeder or See Figure 10-7 for the proper procedure for making a
transformer secondary where all of the following conditions connection using the 10 ft (3 m) rule.
are met:
• Connecting conductors do not exceed 10 ft (3 m) in SIZING CONNECTIONS NOT OVER
length.
25 FT (7.5 m) LONG
• Connecting conductors shall have a current rating 240.21(B)(3) AND (C)(5)
not less than the combined calculated loads of the
circuits supplied by connecting conductors. Their Conductors supplying a transformer shall be permitted to
ampacity shall not be less than the rating of the be tapped, without overcurrent protection at the tap from a
overcurrent protection device at the termination of feeder, where all of the following conditions are met:
the connecting conductors.
• Tap conductors supplying the primary shall have an
• Connecting conductors shall not extend beyond the ampacity at least 1/3 of the rating of the feeder being
switchboard, panelboard, disconnecting means, or tapped.
control devices they supply.
• Connecting conductors supplying the secondary
• Connecting conductors shall be enclosed in a shall have an ampacity at least 1/3 of the rating of
raceway that will extend from the connection to the the feeder being connected, based on the primary-
enclosure of an enclosed switchboard, panelboard, to-secondary voltage ratio.
or control devices, or to the back of an open
• The total length of one primary plus one secondary
switchboard.
conductor shall not be over 25 ft (7.5 m).
• The rating of the overcurrent device protecting the
• The primary and secondary conductors shall be
primary of the transformer, multiplied by the primary
protected from physical damage.
to the secondary voltage ratio, shall not exceed 10
times the ampacity of the secondary conductor for • Secondary conductors shall terminate in a single
field installations where the secondary conductors circuit breaker or set of fuses, sized to protect the
leave the enclosure or vault. secondary.
10-6
See Figure 10-8 for the proper procedure for making a tap See Figures 10-9 and 10-15 for the procedure to be applied
and connection using the 25 ft (7.5 m) rule. when a 25 ft (7.5 m) connection rule is installed from the
secondary side of a transformer.

Figure 10-7. This illustration shows the procedure for sizing

a 10 ft (3 m) connection from the secondary of a transformer.

INDUSTRIAL INSTALLATION

SECONDARY CONDUCTORS

NOT OVER 25 FT (7.5 m) LONG
240.21(C)(3)

Conductors shall be permitted to be connected to a

transformer secondary of a separately derived system for
industrial locations, without overcurrent protection at the
connection, where all of the following conditions are met:
• Secondary conductors shall not exceed 25 ft (7.5 m) Figure 10-8. The primary tap for this connection rule shall
in length. be at least 1/3 of the overcurrent protection device protecting
• Ampacity of connected conductors shall be the larger feeder conductors. The secondary connecting
equivalent to current rating of the transformer, and conductors shall be at least 1/3 of the overcurrent protection
the overcurrent protection devices shall not exceed device protecting the feeder conductors based on the
the ampacity of the connected conductors. primary-secondary transformer ratio.
• All overcurrent devices are grouped. Note: When feeding through a transformer to supply a
panelboard, see 408.36(B).
• Connected conductors shall be protected from
physical damage.
10-7
See Figure 10-10 for the rules pertaining to outside

transformer connections from the secondary side of
transformers.

Figure 10-9. The above illustration shows the procedure

for sizing a 25 ft (7.5 m) connection from the secondary of

a transformer installed in an industrial plant.

OUTSIDE SECONDARY CONDUCTORS Figure 10-10. This illustration shows the rules for sizing the
240.21(C)(4) conductors and overcurrent protection device for a feeder
connection from a transformer located outside.
Outside conductors shall be permitted to be connected
to a feeder or be connected at the transformer secondary
without overcurrent protection at the connection. However,
all of the following conditions shall be complied with:
• The connected conductors are suitably protected
TRANSFORMER SECONDARY
from physical damage. CONDUCTORS IN LENGTHS OF
• The conductors terminate at a single circuit breaker OVER 10 FT (3 m) TO 25 FT (7.5 m)
or a single set of fuses that will limit the load to the 240.21(C)(6)
ampacity of the conductors. This single overcur-
rent protection device can supply any number of
additional overcurrent devices of its load side. Conductors over 10 ft (3 m) and up to 25 ft (7.5 m) in length
shall be permitted to be connected to the secondary side
• The overcurrent protection device for the conduc-
of a transformer. When applying this section, the 25 ft (7.5
tors is an integral part of a disconnecting means or
m) secondary connection shall be terminated in a single
shall be located immediately adjacent thereto.
overcurrent protection device (circuit breakers or fuses)
• The disconnecting means for the conductors are to limit the load and to also comply with the 1/3 rule when
installed at a readily accessible location either multiplied by the secondary-to-primary voltage ratio. The
outside of a building or structure or inside, nearest secondary conductors shall be protected from physical
the point of entrance of the conductors. damage and abuse. (See Figure 10-11)
10-8

overcurrent device is sized at a value (reflected to the
secondary by the transformer phase voltage ratio) of not

more than 150 percent of the secondary conductor ampacity.
(See Figure 10-13)
Additionally, the conductors shall be protected by a

differential relay with a trip setting equal to or less than the
conductor ampacity.
Note, a differential relay provides superior short-circuit

protection at a trip open value that is almost always well
below the conductor ampacity. (See Figure 10-13)

Figure 10-12. This illustration shows feeder and branch-
Figure 10-11. This illustration shows the rules for making a circuit conductors protected at the point where the
25 ft (7.5 m) secondary conductor connection in other than conductors receive their supply. [Also, see 240.21(C)(4)
industrial locations. (usually a commercial tap) for a similar rule.]
SUPERVISED INDUSTRIAL SHORT-CIRCUIT AND GROUND-

INSTALLATIONS – FAULT PROTECTION
FEEDER AND BRANCH-CIRCUIT 240.92(C)(1)(3)
CONDUCTORS Conductors up to 100 ft (30 m) in length shall be permitted
240.92(A) if calculations are made under engineering supervision
and it is determined that the secondary conductors will be
Feeder and branch-circuit conductors shall be protected protected within recognized time-versus-current limits for all
at the point where the conductors receive their supply. short circuits and ground fault conditions that could occur.
However, this permits a variation of requirements for (See Figure 10-13)
transformer secondary conductors taken from separately
derived systems and outside feeder taps. (See Figure
10-12) OVERLOAD PROTECTION
240.92(C)(2)
SUPERVISED INDUSTRIAL To provide overload protection, the secondary conductors
INSTALLATIONS AND shall be permitted to be terminated in a single overcurrent
protection device or in lugs of the bus, if not more than six
CONNECTIONS UP TO 100 FT (30 m) overcurrent protection devices with a combined rating are
240.92(C)(1)(1) AND (C)(1)(2) installed that do not exceed the ampacity of the conductors.
Another method of protection is to provide overload current
Unprotected lengths of secondary conductors shall be relaying with the ability (design into) to trip either the primary
permitted at up to 100 ft (30 m) if the transformer primary overcurrent protection devices or the those downstream
10-9
overcurrent protection devices so that the load current does The secondary conductors shall be protected against (1)
not exceed the conductor’s ampacity. (See Figure 10-14) overloads, with the additional stipulation that (2) they are
suitably protected against physical damage. (See Figure
10-15)
Transformer Tip: In some cases, the short circuit and
ground fault protective arrangements may provide
overload protection. If engineering calculations prove Transformer Tip: Such protection shall be permitted
this to be the case, separate overload protection is not to be provided by six or less overcurrent protection
really needed. devices where the total rating does not exceed the
ampacity of the conductors routed per 240.92(D). Up to
six overcurrent protection devices can be used instead
of just one overcurrent protection device at the feeder
SUPERVISED INDUSTRIAL termination.
INSTALLATIONS
OUTSIDE FEEDER TAPS
240.92(D)
Section 240.92(D) permits alternate means of protecting
transformer secondary conductors in supervised industrial
installations where the transformer is located outside.

Figure 10-13. This illustration shows methods of providing short-circuit and ground-fault protection for transformers and
transformer secondary conductors not exceeding 100 ft.
10-10

Figure 10-14. This illustration shows methods of providing

overload protection.

Note, relays are capable of opening the OCPD on the

primary side of the transformer if a ground-fault or short-
circuit should occur or an overload condition develop.

TAP RULE SECTIONS
Supply Side Service Taps Figure 10-15. This illustration shows an alternate means
• 230.82 permitted for protecting conductors tapped to a transformer
Taps From Feeder Circuits located outside.
•240.21(B)
Taps From Transformers
• 240.21(C)
• 240.92(C)
• 240.92(E)
Taps For Motor Circuits
• 430.28
10-11
Name Date
Chapter 10: Sizing Transformers and Connections
Section Answer
1. The size transformer required to supply a closed delta-connected secondary _____________ _____________
system can be found by multiplying the single-phase load in VA by _____
percent.
(a) 33 (b) 50
(c) 58 (d) 67
2. The size transformer required to supply a closed delta-connected secondary _____________ _____________
system can be found by multiplying the three-phase load in VA by _____
percent.
(a) 33 (b) 50
(c) 58 (d) 67
3. Open delta-connected secondary systems can be determined by calculating the _____________ _____________
single-phase load at 100 percent and the three-phase load at _____ percent.
(a) 33 (b) 50
(c) 58 (d) 67
4. Tap conductors not over 10 ft (7.5 m) long supplying the primary shall have _____________ _____________
an ampacity at least _____ of the rating of the feeder OCPD.
(a) 1/4 (b) 1/3
(c) 1/2 (d) 3/4
5. Unprotected lengths of secondary conductors for supervised industrial _____________ _____________

installations shall be permitted at up to _____ ft, if the transformer primary
overcurrent device is sized at a value (reflected to the secondary by the
transformer phase voltage ratio) of not more than 150 percent of the secondary
conductor ampacity.
(a) 10 (b) 25
(c) 75 (d) 100
6. To provide overload protection, the secondary conductors for supervised _____________ _____________
industrial installations shall be permitted to be terminated in a single overcurrent
protection device or in lugs of the bus, if not more than _____ overcurrent
protection devices with a combined rating are installed that do not exceed the
ampacity of the conductors.
(a) 2 (b) 3
(c) 6 (d) 8
7. The rating of the overcurrent device protecting the primary of the transformer, _____________ _____________
multiplied by the primary to the secondary voltage ratio, shall not exceed _____
times the ampacity of the secondary conductor for field installations where the
secondary conductors (not over 10 ft long) leave the enclosure or vault.
(a) 6 (b) 10
(c) 12 (d) 25
8. Transformer secondary conductors can extend _____ ft. _____________ _____________

(a) 100 (b) 125
(c) 150 (d) 175
10-13
Section Answer
_____________ _____________ 9. Conductors up to _____ ft in length shall be permitted if calculations are

made under engineering supervision and it is determined that the secondary
conductors for supervised industrial installations will be protected within
recognized time versus current limits for all short circuit and ground fault
conditions that could occur.
(a) 10 (b) 25
(c) 75 (d) 100
_____________ _____________ 10. The size transformer required to supply a closed delta-connected secondary
system can be found by multiplying the single-phase and three-phase loads
in VA by _____ percent.
(a) 33 (b) 50
(c) 58 (d) 67
_____________ _____________ 11. Transformer secondary conductors in lengths of over 10 ft and up to _____
ft in length shall be permitted to be connected to the secondary side of a
transformer that is not installed in an industrial site.
(a) 10 (b) 12
(c) 15 (d) 25
_____________ _____________ 12. What size wye-connected transformers are required for a building with a total
connected load of 25 kVA for single-phase loads and 40 kVA for three-phase
loads?
_____________ _____________ 13. What size closed delta-connected transformers are required for a building
with a total connected load of 25 kVA for single-phase loads and 40 kVA for
three-phase loads?
_____________ _____________ 14. What size open delta-connected transformer (lighting and power) is required
for a building with a total connected load of 25 kVA for single-phase loads and
40 kVA for three-phase loads?
_____________ _____________ 15. What are the secondary amps for an autotransformer rated 2 kVA with a
secondary voltage of 24 volts?
_____________ _____________ 16. What is the size and rating of an autotransformer with a 24 volt secondary
voltage serving a 230 volt motor with a connected load of 10,000 volt-amps?
_____________ _____________ 17. What size THWN copper conductors and overcurrent protection device are
required for a 10 ft transformer secondary connection with a pre-calculated
load of 168 amps?
_____________ _____________ 18. What size primary and secondary THWN copper conductors and secondary
overcurrent protection device is required for a 25 ft connection from a feeder
with a 200 amp overcurrent protection device having a 480 volt primary and
208 volt secondary?
_____________ _____________ 19. What size connected THWN copper conductors and overcurrent protection
device is required for a separately derived system installed in an industrial
location with a pre-calculated load of 312 amps? Note, the load on the
secondary side never exceeds 248 amps.
_____________ _____________ 20. What size connected THWN copper conductors and overcurrent protection
device are required for an outside transformer with an output on the secondary
of 280 amps? Note, the load on the secondary side never exceeds 224 amps.
10-14
11
Protecting
Transformers
Transformers must be sized with enough capacity to supply power to loads

served and allow loads with high inrush currents to start and run. In addition,
they must be protected by properly sized overcurrent protection devices and
be equipped with conductors having allowable ampacity ratings to supply
the loads. Overcurrent protection devices and conductors must be designed
and installed in such a manner to safely protect the windings of such power
sources from dangerous short circuits, ground faults, and overloads.
The overcurrent protection devices and conductors are sometimes required to be adjusted in size
in order to protect the transformer windings or the conductors from overload conditions
Note 1: When selecting the actual size circuit breaker or fuse for the protection of electrical systems
rated over 1000 volts, see one of the ANSI C Standards.
For example, for fuses rated at 100 amps or less, see ANSI C 37.46 and for over 100
amps, see ANSI C 37.46 and ANSI C 37.40. When circuit breakers are used to protect
high-voltage systems, see ANSI C 37.06. However, there may be protection designs that
require reference to other ANSI C Standards, and the designer must be prepared to refer
to such standards.
Note 2: When performing maintenance on transformers, review Chapter 21 and Annex L in NFPA
70B.
CALCULATING PRIMARY AND to supply the primary of a transformer to step up or step

down the voltage. To determine the FLA of a transformer,
SECONDARY CURRENT the kVA of the transformer must be divided by the voltage
times 1.732 if the supply is three-phase. [See Figures 11-
The transformer's primary amp rating shall be equivalent 1(a) and (b)]
to the amps of the connected load when installing a feeder

Figure 11-1(a). Finding amps for a single-phase transformer.

Figure 11-1(b). Finding amps for a three-phase transformer.
11-2
Protecting Transformers
FINDING AMPERAGE OVERCURRENT PROTECTION

The kVA or amp rating for the primary or secondary of a
450.3(A) AND (B)
transformer can be determined for a single-phase system
There are two sets of rules when providing overcurrent
by applying the following formulas:
protection of transformers: rules for transformers rated over
kVA = (volts x amps) ÷ 1000 1000 volts [450.3(A)] and transformers of 1000 volts or
amps = (kVA x 1000) ÷ volts less [450.3(B)]. The overcurrent protection device may be
placed in the primary only or in the primary and secondary
The following formula must be applied to determine the side of the transformer.
ratio of a transformer having a 480 volt primary and 240
volt secondary:
PRIMARY ONLY – OVER 1000 VOLTS
primary ÷ secondary 450.3(A) AND TABLE 450.3(A)
480 V ÷ 240 V
2:1 ratio
The term primary is often inferred in the field as being
The amp rating for the primary or secondary can be the high side, and the term secondary as the low side of
determined for a three-phase system by applying the the transformer. This is really not the proper terminology.
following formula: The primary is the input side of the transformer and the
secondary is the output side. Thus, voltage has nothing to
kVA = (volts x 1.732) x (amps ÷ 1000) do with “high” or “low.”
amps = (kVA x 1000) ÷ (volts x 1732)
Each transformer shall be protected by an overcurrent
device in the primary side. If the overcurrent protection
CALCULATING FAULT CURRENTS device is fuses, they shall be rated not greater than 250
percent (2.5 times) of the rated primary current of the
When determining the fault current of a transformer, the transformer. When circuit breakers are used, they shall
interrupting-current rating of the overcurrent protection be set not greater than 300 percent (3 times) of the rated
device shall be determined for the amount of fault-current primary current. (See Figure 11-2)
to be delivered at the terminals of the transformer when
a short circuit develops at that point. The current-limiting This overcurrent protection device shall be permitted to be
characteristic of a transformer at its terminals is called mounted in the vault or at the transformer, if approved for
impedance. The impedance of a transformer (always such purpose. It shall also be permitted to be mounted in
expressed as a percentage) is used for sizing the interrupting the panelboard and be designed to protect the windings and
capacity rating of fuses and circuit breakers used to protect circuit conductors supplying the transformer.
the primary of a transformer.
If not installed in a vault, the overcurrent proteciton device
shall be permitted to be installed outdoors on a pole, with
For example: What is the interrupting capacity or a disconnecting means installed in the vault to disconnect
fault-current rating of a 25 kVA transformer with a supply conductors.
1.5 percent impedance supplied by a 120/240 volt,
single-phase secondary? APPLYING NOTE 1
TABLE 450.3(A), NOTE 1
Step 1: Finding FLA
FLA = (kVA x 1000) ÷ V Where 250 percent (2.5 times) of the rated primary current of
FLA = (25 kVA x 1000) ÷ 240 V
the transformer does not correspond to a standard rating of
FLA = 104 A
a fuse, the next higher standard rating [240.6(A) and Table
240.6(A)] shall be permitted.
Step 2: Finding interrupting capacity
Fault current = FLA ÷ impedance
Fault current = 104 A ÷ .015 PRIMARY AND SECONDARY
Fault current = 6933 A OVER 1000 VOLTS
Solution: The fault current is 6933 amps. 450.3(A) AND TABLE 450.3(A)
Note, the greater the impedance rating is, the lower A transformer over 1000 volts, nominal, having an
the fault current will be, in amps. overcurrent protection device on the secondary side rated to
open not greater than the values listed in Table 450.3(A), or
11-3
a transformer equipped with a coordinated thermal overload See Figure 11-4 for certain design conditions that permit the
protection by the manufacturer, shall not be required to primary overcurrent protection device to be used to protect
have individual protection in the primary. However, a feeder the primary and secondary sides of two-wire to two-wire
overcurrent protection device rated or set to open at not connected transformers and three-wire to three-wire delta-
greater than the values listed in Table 450.3(A) shall be connected transformers per 240.4(F) and 240.21(C)(1).
provided.
NONSUPERVISED LOCATIONS
SUPERVISED LOCATIONS 450.3(A) AND TABLE 450.3(A)
450.3(A) AND TABLE 450.3(A)
Overcurrent protection for a nonsupervised location shall be
Overcurrent protection shall be permitted to be placed in permitted to be placed in the primary and secondary side
the primary and secondary side of high-voltage transformers of high-voltage transformers if the overcurrent protection
if the overcurrent protection devices are designed and devices are designed and installed according to the
installed according to the provisions listed in Table 450.3(A). provisions listed in Table 450.3(A).
Where the facility has trained engineers and maintenance
If the secondary voltage is 1000 volts or less, the overcurrent
personnel, the overcurrent protection device for the
protection device and conductors on the secondary side
secondary shall be be sized at not more than 250 percent of
shall be sized at 125 percent of the FLC rating. Overcurrent
the FLC for voltage of 1000 volts or less. With higher voltage
on the secondary side of the transformer, the percentages protection devices sized at 125 percent of the FLC protect
for sizing the overcurrent protection devices shall be the conductors and windings of the transformer from
selected from Table 450.3(A) based on the particular voltage dangerous overload conditions. With higher voltage (over
level. [See Figures 11-3(a) and (b)] 1000 volts) on the secondary side of the transformer, the
percentages for sizing the overcurrent protection devices
shall be selected from Table 450.3(A) (any location) based
on the particular voltage level. (See Figure 11-5)

Figure 11-2. If the overcurrent protection devices is fuses, they shall be rated not greater than 250 percent (2.5 times)
of the rated primary current of the transformer. When circuit breakers are used, they must be set not greater than 300
percent (3 times) of the rated primary current.
11-4

Figure 11-3(a). Sizing the primary and secondary side of a transformer in a supervised location. Note: When actually
sizing OCPDs for high-voltage systems, review the "For Example" on page 11-1 in thie Chapter.
11-5

Figure 11-3(b). Sizing the primary and secondary side of a transformer in a supervised location.
11-6

Figure 11-4. Sizing the overcurrent protection device for a single-phase, two-wire system and a three-phase, three-wire
system. Note: When sizing and selecting OCPDs for low-voltage systems, see Table 240.6(A) in the NEC.
11-7
NONSUPERVISED LOCATIONS, IN ARE CONSIDERED AS

TRANSFORMERS IN ANY LOCATION HAVING IMPEDANCE RATINGS OF 0 TO 10%.
SERVICE EQUIPMENT METAL CONDUIT

CB
PRIMARY TRANSFORMER
SECONDARY
UTILITY SUPPLY
MBJ GEC
) OCPD
GEC

GES
WORKING
CLEARANCES

Figure 11-5. Sizing the primary and secondary side of a transformer in a nonsupervised (any) location.

Figure 11-6.
of 1000 volts or less, nominal, having an individual overcurrent protection device on the primary
A transformer

side shall

be sized at not more than 125 percent of the transformer's full-load current rating.

11-8

PRIMARY ONLY PRIMARY

1000 VOLTS OR LESS 2 AMPS OR MORE BUT LESS THAN 9 AMPS
450.3(B) AND TABLE 450.3(B) 450.3(B) AND TABLE 450.3(B)
A transformer 1000 volts or less, nominal, having an Where the rated primary current of a transformer is less than
individual overcurrent protection device on the primary 9 amps but more than 2 amps, an overcurrent protection
side shall be sized at not more than 125 percent of the device rated or set at no more than 167 percent of the
transformer's full-load current rating. primary current shall be used. (See Figure 11-8)
Note, with the overcurrent protection device and conductors

sized at 125 percent or less of the transformer's FLC,
the supply conductors and transformer windings shall be
considered protected from overload conditions. It appears
that individual protection in the primary is not recognized

per 450.3(B) and Table 450.3(B). (See Figure 11-6)

PRIMARY

9 AMPS OR MORE

450.3(B) AND TABLE 450.3(B)

Where the rated primary current of a transformer is 9 amps
or more and 125 percent of this current does not correspond

to a standard rating of a fuse or circuit breaker, the next size
shall be permitted to be used per 240.6(A). (See Figure
11-7)

Figure 11-8. Where the rated primary current of a

transformer is less than 9 amps but 2 amps or more, an
overcurrent protection device rated or set at no more than

167 percent of the primary current shall be used.

PRIMARY

LESS THAN 2 AMPS
Figure 11-7. Where the rated primary current of a 450.3(B) AND TABLE 450.3(B)
transformer is 9 amps or more and 125 percent of this
current does not correspond to a standard rating of a fuse When the rated primary current of a transformer is less than
or circuit breaker, the next size shall be permitted to be used 2 amps, an overcurrent protection device rated or set at not
per 240.6(A) and Note 1 to Table 450.3(B). more than 300 percent shall be used. (See Figure 11-9)
11-9

Figure 11-9. When the rated primary current of a transformer is less than 2 amps, an overcurrent protection device rated
or set at not more than 300 percent shall be used, unless 430.72(C)(4) is applied.
PRIMARY AND SECONDARY 9 AMPS OR MORE

1000 VOLTS OR LESS TABLE 450.3(B), NOTE 1
450.3(B) AND TABLE 450.3(B) Where the rated secondary current of a transformer is 9
amps or more and 125 percent of this current does not
Combination protection shall be permitted to be provided
correspond to a standard rating of a fuse or circuit breaker,
for both the primary and secondary sides of a transformer.
the next size shall be permitted to be used per 240.6(A).
A current value of 250 percent of the rated primary current
of the transformer shall be used if 125 percent of the
rated primary current of the transformer is not sufficient to
allow loads with high inrush currents to start and operate. CALCULATING OVERCURRENT
However, the secondary overcurrent protection device PROTECTION DEVICES FOR
shall be sized at 125 percent of the rated secondary full-
load current of the transformer. Where the rated secondary AUTOTRANSFORMERS
current of a transformer is less than 9 amps, an overcurrent 450.4
device rated or set at no more than 167 percent of secondary
current shall be used. (See Figure 11-10) Autotransformers rated at 1000 volts or less shall be
protected by an overcurrent protection device installed on
their primary side. The size of the overcurrent protection
device is found by multiplying the full-load current rating of
the autotransformer times the percentage.
11-10
CB
EMT
TRANSFORMER
kVA
PRIMARY
OCPD SECONDARY
PRI = 3-WIRE
FLA x 250%
SBJ

OCPD
FLA x 125%
GEC

ONE LINE DIAGRAM

Figure 11-10. Sizing overcurrent protection device for the primary and secondary side of a transformer rated 1000 volts
or less.
OVERCURRENT PROTECTION GROUNDING AUTOTRANSFORMERS

9 AMPS OR MORE 450.5
450.4(A)
Autotransformers are connected to three-phase, three-wire
When sizing the overcurrent protection device for an ungrounded systems to derive a three-phase, four-wire
autotransformer rated 9 amps or more, the full-load input grounded system. Three autotransformers connected in
current rating of the autotransformer shall be multiplied by a star (wye) configuration to a three-phase ungrounded
125 percent and the next size device shall be permitted to system converts to a three-phase, four-wire grounded
be used. system.
Autotransformers are installed today because many

OVERCURRENT PROTECTION electrical systems are not grounded. Existing ungrounded
LESS THAN 9 AMPS delta systems are grounded with autotransformers to derive
450.4(A), Ex. a neutral. Three-phase zigzag transformers are generally
installed for this purpose.
When sizing the overcurrent protection device for an
autotransformer rated less than 9 amps, the full-load input
current rating of the autotransformer shall be multiplied
by 167 percent and the next lower size device shall be
permitted to be used.
11-11
THREE-WIRE CIRCUIT TO DETECTING GROUNDS ON

THREE-PHASE, FOUR-WIRE CIRCUIT THREE-PHASE, THREE-WIRE
450.5(A) SYSTEMS
450.5(B)
Grounding autotransformers are connected to derive a
neutral from a three-phase, three-wire ungrounded system The following conditions shall apply when autotransformers
to a three-phase, four-wire grounded system. The following are used to detect grounds on three-phase, three-wire
conditions shall apply: systems:
• Proper connections shall be made. • Proper rating.
• Overcurrent protection shall be provided. • Overcurrent protection sized adequately.
• Transformer fault sensing shall be installed. • Ground reference for damping transitory over voltages.
• Rating shall be adequately sized.
RATING
CONNECTIONS 450.5(B)(1)
450.5(A)(1)
Autotransformers shall have a continuous neutral current
Transformers shall be directly connected to the ungrounded rating sufficient for the specified ground fault current that
(phase) conductors with no switches or overcurrent could develop in the system.
protection devices installed between the connection and
the autotransformer.
450.5(B)(2)
450.5(A)(2) The overcurrent protection device shall open simultaneously
with a common trip all ungrounded (phase) conductors and
An overcurrent protection sensing device shall be designed be set to trip at not more than 125 percent of the rated phase
to trip at 125 percent of its continuous current per phase current of the transformer.
or neutral rating. The next higher standard rating shall be
permitted to be installed where the input current is 9 amps or Note, 42 percent of the overcurrent protection device's rating
more and calculated at 125 percent. Input current of 2 amps may be used if connected in the autotransformer's neutral
or less shall not exceed 167 percent. (See Figure 11-11) connection. When dealing with high-impedance grounded
systems per 250.36, review the Ex. to 450.5(B)(2) and
110.9. (See Figure 11-12)
TRANSFORMER FAULT SENSING
450.5(A)(3)
A main switch or common-trip overcurrent protection device
for a three-phase, four-wire system shall be provided with
fault sensing systems to guard against single-phasing or
internal faults.
RATING
450.5(A)(4)
Autotransformers shall be designed with a continuous
neutral current rating sufficient to handle the maximum
possible unbalanced neutral load current that could flow in
the four-wire system.
11-12

Figure 11-11. An overcurrent protection sensing

device shall be designed to trip at 125 percent of its continuous current
per phase or neutral rating.

Figure 11-12. The overcurrent

protection device shall open simultaneously with a common trip of all ungrounded (phase)

conductors and
be set to trip at not more than 125 percent of the rated phase current of the transformer.

11-13

Name Date
Chapter 11: Protecting Transformers
Section Answer
1. When circuit breakers are used to protect a transformer over 600 volts they _____________ _____________
shall be set not greater than _____ percent of the rated primary current.
(a) 250 (b) 300
(c) 400 (d) 600
2. Where _____ percent of the rated primary of the transformer does not _____________ _____________
correspond to a standard rating of a fuse, the next higher standard rating shall
be permitted.
(a) 250 (b) 300
(c) 400 (d) 600
3. Transformers located in supervised locations shall have the overcurrent _____________ _____________
protection device for the secondary sized at not more than _____ percent of
the FLC for voltages, 1000 volts or less.
(a) 150 (b) 200
(c) 250 (d) 300
4. If the secondary voltage is 1000 volts or less for transformers located in _____________ _____________
nonsupervised locations, the overcurrent protection device and conductors
on the secondary side shall be sized at _____ percent of the FLC rating.
(a) 100 (b) 125
(c) 175 (d) 225
5. A transformer rated 1000 volts or less having a primary overcurrent protection _____________ _____________
device only (rounding down) on the primary side shall be sized at not more
than _____ percent of the transformer’s full-load current rating.
(a) 100 (b) 125
(c) 175 (d) 225
6. Where the rated primary current of a transformer is less than 9 amps but more _____________ _____________
than 2 amps, an overcurrent protection device rated or set at not more than
_____ percent of the primary current shall be permitted.
(a) 125 (b) 133
(c) 167 (d) 200
7. When the rated primary current of a transformer is less than 2 amps, an _____________ _____________
overcurrent protection device rated or set at not more than _____ percent
shall be used.
(a) 133 (b) 167
(c) 250 (d) 300
8. Transformers rated 1000 volts or less may have a current value of _____ _____________ _____________
percent of the rated primary current if 125 percent of the rated primary current
of the transformer is not sufficient to allow loads with high inrush current to
start and operate.
(a) 133 (b) 167
(c) 250 (d) 300
11-15
Section Answer
_____________ _____________ 9. When sizing the overcurrent protection device for an autotransformer rated 9
amps or more, the full-load input current rating of the autotransformer shall
be multiplied by _____ percent and the next size standard device shall be
permitted to be selected.
(a) 125 (b) 167
(c) 250 (d) 300
_____________ _____________ 10. When sizing the overcurrent protection device for an autotransformer rated
9 amps or less, the full-load input current rating of the autotransformer shall
be multiplied by _____ percent and the next size standard device shall be
permitted to be selected.
(a) 125 (b) 167
(c) 250 (d) 300
_____________ _____________ 11. What is the primary and secondary amperage for a 20 kVA, single-phase
transformer with a 480 volt primary and 240 volt secondary?
_____________ _____________ 12. What is the primary and secondary amperage for a 20 kVA, three-phase
transformer with a 480 volt primary and 240 volt secondary?
_____________ _____________ 13. What is the interrupting capacity (IC) rating of a 20 kVA transformer with a 1.5
percent impedance supplied by a 120/240 volt, single-phase secondary?
_____________ _____________ 14. What size overcurrent protection device using a circuit breaker is required on
the primary side for a 1500 kVA, 12,470 volt, single-phase secondary?
_____________ _____________ 15. What size overcurrent protection device is required for the primary and
secondary side of a 400 kVA, three-phase transformer with a 4160 volt primary
and 480 volt secondary installed in a supervised location? [impedance (Z) is
less than 6 percent].
secondary side of a 500 kVA, three-phase transformer with a 13,800 volt
primary and 4160 volt secondary installed in a supervised location? [impedance
(Z) is less than 6 percent].
_____________ _____________ 17. What size overcurrent protection device is required for a two-wire to two-wire,
480 volt primary and a 240 volt secondary transformer with 3 AWG THWN
copper conductors on the secondary side?
_____________ _____________ 18. What size overcurrent protection device is required for a three-wire to three-
wire delta, 480 volt primary and a 240 volt secondary transformer with 500
KCMIL THWN copper conductors on the secondary side?
secondary side of a 400 kVA, three-phase transformer with a 4160 volt primary
and 480 volt secondary installed in a nonsupervised location? [impedance (Z)
is less than 6 percent].
_____________ _____________ 20. What size overcurrent protection device is required for the primary side (only)
of 25 kVA, single-phase transformer with a 240 volt primary and 120 volt
secondary?
_____________ _____________ 21. What size overcurrent protection device is required for the primary side (only)
of .7 kVA, single-phase transformer with a 480 volt primary?
11-16
Section Answer
22. What size overcurrent protection device is required for the primary and _____________ _____________
secondary side of 40 kVA three-phase transformer with a 480 volt primary and
208 volt secondary?
23. What is the amount of current needed to trip open an overcurrent protection _____________ _____________
sensing device for a zigzag transformer with a 150 amp continuous load?
24. The _____% times the transformer's full load current in amps determines the _____________ _____________
size of the primary's overcurrent protection device.
(a) 125 (b) 150
(c) 175 (d) 250
25. If primary protection of _____% is provided in the transformer's primary only _____________ _____________
then secondary protection is not required.
(a) 125 (b) 250
(c) 300 (d) 600
11-17
12
Secondary Ties
In large industrial plants and facilities, a “network” distribution system is
usually utilized for supplying power loads. Three-phase banks of transformers
are located at various points throughout the plant or facility. There are normally
two high-tension primary circuits feeding such transformers. A double-throw
switch that is located at each transformer bank allows either primary circuit
to serve any bank of transformers. The primary circuit conductors are sized
with enough capacity so that either circuit is capable of carrying the entire
load if a fault develops in the other circuit. Secondary voltage is usually
three-phase systems rated 1000 volts or less. The transformer secondaries
are connected together in a network system, and all transformers are used
to feed all the loads involved that can be all at once or as necessary.
TIE CIRCUITS

450.6

Secondary ties shall be protected at both ends, and such
protection shall be permitted to be fuses based on the

current-carrying capacity of the conductors per 450.6(A)

or the ties protected by a limiter installed at each end per

450.6(A)(3). A limiter protects the elements against a short
circuit; however, it does not provide overload protection.

Usually, limiters, rather than fuses, are used for protection
of the ties due to the fact they are very current limiting and
will protect the circuit elements from damage during short-
circuit conditions.

There is normally a load center connected to the tie at the
points where a transformer bank connects to the tie. The

transformer is protected by a circuit breaker in the secondary
leads between the transformer and the load center. Circuit

breaker setting shall be permitted to be up to 250 percent

(2.5 times) of the transformer's secondary current rating

per 450.6(B).

A reverse power relay shall be provided per 450.6(B) that
opens the circuit in case the transformer should fail for any

reason. A reverse power relay is provided to prevent current

from being fed to an out-of-service transformer from the
other transformers of the network. Where the secondary Figure 12-1. The ampacity of the ties connecting conductors
voltage is greater than 150 volts to ground, to ensure shall not be less than 67 percent of the rated secondary
adequate protection, ties shall be provided with a switch at current of the largest transformer in the tie circuit.
each end per 450.6(A)(5).
LOADS CONNECTED BETWEEN

LOADS AT TRANSFORMER SUPPLY TRANSFORMER SUPPLY POINTS
POINTS ONLY 450.6(A)(2)
450.6(A)(1) Where the load is connected to the tie at any point between
the transformer supply points, and overcurrent protection is
Where transformers are tied together in parallel and not provided by the provisions listed in Article 240, the rated
connected by tie conductors that do not have overcurrent ampacity of the tie shall not be not less than 100 percent
protection as per Article 240, the ampacity of the ties of the rated secondary current of the largest transformer
connecting conductors shall not be less than 67 percent of connected to the secondary tie system except as provided
the rated secondary current of the largest transformer in the in 450.6(A)(4). (See Figure 12-2)
tie circuit. (See Figure 12-1)
This rule applies mainly where the loads are connected
This rule applies where the loads are at the transformer between the transformer supply points per 450.6(A)(2).
supply points per 450.6(A)(1).
The paralleling of transformers is common, but great care

should be exercised to ensure that the transformers are TIE CIRCUIT PROTECTION
similar in all conditions of use. If they are not, one transformer 450.6(A)(3)
will try to carry more of the load than the other transformer
load. If the transformers are of the same capacity and similar Sections 450.6(A)(1) and (A)(2) state that both ends of each
characteristics, they each, in theory, will carry 50 percent tie connection shall be provided with a protective device that
of the total load. The 67 percent allows for differences in opens at a certain temperature of the tie conductor. This
transformer sizes and thus allows for adjusting situations. prevents damage to the tie conductor and its insulation,
and such installations shall consist of:
12-2
Secondary Ties
• A limiter is a fusible-link cable connector. The limiter • Section 450.6(A)(4)(b) permits the loads to be con-
is selected and designed for the insulation, conduc- nected to the individual conductor(s) of each phase
tor material, etc., on the tie conductors. and without the protection listed in 450.6(A)(3) if, at
• A circuit breaker, actuated by devices having char- load connection points, the tie conductors of each
acteristics that are comparable to the above, can phase have a combined capacity of not less than
be used if designed and sized properly. 133 percent of the rated secondary current of the
largest transformer connected to the secondary
The above applies where the tie circuit protection is provided tie system. The total load of such taps shall not
per 450.6(A)(3), and the tie conductor shall fully comply with exceed the rated secondary current of the largest
all rules and regulations in such sections. transformer, and the loads shall be equally divided
on each phase and on the individual conductors of
each phase as closely as possible. (See Figure
12-3)

The use of multiple conductors on each phase and the

requirement that loads do not have to tap the multiple

conductors of the same phase might possibly set up

unbalanced current flow in the multiple conductors on the

same phase.

The requirement that the combined capacity of the multiple
conductors on the same phase is rated at 133 percent of

the secondary current of the largest transformer is satisfied.
Limiters are necessary at the tap or connections to the
transformers that are tied together to properly protect the
elements of the circuit.

The above applies where the interconnection of phase
conductors between the transformer supply points occurs,

per 450.6(A)(4)(a). Note: See 450.6(A)(4)(b) when the

interconnection is not as outlined above.

TIE CIRCUIT CONTROL
Figure 12-2. The rated ampacity of the tie shall not be 450.6(A)(5)
less than 100 percent of the rated secondary current of the
largest transformer connected to the secondary tie system If the operating voltage of secondary ties exceeds 150 volts
except as provided in 450.6(A)(4). to ground, there shall be a switch ahead of the limiters and tie
conductors that is capable of deenergizing the tie conductors
and the limiters. This switch shall comply with the following:
INTERCONNECTION OF PHASE
• The current rating of the switch shall not be less
CONDUCTORS BETWEEN than the current rating of the conductors connected
TRANSFORMER SUPPLY POINTS to such switch.
450.6(A)(4) • The switch shall be capable of opening its rated
current.
Where the tie consists of more than one conductor per • The switch shall not open under the magnetic forces
phase, the conductors of each phase shall be interconnected caused by short-circuit currents.
in order to create a load supply point. The protection required
in 450.6(A)(3) is to be provided in each tie conductor at this The above applies where the tie circuit control is located as
point, except as follows: mentioned in 450.6(A)(5).
12-3
UTILITY
TRANSFORMER

2000 kVA
1500 kVA

VOLTAGE

3 LATERALS
480 V BUS IN VOLTAGE
SWITCHGEAR 3
480 V

CB CB
LIMITERS

BUS TIES
250% OF SECONDARY A
TO THE TIE TO THE TIE
SYSTEM S SYSTEM S
LOAD LOAD

Figure 12-3. Section 450.6(A)(4)(a) permits the loads to
be connected to the individual conductor(s) of each phase

and without the protection listed in 450.6(A)(3) if, at load
connection points, the tie conductors of each phase have a

combined capacity of not less than 133 percent of the rated
secondary current of the largest transformer connected to Figure 12-4. When secondary ties from transformers are
the secondary tie system. used, an overcurrent device in the secondary of each
transformer that is rated or set at not greater than 250
percent (2.5 times) of the rated secondary current of the
transformer shall be provided.
FOR SECONDARY CONNECTIONS
450.6(B) RADIAL SUPPLY SYSTEMS
When secondary ties from transformers are used, an Radial low-voltage and high-voltage systems are systems
overcurrent device in the secondary of each transformer that provided with high voltage from the power company to
is rated or set at not greater than 250 percent (2.5 times) the plant’s transformer. Service equipment for low-voltage
of the rated secondary current of the transformer shall be systems and the service equipment for high-voltage systems
provided. In addition, there shall be a circuit breaker actuated are installed as needed.
by a reverse-current relay; the breaker shall be set at not
greater than the rated secondary current of the transformer.
Such overcurrent protection protects against overloads and RADIAL LOW-VOLTAGE SYSTEMS
short-circuit conditions, and the reverse-current relay and
circuit breaker shall be designed to handle any reversal of Radial low-voltage systems are installed with lower voltage
current flow into the transformer. (See Figure 12-4) feeders that are run to switchboards and load centers in
the plant. This type of installation is costly because larger
The above applies where overcurrent protection for conductors and conduits are installed and the elements and
secondary connections is installed to protect the system components of the load centers require lower voltage with
as required by 450.6(B). higher current ratings. (See Figure 12-5)
12-4
Secondary Ties
For example, if trouble were to develop between

switchgear 3 and switchgear 4, the circuit breakers

would remove the damaged load center. All other

switchgears connected to the loop would continue
to be in service. If switchgear 4 were damaged in

some way to create a fault condition, this fault condi-

tion would be cleared by one of the circuit breakers

installed from the service or in the loop system that

would disconnect switchgear 4. (See Figure 12-7)
Note, switchgear is considered a load center.

Figure 12-5. An installation of a radial low-voltage system
with wiring methods and components.

RADIAL HIGH-VOLTAGE SYSTEMS

Radial high-voltage systems can be installed to transformers

at each distribution point, and the voltage stepped down

to the desired operating level. This type of installation is

less costly due to the feeders requiring smaller conduits,
conductors, and equipment. This type of installation raises
the voltage on a feeder and lowers the current ratings for all

the elements and components for the feeder. (See Figure

12-6)
Figure 12-6. An installation of a radial high-voltage system
with wiring methods and components.
LOOP SUPPLY SYSTEMS

BUS-TIE LOOPS
The distribution loop supply system is superior to radial
low-voltage and high-voltage systems. Distribution loop Bus-tie distribution loop supply systems are installed to
supply systems are formed in a loop or circle by a pair of eliminate a complete shutdown of a feeder section that has
circuit breakers that are connected to the power company’s been damaged. The transformer, service equipment, or
supply loop. These circuit breakers are installed between any of the elements could have this type of damage to the
each transformer and load center connected to the loop. feeder system. The bus-tie loop feeder, in addition, has a
Protection is provided by the circuit breakers for any section second loop called the bus-tie loop feeder that is connected
of the feeders connected to the loop and also provides between the transformers forming the loop.
isolation in case of a fault or disorderly shutdown.
Circuit breakers protect these secondary connections
A distribution loop supply system would alleviate problems installed at each switchgear (load center) location. A
if trouble developed between two switchgear. The circuit continuous circle (bus-tie loop system) is formed from these
breakers would remove the damaged load center. loops at each switchgear from 1 through 4 and back to 1.
12-5
This continuous loop provides power to the service of the BUS-TIE CONDUCTORS
section if a fault or trouble develops at the transformer. (See
Figure 12-8) Bus-tie conductors or secondary conductors are low-voltage
(600 volts or less) secondary loop connections. Bus-ties
are used to connect two power sources to the secondaries
of two transformers. Overcurrent devices are set at 150
percent to limit the maximum current of the capacity of

the conductor where loads are connected at the supply

points. If protection is not provided for conductors rated at

150 percent or less, the current of the bus-tie shall be at
least 67 percent of the full-load current rating of the largest
transformer. (See Figure 12-9)

Figure 12-7. An installation of a distribution loop supply

system.

Figure 12-8. An installation of bus-tie conductors used in a Figure 12-9. An installation of bus-tie conductors calculated
loop system with components and equipment. at 67 percent and minimum amps selected.
12-6
Secondary Ties
The current-carrying capacity of the bus-tie conductor shall When loads are tapped, they shall be equally divided on
be 100 percent of the full-load current rating of the largest each phase and on the individual conductors of each phase,
transformer for loads connected from the secondary bus-tie as close as possible. (See Figure 12-12)
and not the transformer location. (See Figure 12-10) BUS-TIE
CONDUCTOR
FEEDER 3
The secondary tie can consist of a number of conductors, CONDUCTORS VOLTAGE
parallel per phase, with loads connected to individual
conductors between the locations of the transformers. The VOLTAGE
SWITCHGEAR
combined total rating of the conductors between stations
shall be at least 133 percent of the full-load secondary
current of the largest transformer, provided the loads are 2
CBs
4
not tapped to every one of the tie conductors. (See Figure
12-11)
VOLTAGE

TRANSFORMERS

1 SUPPLY VOLTAGE

MAIN SWITCHGEAR
USED AS SERVICE EQUIPMENT

LOAD 2
LOAD 1 LOAD 3 MULTIPLE
VOLTAGE BUS-TIES
CAPACITY 133%

CB

SWITCHGEAR

ISOLATION
SWITCHES

TRANSFORMERS

Figure 12-11. An installation of bus-tie conductors
calculated at 133 percent.

BUS-TIE PROTECTION

To protect conductors from short-circuit conditions, current

limiters or automatic circuit breakers shall be installed at
both ends of each tie. Current limiters can be used when
the operating voltage is above 150 volts-to-ground. A switch
shall be provided at either end of the tie and equal to the
Figure 12-10. An installation of bus-tie conductors conductor's ampacity. In addition, an overcurrent protection
calculated at 100 percent. device shall be installed in the secondary circuit of each
12-7
transformer and set at 250 percent or less of the rated full-

load current to protect the bus-tie conductors. (See Figure BUS-TIE
DISCONNECT
12-13) SWITCHES CONDUCTORS LIMITERS
If reverse current exceeding the full-load current of a

transformer tries to flow into the unit, a reverse-current relay CB
SIZED AT 250%
shall be installed to actuate a circuit breaker. The secondary OR LESS OF
SEC. FLC
windings of the transformer are disconnected from the circuit )
breaker actuated by the reverse-current relay due to faults
or current feedback. TRANSFORMERS
PRIMARY AND
SECONDARY SWITCHGEAR
PROTECTIVE UNITS AND BUS

Figure 12-13. An installation for protection of bus-tie

conductors.
BUS-TIE
CONDUCTOR
3 CBs
SWITCHGEAR

SWITCHGEAR

2 4

MAIN SWITCHGEAR

USED AS SERVICE
EQUIPMENT

TRANSFORMERS

1

TWO HIGH-VOLTAGE PS 2
SUPPLY LINES
PS 1

Figure 12-14. An installation of a simple network power
system.

Figure 12-12. An installation of loads divided evenly on ties

to prevent unbalanced loading.
NETWORK POWER SYSTEMS

A simple network power system consists of two power
sources fed into a loop and connected to transformers.
Transformers 1 and 3 are connected to power source PS1.
Transformers 2 and 4 are connected to power source PS2.
In case one of the transformers develops trouble, switches
are installed to provide a disconnecting means. (See Figure
12-14)
12-8
Name Date
Chapter 12: Secondary Ties
Section Answer
1. Where transformers are tied together in parallel and connected by tie conductors _____________ _____________
that do not have overcurrent protection, the ampacity of the ties connecting
conductors shall not be less than _____ percent of the rated secondary current
of the largest transformer in the tie circuit.
(a) 33 (b) 50
(c) 67 (d) 75
2. Where the load is connected to the tie at any point between the transformer _____________ _____________
supply points, and overcurrent protection is not provided, the rated ampacity
of the tie shall not be less than _____ percent of the rated secondary current
of the largest transformer connected to the secondary tie system.
(a) 100 (b) 115
(c) 125 (d) 150
3. If the operating voltage of secondary ties exceeds _____ volts-to-ground, there _____________ _____________
shall be a switch ahead of the limiters and tie conductors that is capable of
deenergizing the tie conductors and the limiters.
(a) 50 (b) 120
(c) 150 (d) 240
4. When secondary ties from transformers are used, an overcurrent device in the _____________ _____________
secondary of each transformer that is rated or set at not greater than _____
percent of the rated secondary current of the transformer shall be provided.
(a) 125 (b) 250
(c) 300 (d) 400
5. Bus-tie distribution _____ supply systems are installed to eliminate a complete _____________ _____________
shutdown of a feeder section that has been damaged.
(a) radial (b) feeder
(c) branch (d) loop
6. Where loads are connected between transformer supply points, the tie ampacity _____________ _____________
shall not be less than _____%.
(a) 50 (b) 75
(c) 80 (d) 100
7. Loads connected at transformer's supply points only shall be not less _____________ _____________
than _____%.
(a) 50 (b) 55
(c) 75 (d) 100
8. Where the secondary voltage is greater than _____ volts to ground, to ensure _____________ _____________
adequate protection,.
(a) 150 (b) ties
9. In tie circuits, the overcurrent protection device (CB) shall be permitted to be _____________ _____________
up _____%
(a) 250 (b) 300
(c) 400 (d) 600
12-9
Section Answer
_____________ _____________ 10. A radial low-voltage system is usually supplied by _____ transformer(s).
(a) one (b) two
(c) three (d) four
12-10
13
Windings and
Components
Transformer windings are connected for either additive or subtractive polarity
and connected in a delta or wye configuration to supply either single-phase
or three-phase voltage to service equipment or other electrical equipment.
Windings must be connected for the proper polarity for the current to flow
through the windings in the proper direction.
TESTING WINDINGS
When testing transformer windings for a delta- or wye-connected configuration to supply single-
phase or three-phase voltages to the service equipment or other electrical equipment, the following
polarity checks must be made to verify if they are connected in:
(1) additive polarity or
(2) subtractive polarity.
ADDITIVE POLARITY
The induced voltage in the primary and secondary windings will be in opposite directions for
transformer windings connected in additive polarity. Additive connected transformer windings
are wound in the same direction. However, a subtractive transformer can be used as an additive
transformer by reversing the flow of current through the windings.
Note, the overcurrent protection device will trip or the transformer will not operate properly if one
of the windings is accidently connected in subtractive polarity. (See Figure 13-1)
L2 L3
L1
PRIMARY INPUT
Transformer Note: This is under the assumption
H1 H2 H1 H2 H1 H2
that the primary voltage is higher than the secondary.
Warning: A lower voltage may have to be applied to
measure the voltage safely if the voltage is high. (See
X2 X1 X2 X1 X2 X1
Figure 13-3)
SECONDARY OUTPUT CURRENT FLOW
L1 L2 L3 X0
ADDITIVE POLARITY
L2 L3
L1

L2 L3
L1 H1 H2 H1 H2 H1 H2
H1 H2 H1 H2 H1 H2
X1 X2 X1 X2 X1 X2
X2 X1 X2 X1 X2 X1 L3 SUB. FLOW SUB. FLOW

L2 L1 X0
SUBTRACTIVE (SUB.) POLARITY CURRENT
L1 ADDITIVE FLOW L2 X0 FLOW
L3

CONNECTION IS WRONG FOR
CURRENT FLOW THROUGH ADDITIVE POLARITY L3
THE WINDINGS IS ADDITIVE. L1 L2

H1 H2 H1 H2 H1 H2

X1 X2 X1 X2 X1 X2
Figure 13-1. Transformer windings connected for additive
L1 SUB. FLOW
polarity with one connection subtractive. L2 L3 X0
CONNECTION IS WRONG
CURRENT FLOW THROUGH THE FOR SUBTRACTIVE POLARITY
WINDINGS IS SUBTRACTIVE.
SUBTRACTIVE POLARITY

The induced voltage and current in the primary and
secondary windings will be in the same direction for
transformer windings connected in subtractive polarity. Figure 13-2. Transformer windings connected for subtractive
A subtractive transformer can be used as an additive polarity with one connection additive.
transformer by reversing the flow of current through its
windings. The overcurrent protection device will trip or the
transformer will not operate properly if one of the windings
is accidentally connected in additive polarity. (See Figure
13-2) POLARITY CONNECTIONS AND
IDENTIFYING TERMINALS
The letter H and accompanying numbers are used for
TESTING FOR POLARITY identification of high voltage or input terminals that are
located at the left of the primary side of the transformer
Transformer windings are identified as either additive or
windings. The letter X and accompanying numbers are
subtractive polarity by measuring the primary and secondary used for identification of low voltage or output terminals. The
voltage. The voltage would be equal to the primary and primary or secondary side of a transformer can be used as
secondary added together for transformer windings that input or output terminals under certain conditions.
are additive connected.
If the windings are connected with additive polarity, the X
Note, the primary voltage is always greater than the voltage terminal and number are located at the left of the secondary
measured. side of the transformer. If the windings are connected with
subtractive polarity, H1 on the primary side will line up with X1
The voltage would be equal to the primary minus the on the secondary side of the transformer. If the transformer
secondary for transformer windings connected in subtractive windings are connected in additive polarity, the current
polarity. The primary voltage is always more than the voltage flows in the opposite direction. However, if the transformer
measured between primary and secondary. (See Figure windings are connected in subtractive polarity, the current
13-3) flows in the same direction. (See Figure 13-4)
13-2
Windings and Components

Figure 13-3. A simple test for polarity is to connect two Figure 13-4. If the transformer windings are connected
adjacent terminals of the high- and low-voltage windings in additive polarity, the two windings are in the opposite
together and apply a moderate voltage to either winding. If direction. If the transformer windings are connected in
the voltage reading is greater than the primary voltage, the subtractive polarity, the two windings are in the same
windings are connected additive. If the voltage reading is direction.
less than the primary voltage, the connection is subtractive.
TESTING VOLTAGE OF WINDINGS

When testing the voltage of windings for single-phase and

three-phase transformers, the following two measurements
are used to determine the voltage level:

(1) Phase-to-phase and

(2) Phase-to-ground.

PHASE-TO-PHASE VOLTAGE

The voltage is measured between the phases to determine

the voltage for a single-phase or three-phase transformer.

For example, a 120/240 volt, single-phase trans-
former measured phase-to-phase is 240 volts. (See Figure 13-5. Measuring the voltage from phase-to-phase
Figure 13-5) to determine the voltage.
13-3
PHASE-TO-GROUND VOLTAGE 120/240 VOLT, SINGLE-PHASE

TRANSFORMERS
The voltage is measured between the phase-to-ground to
determine the voltage for a single-phase or three-phase When connecting the secondary terminals of a 120/240
transformer.
volt single-phase transformer, the first transformer winding
is connected to X3 and the second winding is connected
For example, a 120/240 volt, single-phase trans-
to X2, making the neutral connection X0. The connection
former measured phase-to-ground is 120 volts.
between the first winding X3 to the second winding X2 will
(See Figure 13-6)
series the two 120 volt windings to derive 240 volts from L1
to L2. To obtain the neutral, a jumper from X3 to X2 is tapped
and connected to ground.
IDENTIFYING AND CONNECTING
WINDINGS Note, 120 volts is derived from the connections between L1
to X0 and L2 to X0. (See Figure 13-7)
When identifying and connecting windings based upon the
installation, transformers may be connected in a number THREE-PHASE, CLOSED
of different ways. There are several ways of connecting a DELTA-CONNECTED SYSTEM
single-phase or three-phase transformer to the power supply
and the loads to be served. When connecting the secondary terminals of a three-
phase closed delta-connected system transformer, the
first transformer winding X6 is connected in series with a

jumper to X1 of the third transformer, the first transformer
winding X5 is connected in series with a jumper to X4 of the
second transformer, and the second transformer winding

X3 is connected in series with a jumper to X2 of the third
transformer.

The neutral connection can be tapped from the center of

any 240 volt winding. 120 volts-to-ground is derived from

the outside lines of the tap that is connected to ground. 208
volts-to-ground (high leg) is derived from the current that

must travel through one full winding and one-half of the other
winding to ground. The windings of a 120/240 volt, four-wire

closed delta-connected transformer are rated at 240 volts

each with the high leg rated at 208 volts. (See Figure 13-8)
Figure 13-6. Measuring the voltage from phase-to-ground THREE-PHASE, OPEN

to determine the voltage level.
DELTA-CONNECTED SYSTEM
H1 H4 When connecting the secondary terminals of a three-
phase open delta-connected system transformer, the first
PRIMARY WINDINGS transformer winding X3 is connected in series with a jumper
H2 H3 to X2 of the second transformer. 120 volts-to-ground is
derived from either one of the 240 volt windings that are
SECONDARY QUICK CALC tapped. 240 volts is derived from phase-to-phase voltage
X4 X3 X2 X1 X4 - X3 that is connected from L1 to L2, L1 to L3, and L2 to L3. 208
X0 120 V volts-to-ground is derived from the high leg. (See Figure
120 V 120 V
240 V X2 - X1 13-9)
120 V
L1 L2
N
X4 to X1
120 V
THREE-PHASE,
SECONDARY + 120 V
240 V WYE-CONNECTED SYSTEM
120/240 VOLT, SINGLE-PHASE TRANSFORMERS When connecting the secondary terminals of a three-phase,
wye-connected system transformer, the first winding X5
Figure 13-7. Connecting the secondary terminals of a is connected in series with a jumper to X3 of the second
transformer to derive a single-phase, 120/240 volt system. transformer and to X1 of the third transformer, making the
13-4
neutral connection. The connections in a wye (system) H1 H2 H3

transformer, X6, X4, and X2, will be Phases 1, 2, and 3. The
H1 H2 H3 H4 H5 H6
neutral conductor connected to ground is X0.
X6 X5 X4 X3 X2 X1
120 volts-to-ground is derived from L1 to X0, L2 to X0, and
L3 to X0. 208 volts is derived from L1 to L2, L1 to L3, and L2 208 V
X1 X2 X3 X0
to L3. (See Figure 13-10) 208 V
208 V
120 V
H1 H2 H3 120 V
H4 120 V
H1 H2 H3 H4 H5
H6 L1 L2 L3
WINDINGS N
240 V
X2 L3
X6 X5 X4 X3 X2 X1
X3
NEUTRAL X5 to X1 COMMON TAP
208 V X0 CENTER OF WINDING X1
TAPPED TO DERIVE X3 to X1 N
240 V NEUTRAL X5 X3 X0
240 V DERIVES N
240 V X6 L2
X4
120 V X2
L1
120 V X1
L1 L2 L3
N
X3 L3 Figure 13-10. Connecting the secondary terminals of a

X2 X3 - X2 transformer to derive a three-phase, wye-connected system.
X6 to X1 to L1 N
X0 Each winding is rated at 120 volts for a 120/208 volt, three-
X5 to X4 to L2 X4 X1
X3 to X2 to L3 L1 phase, wye-connected system.
X5 X6 X6 - X1
L2
X5 - X4

THREE-PHASE, CORNER GROUNDED

DELTA-CONNECTED SYSTEM
Figure 13-8. Connecting the secondary terminals of a
transformer to derive a three-phase, closed delta-connected
When tapping any one of the ungrounded (phase)
system.
conductors of a corner grounded delta-connected system,
the grounded (neutral) conductor is derived. The phase-
H1 H2 H3
to-phase voltage would be 480 volts if the voltage of the
H1 H2 H3 H4 windings is 480 volts. The voltage-to-ground from the
WINDINGS grounded (phase) conductor is 0 volts.
240 V
X4 X1
X3 X2 X0 NEUTRAL
A color of white or gray identification shall be used for the
208 V CENTER OF WINDING grounded (phase) conductor per 200.7. The grounded
TAPPED TO DERIVE
240 V NEUTRAL (phase) conductor shall never be fused per 230.90(B),
240 V except for motor circuits per 430.36. Where the grounded
240 V
120 V
(phase) conductor enters into a panelboard or switchgear
120 V it shall be connected to ground at the service equipment
L2 L3
location only. (See Figure 13-11)
L1
N
X1
L3
SEPARATELY DERIVED AC SYSTEMS
X0
N 250.30
L2
X4 L1 Low-voltage and high-voltage feeders are sometimes
X3 - X2 installed from floor to floor in a high-rise building, with
transformers installed on each floor to reduce the voltage to

120/240, 120/208, or 277/480 volts for general-use lighting
Figure 13-9. Connecting the secondary terminals of a and receptacle loads in large building applications. When
transformer to derive a three-phase, open delta-connected designing and installing the bonding and grounding of a
system. transformer system, the secondary of a separately derived
13-5
system is divided into three parts. Such grounding since the the source to the first system disconnecting means or
1978 National Electrical Code can be installed either at the overcurrent protection device. If the grounded (phase)
transformer or at the load served, which is connected and conductors are larger than 1100 KCMIL for copper and
supplied from the secondary side per 240.21(B) and (C). 1750 KCMIL for aluminum, the system bonding jumper will
The following three parts shall be designed and installed normally be larger than the grounding electrode conductor.
for a separately derived system per 250.30(A)(1), (A)(2),

(A)(3), and (A)(7):
ARTICLE 100
(See Figure 13-12)

(1) System bonding jumper,
250.30(A)(5)
(2) Grounding electrode conductor, and 250.104(A)
NEC LOOP 250.104(C)
(3) Grounding electrode.

CONNECTION RULES

250.30(A)(1) 240.21(C)(2)

240.21(C)(3) (C)(6)

NEC LOOP
PRIMARY OCP

450.3(A)
250.142(A)(3)
310.15(A)(3), IN (2) TABLE 450.3(B), NOTE 1
310.110

NEC LOOP

SECONDARY OCP

450.3(A)

TABLE 450.3(B), NOTE 1
408.3(E), Ex.

Figure 13-11. Voltage relationships and secondary terminal

connections of a three-phase, corner grounded delta-

connected system.

SYSTEM BONDING JUMPER
250.30(A)(1)

The system bonding jumper (unspliced) shall be designed
and installed based on the derived ungrounded (phase) Figure 13-12. The system bonding jumper and grounding
conductors supplying the panelboard, switch, or other electrode conductor is designed and installed based on
equipment connected from the secondary side of the the derived ungrounded (phase) conductors supplying the
transformer and sized per 250.28(B) and 250.102(C)(1). The panelboard, switch, or other equipment connected from the
system bonding jumper shall be sized per 250.66 and Table secondary side of the transformer.
250.102(C)(1) from the ungrounded (phase) conductors up
to 1100 KCMIL for copper and 1750 KCMIL for aluminum.
The system bonding jumper shall be sized at least 12-1/2 GROUNDING ELECTRODE CONDUCTOR
percent (.125) of the area of the largest ungrounded (phase) 250.30(A)(5)
conductor where the service conductors are installed larger
than 1100 KCMIL copper or 1750 KCMIL aluminum. The The grounding electrode conductor shall be designed
system bonding jumper shall be installed and connected and installed based on the derived ungrounded (phase)
at any single point on the separately derived system from conductors supplying the panelboard, switch, or other
13-6
equipment connected from the secondary of the transformer OTHER ELECTRODES

and shall be sized per Table 250.66. The grounding 250.30(A)(4), Ex. 1
electrode conductor shall be installed and connected at
any point on the separately derived system from the source Any of the electrodes identified in 250.52(A)(1) through (8)
to the first system disconnecting means or overcurrent shall be permitted to be used where the electrodes specified
protection device. When the KCMIL rating is greater than by 250.30(A)(4) are not available.
1100 KCMIL for copper and 1750 KCMIL for aluminum, the
grounding electrode conductor will usually be smaller than The grounding electrode conductor shall not be required to
the bonding jumper. be installed larger than 3/0 AWG copper or 250 KCMIL for
aluminum when connecting to the nearest building steel or
A common continuous grounding electrode conductor shall nearest metal water pipe system. The grounding electrode
be permitted to be extended from the grounding electrode conductor shall not be required to be installed larger than
system and run through the building and the connection 6 AWG copper or 4 AWG aluminum when connecting to a
made at an accessible location near the separately derived driven rod or other made electrodes.
system required to be grounded per 250.30(A)(6) and
250.64(B).
GROUNDING ELECTRODE SIZING GROUNDING ELECTRODE

250.30(A)(4) CONDUCTOR
250.30(A)(4) AND TABLE 250.66
The grounding electrode shall be as near as possible and
preferably in the same area as the grounding electrode The procedure for selecting the grounding electrode
conductor connection to the system. From the following conductor to ground a separately derived system to the
choices, one shall be selected and installed in the order building steel is determined by the size of the ungrounded
that they are listed: (See Figure 13-13) (phase) conductors in the feeder (connected conductors)
between the panelboard and transformer.
• Nearest grounded metal water pipe within 5 ft (1.5
m) from the point of entrance into the building per
250.52(A)(1) or Note: For supply-side bonding jumpers (S-SBJs), see
Section 250.102(C)(1) in the NEC.
• Nearest grounded structural building steel per
250.52(A)(2).
Note, metal water pipes located in the area shall

be bonded to the grounded (neutral) conductor per
250.104(D)(1).

215.2(A)
215.3
2ND CHOICE

250.52(A)(2)
250.30(A)(4)(2)
ARTICLE 100

1ST CHOICE
250.10

250.52(A)(1)
250.30(A)(4)(1)

250.52(A)(2)
NEC LOOP 250.104(C)

250.20(B) 450.3(A)
450.3(B)
250.142(A)(3)
3RD CHOICE

250.52(A)(5)
GROUNDING ELECTRODE
NEC 250.30(A)(7)
Figure 13-13. The grounding electrode conductor shall be as near as possible and preferably in the same area as the
grounding electrode conductor connection to the system.
13-7
For example: What size copper grounding For example: What size copper copper grounding
electrode conductor is required to bond and ground electrode is required to bond and ground the
the secondary of a separately derived system to secondary of a separately derived systems to a
the structural building steel when supplied by 500 metal water pipe supplied by 250 KCMIL copper
KCMIL copper conductors? conductors?
Step 1: Finding the GEC Step 1: Finding size GEC

250.30(A)(5) and Table 250.66 250.30(A)(3) and Table 250.66
500 KCMIL cu. = 1/0 AWG cu. 250 KCMIL cu. = 2 AWG cu.
Solution: The size grounding electrode Solution: The size grounding electrode
conductor is 1/0 AWG copper. conductor is 2 AWG copper.
The procedure for selecting the grounding electrode In cases where there are no other electrodes available, a
conductor to ground a separately derived system to a separately derived system can be grounded with a driven
metal water pipe is determined by the size of the connected rod or plate per 250.52 and 250.53. A driven rod with a
conductors from the secondary of the transformer. (See resistance of 25 ohms or less is considered low enough to
Figure 13-14) allow the grounded system to operate safely and function
properly. The grounding electrode conductor shall not be
required to be larger than 6 AWG copper or 4 AWG aluminum
where connected to electrodes such as driven rods.

For example: What is the current flow in a 6 AWG
copper grounding electrode conductor connecting
the common grounded terminal bar in a separately
derived system to a driven rod? (The supply voltage

is a 120/208 volt, three-phase system.)

Step 1: Finding amperage
250.56

I = 120 V ÷ 25 R

I = 4.8 A

Solution: The normal current flow is about

4.8 amps.

TROUBLESHOOTING
TRANSFORMER WINDINGS

The winding of a transformer can be tested by taking

resistance readings with an ohmmeter.

To check the X1 winding, touch the case of the transformer
with one lead of the ohmmeter and with the other lead touch

the lead terminal of X1. If a low resistance is measured, the

winding is defective. X2 and X3 windings can be tested using
Figure 13-14. The procedure for selecting the grounding the same procedure. (See Figure 13-15)
electrode conductor to ground a separately derived system
to the metal water pipe shall be determined by the size of Note, primary windings can be tested using the same
the transformer's secondary conductors. procedures.
13-8

PH. 1 PH. 2 PH. 3

H1 H2 H3
X1 X2 X3 X0
L1 L2 L3 N
H1 X1 X2 X3 H2 H3 X0 CASE OF
TRANSFORMER
CONNECTING SECONDARY WINDINGS

IN A DELTA CONFIGUATIONS
CONNECT CONNECT CONNECT CONNECT
X1 TO L1 X2 TO L2 X3 TO L3 X0 TO N
TO CONNECT PRIMARY WINDINGS, TERMINATE
PH. 1 TO H1, PH. 2 TO H2, AND PH. 3 TO H3.

Figure 13-15. If a low resistance is read from one or all

of the secondary windings to ground, measuring from the
transformer's case to each individual winding, a ground is
usually present.
Note, for further information on procedures for troubleshooting

dry-type transformers, see Table 10 in Annex A at the back
of this book.
13-9
Name Date
Chapter 13: Windings and Components
Section Answer
1. The induced voltage in the primary and secondary windings will be in opposite _____________ _____________
directions for transformer windings connected in _____ polarity.
(a) additive (b) subtractive
(c) reduced (d) reversed
2. The induced voltage and current in the primary and secondary windings will _____________ _____________
be in the same direction for transformer windings connected in _____ polarity.
(a) additive (b) subtractive
(c) reduced (d) reversed
3. The letter _____ and accompanying numbers are used for identification of high _____________ _____________
voltage or input terminals.
(a) E (b) V
(c) H (d) X
4. The letter _____ and accompanying numbers are used for identification of low _____________ _____________
voltage or output terminals.
(a) E (b) V
(c) H (d) X
5. When connecting the secondary terminals of a 120/240 volt single-phase _____________ _____________
transformer, the first transformer is connected to X3 and the second winding
connected to _____, making the neutral connection X0.
(a) X1 (b) X2
(c) X4 (d) X5
6. When connecting the secondary terminals of a three-phase, wye-connected _____________ _____________

system transformer, the first winding _____ is connected in series with a jumper
to X3 of the second transformer and to X1 of the third transformer, making the
neutral connection.
(a) X1 (b) X2
(c) X4 (d) X5
7. The supply-side bonding jumper shall be sized at least _____ percent of the area _____________ _____________
of the largest ungrounded (phase) conductors where the service conductors
are installed larger than 1100 KCMIL copper or 1750 KCMIL aluminum.
(a) 12-1/2 (b) 15-1/2
(c) 22-1/2 (d) 33-1/2
8. The grounding electrode conductor for a separately derived system shall not _____________ _____________
be required to be installed larger than _____ AWG copper when connecting
to the nearest building steel.
(a) 1/0 (b) 2/0
(c) 3/0 (d) 4/0
9. The grounding electrode conductor shall not be required to be installed larger _____________ _____________
than _____ AWG copper when connecting to a driven rod.
(a) 8 (b) 6
(c) 4 (d) 2
13-11
Section Answer
_____________ _____________ 10. The procedure for selecting the grounding electrode conductor to ground a
separately derived system to the building steel is determined by the size of the
_____ conductors in the feeder.
(a) bonding (b) grounded
(c) grounding (d) ungrounded
_____________ _____________ 11. The bonding jumper in a separately derived system is called a _____ bonding
jumper.
(a) main (b) system
(c) primary (d) secondary
_____________ _____________ 12. The system bonding jumper can be connected at the _____ or the first
disconnecting means of a separately derived system.
(a) source (b) service-point
(c) none of the above (d) all of the above
_____________ _____________ 13. Transformer windings can be connected subtractive or additive _____.
(a) wye (b) polarity
(c) delta (d) all of the above
_____________ _____________ 14. Transformers, under certain conditions, can be _____ fed.
(a) reverse (b) back
_____________ _____________ 15. A disconnecting means must be provided in the _____ side of a transformer.
(general rule)
(a) primary (b) supply
_____________ _____________ 16. Transformers rated 112-1/2 kVA or less, installed indoors, must have a
separation of at least _____ inches from combustible material. (general rule)
(a) 3 (b) 6
(c) 10 (d) 12
_____________ _____________ 17. Transformers rated over _____ volts must be installed in a vault.
(a) 15,000 (b) 25,000
(c) 30,000 (d) 35,000
_____________ _____________ 18. Vault doors shall have at least a _____ hour rating
(a) 1 (b) 2
(c) 2-1/2 (d) 3
_____________ _____________ 19. Vault door sills or curbs shall have a height of at least _____ in.
(a) 1 (b) 2
(c) 3 (d) 4
_____________ _____________ 20. What size supply-side bonding jumper is required to bond the secondary of a
transformer with 2/0 AWG THWN copper conductors?
_____________ _____________ 21. What size grounding electrode conductor is required to ground the secondary
of a transformer with 2/0 AWG THWN copper conductors? (Use building steel)
13-12
Section Answer
22. What is the voltage when additive polarity is used? _____________ _____________

23. What is the voltage when subtractive polarity is used? _____________ _____________

24. What is the voltage from phase-to-phase? _____________ _____________

13-13
Section Answer
_____________ _____________ 25. What is the voltage from phase-to-ground?

13-14
Part Three
Motors
No day passes without the discovery of new ways to use the most efficient and
most important device ever invented, the electric motor. Without it, the wheels of
industry would grind to a halt and millions of time and labor saving devices would
be rendered useless.
AC electrical motors are designed and selected by finding the three currents that
make up the circuits that supply the power to the motors. The first current found is
the full-load amps (FLA) from Table 430.248 for single-phase and Table 430.250
for three-phase.The second current determined is the nameplate amps found on
the motor. And the third current is the locked-rotor current (LRC), in amps, from
Table 430.7(B) for motors with code letters and Tables 430.251(A) and (B) for
motors with design letters.
AC electrical motors are designed and installed in a wide variety of sizes, types,
and styles, ranging from tiny fractional horsepower units to very large machines
of 20,000 HP and larger. These types of motors can be either of single-phase or
three-phase construction based on the horsepower and voltage.
Part III covers motor theory, types of motors, and the regulations of the National
Electrical Code® that pertain to the design and installation of these motors.
14
Motor Theory
For the operation of a motor, electricity and magnetism play a major role in
producing power to the field windings called poles. These windings induce
magnetic lines of force from north to south poles. The rotor is connected
in the motor to the load so that the rotor can drive the load. Circulating
currents induced in the conducting material of the rotor as it cuts through
the magnetic flux lines of the magnetic field are called eddy currents and
must be circulated properly.
Note, the foundation of motor operation is the attracting of unlike poles and
the repelling of the like poles.
REGULAR MAGNETS
The earth is a permanent magnet with the north and south poles connected by an invisible field of
magnetic force. If a piece of soft iron is placed within the field of a magnet, it becomes energized.
The piece of soft iron is magnetized by the field of the permanent magnet. The piece of soft iron,
when placed in the field of the permanent magnet, does not have to touch the permanent magnet
to become magnetized, and it takes on the same characteristics as the permanent magnet. This
type of action is called induction and is essential for motor operation. (See Figure 14-1)
The poles of two permanent magnets either attract or repel each other. Like poles repel each
other, while unlike poles attract. By suspending a permanent magnet from a string, the suspended
permanent magnet will rotate by attracting or repelling each end of a second magnet. This type of
action illustrates one of the major principles used in the operation of electric motors. The attracting
and repelling action by the field poles causes the rotor to rotate through the magnetic field and drive
its connected load. (See Figure 14-2)

Figure 14-1. A permanent magnet becomes energized when

a piece of soft iron is placed in the force field.

Figure 14-3. Reverse current flow causes the alternating

current to change the poles of an electromagnet from a north
pole to a south pole. (Note, see Figure 14-6.)

BASIC INDUCTION MOTORS

A basic induction motor consists of a fixed section called a

stator and a rotating section called a rotor. A stator is cut into
thin sections of soft iron or steel (laminations) and assembled
in a sandwich-like manner to reduce eddy current losses.
Figure 14-2. The poles of two permanent magnets either
Circulating currents induced in the conducting material of
attract each other for unlike poles or repel each other for
the rotor when it cuts through the magnetic flux lines of the
like poles.
magnetic field are called eddy currents.
A heating effect is produced when eddy currents flow in a

ELECTROMAGNETS solid piece of metal. Eddy currents will only flow in sections
of metal that are sandwiched or cut. Therefore, the heating
A single insulated conductor wound around a soft iron core effect is decreased by this process.
will produce an electromagnet that is much stronger than a
permanent magnet. The strength of a magnetic field around A stator that is equipped with two or more field poles with
a straight conductor carrying a current is relatively weak. insulated wire wound around them and connected together
A strong magnetic field is produced by the number of turns will create two or more electromagnets. When applying 60
in the winding (coil). A weak magnetic field is produced by hertz (cycles) of alternating current to electromagnets, the
fewer number of turns in the coil. magnetic poles of the electromagnet reverse their polarity
120 times per second. This occurs every time the current
reverses direction and alternates. (See Figure 14-4)
POLES
The polarity of the poles in an electromagnet is changed by FIELD POLES
reversing the current flow. By reversing the current flow in an
electromagnet in one direction, the magnet produces a south Induction motors operate on the following types of systems:
pole at one end, and it produces a north pole when current (1) Single-phase,
flow is in the opposite direction. Alternating current changes
the poles of an electromagnet from north to south due to (2) Two-phase, or
the flow of current changing direction. (See Figure 14-3) (3) Three-phase voltage.
14-2
Motor Theory
Phase A current is at zero while Phase B is at maximum

at the 90 degree position. Phase B windings produce

a magnetic field that is at maximum value while Phase
A windings are at zero. Phase A and Phase B currents
flowing at the 45 and 225 degree position are equal. The

rotor continues to turn with the rotating magnetic field
until it completes 360 degrees. By placing the two poles

(windings) at right angles to each other in the stator, the
rotating magnetic field can be accomplished with voltages

that are 90 degrees out-of-phase.

90 PHASE A

180 360

0

Figure 14-4. Eddy currents are reduced by a rotor being
sandwiched together and laminated. SINGLE-PHASE 270
VOLTAGE
CURRENT
120 V
Single-phase AC motors operate by the rotating magnetic
field being produced by splitting the phases and shifting PHASE A PHASE B
the AC power applied to the stator field poles. A means of
starting must be provided for the rotor in a single-phase
VOLTAGE
0 90 180 270 360
motor. The magnetic field alternates at such a fast rate (60 45 135 225 315
times a second) that the rotor cannot follow the alternating
field. The rotor must start and turn fast enough to catch SINGLE-PHASE
the rotating field. By using your hand or by using a starting VOLTAGE
CURRENT PHASE
winding, a rotor can be caused to rotate, and it will try to 240V DISPLACEMENT
catch the magnetic field.
The current changes in the stator poles from north to south
as the current alternates from positive to negative in a
Figure 14-5. Relationship of single-phase currents that are
single-phase, 120 volt motor.
90° out-of-phase.
The phase displacement of different voltages is used when
installing polyphase AC motors. The voltage in polyphase ROTOR
AC motors is one of the following:
The rotor is made of slotted sections that are cut and
(1) In-phase currents that rise and fall simultaneously.
sandwiched together to reduce eddy current losses. The
(2) Out-of-phase currents 180 degrees out-of-phase rotor is embedded with copper or aluminum bars and welded
have one current that rises past zero as the other together by a ring. The flow of current travels a path provided
falls past zero. Currents 90 degrees out-of-phase by the ring through the bars of the rotor. Insulation between
have one current reaching a peak while the other the bars and rotor is not required since the voltage induced
is at zero. into these bars is low.
See Figure 14-5 for the rotating magnetic field of the stator The rotor may be placed between two or more stator poles.
using two voltages 90 degrees out-of-phase. A power source of 60 hertz AC is applied to the stator poles.
The stator poles build up a magnetic field and collapse for
Figure 14-5 shows the relationship of single-phase voltage each alternation. The poles of the stator change from south-
and current. Phase A current flow is at the 0 degree position to-north or north-to-south from these alternations. The rotor
when at maximum and Phase B current flow is at zero. has a push-and-pull action through the rotating magnetic
Phase A windings in the stator will be at maximum value, field of the stator poles. (See Figure 14-6)
as will be its magnetic field. Phase B windings will produce
a magnetic field that will be at zero. Current is induced into the bars of the rotating rotor from the
expanding and collapsing fields of the stator poles. This is
Note, Phase A and Phase B currents are of equal values accomplished by the rotor cutting the magnetic lines of force
at the 45 degree position. produced by the stator poles or field windings.
14-3
started and reversed infrequently. Class B motors are the

Motor Theory Tip: The magnetic field of the stator field most used motors in the electrical industry. They are almost
poles is opposite to the magnetic field in the rotor. equal to motors marked with a code letter B.
CLASS C MOTORS
A speed regulation based on 2 to 5 percent slip is used when
designing Class C motors. Class C motors are designed to
drive hard-to-start loads such as compressors, conveyors,

reciprocating pumps, and crushers.
A Class C motor has a starting torque of about 225 percent

of the full-load torque rating of the motor. The full-voltage

starting current is approximately 600 to 650 percent of the
running current of the motor. Class C motors have high

starting torque and normal starting current. They are capable

of starting loads that are hard to start and then accelerate

up to their running speed.
CLASS D MOTORS

A speed regulation based on 5 to 13 percent slip is used
when designing Class D motors. Class D motors are known

as high-slip motors. Class D motors are designed to drive
very hard-to-start loads that are started and reversed

frequently such as cranes, hoists, elevators, cyclical loads,
and punch presses.
Figure 14-6. The operation of a basic induction motor.
A Class D motor has a starting torque of about 275 percent
DESIGNS OF MOTORS of the full-load torque rating of the motor. The full-voltage
starting current is approximately 525 to 625 percent of the
The following designs of motors are to be considered when running current of the motor. Class D motors have high
designing speed regulation, starting torque, and full-voltage starting torque and low starting current.
starting current:
(1) Class B, CLASS E MOTORS
(2) Class C, Due to a new law and the Energy Conservation Act, it is
(3) Class D, or very clear that the need to install high energy efficiency
(4) Class E per 2002 NEC. motors will become more urgent. In fact, it is essential that
electrical personnel learn as much as possible about high
energy efficiency motors, for in the near future, such motors
will be the only type available.
CLASS B MOTORS
For example, Tables 430.251(A) and (B) only
A speed regulation based on 2 to 5 percent slip is used recognize design letter motors. See Table 430.7(B)
when designing and installing Class B motors. Class B for code letter motors.
motors are designed to drive loads such as blowers, fans,
and centrifugal pumps. Note, high-efficiency motors per 2005 NEC are NEMA
Design B.
A Class B motor has a starting torque of about 150 percent
times the full-load torque rating of the motor. The full-voltage THE LAW
starting current is approximately 600 percent to 725 percent
of the full load running current of the motor. In October 1992, the Energy Policy Act was accepted. The
law required that standard efficiency motors no longer be
Class B motors have a normal starting torque and normal built after October 1997. After this date, only high-efficiency
starting current. Class B motors are used on loads that are motors were to be manufactured. The motor industry seems
14-4
Motor Theory
to apply the term premium efficiency (PE) to identify high- By reducing the air gap between the stator and rotor, winding
efficiency motors. losses can be reduced. This diminishes the reactive element
of the motor's total current. In general, the needed excitation
The law basically requires all NEMA induction design motors current is reduced, which improves the overall power factor.
of 200 HP or less that are single-speed to comply with this Due to the better-designed steel core, the magnetic field
rule. This law applies to motors as follows: does not have to be as large to provide the same amount
of motor performance.
(1) Mainly Design A and B, continuous rated, and
operating at 230/460 volt, 60 hertz Note, there is less current needed to produce the magnetic
(2) General purpose T-frame with the following field.
characteristics:
MECHANICAL LOSSES
(a) Single speed,
(b) Foot-mounted, Mechanical losses are produced in motor operation from
(c) Polyphase, friction and windage that takes place within the motor.
(d) Squirrel-cage, Windage losses are losses created by moving parts of the
motor.
(e) Induction motors, and
(f) 200 HP or less with exceptions. For example, windage losses can be developed by
the fan blade if it is not designed to help alleviate
HIGH-EFFICIENCY MOTORS such unwanted friction. Another component of the
motor that creates friction losses are the bearings.
To improve motor efficiency, the manufacturer must reduce To help diminish bearing losses, high quality
motor losses. There are three categories of motor losses: bearings are used, and due to such close tolerance
(1) I2R losses, operation, the air gap variation between the stator
and rotor greatly reduces these types of losses.
(2) mechanical losses, and
(3) core losses.
CORE LOSSES
I2R LOSSES Core losses are caused by two elements:

(1) Hysteresis and
I2R losses account for 20 to 30 percent of the total loss of the
motor. The I2R losses of the windings depend on the current (2) Eddy currents.
and the winding resistance.There are many conditions that
will affect resistance and current. The hysteresis loss is the element of the core loss in a
magnetic circuit that can be reduced by using high quality
For example, Such conditions as temperature, load, steel to build the core.
excitation, and magnetic influences will affect the
resistance in the windings. Since the current that Eddy current losses are reduced by laminating the core
a motor draws is primarily a function of the load, with thin sheets of steel that are insulated from each other.
steps must be taken to improve the motor's power Thin sheets of steel are sandwiched together which will
factor. This can be done by reducing the reactive reduce eddy current problems even further. Eddy currents
component of the total motor current. are circulating currents in the core of the stator poles. These
currents are caused by varying magnetic fields in the core.
Note, the way to reduce I2R is to reduce the resistance Due to the I2R losses in the resistance of the core material,
of the windings. This is done by improving the motor's unwanted heat is produced.
stator resistance by increasing both the size and number
of conductors. Note, these currents do no useful work, they just create
heating effects in the motor.
Rotor losses may be minimized by increasing the size of the
conductor bars and using low-loss laminated steel.
Motor Theory Tip: Stray load losses are dependent on
For larger motors, copper bars can be utilized in rotors for the loading of the motor, and they increase as the load
best efficiency. For maximum efficiency, copper rotor bars is applied. These losses are due to the location of the
are custom-fitted, brazed, formed, and designed and fitted conductors in the motor, skin effect, poor laminations,
into the rotor slots. etc.
14-5
See Figure 14-7 for a detailed illustration of a high-efficiency shows that a three-phase motor will produce more power
motor. because there are three different phases that are peaking
and providing a smooth and continuous power to drive the
rotor and load at its operating speed. (See Figure 14-8)

Figure 14-8. Single-phase and three-phase voltages and

currents operate in comparison to riders on a bicycle.
Figure 14-7. The above is an illustration of a high-efficiency
motor with elements that are designed to provide better
efficiency. The three phases of voltage and current supply one of the
three separate pairs of poles. The first phase (peak stroke)
delivers the greatest power. The second phase enters
the peak as the first phase leaves the peak, delivering its
MOTOR FACTS greatest stroke of power. The third peak phase enters the
peak as the second phase leaves the peak, and the process
The following items must be taken into consideration when repeats itself. (See Figure 14-9)
designing and selecting a motor:
(1) Operating voltage,
(2) Operating current,

(3) Operating torque,
(4) Operating slip,
(5) Power factor, and
(6) Frequency.
OPERATING VOLTAGE AND CURRENT

Single-phase voltage of 120 volts is like one person riding
a bicycle. Only one stroke is produced that will peak and

produce power from the one person riding the bicycle.
Single-phase voltage of 208 or 240 volts is like two people
riding a bicycle. Two power-producing strokes are provided Figure 14-9. The three phases (A, B, and C) of voltages
by one rider, leaving a power-producing stroke (peak) and supply one of the three separate pairs of poles.
the other rider, entering the peak and producing power to
drive the bicycle. This type of example shows that a 208 or
230 volt, single-phase motor is more efficient than a 120
volt, single-phase motor. Refer to Figure 14-10 and notice that between poles A and
D, the greatest power stroke and magnetic field is produced
Three-phase voltage is compared to three riders on a for Phase 1. Between poles B and E, the greatest power
bicycle. Three power-producing strokes are provided by stroke is produced for Phase 2. Between poles C and F, the
the first rider, leaving the peak stroke and the second rider greatest power stroke is produced for Phase 3. The voltage
entering at the peak. The third rider enters the peak as the and current of the three phases are displaced 120 degrees
second rider leaves the peak stroke. This type of example on the stator of the motor. (See Figure 14-10)
14-6
Motor Theory
Note, the rotor will never rotate at the same speed as the
rotating magnetic field. This difference in rotating speed is
the slip of the motor. (See Figure 14-12)

Figure 14-12. The rotor will never rotate at the same speed
as the alternations of the current and rotating field.
Figure 14-10. Between poles A and D, the greatest power
stroke and magnetic field is produced for Phase 1. Between
poles B and E, the greatest power stroke is produced for The greater the slip a rotor has, resulting from a driven load,
Phase 2. Between poles C and F, the greatest power stroke the more lines of force are cut during rotation and the slower
is produced for Phase 3. the rotor will turn. The actual running speed of a motor is
designed to have 5 percent slip, which will allow the rotor
to rotate at less than the synchronous speed created by the
alternating current. (See Figure 14-13)
OPERATING TORQUE AND SLIP

Good starting torque and slip is provided for the motor
by dual bars installed in the rotor. The outer bars that are
close to the surface have a high-resistance winding and the
inner bars have a low-resistance winding. Good starting is

provided by the outer bars. More current is allowed to flow
at the running speed of the motor from the inner bars. (See

Figure 14-11)

The percentage of slip desired for each motor is designed
by placement of these bars shown in Figure 14-11. The

magnetic lines of force cutting across these bars embedded

in the rotor produce the slip of the motor. Voltage is induced
in the rotor only when these copper bars cut the magnetic

lines of force created by the alternations of current in the
stator field.

Figure 14-11. Different classes of motors with different Figure 14-13. Finding the synchronous and actual speed
torque ratings can be produced by the bars in the rotor. of a motor due to its slip characteristics.
14-7
The rotor has 100 percent slip when the rotor is at rest REACTIVE POWER
and no lines of magnetic force are cut. However, the rotor
begins to turn with the stator field when power is applied to When the kVA exceeds the kW, a reactive power exists. The
the stator poles. operating current consists of true current (in-phase) and
reactive current. The current drawn by an inductive load is
The rotor current tries to reach the peak of the alternation used to develop magnetic fields required for operation; this
of current, creating the magnetic lines of force between is reactive current. (See Figure 14-15)
the stator field poles. As the rotor turns, the percentage of
slip begins to decrease (usually 2 to 5 percent) until the

designed amount of slip is reached as the motor drives the

load. (See Figure 14-14)

Figure 14-15. The above illustration shows the right angle

relationship of terms used to demonstrate power factor.

APPARENT POWER
Figure 14-14. In an induction motor, the rotor speed usually By multiplying the volts times amps, the apparent power can
turns at about 2 to 5 percent slip. be found. Apparent power can be equal to or greater than
actual power. When apparent power and actual power are
equal, their ratio is 1 to 1, 1.0, or 100 percent.
POWER FACTOR
For example, if the apparent power is 2000 watts
The ratio of the actual power used in a circuit to the apparent and the power consumed is 800 watts, the ratio
power drawn from the line is the power factor. The true is .4 or 40 percent (PF = 800 W ÷ 2000 W = .4).
power used to produce heat or work is the actual power. A 40 percent power factor is low. A phase angle
Actual power is also known as true, real, or useful power. of 66 degrees is equal to cosine Ø of 40. See the
A wattmeter is used to measure the actual power in watts trigonometric in Figure 14-16.
and kW. A voltmeter and ammeter is used to measure
800 W
the apparent power in VA and kVA. When measuring the (TRUE POWER)
voltage and current waveforms, they may be in-phase or PHASE
W
PF= VA
out-of-phase. ANGLE
800 VA PF= 800 W
(APPARENT POWER) 800 VA
Note, the degree (0 - 90°) of shift indicates power factor. PF=1 or 100%
When the actual and apparent power are the same value,
the power factor is 100 percent. 800 W
(TRUE POWER) PF= W
VA
Less actual power is consumed for circuits with motors PHASE 800 W
PF= 2000
ANGLE VA
and transformers having windings producing magnetic 2000 VA
fields. These circuits have a power factor that is less than (APPARENT POWER) PF=.4 or 40%
100 percent. The inductance of the windings causes the 40% PF = 66 PHASE ANGLE
inequality between the actual power and apparent power.

Note, that the actual power never exceeds the apparent
power. Figure 14-16. Circuits with watts (or kW) closer to the VA
(or kVA) rating of the apparent power have a higher power
Fewer lines of force are cut when the rotor turns at a faster factor. Circuits with watts (or kW) less than the VA (or kVA)
speed through the field. The voltage and magnetic lines of rating of the apparent power have a lower power factor. See
force in the rotor become weaker and causes the rotor to trigonometric charts on page 15-5 to match power factor
slow down. to the phase angle, starting with 50 percent power factor.
14-8
Motor Theory
ACTUAL POWER OPERATING 230 V MOTORS ON 208 V

By multiplying the volts times amps in a pure resistance SUPPLY CIRCUIT
circuit, the actual power can be found.
Slight changes in voltage, torque, slip, and current occur
where 230 V, three-phase, 60 Hz motors operate on 208 V,
For example: What are the watts for a 240 volt, three-phase, 60 Hz supply circuits.
single-phase load rated at 20 amps?
For example, the full-load current for a motor
operating 10 percent plus above rated voltage is 7
Step 1: Finding W percent below normal. (See Figure 14-17)
W=VxA
W = 240 V x 20 A NEMA standards allow motor terminal voltage to vary 10
W = 4800 percent below or above rated voltage.
Solution: The actual power for the load is For example, a 230 volt motor can operate between
4800 watts. 207 volts (230 V x 10% = 230 V - 23 V = 207 V) and
253 volts (230 V x 110% = 253 V).
By multiplying the volts times amps times cosine Ø (PF),

the actual power can be found.

TORQUE UP 21% DOWN

For example: What are the watts for a 240 volt, 19%
FULL-LOAD SPEED UP 1% DOWN 2%
single-phase load rated at 20 amps and a power POWER FACTOR DOWN 4% UP 3%
factor of 70 percent? FULL-LOAD CURRENT
TEMPERATURE
DOWN 7%
DOWN 10%
UP 11%
UP 17%
MAXIMUM OVERLOAD UP 21% DOWN
19%
EFFICIENCY UP 1% DOWN 2%
Step 1: Finding W

W = V x A x PF
W = 240 V x 20 A x 70%

W = 3360
Solution: The actual power for the load is Figure 14-17. Characteristic of induction motors operating
3360 watts. 10 percent above or 10 percent below supply voltage.
By multiplying the volts times amps times cosine Ø (PF) for TORQUE
a three-phase circuit, the actual power can be found.
The torque of a motor varies with the square of the voltage.
The starting torque and maximum running torque of motors
For example: What are the watts for a 480 volt, running on 208 volts are determined by squaring voltage
three-phase motor with an FLC of 40 amps having (208 V) and dividing by the voltage of the motor (230 V)
a power factor of 80 percent? squared.
For example, a motor with a starting torque of 150

Step 1: Finding W lb ft has a starting torque of 123 lb ft [(208 V/230
W = V x √3 x A x PF V)2 = .82 x 150 lb ft = 123 lb ft)].
W = 480 V x 1.732 x 40 x 80%
W = 26,592 SLIP
Solution: The actual power for the motor The slip of induction motors varies inversely with the square
is 26,592 watts. of the voltage. The slip of a 230 volt motor operating on a
208 volt supply is 1.22 times the slip of the 230 volt rating
on the motor’s nameplate [(230 V/208 V)2 = 1.22].
14-9
For example, if the synchronous speed is 1800

RPM and the actual speed is 1725 RPM, the slip is

75 RPM (1800 RPM – 1725 RPM = 75 RPM). The
new slip of RPM for a 230 volt motor operating on

230 volts is 91.5 RPM [(230 V/208 V)2 = 1.22 x 75
RPM = 91.5 RPM].

CURRENT

Motors are more efficient at a higher voltage because they
draw less current and run slightly cooler. Motors operating
at a lower voltage pull more current and are less efficient.
Motors rated at 230 volts and operating on a 208 volt supply
draw approximately 11 percent more current than when Figure 14-19. The operating voltage can read within 10
operating at 230 volts. percent above or below the operating voltage listed on the
nameplate of the motor.
For example, a 230 volt motor operating at 30 amps
on 208 volts draws approximately 33.3 amps (30 A
x 111% = 33.3 amps).

MEASURING OPERATING AMPS
The operating amps of a motor must not exceed the
nameplate rating of the motor for the motor to have normal
operating life. The amp rating is taken with an ampmeter for
an accurate measurement. (See Figure 14-18)

Figure 14-20. Unbalanced voltage (if measured) must not
exceed 1 percent, or the running current of the nameplate

must be derated to compensate for the percentage that
exceeds 1 percent.

V
A

V

O O
00

.0

Figure 14-18. An amp reading of 20 amps or less indicates

the motor should have a normal life of twenty years or less.
(See NEMA 1, Motors and Generators)
MEASURING OPERATING VOLTAGE

Two measurements are required to determine the operating
voltage of a motor. The first measurement is for the system
voltage to the motor. This voltage reading can be 10
percent above or 10 percent below the operating voltage.
(See Figure 14-19) The second measurement is for the
unbalanced voltage from each phase-to-ground, and you
must average the measurements to obtain a percentage.
The percentage must not exceed 1 percent. (See Figure
14-20)
14-10
Name Date
Chapter 14: Motor Theory
Section Answer
1. A single insulated conductor wound around a soft iron core will produce a(n) _____________ _____________
_____ that is much stronger than a permanent magnet.
(a) regular magnet (b) electromagnet
(c) magnetic field (d) eddy current
2. Alternating current changes the _____ of an electromagnet from north to south _____________ _____________
due to the flow of current changing direction.
(a) stator (b) rotor
(c) poles (d) core
3. A basic induction motor consists of a fixed section called a(n) _____ and a _____________ _____________
rotating section called a rotor.
(a) stator (b) pole
(c) core (d) electromagnet
4. Circulating currents induced in the conducting material of the rotor when it cuts _____________ _____________
through the magnetic flux lines of the magnetic field are called _____ currents.
(a) magnetic (b) electromagnetic
(c) alternating (d) eddy
5. When applying 60 hertz (cycles) of alternating current to electromagnets, the _____________ _____________
magnetic poles of the electromagnet reverse the polarity _____ times per
second.
(a) 60 (b) 90
(c) 120 (d) 180
6. The _____ is made of slotted sections that are cut and sandwiched together _____________ _____________
to reduce eddy current loses.
(c) poles (d) core
7. A speed regulation based on 2 to _____ percent slip is used when designing _____________ _____________
and installing Class B motors.
(a) 3 (b) 5
(c) 8 (d) 13
8. A Class B motor has a starting torque of about _____ percent times the full- _____________ _____________
load torque rating of the motor.
(a) 100 (b) 125
(c) 150 (d) 175
9. A Class C motor has a starting torque of about _____ percent of the full-load _____________ _____________
torque rating of the motor.
(a) 225 (b) 250
(c) 300 (d) 400
10. A speed regulation based on 5 to _____ percent slip is used when designing _____________ _____________
with Class D motors.
(a) 3 (b) 5
(c) 8 (d) 13
14-11
Section Answer
_____________ _____________ 11. I2R losses account for 20 to _____ percent of the total loss of the motor.
(a) 30 (b) 40
(c) 50 (d) 60
_____________ _____________ 12. Eddy current losses are reduced by laminating the _____ with thin sheets of
steel that are insulated from each other.
(a) stator (b) core
(c) poles (d) rotor
_____________ _____________ 13. The rotor has _____ percent slip when it is at rest and no lines of magnetic
force are cut.
(a) 30 (b) 50
(c) 75 (d) 100
_____________ _____________ 14. The ratio of the actual power used in a circuit to the apparent power drawn
from the line is the _____.
(a) operating torque and slip (b) power factor
(c) reactive power (d) reactance power
_____________ _____________ 15. When the kVA exceeds the kW, a(n) _____ power exists.
(a) apparent (b) actual
(c) reactive (d) reactance
_____________ _____________ 16. By multiplying the volts times amps, the _____ power can be found.
_____________ _____________ 17. By multiplying the volts times amps in a pure resistance circuit, the _____
power can be found.
_____________ _____________ 18. The _____ of a motor varies with the square of the voltage.
(a) power factor (b) slip
(c) rotor (d) torque
_____________ _____________ 19. The _____ of induction motors varies inversely with the square of the voltage.
(a) power factor (b) slip
(c) rotor (d) torque
_____________ _____________ 20. Motors rated at 230 volts and operating on a 208 volt supply draw approximately
_____ percent more current than when operating at 230 volts.
(a) 2 (b) 5
(c) 11 (d) 13
_____________ _____________ 21. What are the synchronous speed and actual speed for a four-pole motor with
5 percent slip?
_____________ _____________ 22. What are the watts (actual power) for a 240 volt, single-phase water heater
with a 30 amp heating element?

_____________ _____________ 23. What are the watts for a 240 volt, single-phase motor with a 30 amp FLC
having a power factor of 70 percent?
14-12
Section Answer
24. What are the watts for a 480 volt, three-phase motor with an FLC of 50 _____________ _____________
amps having a power factor of 80 percent? (use 831 volt for the three-phase
calculation)
25. A code letter _____ has a kVA per horsepower (HP) rating of 3.15 to 3.54 kVA _____________ _____________
per horsepower.
(a) A (b) B
(c) C (d) D
14-13
15
Types of Motors
Alternating current is used in the United States to power the majority of motors
installed. These motors are usually connected by journeyman electricians
and maintained by maintenance personnel. These motors are designed
to operate on a single or dual voltage, based on the connections of the
windings of the stator. These motors are equipped with either single-phase
or three-phase windings.
Of all the different types of motors, the squirrel-cage induction motor

is designed to have fewer parts, is less expensive, and requires less
maintenance than wound rotor, synchronous, or direct-current motors. (See
Table 430.52 of the National Electrical Code® for a listing of the different
types of motors.)
SINGLE-PHASE MOTORS
The most common type of single-phase motors can operate from a single-phase lighting or power
circuit. The following are the most commonly used single-phase motors:
(1) Split-phase,
(2) Capacitor-start,
(3) Capacitor start-and-run,
(4) Permanent split-capacitor,
(5) Shaded-pole, and
(6) Universal.
SPLIT-PHASE MOTORS

The split-phase motor is an AC motor of fractional

horsepower size and is used to operate such devices as

washing machines, oil burners, and small pumps. The motor
consists of the following four main parts:

(1) A rotor (rotating part),
(2) Stator (a stationary part),

(3) Brackets (fastened to the frame of the stator by

means of screws or bolts), and

(4) A centrifugal switch (located inside the motor).
Two windings are provided on the stator for a split-phase

motor. These two windings consist of the main (running)
winding and the auxiliary (starting) winding. The torque
needed to start turning the load is produced from the starting
windings, which are placed about 30 degrees from the
running windings. Figure 15-1. The starting windings of a split-phase motor
help start the motor and are disconnected from the circuit
A centrifugal switch (starting switch) is placed in series with at about 75 to 80 percent of its running speed.
the starting winding, and the starting winding is connected
in parallel with the running winding. The centrifugal switch

contacts are closed when the rotor is at rest. The contacts

open when the motor starts and begins to accelerate up to
its running speed. The starting winding is taken out of the
circuit by the centrifugal switch at about 75 to 80 percent of
the motor's running speed. The split-phase motor operates

as a single-phase induction motor when the starting winding

is disconnected from the circuit. (See Figure 15-1)

Split-phase motors have a high resistance in the starting

windings, which produces a high inrush current when

starting. Starting windings consist of small wire and have
many turns, which have a greater resistance than the

running winding. Running (field) windings consist of larger
size wire with fewer turns and thus a lower resistance. (See
Figure 15-2)

WITH CAPACITORS Figure 15-2. The running windings and starting windings
are measured using an ohmmeter. Running windings have
The capacitor is used as the starting device in some motors. less resistance than starting windings.
These are called capacitor-start motors. The capacitor motor
operates on alternating current and is made in sizes ranging
STARTING WINDINGS
from 1/20 HP to 10 HP. It is mainly used to operate such
machines as refrigerators, compressors, etc. A so-called
There are three separate windings in the split-phase motor.
capacitor motor is a split-phase motor with the addition of
The following are the three types of windings:
a capacitor that is connected in series with the starting or
auxiliary winding. The capacitor is usually mounted on top of (1) Squirrel-cage winding (located in the rotor),
the motor, but it may be mounted in other external positions (2) Stator run winding (located at the bottom of the
or inside the motor housing. The added capacitor provides stator poles and known as the running or main
higher starting torque with lower starting current than the winding), and
regular split-phase motor. (See Figure 15-3) (3) Starting or auxiliary winding.
15-2
Types of Motors
At the start, the current flowing through both the running and
starting windings, which are connected in parallel, causes a
magnetic field to form inside the motor. This magnetic field

rotates and induces a voltage in the rotor winding, which in
turn causes another magnetic field. These magnetic fields
combine in such a manner as to cause rotation of the rotor.
The starting winding is necessary at the start to produce the
rotating field. After the motor is running, the starting winding

is no longer needed and is cut out of the circuit by means

of the centrifugal switch.

Use these methods to check the starting winding if the

motor fails to start:
(1) Turn the shaft of the motor by hand. If it starts, the
trouble is in the starter winding circuit.
(2) Disassemble the motor and check the starting

winding for an open circuit.
(3) Use a test light or an ohmmeter to determine

whether the winding is complete. (See Figure 15-4

and Table 1 in the Annex)

Figure 15-4. This split-phase motor is started by a centrifugal
switch that closes and opens the starting winding.

T3
WINDING T1 FOR CAPACITOR MOTORS, SEE
PAGES 15-6 THRU 15-7 IN THIS BOOK.
TO POWER
SOURCE
WINDING
Figure 15-3. Connections of a capacitor-start motor. T2

T4 CURRENT FLOWS
THROUGH WINDINGS IN
THE SAME DIRECTION
REVERSING DIRECTION

The flow of current in a split-phase motor is changed by T3
reversing the flow of current through the running or starting T1
FOR 3-PHASE MOTORS, SEE
WINDING FIGURE 15-32.
windings. The rotor will rotate in a counterclockwise direction
when the flow of current in the starting winding and the
running winding are in the same direction. The rotor will TO POWER
rotate in a clockwise direction when the flow of current in SOURCE
WINDING
the starting winding and running winding are in the opposite
direction. (See Figure 15-5) T2
CURRENT FLOWS
T4 THROUGH WINDINGS IN
THE OPPOSITE DIRECTION
IDENTIFICATION OF LEADS
While older motors are usually tagged M1 and M2 for the
running winding, S3 and S4 for starting winding, or R1 and R2

for the running winding, new motor types dictate a different
color coding of the starting and running windings. These Figure 15-5. The rotation of the split-phase motor is
newer motors follow a typical color coding of red for T1, reversed by changing the flow of current through the running
black for T2, yellow for T3, and blue for T4. winding, as shown above.
15-3
THERMAL PROTECTION ELECTROLYTIC CAPACITORS
An additional switch is sometimes provided for split-phase Many capacitor motors employ the electrolytic capacitor.
motors to protect them from overheating. Overheating can This type of capacitor consists of two sheets of aluminum
be caused by lack of ventilation or by high temperatures. foil that are separated by one or more layers of gauze.
Ventilation problems can be caused by the motor’s inlets The gauze has previously been saturated with a chemical
and outlets being covered with lint or dirt. High temperatures solution called an electrolyte. The electrolyte forms a
can also develop in the windings from a stuck bearing in the film that acts as the insulating medium of the electrolytic
motor or on the driven load. capacitor. These layers are rolled together and fitted into
an aluminum container. Electrolytic capacitors should not
Overcurrent protection devices (bimetal disks or strip be kept in a circuit for more than a few seconds at a time
composed of dissimilar metals) are connected in series because they are designed for only intermittent operation.
with the running winding. The amount of current flow and (See Figure 15-7)
temperature rise of the windings is moderated by the
overload protector. The overload protector will open the
circuit if the current flow and temperature rise exceed the CAPACITOR
ELECTROLYTIC
predetermined (set) value. The overload can be designed
to connect the power supply and start the motor when the CAPACITOR
MOUNTED ON
running winding temperature decreases. (See Figure 15-6) MOTOR UNDER COVER
Motor Theory Tip: A motor will shut down and not

restart until the problem is corrected. The overload
protector provides protection against this.
For IntermittentUse Only
WINDING
SWITCH
WINDING

HEATER
WIRE
Figure 15-7. The above is an illustration of an electrolytic
BIMETAL
FOR SELECTING OVERLOADS, DISK capacitor.
OVERLOAD
SEE FIGURES 19-1 AND 19-2. PROTECTION

Figure 15-6. Overload protection is provided for the running

winding by the bimetal disk or strip.
CAPACITOR-START MOTORS
A capacitor-start motor creates a greater starting torque 2
when a capacitor is connected in series with the starting

winding and the centrifugal switch. The capacitor causes the
current in the starting winding to lead, by almost 90 degrees,
the current in the running winding. This condition produces a
revolving magnetic field in the stator, which in turn induces

a current in the rotor winding. As a result, the magnetic field
acts in such a manner as to produce rotation of the motor. Figure 15-8. The above is an illustration of an oil-filled
capacitor.
15-4
Types of Motors
OIL-FILLED CAPACITORS All capacitors have this quality, and all are electrically
the same. They differ only in mechanical construction as
Some capacitors are made with paper that has been detailed previously.
impregnated with oil and then inserted in a container that is
filled with oil. This is done to increase the insulating quality of
the paper and to help keep the capacitor from overheating.
(See Figure 15-8) USING CHARTS
SELECTING CAPACITORS To correct an existing power factor when the existing power
factor for a motor is known and the power factor is low,
The capacitor acts essentially as a storage unit; that is, it has you may find the size kVAR capacitor needed by using the
the capacity to store and release electricity when needed. manufacturer’s capacitor chart in Figure 15-9.

Figure 15-9. The kVAR is selected from the capacitor calculating chart based on the existing power factor of the motor,
and the existing VA is multiplied by this value to correct power factor problems. The procedure for determining microfarads
for a smaller capacitor is also shown. (Also, see Figure 20-18 in this book.)
15-5
REVERSING DIRECTION

Reversing the direction of a capacitor-start motor can be
achieved by reversing the flow of current through the running
or starting winding or the cpapcitor. If the flow of current
in the starting winding and running winding are the same,
the rotor will rotate in a counterclockwise direction. If the
current flow of the starting and running winding is in opposite
directions, the rotor will rotate in a clockwise direction. (See
Figure 15-10)

Figure 15-11. Starting torque can be increased by providing
a properly sized capacitor.

REVERSING DIRECTION

To reverse the rotation of a capacitor start-and-run motor,

the terminal cover must be removed and the leads of the
starting or running winding must be reversed. Reversing

switches may also be used. (See Figure 15-10)

PERMANENT

SPLIT-CAPACITOR MOTORS
Permanent split-capacitor motors are similar in all respects

to the capacitor-start motor except that they do not contain
Figure 15-10. The rotation of a rotor is determined by the a centrifugal switch.
direction of current flow through the capacitor and windings
in the motor. (For motor without capacitors, see page 15-3 By checking the resistance of the starting and running
in this book.) winding, the windings of a permanent split-capacitor motor
can be identified. (See Figure 15-2) These motors are
commonly called single-value motors. The low value of
the capacitor results in a motor of medium starting torque.
CAPACITOR START-AND-RUN MOTORS Consequently, this motor can only be used for oil burners,
voltage regulators, fans, etc. (See Figure 15-12)
In capacitor start-and-run motors, the capacitor is utilized
during starting and remains in operation during running. REVERSING DIRECTION
The capacitor start-and-run motor is quiet and smooth-
running. It is similar to the capacitor-start motor, except Permanent split-capacitor motors may be reversed by
that the starting winding and capacitor are connected in reversing the terminal leads or by using a reversing switch.
the circuit at all times. The capacitor is connected in series
However, most permanent split-capacitor motors are used
with the starting winding and is connected in parallel with
in equipment, such as fans and blower motors, that requires
the running winding.
a reversing switch. (See Figure 15-13)
A high starting torque is provided with a capacitor start motor.
When the motor reaches its running speed, the centrifugal
switch opens the circuit and drops out the starting capacitor. SHADED-POLE MOTORS
The running capacitor is left in the running circuit to provide
a higher running torque and improve the running power The trailing edge of each pole for a shaded-pole motor is
factor while the motor is in operation. (See Figure 15-11) wound with a shaded coil. Torque is provided to start and run
15-6
Types of Motors
Additional starting torque is provided for shaded pole motors

by using a high-resistance rotor. A higher slip and poor
speed regulation is created by using a high-resistance rotor.
Shaded pole motors are available for 115 volt, 230 volt, and
dual-voltage operation.

Figure 15-12. A centrifugal switch is not required for

permanent split-capacitor motors. The capacitor is never
moved from the circuit.

Figure 15-14. The shaded coil of a shaded-pole motor forms
a closed (loop) circuit with the running windings.

Figure 15-13. A reversing switch is used to reverse a

permanent split-capacitor motor.

the load when the shaded coil produces a slip. Equipment Figure 15-15. The resistance of the winding in a shaded
that requires a high starting torque cannot be operated pole motor is measured by an ohmmeter.
with shaded-pole motors. Shaded-pole motors provide a
very low starting torque. Each field pole is cut with a slot REVERSING DIRECTION
containing the shaded coil. The coil forms a closed circuit
(loop) with the running windings wound around each field Shaded-pole motors can be reversed:
pole. (See Figure 15-14)
(1) by placing the rotor in the motor housing in the
opposite direction.
A magnetic field is set up between the poles and the rotor
when power is applied to the running windings. An out- (2) by two sets of field windings used with each shaded
of-phase condition is created with the flux lines when the coil.
shaded coil cuts through a portion of the magnetic field. A (3) by a switch that can open or close the circuit to the
two-phase magnetic field is then created, and the phase correct windings for the direction of rotation. The
shifting provides the torque needed to start and rotate the rotor will always rotate toward the shaded coil. (See
driven equipment. (See Figure 15-15) Figure 15-16)
15-7
1 2 3 4 5 6

WINDING
WINDINGS SIX
FIVE SMALLER WIRE
ALL THE SAME
AND MORE TURNS
SWITCH SPEED
HIGH

SPEED
LOW
TO POWER
SUPPLY

Figure 15-18. When all six windings are used in the motor,
the motor has a low-speed operation. When only five of the
windings are used in the motor, the motor has a high-speed
operation.
Figure 15-16. Two sets of field (running) windings are used
to reverse shaded-pole motors.
REGULATING SPEEDS UNIVERSAL MOTORS

A shaded-pole motor can have different speeds that are A universal motor is one that can be operated on either direct
provided by tapping a coil. current or single-phase alternating current at approximately
the same speed. All windings are series-connected, and
For example, a coil can be used to provide three the motor has high starting torque and a variable speed
speeds: low (L), medium (M), and high (H). Low characteristic. They are usually designed and built in sizes
speed is produced by tapping all the windings. varying from 1/150 to 3/4 HP but are obtainable in much
Medium speed is produced by tapping half of the larger sizes for special applications.
windings. High speed is produced by tapping none
of the windings. (See Figure 15-17) Universal motors are equipped with field windings and an
armature with brushes and a commutator. The commutator
keeps the armature turning through the magnetic field of the
field windings. It also changes the flow of current in relation

to the field windings and armature so there is a push-and-
pull action. This push-and-pull action is created by the north

and south poles of the field windings and armature. (See
Figures 15-19 and 15-20)

Figure 15-17. Different speeds for shaded-pole motors are

obtained from a tapped coil.
Figure 15-19. Universal motors are equipped with field
A multiple (six) winding provides two motor speeds with the windings and an armature with brushes and a commutator.
windings located in separate slots. The same size wire is
used for five of the windings, while smaller wire with more The north pole of the field windings pulls the south pole of
turns is used for the sixth winding. When all six windings the armature (loop) into the main strength of the magnetic
are used in the motor, the motor has a low-speed operation. field (field force). The commutator and brushes reverse the
When only five of the windings are used, the motor has a current flow through the armature, creating a north pole in
high-speed operation. (See Figure 15-18) the loop. The north pole of the field winding then repels
15-8
Types of Motors
the north pole of the armature. This push-and-pull action These classifications are often confused because of the
rotates the armature through the magnetic field of the field similarity of the names. But each is different and has its
windings, establishing motor operation. own characteristics and applications. However, one feature
common to all is that each has a rotor containing a winding
When the universal motor operates on AC voltage, the that is connected to a commutator. These motors generally
current is constantly changing direction in the field windings. operate from a single-phase lighting or power circuit,
Both the armature and field windings have their current depending on the size of the motor.
reversed simultaneously. Therefore, the motor operates
similar to an inductive motor. The field windings of a

universal motor are connected in series with the brushes
and armature. (See Figure 15-20)

Figure 15-21. The above illustrates that high resistance in

a circuit is used for slower motor speeds and low resistance
in a circuit is used for higher motor speeds. Resistance is

produced by using a variable resistor.

Figure 15-20. The above illustrates a simple universal motor

with all of its parts. STANDARD REPULSION MOTORS
The standard repulsion motor is a single-phase motor, often
REVERSING DIRECTION called an inductive series motor. It starts and runs on the
induction principle and is a varying-speed type of motor.
Changing the flow of current through the armature by This motor is a brush-riding type and does not have any
interchanging the leads on the terminals or using a reversing centrifugal mechanism. It starts and runs on the repulsion
switch will reverse the rotation of the motor. principle. (See Figure 15-22)
REGULATING SPEED

Resistance determines the speed of a motor. The higher

the resistance, the lower the speed. By using a variable
resistor, the speed of a universal motor can be controlled.

To obtain three speeds, one of the field windings must be

tapped. For slow speed, tap all of the winding. For medium
speed, half of the winding, and for fast speed, the entire
winding is bypassed. (See Figure 15-21)
REPULSION MOTORS
Repulsion motors are divided into three distinct classifications.
The following are the types of repulsion motors:
(1) Standard repulsion,

(2) Repulsion-start induction, and
(3) Repulsion-induction. Figure 15-22. A standard repulsion motor has field windings
and a wound rotor with brushes and a commutator.
15-9
REPULSION-START INDUCTION All starting torque is provided by the repulsion winding.

However, once the armature begins its rotation, the voltage
MOTORS induced in the squirrel-cage winding produces some torque
within its winding.
The repulsion-start induction motor and the standard
repulsion motor’s starting procedures are the same, but at
The characteristics of the repulsion-induction motor are very
a predetermined speed, a special device is actuated that
similar to that of the standard type. Direction of rotation and
short circuits all the commutator windings. From this point
setting of the neutral are the same. In fact, it is sometimes
on, the motor operates as a single-phase induction motor.
difficult to differentiate between the two. An easy way to
This device is typically called a short circuiter.
determine the difference is to remove the load, start the
motor, and then remove the brushes. If the motor continues
Since an induction motor functions on the magnetic induction
to run, it is a repulsion-induction type motor.
principle, where fields of both the stator and armature rotate
in the same direction, the higher the speed at which the
short circuiter operates, the less line current is drawn by
the motor. (See Figure 15-23)

Figure 15-24. A repulsion-induction motor has a squirrel-
cage rotor with a wound armature and a commutator with
short circuiter brushes.

REVERSING ROTATION

A repulsion motor is reversed by shifting the brush holder
to either side of the neutral position. Its speed can be

decreased by moving the brush holder further away from
the neutral position. (See Figure 15-25)
Figure 15-23. A repulsion-start induction motor develops
a centrifugal force which operates the short circuiter and
brush-lifting mechanisms to cause a normal induction motor THREE-PHASE MOTORS
operation.
Three-phase motors vary from fractional horsepower sizes
to several thousand horsepower ratings. These motors
have a fairly constant speed characteristic and are made in
REPULSION-INDUCTION MOTORS designs giving a variety of torque characteristics. They are
made for practically every standard voltage and frequency
As in the standard and repulsion-start induction motor, the and are almost always dual-voltage motors.
repulsion-inductor motor has the same starting principle,
but no mechanism is included in its construction. It instead The operating principles of a two-phase motor apply to the
combines a repulsion and squirrel-cage winding in its three-phase motor. For the three-phase motor, however,
armature. Both windings are always in operation while the the generated magnetic fields are 120 degrees out-of-
armature rotates. (See Figure 15-24) phase with each other. An additional starting winding is
15-10
Types of Motors
not required for three-phase motors to start and run. An 240

induction motor will always have a peak phase of current. 1
120
2 3
This is due to alternating current reversing its direction of
flow. In other words, when the alternating current of one
phase reverses its direction of flow, a peak current will be
developed on one phase and as current reverses direction 60 300
0 180 360
again, a second phase will peak, etc. Three-phase motors 120 240
provide a smooth and continuous source of power once they
are started and driving their load. Three-phase motors are
used to drive machine tools, pumps, elevators, fans, hoists,
and many other machines. (See Figure 15-26) 1 HZ
(1 CYCLE)
ROTOR
1
6
2 LEADS

5
3
WINDINGS
4

Figure 15-26. Voltage from 2 to 1 is 120° behind 1 and
voltage from 3 to 1 is 240° behind 1.

Figure 15-25. The armature of a repulsion motor always Figure 15-27. The above illustrates a stator (field poles)
rotates toward the position of the short circuiter brushes and a rotor equipped in a squirrel-cage motor.
from the neutral plane.
CONNECTING LEADS
SQUIRREL-CAGE INDUCTION MOTORS
All three-phase motors are wound with a number of coils that
A squirrel-cage motor is an induction motor and is so called are placed in slots in the stator. These coils are connected
to produce three separate windings called phases, and each
because of its construction. The rotating (stator) magnetic
must have the same number of coils. The number of coils
field induces voltages in the rotor which in turn cause the
in each must be one-third the total number of coils in the
rotor to turn. The rotor consists of an iron core mounted stator. Therefore, if a three-phase motor has 36 coils, each
on a concentric shaft. Copper or brass bars run the entire phase will have 12 coils. These phases are listed as phase
length of this core and are set into slots on the core. At 1, phase 2, and phase 3.
each end of the core, end rings are welded to the copper
or brass bars so that a complete short circuit exists within All three-phase motors have their phases arranged in either
the rotor. The entire assembly resembles the type of cage a wye, which is sometimes called a star connection ( ), or
Y
within which squirrels, etc. are placed to run through various a delta, which is sometimes called a triangle connection (∆).
tests. In effect, the rotor acts as the secondary winding of Either of these connections are connected so that only three
the transformer while the stator acts as the primary winding. leads come from the stator, making the line connections
(See Figure 15-27) very simple.
15-11
SIX-LEAD MOTORS numbered 1-4, 2-5, and 3-6. The windings are connected to
operate on low or high voltage. Windings are connected in
parallel for low voltage and in series for high voltage. This
The windings of a motor can be designed with six leads type of connection applies for either wye- or delta-connected
to connect the windings to the three-phase supply. A six- windings. (See Figure 15-31)
lead motor used for a delta connection has the winding

leads connected so that 1 and 2 close one end of the delta
(triangle), 5 and 6 close one end of the delta, and 3 and 4

close one end of the delta to form a closed-delta connection

of the motor windings. (See Figure 15-28)

The six leads can be wye-connected with one lead for each

winding being connected to form the wye or star connection.
The three remaining leads are connected to the three-phase

supply lines L1, L2, and L3. (See Figure 15-29)

Note, delta-connected windings in a motor will most always
run cooler than windings connected in a wye configuration.

Figure 15-29. The above illustrates a six-lead squirrel-cage
induction motor with internal windings connected for wye
operation.
1 L1
L2

9 4
L3
6 7

8
3 5 2

WINDINGS
ROTOR
1
6 9
L1 (PHASE A)
4 L2 (PHASE B)
Figure 15-28. The above illustrates a six-lead squirrel-cage
L3 (PHASE C)
induction motor with internal windings connected for delta 3 7
operation. 8 5
2
NINE-LEAD MOTORS

The windings of a motor can be designed with nine leads
to connect the windings to the three-phase supply. The Figure 15-30. The above illustrates a nine-lead squirrel-
nine leads are connected to the internal windings for delta cage induction motor with internal windings connected for
operation. A closed delta is formed by connecting six internal delta operation.
windings together. The three windings are marked 1-4-9,
2-5-7, and 3-6-8. A nine-lead motor is used to operate as a
closed-delta system with the windings connected for single-
or dual-voltage operation. (See Figure 15-30) REVERSING DIRECTION
The nine leads can be wye-connected with three leads of By interchanging any two of the three-phase leads, the
its windings, which are connected to form a wye with three rotation can be reversed for any three-phase squirrel-cage
remaining leads (7-8-9). The three remaining windings are induction motor. Using windings 1, 2, and 3 as a reference,
15-12
Types of Motors
the 3 winding will follow the 2 winding rather than the 1 REGULATING SPEED
winding. The rotating field will rotate in the opposite direction
when reversing the polarity through the windings, carrying The speed of a squirrel-cage motor depends upon the
the rotor with it. (See Figure 15-32) following four conditions:
(1) Load,
1 L1 (PHASE A) (2) Applied voltage,
L2 (PHASE B) (3) Frequency, and
4
L3 (PHASE C)
7 (4) Number of poles within the stator.
8
In the squirrel-cage motor, we are interested in the amount,
6 9
5 in which the rotor speed lags the speed of the rotating field.
3
2 This difference in speed, called slip, is entirely dependent

on the load. The greater the load, the greater the amount of
slip, and the slower the speed of the rotor. However, this slip
LEADS is such a small fraction of the synchronous speed that the
3 9
1
L1 (PHASE A) squirrel-cage motor is used widely as a constant-speed type.
7
6 4 L2 (PHASE B)
L3 (PHASE C) Because of their constant-speed characteristics, squirrel-
cage motors are more often used in items such as larger
8 TO
2 WINDINGS types of fans, conveyor-belt applications, presses, etc.
5
ROTOR SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS

Synchronous motors are available in a wide range of sizes
and types that are designed to run at synchronous speeds.
Figure 15-31. The above illustrates a nine-lead squirrel- The following are two types of synchronous motors that are
cage induction motor with internal windings connected for available:
wye operation. (For single-phase motors, see Figure 15-3.)
(1) Nonexcited
(2) Direct-current excited

A DC source of excitation is required. The torque required
to turn the rotor for a synchronous motor is produced when

the DC current of the rotor field locks in with the magnetic

field of the stator AC current. (See Figure 15-33)

Figure 15-33. The torque required to turn the rotor of a

synchronous motor is produced when the DC current of the
Figure 15-32. By interchanging any two leads of a three- rotor field locks in with the magnetic field of the stator AC
phase squirrel-cage induction motor, the rotation is reversed. current. (See Figure 16-4)
15-13
Synchronous motors are made in sizes varying from PRINCIPLES OF STARTING

approximately 20 HP to hundreds of horsepower and
are used wherever it is necessary or desirable to obtain The starting principle of the wound-rotor motor is identical
constant speed. In many cases, synchronous motors are to that of the squirrel-cage motor, but the wound-rotor is not
used to improve the power factor of the electrical system permanently short circuited; instead, the currents produced
in a plant or factory. Many small synchronous motors are in the rotor are fed into slip rings mounted on the end of the
also made for clocks, but they are constructed differently rotor. These currents, in turn, are coupled through slip ring
from the larger ones. brushes (carbon or graphite) into an external control device
that is either a variable resistor or a variac – usually the latter.
STARTING METHOD
SPEED REGULATION
The synchronous motor does not start by itself; some kind
of starting action must be supplied to bring the rotor up to Because of the external control, the starting torque, current,
synchronous speed. operating speed, and acceleration of the motor up to full-
load speed can be varied. However, even though it is
possible to control the wound-rotor motor’s operation, a big
WITH MOTORS disadvantage results. Any loss in motor speed results in a
loss of efficiency. Therefore, the wound-rotor motor is used
One type of starting method uses another motor – either mostly on heavy equipment that requires a high starting
DC or induction – with a high starting torque. This auxiliary torque and smooth acceleration up to full-rated load, or is
motor brings the synchronous motor almost up to full speed used where variable speed is essential.
and is automatically disconnected. The synchronous motor
comes up to full speed under its own power when DC
excitation is applied.
REVERSING DIRECTION
Reversing direction of three-phase motors may be done

very simply. The entire procedure consists of disconnecting
WITH DAMPER WINDINGS any two of the three stator leads from the line, interchanging
them, and then reconnecting them to the line.
Another method of starting may be provided by adding
a common winding to the rotor DC winding. The added
Note, the stator leads are changed to achieve a reversal
winding is an induction type or squirrel-cage construction.
in rotation.
The voltage induced in this winding by the rotating stator field
produces poles of opposite polarity in the rotor. Opposite
See Figure 15-34 for a detailed illustration of the parts that
poles attracting the rotating magnetic field in the stator
make up a wound-rotor motor.
provide the necessary starting torque. At some point slightly
below synchronous speed, the rotor DC voltage is fed into
the rotor, and the motor reaches full operating speed.
NEMA TYPE ENCLOSURES
Underwriters Laboratories (UL) has defined the requirements
WOUND-ROTOR MOTORS for protective enclosures according to the hazardous
conditions, and the National Electrical Manufacturers
Wound-rotor motors are classified as three-phase induction Association (NEMA) has standardized enclosures from
motors and have two sets of leads. One set is the main leads these requirements. (See NEMA 250)
to the motor windings (stator or field poles), and the other
set is the secondary leads to the rotor. The secondary leads The correct selection and installation of an enclosure for
are connected to the rotor through the slip rings, while the a particular application can contribute considerably to the
other ends of the leads are connected through a controller length of life of a motor.
and a bank of resistors.
When selecting and installing a motor enclosure, it is always
Wound-rotor motors operate on the same principle as the necessary to consider carefully the conditions under which
squirrel-cage induction motor. The major difference is in the motor must operate.
construction. Where the squirrel-cage motor has copper or
brass bars that are permanently short circuited, the wound Note, there are many applications where a general-purpose
rotor has insulated windings in their place. These windings enclosure does not afford protection. (See Table 110.28 in
are not permanently short circuited. the NEC.)
15-14
Types of Motors
NEMA TYPE 3S ENCLOSURES

NOTE 1: TO CALCULATE CONDUCTOR,
SEE FIGURE 20-8. This enclosure is intended for outdoor use, primarily to
provide a degree of protection against rain, sleet, and
NOTE 2: THE MOTOR HAS A RATING
OF 38.5 AMPS IN THE SECONDARY windblown dust, and to provide for operation of external
CONDUCTORS.
mechanisms when ice-laden.
CONTROLLER
480 V POWER SUPPLY 430.81
CONDUCTORS
430.23(A)
NEMA TYPE 4 ENCLOSURES
This enclosure is intended for indoor or outdoor use, primarily
DRUM CONTROLLER DISCONNECTING
MEANS to provide a degree of protection against windblown dust
430.102 and rain, splashing water, hose-directed water, and damage
from external ice formation.
RESISTOR BANK
430.23(C)
WOUND-ROTOR MOTOR
SECONDARY CONDUCTORS
430.23(A)
RESISTOR BANK CONDUCTORS
USED AT CONTINUOUS DUTY
NEMA TYPE 4X ENCLOSURES
430.23(C)
This enclosure is intended for indoor or outdoor use,
WOUND-ROTOR MOTORS
primarily to provide a degree of protection against corrosion,
Figure 15-34. The above illustrates the parts of a wound- windblown dust and rain, splashing water, hose-directed
rotor motor. (One line diagram for simplicity) water, and damage from external ice formation.

This enclosure is suitable for general purpose applications
indoors where it is not exposed to unusual service This enclosure is intended for indoor use, primarily to provide
conditions. A NEMA 1 enclosure serves as protection against a degree of protection against settling airborne dust; falling
limited falling dirt; dust; and light, indirect splashing water. dirt; and dripping, noncorrosive liquids.
NEMA TYPE 2 ENCLOSURES NEMA TYPE 6 ENCLOSURES

This enclosure is intended to provide suitable protection This enclosure is intended for indoor or outdoor use,
against specified weather hazards. A NEMA 2 enclosure primarily to provide a degree of protection against hose-
is intended for indoor use, primarily to provide a degree of directed water, the entry of water during occasional
protection against limited amounts of falling water and dirt. temporary submersion at a limited depth, and damage from
external ice formation.

NEMA TYPE 6P ENCLOSURES
This enclosure protects against interference in operation of
the contained equipment due to rain and resists damage This enclosure is intended for indoor or outdoor use, primarily
from exposure to weather. A NEMA 3 enclosure is intended to provide a degree of protection against hose-directed
for outdoor use, primarily to provide a degree of protection water, the entry of water during prolonged submersion at
against rain, sleet, windblown dust, and damage from a limited depth, and damage from external ice formation.

NEMA TYPE 3R ENCLOSURES
This enclosure is intended for indoor use in locations that
This enclosure is intended for outdoor use, primarily to are classified as Class I, Groups A, B, C, or D, as defined
provide a degree of protection against rain, sleet, and in the NEC.
damage from external ice formation; it must have a drain
hole.
15-15

This enclosure is for indoor or outdoor use in locations that
are classified as Class I, Groups A, B, C, or D, as defined
in the NEC.

This enclosure is intended for indoor use in locations that
are classified as Class II, Groups E, F, and G, as defined
in the NEC.

This enclosure is constructed to meet the applicable
requirements of the Mine Safety and Health Administration.

This enclosure is intended for indoor use, primarily to provide
a degree of protection against circulating dust; falling dirt;
and dripping, noncorrosive liquids.
NEMA TYPE 12K ENCLOSURES

This enclosure, with knockouts, is intended for indoor use,
primarily to provide a degree of protection against circulating
dust; falling dirt; and dripping, noncorrosive liquids.

This enclosure is intended for indoor use, primarily to provide
a degree of protection against dust, spraying of water, oil,
and noncorrosive coolant.
For more information about enclosures, see the NEMA

Standards Publication No. 250, Enclosures for Electrical
Equipment (1000 Volts Maximum) or other third party
certification standards for specific requirements for product
construction, testing and performance, such as Underwriters
Laboratories Inc.©, Standard UL 50, Standard for Enclosures
for Electrical Equipment and UL 886 Outlet Boxes and
Fittings for Use in Hazardous (Classified) Locations.
Note, for enclosures that can be used for motors installed

indoors or outdoors, see Table 110.28 in the NEC and
NEMA 250.
15-16
Name Date
Chapter 15: Types of Motors
Section Answer
1. The torque needed to start turning the load for a split-phase motor is produced _____________ _____________
from the starting windings, which are placed about _____ from the running
windings.
(a) 10º (b) 25º
(c) 30º (d) 40º
2. A capacitor motor operates on alternating current and is made in sizes ranging _____________ _____________
from 1/20 HP to _____ HP.
(a) 1 (b) 3
(c) 5 (d) 10
3. Older motors are usually tagged _____ and _____ for the running winding. _____________ _____________
(a) M1, M2 (b) S3, S4
(c) R1, R2 (d) T1, T2
4. Older motors are usually tagged _____ and _____ for the starting winding. _____________ _____________
(a) M1, M2 (b) S3, S4
(c) R1, R2 (d) T1, T2
5. Older motors are usually tagged _____ and _____ for the running winding. _____________ _____________
(a) M1, M2 (b) S3, S4
(c) R1, R2 (d) T1, T2
6. Newer motors are typically color coded _____ for T1. _____________ _____________
(a) black (b) blue
(c) red (d) yellow
(a) black (b) blue
(c) red (d) yellow
(a) black (b) blue
(c) red (d) yellow
(a) black (b) blue
(c) red (d) yellow
10. A capacitor-start motor creates a greater starting torque when a capacitor is _____________ _____________
connected in series with the _____ winding and the centrifugal switch.
(a) starting (b) running
(c) thermal (d) field
11. In capacitor-start motors, the capacitor causes the current in the starting winding _____________ _____________
to lead, by almost _____, the current in the running winding.
(a) 30º (b) 60º
(c) 75º (d) 90º
15-17
Section Answer
_____________ _____________ 12. By checking the _____ of the starting and running winding, the windings of a
permanent split capacitor motor can be identified.
(a) voltage (b) amperage
(c) resistance (d) power
_____________ _____________ 13. Shaded-pole motors provide a very low starting _____ .
(a) slip (b) torque
(c) voltage (d) amperage
_____________ _____________ 14. A shaded-pole motor can have different speeds, which are provided by tapping
a _____ .
(a) coil (b) winding
(c) rotor (d) stator
_____________ _____________ 15. Universal motors are usually designed and built in sizes varying from 1/150
HP to _____ HP.
(a) 1/2 (b) 3/4
(c) 5 (d) 10
_____________ _____________ 16. Universal motors are equipped with _____ windings, and an armature with
brushes and a commutator.
(a) starting (b) running
(c) thermal (d) field
_____________ _____________ 17. Changing the flow of current through the _____ by interchanging the lead on
the terminals will reverse the rotation of an universal motor.
(c) armature (d) coil
_____________ _____________ 18. A standard repulsion motor is a single-phase motor, often called a(n) _____
series motor.
(a) resistive (b) reactive
(c) capacitive (d) inductive
_____________ _____________ 19. A repulsion motor is reversed by shifting the _____ to either side of the neutral
position.
(a) brush holder (b) armature
(c) stator (d) rotor
_____________ _____________ 20. All three-phase squirrel-cage motors are wound with a number of _____ which
are placed in slots in the stator.
(a) windings (b) coils
(c) brushes (d) wires
_____________ _____________ 21. A six lead motor used for a delta connection has the winding leads connected
so that _____ close one end of the delta, _____ close one of the delta, and
_____ close one end of the delta to form a closed-delta connection of the
motor windings.
(a) 1 and 3, 2 and 4, 5 and 6 (b) 1 and 6, 2 and 5, 3 and 4
(c) 1 and 2, 3 and 4, 5 and 6 (d) 1 and 4, 2 and 5, 3 and 6
_____________ _____________ 22. Wound-rotor motors are classified as three-phase induction motors and have
_____ sets of leads.
(a) 2 (b) 3
(c) 6 (d) 9
15-18
Section Answer
23. A NEMA _____ enclosure serves as protection against limited falling dirt, dust, _____________ _____________
and light indirect splashing water.
(a) 1 (b) 3
(c) 4 (d) 5
24. A NEMA _____ enclosure is intended for outdoor use, primarily to provide _____________ _____________
a degree of protection against rain, sleet, windblown dust, and damage from
(a) 1 (b) 3
(c) 4 (d) 5
25. A NEMA _____ enclosure is intended for indoor use, primarily to provide a _____________ _____________
degree of protection against settling airborne dust, falling dirt, and dripping
noncorrosive liquids.
(a) 1 (b) 3
(c) 4 (d) 5
15-19
16
Design Letters and
Code Letters
Motor circuits shall be designed to provide protection for motor windings
and components when motors are starting, running, and driving loads.
Motor windings are protected by overcurrent protection devices that are
selected according to the type of motor that is used, based on the amount
of starting current required. Overcurrent protection devices shall be sized by
percentages based on the type of motor, starting method, design, or code
letter. Starting methods shall be selected based on the amount of current
required to start and run the motor or the amount that is to be reduced by
utilizing a starting method.
This chapter adresses these motors and their many different characteristics
and why it is sometimes desirable to choose one over the other, based on
the requirements of the driven load or equipment.
TYPES OF MOTORS
TABLE 430.52
The following are five types of motors to be considered when sizing overcurrent protection devices
to allow motors to start and run:
(1) Single-phase AC squirrel-cage,
(2) Three-phase AC squirrel-cage,
(3) Wound-rotor,
(4) Synchronous, and
(5) DC.
SINGLE-PHASE AC SQUIRREL-CAGE etc. Three-phase motors provide a smooth and continuous

source of power once they are started and driving the load.
MOTORS (See Figure 16-2)
Squirrel-cage motors are known in the electrical industry
as induction motors. An induction motor operates on the
same principles as the primary and secondary windings of

a transformer. When power energizes the field windings,

they serve as the primary by inducing voltage into the
rotor that serves as the secondary windings. Squirrel-cage
motors have two windings on the stator: one winding is
the run winding, and the other is the starting winding. This
additional starting winding on the stator is required for split-
phase, single-phase, induction motors to have the capacity

to start and run. The starting winding has a higher resistance

to ground than the running winding, which creates a phase
displacement between the two windings. It is this phase
displacement between the two windings that gives split-
phase motors the power to start.

The phase displacement is about 18 to 30 degrees in angular
Figure 16-2. The above is an example of a three-phase
phase displacement, which provides enough starting torque
AC squirrel-cage motor that is listed in Table 430.52 and
(twist or force) to start the motor. The motor operates on
Table 430.250.
the running winding when the rotor starts turning and has
established a running speed at about 75 to 80 percent of
the motor's synchronous speed. The starting winding is
disconnected by a centrifugal switch that is installed in the
WOUND-ROTOR MOTORS
circuit of the starting winding. (See Figure 16-1)
Wound-rotor motors are classified as three-phase induction
motors. They are similar in design to squirrel-cage induction

motors. Wound-rotor motors are three-phase motors

that have two sets of leads. One set is the main leads to
the motor windings (field poles) and the other set is the
secondary leads to the rotor. The secondary leads are
connected to the rotor through the slip rings, while the other

ends of the leads are connected through a controller and

a bank or resistors. The speed of the motor varies with the
amount of resistance added in the motor circuit. The rotor
will turn slower when the resistance is greater in the rotor,
and vice versa. The resistance may be incorporated in the
Figure 16-1. The above is an example of a single-phase controller, or the resistor banks may be separate from the
AC squirrel-cage motor that is listed in Table 430.52 and motor. (See Figure 16-3)
Table 430.248. (See Figure 15-1)
SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS
THREE-PHASE AC SQUIRREL-CAGE
MOTORS The following are two types of synchronous motors that
are available:
Three-phase AC squirrel-cage motors have three separate (1) Nonexcited and
windings per pole on the stator that generates magnetic (2) Direct-current excited.
fields that are 120 degrees out-of-phase with each other. An
additional starting winding is not required for three-phase Synchronous motors are available in a wide range of
motors to start and run. An induction motor will always sizes and types that are designed to run at designed
have a peak phase of current. This is due to alternating speeds. A DC source is required to excite a DC-excited
current reversing its direction of flow. In other words, when synchronous motor. The torque required to turn the rotor
alternating current of one phase reverses its direction of for a synchronous motor is produced when the DC current
flow, a peak current will be developed on one phase and, as of the rotor field locks in with the magnetic field of the stator
current reverses direction again, a second phase will peak, AC current. (See Figure 16-4)
16-2
Design Letters and Code Letters
CONTROLLER

480 V POWER SUPPLY
CONDUCTORS

SECONDARY
CONDUCTORS
DRUM DISCONNECTING
CONTROLLER MEANS

RESISTOR BANK

480 V, 60 HP
WOUND-ROTOR MOTOR RESISTOR BANK CONDUCTORS
USED AT CONTINUOUS DUTY

Figure 16-5. The above is an example of a DC motor that

is listed in Table 430.52 and Table 430.247.
Figure 16-3. The above is an example of a three-phase
wound-rotor motor that is listed in Table 430.52 and Table
430.250.

Figure 16-4. The above is an example of a three-phase Figure 16-6. A series DC motor has a very high starting
synchronous motor that is listed in Table 430.52 and Table torque of 300 to 375 percent of the full-load torque.
430.250. (See Figure 15-33)
DC MOTORS
SHUNT DC MOTORS
Direct current only is used to operate DC related motors. A
A high torque of 125 to 200 percent of the full-load torque
DC motor is designed with two main parts:
is provided when using shunt DC motors. Loads that are
(1) The stator and required to be driven with constant or adjustable speeds and
(2) The rotor. loads that do not require high starting torque use this type
of motor. Loads such as woodworking machines, printing
The stationary frame of the motor is called the stator. The presses, and papermaking machines use shunt DC motors.
armature mounted on the drive shaft is known as the rotor. (See Figure 16-7)
By applying direct current to the rotor, the speed may be
adjusted for a DC motor that drives the driven load at a
specific speed. (See Figure 16-5)

SERIES DC MOTORS

A very high starting torque of 300 to 375 percent of the

full-load torque is provided when using series DC motors.

Loads that are required to be driven with high torque and low
speed regulate use of this type of motor. Depending on the
load requirements, the speed varies. Series DC motors are
used in installations such as traction work, where the speed
varies depending on the load on the hoist. The armature and Figure 16-7. A shunt DC motor provides a medium starting
fields are connected in series. (See Figure 16-6) torque of 125 to 200 percent of the full-load torque.
16-3
COMPOUND DC MOTORS A different rotor design is offered for each class of motor,
which will create a different value of starting torque. A
A high torque of 180 to 260 percent of the full-load torque is different value of torque, speed, current, and slip to start
provided when using compound DC motors. A fairly constant and drive the various types of loads is produced when using
speed is obtained when using this type of motor. The Design B, C, or D motors classified by NEMA. The design
compound DC motor is equipped with a series winding and motor to be selected and used depends on the starting
shunt winding. A series winding is connected in series with torque of the driven load and the running torque required
the armature and the shunt winding is connected in parallel to drive the load. (See Figure 16-10)
with the armature. This type of motor has the characteristics
of both a series and shunt motor during operation. Loads
such as crushers, reciprocating compressors, and punch

presses use compound DC motors. (See Figure 16-8)
MOTOR
180% TO 260% FULL-LOAD
TORQUE IS PROVIDED
SERIES
FIELD
TO POWER
SUPPLY
SHUNT
FIELD ARMATURE

Figure 16-8. A compound DC motor provides a high torque

of 180 to 260 percent of the full-load torque.

CALCULATING TORQUE

To accelerate and drive a piece of equipment, the motor
must be capable of producing a torque. Torque is the turning Figure 16-9. To find the full-load torque of a motor, multiply
or twisting force of the motor and is measured in foot-pounds the horsepower rating times 5252 and divide by RPMs.
or pound-feet.
CLASS B MOTORS
FULL-LOAD TORQUE
The most-used motors in the electrical industry are Class
The full-load torque of a motor is determined by dividing B design motors.
the horsepower times 5252, and dividing by the rpm of the
motor. For example, the starting torque of an induction
motor will increase by 150 percent of the full-load
torque when using Class B design motors. The
Motor Tip: The value of 5252 is found by dividing starting torque of an induction motor is usually
33,000 foot-pounds per minute by 6.2831853 (33,000 increased by less than 150 percent by most
÷ 6.2831853 = 5252), which is found by multiplying π designers when using Class B motors to start and
(3.14159265) by 2. (See Figure 16-9) run loads. (See Figure 16-10)
CLASS C MOTORS
STARTING TORQUE
The starting torque of a squirrel-cage induction motor will
The starting torque of a motor varies with the classification increase about 225 percent of the full-load torque when
of the motor. Motors are classified by NEMA as Design B, using Class C design motors. However, to keep from
C, or D motors. These types of standardized motors are overloading the starting torque of a motor, designers will
the most-used motors in the electrical industry. Other types often load a motor to a value less than 225 percent. (See
of motors classified by NEMA are Design F or G motors. Figure 16-10)
16-4
For example: What is the full-load torque and For example: What is the full-load torque and
starting torque of a 40 HP, Class C design induction starting torque of a 50 HP, Class D design induction
motor operating at 1725 RPM? motor operating at 1725 RPM?
Step 1: Finding full-load torque Step 1: Finding full-load torque

Torque = HP x 5252 ÷ RPM Torque = HP x 5252 ÷ RPM
Torque = 40 x 5252 ÷ 1725 Torque = 50 x 5252 ÷ 1725
Torque = 210,080 ÷ 1725 Torque = 262,600 ÷ 1725
Torque = 121.8 ft lbs Torque = 152.2 ft lbs
Step 2: Finding starting torque Step 2: Finding starting torque

Full-load torque increased by 225% Full-load current increased by 275%
Torque = 121.8 ft lbs x 225% Torque = 152.2 ft lbs x 275%
Torque = 274.05 ft lbs Torque = 418.6 ft lbs
Solution: The full-load torque is 122 ft lbs Solution: The full-load torque is 152.2 ft
and the starting torque is 274 ft lbs. lbs and the starting torque is
418.6 ft lbs.

CLASS E AND NEMA B MOTORS

When designing and installing a high-efficiency motor, it
is most important to know the starting and running torque

of the load. The difference between the nominal and the

minimum efficiency must also be determined. The motor
must be sized to start and drive the load.

STARTING CURRENTS

Most high-efficiency motors do have higher starting currents

and this presents a real problem where a standard motor
is replaced with a high-efficiency motor. Nuisance tripping

of the overcurrent protection device can occur during full-

voltage start up. [See Figures 14-7 and 18-12(c)]

There are some high-efficiency motors that have starting

currents as high as 1500 percent of the full-load current.

If 1700 percent per Ex. 1 to 430.52(C)(3) does not permit

the motor to start and run, reduced voltage starting or use
of modern electronic types of motor start/run technologies
Figure 16-10. To find the starting torque of a motor (Class must be utilized.
B, C, or D design), the full-load torque is multiplied by the
percentages of the proper motor design letter. Note, starting currents of high-efficiency motors vary based
on manufacturer and size. High-efficiency motors must be
selected with enough starting torque and break-down torque
CLASS D MOTORS to start and run the driven loads.
The starting torque of a squirrel-cage induction motor is The nameplate on most motors will list the starting and
increased about 275 percent of the full-load torque when running kVA of the motor. It is from these values and the
using Class D design motors. However, to keep from manufacturer data that the overcurrent protection device
overloading the starting torque of a motor, designers will and conductors shall be sized. The motor should be loaded
often load a motor to a value less than 275 percent. (See based on the minimum efficiency and not the motor's
Figure 16-10) nominal efficiency.
16-5
Note, a high-efficiency motor is equipped on its nameplate RESISTOR- OR REACTOR-REDUCED

with a nominal and minimum efficiency full-load rating.
STARTING
TWO-SPEED MOTORS To reduce the inrush starting current (LRC) of a motor, a
resistor- or reactor-reduced starting method can be used.
The full-load torque of a motor is determined by the RPM The starting current is reduced to 65 percent by using either
of the motor. A motor turning at 1800 RPM produces less method. The starting torque will be reduced to 42 percent
torque than motor turning at 1200 RPM. (65% x 65% = 42%) if the starting current is reduced. When
selecting a reduced starting method, care must be taken to
ensure that enough foot-pounds are provided to accelerate
For example: What is the full-load torque for a two- the load. (See Figure 16-11)
speed motor, 30 HP motor operating at either 1200
RPM or 1800 RPM?
CODE LETTERS
Step 1: Finding full-load torque (1200) TABLES 430.7(B) AND 430.251
Torque = HP x 5252 ÷ RPM
Torque = 30 x 5252 ÷ 1200 Code letters are installed on motors by manufacturers for
Torque = 157,560 ÷ 1200 calculating the locked-rotor current (LRC) in amps based
Torque = 131.3 ft lbs upon the kVA per horsepower that is selected from the
motor's code letter. Overcurrent protection devices shall be
Step 2: Finding full-load torque (1800) set above the locked-rotor current of the motor to prevent the
Torque = HP x 5252 ÷ RPM overcurrent protection device from opening when the rotor of
the motor is starting. The following two methods can be used
Torque = 30 x 5252 ÷ 1800
to calculate and select the locked-rotor current of motors:
Torque = 157,560 ÷ 1800
Torque = 87.5 ft lbs (1) Utilizing code letters to determine LRC and
(2) Utilizing horsepower to determine LRC.
Solution: The full-load torque for 1200 RPM is
131.3 ft lbs and the full-load torque
for 1800 RPM is 87.5 ft lbs
UTILIZING CODE LETTERS TO FIND LRC
430.7(B) AND TABLE 430.7(B)

Code letters shall be marked on the nameplate, and such

letters are used for designing locked-rotor current. Locked-
rotor current for code letters is listed in Table 430.7(B) in
kVA (kilovolt-amps) per horsepower, based on a particular
code letter.

For example: What is the locked-rotor current rating

for a three-phase, 208 volt, 20 horsepower motor

with a code letter B marked on the nameplate of

the motor?

Step 1: Finding LRC amps

Table 430.7(B)

A = (kVA per HP x 1000) ÷ (V x 1.732)

A = (3.54 x 20 x 1000) ÷ (208 V x 1.732)

A = 70,800 ÷ 360 V
A = 197

Solution: The locked-rotor current is 197
amps. Table 430.7(B) must be used
to find LRCs of motors, based on
Figure 16-11. Resistor or reactor starting used to reduce their code letters per 1996 NEC and
the starting torque of a motor. earlier editions.
16-6
LOCKED-ROTOR CURRENT See Figures 16-12(a) and (b) for calculating and selecting
the locked-rotor current of a motor.
UTILIZING HORSEPOWER
TABLES 430.251(A) AND (B)
Motor Tip: Engineers and electricians shall select the
locked-rotor current rating from Tables 430.251(A)
The locked-rotor current of a motor may be found in Tables and (B) when using Design B, C, D, or E motors. The
430.251(A) and (B). The locked-rotor current for single- overcurrent protection device shall be set above the
phase and three-phase motors is selected from one of these locked-rotor current of the motor so that the motor can
tables based upon the phases, voltage, and horsepower start and run. See problem in Figure 16-12(b).
rating of the motor. For motors with code letters A through G,
round the nameplate current in amps up to an even number
(unit of ten) and multiply by 6 to obtain the LRC of the motor. When code letters are used, the locked-rotor current shall be
calculated per Table 430.7(B) or the rule of thumb method
Note, code letters are not found in Tables 430.251(A) applied, based on code letters A through G. See the problem
and (B); they are listed on the motor's nameplate. Motors and Quick Calc in Figure 16-12(a).
will be marked either as Design B, C, D, or E to indicate
which locked-rotor currents are to be selected from Tables See Figure 16-13 for a chart showing the different electrical
430.251(A) and (B) based on horsepower, phases, and characteristics for design type motors.
voltages. For motor code letters, see Table 430.7(B).

For example: What is the locked-rotor current

rating for a three-phase, 460 volt, 50 horsepower,
Design B motor?

Table Method Using Design Letter

Step 1: Finding LRC amps

Table 430.251(B)

50 HP requires 363 A


amps.

For example: What is the locked-rotor current of a

motor with a nameplate current of 63 amps, based

upon code letters A through G?

Rule of Thumb Method Using Code Letter

Step 1: Finding even number (unit of 10)
Table 430.7(B)
Round up 63 A to 70 A Figure 16-12(a). For motors having code letters instead of
Design letters, the locked rotor current shall be calculated
Step 2: Calculating LRC per Table 430.7(B) using the code letter of the motor.
Table 430.7(B)
70 A x 6 = 420 A Note, for calculating locked rotor current for DC motors,
see Figure 20-17.
amps. This method can only be
used for code letters A through G.
16-7

For example: What size overcurrent protection

device is required to permit the three-phase, 460
V, 50 HP motor in Figure 16-12(a) and (b) to start

and run?

Step 1: Finding FLC of motor
Table 430.250

50 HP = 65 A

Step 2: Finding percentage to size OCPD (CB)

Table 430.52

Percentage = 250%

Step 3: Calculating amps

65A x 250% = 162.5 A

Step 4: Selecting OCPD (CB)

430.52(C)(1), Ex. 1 and 240.6(A)
162.5 A = 175 A CB
Figure 16-12(b). Tables 430.251(A) and (B) shall be used
to determine the LRC in amps for motors with Design letters. Solution: A 175 amp circuit breaker will hold
about 525 A (175 A x 3 = 525 A )
for 4 to 9 seconds.
NEMA Starting Starting Breakdown Full-Load

Design Torque Current Torque Slip
Motor Tip: Inverse-time circuit breakers (600 V or

less) will hold about three times their rating for different

periods of time, based on their frame size.

Motor Tip: It does not matter if the code letter or Design
Figure 16-13. The type of motor will determine the electrical
letter is used to determine LRC (starting current). The
characteristics of the design.
size overcurrent protection device (circuit breaker),
when used per Table 430.52, is large enought to hold
Note, NEMA has designated the above designs for
such current and allow the motor to start and run.
polyphase motors. Design E motors are not listed.
16-8
Name Date
Chapter 16: Design Letters and Code Letters
Section Answer
1. The phase displacement for a single-phase AC squirrel-cage motor is about _____________ _____________
18 to _____ degrees in angular phase displacement.
(a) 30 (b) 45
(c) 60 (d) 90
2. A single-phase AC squirrel-cage motor operates on the running winding when _____________ _____________
the rotor starts turning and has established a running speed at about 75 to
_____ percent of the motor’s synchronous speed.
(a) 78 (b) 80
(c) 85 (d) 90
3. Three-phase AC squirrel-cage motors have three separate windings per pole _____________ _____________
on the stator that generate magnetic fields that are _____ degrees out-of-phase
with each other.
(a) 60 (b) 90
(c) 110 (d) 120
4. A very high starting torque of 300 to _____ percent of the full-load torque is _____________ _____________
provided when using series DC motors.
(a) 350 (b) 375
(c) 400 (d) 450
5. A high torque of 125 to _____ percent of the full-load torque is provided when _____________ _____________
using shunt DC motors.
(a) 150 (b) 175
(c) 200 (d) 250
6. A high torque of 180 to _____ percent of the full-load torque is provided when _____________ _____________
using compound DC motors.
(a) 200 (b) 220
(c) 240 (d) 260
7. The full-load torque of a motor is determined by dividing the horsepower times _____________ _____________
_____, the RPM of the motor.
(a) 2525 (b) 3636
(c) 5252 (d) 6464
8. The most used motor in the electrical industry is Class _____ design motor. _____________ _____________
(a) B (b) C
(c) D (d) E
9. The starting torque of an induction motor will increase by _____ percent of the _____________ _____________
full-load torque when using Class B design motors.
(a) 125 (b) 150
(c) 225 (d) 275
10. The starting torque of a squirrel-cage motor will increase about _____ percent _____________ _____________
of the full-load torque when using Class C motors.
(a) 125 (b) 150
(c) 225 (d) 275
16-9
Section Answer
_____________ _____________ 11. The starting torque of a squirrel-cage induction motor is increased about _____
percent of the full-load torque when using Class D motors.
(a) 125 (b) 150
(c) 225 (d) 275
_____________ _____________ 12. The starting current is reduced to _____ percent when using a reactor-reduced
starting method.
(a) 50 (b) 65
(c) 75 (d) 80
_____________ _____________ 13. Code letters are installed on motors by manufacturers for calculating the _____
based on the kVA per horsepower that is selected from the motor’s code letter.
(a) RPM (b) amperage
(c) locked-rotor current (d) voltage
_____________ _____________ 14. The full-load torque of a motor is determined by the _____ of the motor.
(a) RPM (b) amperage
(c) locked-rotor current (d) voltage
_____________ _____________ 15. For motors with code letters A through G, round the nameplate current in amps
up to an even number and multiply by _____ to obtain the locked-rotor current
of the motor.
(a) 3 (b) 6
(c) 10 (d) 15
_____________ _____________ 16. What is the full-load torque and starting torque of a 50 HP, Design C motor
operating at 1725 RPM? (Round up the calculation.)
_____________ _____________ 17. What is the full-load torque and starting torque of a 40 HP, Design D motor
operating at 1725 RPM?
_____________ _____________ 18. What is the full-load torque for a two-speed, 40 HP motor operating at either
1200 RPM or 1800 RPM? (Calculate each speed.)
_____________ _____________ 19. What is the lowest (42 percent) reduced-resistor starting torque for a 240 volt,
40 HP, three-phase, Design B motor operating at 1725 RPM?
_____________ _____________ 20. What is the locked-rotor current rating for a three-phase, 208 volt, 40 HP motor
with a locked-rotor current code letter B marked on the nameplate of the motor?
_____________ _____________ 21. What is the locked-rotor current rating for a three-phase, 460 volt, 40 HP,
Design B motor using the locked-rotor current listed in Table 430.251(B)?
_____________ _____________ 22. Consider a motor with a nameplate current of 58 amps and calculate the
locked-rotor current of the motor based upon code letters A through G. (Use
the rule-of-thumb method.)
_____________ _____________ 23. What is the locked rotor amps for a 50 HP, 460 V, 3Ø Design B motor?
_____________ _____________ 24. What is the LRA for a 40 HP, 208 V, 3Ø, Design B motor?
_____________ _____________ 25. What is the LRA for a 7-1/2 HP, 230 V, 3Ø motor?
16-10
17
Starting Methods
The starting method of a motor must be considered when sizing the
overcurrent protection device for the motor circuit. The starting method is
determined and selected based on the amount of current required to be
reduced. Overload protection for a circuit is used to allow a motor to start
but will open if the motor develops overloads during operation. The starting
methods are designed by using the external components in motor starters
or the windings of the motor.
TYPES OF STARTING METHODS

The following seven starting methods, as oultined in NEMA 1, Motors and Generators, must be
considered when sizing the overcurrent protection device:
(1) Full-voltage starting,
(2) Reactor starting,
(3) Resistor starting,
(4) Autotransformer starting,
(5) Solid state starting,
(6) Wye-delta starting, and
(7) Part-winding starting.
Motor Starting Tip: The starting methods are no longer listed in Table 430.52.
FYI - they can be found in Table 430-152 of the 1993 NEC.
FULL-VOLTAGE STARTING REACTOR STARTING

Full-voltage starting applies 480 volts directly to the motor's Reduced-voltage starting is accomplished by placing
windings when the supply voltage from the utility company a reactor in series with each phase of the motor. The
is three-phase, 480 volts. A disconnecting switch or circuit insulation problems that are created – due to heat – when
breaker is used as a single main switch for connecting a using resistor starting are not a problem when using reactor
motor across the line. The coil in a magnetic starter may be starting to reduce the voltage and current for starting a
controlled by a start and stop pushbutton station or other motor. Reactor starting is designed and installed mainly
control devices to bridge the line to the load terminals of for motors with high-voltage systems. When using reactor
the motor. (See Figure 17-1) starting, the torque efficiency is less than that of full-voltage
starting. (See Figure 17-2)
High torque is produced when using full-voltage starting.

Full-voltage starting has a starting torque per ampere of
line current that is the highest of all starting methods. Full-
voltage starting for motors has an inrush starting current that
varies from 3-1/2 to 10 times the normal full-load running

amps. The power system for full-voltage starting must be

capable of delivering its starting current without a voltage

dip. Full-voltage starting for the driven equipment must be
designed to withstand heavy currents. When selecting a
starting method, full-voltage starting is usually selected

because of its lower cost and maintenance. However,

integral horsepower motors or high-voltage systems use
full-voltage starting because the starting current of the motor

is low due to the high voltage or lower horsepower.
For example: What is the full-voltage starting

current, in amps, applied across the line to the
windings of a 240 volt, three-phase, Design B, 50
horsepower motor? Figure 17-1. Supply voltage and starting current are applied
to the motor windings when using full-voltage starting.
Step 1: Finding FLA

Table 430.251(B)
50 HP = 725 A
REACTOR
LRC REDUCED
Solution: The locked-rotor starting current is TO 65%
POWER
725 amps. SUPPLY
R S
CONTACT CONTACT
RELAY STARTING
STARTING CHARACTERISTICS:
REDUCED 65% OF NORMAL
By using the design letter of the motor, the locked-rotor STARTING CURRENT BECAUSE
starting current of the motor is 725 amps per Table VOLTAGE IS REDUCED
REDUCED 42% OF NORMAL
430.251(B). By using the code letter of the motor, if STARTING TORQUE
available, and calculating the locked-rotor current of the
motor, the locked-rotor current may be less or greater per MOTOR
NEMA 1
Table 430.7(B).
The locked-rotor current of a motor, when calculated, is used

to select the components that make up a motor circuit. A
larger disconnect would be required for code letters selected Figure 17-2. A percentage of reduced-voltage and starting
above H due to the larger size fuses required to allow the current is applied to the motor when using reactor starting.
motor to start and run. Starting torque is also reduced.
17-2
Starting Methods
The inrush starting current of a motor is reduced to about 65 The normal inrush starting current is reduced to about 65
percent when using reactor starting. The starting torque is percent of the locked-rotor current for resistor starting. The
reduced to about 42 percent of the normal starting torque. normal starting torque is reduced to about 42 percent of the
When applying either reactor or resistor starting, the starting starting torque. (See Figure 17-4)
current and starting torque of a motor will be reduced about
the same. Reactor starting will affect the system's power
factor.
Note, high-voltage systems over 600 volts usually use

reactor starting to start and run motor loads.

RESISTOR STARTING

Reduced voltage and current is accomplished by placing a
resistor in series with each phase of a motor. When using

resistor starting, the torque efficiency is less than that of
full-voltage starting. (See Figure 17-3)

Figure 17-4. By applying resistor starting, the inrush starting
current is reduced to an acceptable level.
Care must be exercised to ensure that the amount of

reduced torque will start the motor and driven load. When
designing and selecting a reduced-voltage starting method,
Figure 17-3. A percentage of reduced-voltage and starting the amount of starting torque required to start the motor and
current is applied to the motor when using resistor starting. driven load and then accelerate it to running speed must
be considered.
Resistor starting is the least expensive reduced starting
method. This type of starting method reduces the starting Motors operating on low-voltage systems that are rated
torque and provides smooth starting and acceleration up to 600 volts or less are usually installed with resistor starting
the motor’s running speed. methods.
Resistor starting does not provide as high a starting torque Note, the starting torque of a motor using resistor starting
and does not reduce the starting current to the same value is reduced to about 42 percent of the full-load torque.
as an autotransformer or a solid-state starter.
The reduced starting torque, using a one-step acceleration,
may not be high enough to accelerate the motor up to its
Motor Starting Tip: When using resistor starting, running speed. However, a resistor starting method with
the starting current cannot be limited to the value of two steps of acceleration can be selected when this type
autotransformer starting. of problem occurs. (See Figure 17-5)
17-3
AFTER STARTED

CLOSE CONTACTS

7, 8, AND 9

9 6 L1
3

8 5 L2

TO POWER
2 SUPPLY
7 4 L3

1

TO START
T1 T2 T3 THEN

TO MOTOR CLOSE CONTACTS CLOSE CONTACTS
4, 5, AND 6 1, 2, AND 3
TERMINALS

MOTOR

Figure 17-5. Two steps of acceleration are selected to
reduce starting voltage and current during acceleration. Figure 17-6. The above illustrates the percentage applied
for reducing voltage and starting current to a motor using
autotransformer starting.
AUTOTRANSFORMER STARTING
Autotransformer starting is designed and selected by The percentage of the tap is squared to determine the
providing taps to start the motor at 50, 65, or 80 percent starting torque (50% x 50% = 25%). When installing an
of the applied line voltage. A tap of 50 percent can be autotransformer with a 50 percent tap, the starting torque
provided to the line voltage to start a motor rated above 50 will be reduced by 25 percent.
horsepower. When designing and installing autotransformer
starting, an autotransformer with step-down taps and a See Figure 17-7 for a detailed illustration about estimating
switching device to start the motor are provided. Once the reduced starting torque and inrush current in a motor
started, the switching device switches the autotransformer circuit, using an autotransformer reduced starting method.
out of the circuit and the motor is connected directly to the
line. This type of reduced starting has the same effect as full-
voltage starting because it provides good torque efficiency.
When determining the torque efficiency, the starting torque

of the motor is divided by the locked-rotor current. The inrush
starting current is reduced by switching the autotransformer

into the motor circuit by contacts that connect to the desired

tap. The autotransformer is switched or transferred out of the
motor circuit when the motor accelerates up to its running
speed. (See Figure 17-6)

Inrush starting current of a motor can be reduced by 50,
65, or 80 percent of the applied line voltage from the taps

when using autotransformer starting. The percentages for
autotransformer starting are based on voltage taps produced

from 25 to 64 percent of the full-load starting torque.

For example, 725 amps of locked-rotor starting

current is listed for a 230 volt, three-phase, Design
B, 50 horsepower motor, per Table 430.251(B). Figure 17-7. The reduced voltage for autotransformer
starting is determined by using voltage taps.
17-4
Starting Methods
When designing and installing an autotransformer starting

POWER
method, care must be exercised when selecting the SUPPLY
percentage of tap required to reduce the starting current. 240 V
3
When selecting a tap, it must be sized large enough to
provide starting torque for the driven load and to accelerate DISCONNECTING
up to its running speed. MEANS
CONTROLLER
For example, 725 amps of locked-rotor starting
current per Table 430.251(B) is needed for a 230
volt, three-phase, Design B, 50 horsepower motor. TRANSFORMATION
CURRENT
The locked-rotor current (starting current) is altered per

WINDING
Table 430.7(B) when using the code letter on the nameplate CURRENT
OF MOTOR
of the motor. An autotransformer designed and installed with
a 50 percent tap reduces the starting torque to 25 percent DELTA
120 V 120 V
of the original value. MOTOR
120 V
When applying a 50 percent voltage tap on an autotransformer LINE CURRENT

with a (delta) motor starting current of 725 amps, the starting

current is reduced to 210.25 amps for the transformation
line-to-winding current (725 A x 50% x .58 = 210.25 A). MOTOR
Therefore, the current on the line conductors will be reduced 240 V
3
to 210.25 amps. The current to the motor windings will be DESIGN B
50 HP
reduced to about 362.5 amps (725 A x 50% = 362.5 A).

(See Figure 17-8)
Note, for the 58% rule, see Figure 17-8 and Figure 17-9.

An autotransformer with a 65 percent tap is squared to

determine the starting torque (65% x 65% = 42%). The

starting current of a (delta) motor with 725 amps is reduced

to 273.325 amps (725 A x 65% x 58% = 273.325 A). The

locked-rotor current of 725 amps is multiplied by the 65

percent tap on the autotransformer to determine the winding

current. Therefore, the motor's winding current is about
471.25 amps (725 A x 65% = 471.25 A).

An autotransformer with a 80 percent tap is squared to
determine the starting torque of the motor (80% x 80% = Figure 17-8. Autotransformer starting having a 50 percent
64%). The conductor's line current for the (delta) motor is voltage tap will have 50 percent winding and line current.
found by multiplying 725 amps by 80 percent (725 A x 80%
x 58% = 336.4 A). The locked-rotor current of 725 amps
When applying AC power to the circuit, a signal is sent to the
is multiplied by the 80 percent tap on the autotransformer
gate, allowing current to flow. This current flows in only one
to determine the motor's winding current. Therefore, the
direction though the solid state reduced starter. The solid
motor's winding current is about 580 amps (725 A x 80%
state reduced starters will turn OFF for each half cycle. The
= 580 A).
flow of current can be traced by using an AC waveform as
the gate switches the flow of current through the solid state
reduced starter. (See Figure 17-9)
SOLID STATE STARTING
B1 sends a signal to the gate that turns the gate ON and
Solid state reduced starters use silicon controlled rectifiers causes current to flow. At C2, the flow of current changes
(SCRs) to control voltage and current flow that is directed direction. E4 sends a signal to the gate and causes current
through the solid state reduced starters by a gate (terminal) to flow for the last half of the cycle until F5 turns the signal
to start and accelerate motors up to their running speeds. to the gate OFF.
A low-voltage signal is applied to the gate, which switches
the voltage and current ON and OFF through the solid state When installing two solid state reduced starters, each solid
reduced starters. state reduced starter is connected in parallel to the motor
17-5
in opposite directions. The voltage supply to the motor is

controlled by signals that are sent to the gate. The current For example: What is the reduced starting current
flow through the windings is changed by solid state reduced for a solid state starter with a reduction of 300
starters each half cycle, and the circuit detects alternating percent of the full-load current rating for a 480 volt,
current. By controlling the signals to the gate, the starting three-phase, Design B, 400 horsepower motor?
current and voltage can be adjusted to the desired level. (See Table 430.250 for FLC).
The circuit is energized to the motor windings when the

power source is connected and the starting contacts close. Step 1: Finding starting current
By switching the signals to the gates and controlling the SC = FLC x %
solid state reduced starters, acceleration of the motor is SC = 477 A x 300%
controlled. By turning ON the solid state reduced starters SC = 1431 A
with gate signals, different voltage and current levels are
obtained. The motor windings are connected directly to [Normal LRC = 2900 A per Table 450.251(B)]
the supply line when the running contacts close, which
brings the motor up to its running speed. The motor runs Solution: The starting current using a
at full voltage when the solid state reduced starters are solid state starter is 1431 amps.
disconnected from the line by the opening of the starting
contacts. (See Figure 17-10)
Motor Starting Tip: When using the rule-of-thumb
The starting current of a motor is approximately 100 to 400 method, the starting current for a motor without the use
percent of the motor’s full-load current rating when using of a solid state starter is approximately 2862 amps (477
solid state starters. (See Figure 17-11) A x 6 = 2862 A).
Note, solid state reduced starters provide increments of

starting torque that allow a motor to start and run its load in
a very smooth operation.

Figure 17-10. The motor is started by closing contacts 1, 2,
and 3. When the motor reaches running speed, contacts 1,
2, and 3 open and contacts 4, 5, and 6 close to run the motor.
Figure 17-9. The above illustrates the use of an AC
waveform. B1 sends a signal to the gate and causes current
to flow. At C2, the flow of current changes direction. E4 sends Overloads can be set in a solid state starter to sense
a signal to the gate and causes current to flow for the last any amount of overload current that is higher than the
half of the cycle. running current of the motor. Therefore, all types of
17-6
Starting Methods
overload conditions are provided with closer protection Adjustable frequency drives for AC squirrel-cage induction
for the windings. Overloads in a solid state starter can motors are used to control the speed by varying the
protect special motors by disconnecting the motor from the frequency of the power supply to the motors.
power supply where overloads exist. The power supply is
A variety of sizes are available to give designers a broad
connected again to the solid state starter and motor after
selection of adjustable speed applications for an economical
the overload condition is corrected. installation. Adjustable frequency drives have become a
popular method by which designers and installers control
During the starting period, the starting torque will vary with the speed of a motor.
the percentage of starting current. The motor's starting
torque will be reduced to approximately 60 percent if the
starting current is reduced to 400 percent, 40 percent if

reduced to 300 percent, and 30 percent if reduced to 200

percent.

See Figure 17-12 for a detailed illustration of a solid state
starter used to reduce the starting current and torque of a

motor.

Figure 17-12. The above illustrates a solid state starter
where the starting torque is reduced to 40 percent if the

starting current is reduced to 300 percent.

FOR TROUBLESHOOTING TIPS,
SEE TABLE 6 IN THE ANNEX.

OCPD

POWER SUPPPLY

RECTIFIER
Figure 17-11. The above is an illustration using solid state
DC POWER
starting to reduce starting current for a motor. SUPPLY
DC
INVERTER
ADJUSTABLE FREQUENCY DRIVES MOTOR
MOTOR CONTROLLER
ENCLOSURE
A basic adjustable frequency drive system consists of the ADJUSTABLE

FREQUENCY
following: POWER SUPPLY
(1) AC squirrel-cage induction motor,

(2) Inverter, and

(3) Operator’s control station.
Figure 17-13. To start and run AC motors, adjustable
frequency drives are installed to convert AC power to DC
Motor Starting Tip: A control station may be installed power. Rectifiers are used to convert AC to DC. The level
on an inverter cabinet, if necessary. (See Figure 17-13) of frequency is regulated by the use of an inverter to start
and drive the AC squirrel-cage induction motor.
17-7
AC INDUCTION MOTOR applied to the inverter by the controller. The AC squirrel-cage

induction motor rotates slower when the value of frequency
Class B, 460 volt, three-phase, AC squirrel-cage induction applied is less than 60 hertz to the inverter by the controller.
motors are usually used with adjustable frequency drives Torque would be less when applying more than 60 hertz from
connected to a three-phase power supply. an inverter listed for the purpose, which would produce a
higher output speed (RPMs) from the motor.
Note, adjustable frequency drive systems can be fitted for
any size AC squirrel-cage induction motor. When designing and installing an inverter, care must be
exercised in sizing and matching it to the AC squirrel-cage
By reducing the applied frequency to a value of 2 hertz induction motor. Generally, an inverter and AC squirrel-cage
or less, an adjustable frequency drive system will start an induction motor can be used with the same horsepower
AC squirrel-cage motor. The inrush current is reduced to rating. The motor rating in horsepower must equal the
approximately 150 percent of the rated current of the motor amount of current required to drive the load. This method
by using such a low frequency. is used when designing and selecting an AC squirrel-cage
induction motor. The inverter is designed and selected
based on this rating.
For example: What is the inrush current for a 460
volt, three-phase, Design B, 100 horsepower AC An inverter must be sized for the amount of current required
squirrel-cage induction motor? for an AC squirrel-cage induction motor at the maximum
operating torque when the motor is oversized to provide a
wider range of speed control. The inverter output current
Step 1: Finding A rating must be equal to or greater than the current listed
Table 430.250 and Table 430.251(B) on the nameplate of the AC squirrel-cage induction motor
100 HP = 124 A of FLC if operating at full-load current.
100 HP = 725 A of LRC
A maximum ambient temperature of 40°C is used on
Step 2: Calculating A most inverters. However, 50°C is used on some inverters.
124 A x 150% = 186 A Inverters are oversized by one size for areas with a higher
ambient temperature. Check with the manufacturer before
Solution: The inrush current would be designing and installing to verify this.
186 amps using an adjustable
frequency drive system.

Motor Starting Tip: By adjusting the frequency to 2
hertz or less, the AC squirrel-cage induction motor can
be started at 186 amps and slowly brought up to the
desired running speed.

See Figure 17-14 for a detailed illustration showing the
varying percentages of torque and current due to the amount
of frequency applied to the controller during starting.

INVERTERS

Inverters are solid state power conversion units that convert Figure 17-14. The percentage of torque and current vary
AC power to DC power or DC power to AC power. The with the amount of frequency applied by the controller.
following two stages of power conversion are used:
(1) Controlled or uncontrolled rectifier section (AC to CONTROL STATION
DC) and
(2) Inverter (DC to AC). The operator’s control station is equipped with start and
stop pushbuttons that are normally open or normally closed
A three-phase, 480 volt power supply at 60 hertz is used contacts, which are designed and installed to start and stop
when inverters are installed. The AC squirrel-cage induction the motor circuit. The rotating speed of an AC squirrel-
motor rotates at its maximum speed when the full 60 hertz is cage induction motor is adjusted by using a speed-setting
17-8
Starting Methods
potentiometer. A potentiometer (rheostat or resistor) has of 3600, 1800, and 1200 RPM. The full-load speeds of AC
three terminals, with one or more sliding contacts, that are squirrel-cage induction motors are 2 to 5 percent less than
adjustable and act as adjustable voltage dividers. synchronous speeds.
For example: What is the actual speed if the

STARTING TORQUE synchronous speed is 1800 RPM and the motor is
operating at 3 percent slip?
An AC squirrel-cage induction motor has an inrush current
of approximately 600 percent of the motor's full-load current
rating when started across the line at full voltage and full Step 1: Finding RPM
frequency. AC squirrel-cage induction motors marked with RPM = 1800 RPM x 3% (.03)
code letters A through H have 600 percent starting currents. RPM = 54
Inrush current for AC squirrel-cage induction motors marked RPM = 1800 RPM - 54 RPM
with code letters J through K shall be calculated based on RPM = 1746
individual code letters, per Table 430.7(B).
Solution: The actual speed of the motor
is 1746 RPM.
For example: What is the inrush current for a
460 volt, three-phase, 100 HP AC squirrel-cage
induction motor with the code letter T? Note, by increasing DC voltage to the coil, the output shaft
will speed up and slow down when the voltage is decreased.
(See page 17-11)
Step 1: Finding IC
IC = (kVA x 1000 x HP) ÷ (V x 1.732) The AC squirrel-cage induction motor has an eddy-current
IC = (19.99 x 1000 x 100 HP) ÷ (460 x 1.732) clutch added in which the motor drives to obtain variable
IC = 2508 amps output speeds.
Solution: The inrush current is 2508 amps.

EDDY-CURRENT DRIVES
Eddy-current drives consist of soft iron bars (electromagnets)

shaped like a U that are magnetized by applying DC voltage

to the coil of insulated wire around the bases. An eddy-

current clutch is developed by a solid ring or soft iron

(drum assembly) that is added to encircle the poles of the

electromagnets. (See Figure 17-15)

A wide range of stepless, adjustable speeds are obtained
from eddy-current drives when used from AC power supply Figure 17-15. The above illustrates a basic eddy-
lines operating at standard frequencies. Eddy-current drives current drive system, which consists of soft iron bars
are designed and installed to consist of an AC squirrel- (electromagnets), a coil of insulating wire, and an iron ring
cage induction motor and a magnetic eddy-current clutch. (drum assembly).
Equipment requiring a variety of speed control or regulated
torque is where eddy-current drives are used.
PURPOSE OF CLUTCH
AC SQUIRREL-CAGE INDUCTION MOTORS The following are the three main components of the eddy-
current clutch:
When designing and installing eddy-current drives, the AC (1) Drum,
supply power is converted to rotational power using AC
squirrel-cage induction motors. AC squirrel-cage induction (2) Rotor, and
motors are designed and installed with basic output speeds (3) Rotating coil.
17-9
The drum (steel drum) of an eddy-current clutch is the input The motor can also be programmed to be shut off by the
member that is driven by the AC squirrel-cage induction controller and reverse the motor's rotation, and then start
motor. The rotor of an eddy-current clutch is the output again in the original rotation. This type of programming
member and is free to rotate in the clutch drum. The rotating would be necessary where blockage could occur in the
coil in an eddy-current clutch is wound around the rotor supply line.
clutch and is supplied with DC voltage to produce a flux
pattern through the drum and rotor. Solid state transistorized boards are used with the controller,
which helps facilitate troubleshooting procedures and
Poles are cast in each section of the rotor, develops a north replacement. These boards are easy to replace and can
and south pole when the field coil is excited. The polarity is be repaired and used again. (See Figure 17-16)
opposite that of the other section in each section of the rotor.
Magnetic lines of force will flow through the north poles of FOR TROUBLESHOOTING POWER
SUPPLY
the rotor into the drum and through the south poles of the TIPS, SEE TABLE 5 IN THE ANNEX.
EGC
rotor when the field coil is excited and then return to the
DISCONNECTING
field assembly. MEANS
CONTROLLER
The motion between the rotating drum and the rotor
generates eddy currents in the drum. Circulating currents
are induced in a conducting material when they cut the MOTOR
TACHOMETER,
magnetic flux lines that are eddy currents. These small GENERATOR, OR
MAGNETIC PICKUP
currents are produced by the voltage through the conducting
material. Eddy currents also produce a second magnetic SHIFT TO LOAD
CLUTCH
field. The rotor rotates in the same direction as the drum VOLTAGE
when the magnetic field, generated by the eddy currents,
OUTPUT
interacts with the magnetic field, generated by the field coil. VOLTAGE TO
BRUSHES
DC SPEED
CONTROLLER
The rotor and drum will rotate freely, with no rotation of the
output shaft, when no voltage is applied to the coil. The
output shaft will pick up speed when voltage is applied and
continue to increase its speed until it is rotating slightly less VOLTAGE
than the motor. The output shaft will not rotate at the same
VOLTAGE
speed as the motor due to the percentage of slip generated OPERATOR
STATION
by the difference in speed between the drum and rotor.

By adding or subtracting the amount of DC voltage applied
Figure 17-16. To increase or decrease the rotation speed
to the coil, the output shaft speed can be varied. The speed
of the eddy-current drive, the amount of excitation voltage
of the output shaft will slow down when the voltage to the
is controlled by an operation station and controller.
coil is decreased, and it will speed up when voltage to the
coil is increased.
TORQUE OUTPUT
See Figure 17-15 for a detail illustration of a basic eddy-
current drive. The load will vary when the output speed of the clutch is
increased or decreased by a fixed amount of excitation
voltage applied to the coil.
CONTROLLER
By adjusting the level of excitation to the coil, the amount
of torque transmitted from the AC squirrel-cage induction
The eddy-current controller changes the strength of the
motor to the output shaft can be varied. The magnetic field
magnetic field on the rotating drum by the excitation voltage
will be greater on the drum and the faster the drum will
(which varies) to the clutch field coil. The output shaft of the
rotate the output shaft as more excitation DC voltage is
clutch will speed up when the controller is set up to add more
applied to the coil.
DC voltage to the coil. The output shaft of the clutch will
slow down when the controller has less excitation voltage
applied to the coil, which causes the magnetic field to be CONTROLLING SPEED OF THE MOTOR
weaker on the drum.
A tachometer generator is designed to provide a signal that
The motor can be protected from overload by setting the is proportional to the output speed of the shaft. The speed
controller being set at a moderate amount of current flow. between the present speed of the controller and the actual
17-10
Starting Methods
speed of the load are realigned by this signal, which is

designed to adjust the excitation to the coil. The tachometer

generator is mounted integrally with the output shaft.

A drive regulator is installed for realigning the output speed
to the present speed. (See Figure 17-17)

Figure 17-17. Tachometer generators and drive regulators Figure 17-18. Wye-connected windings produce the same
are designed to adjust and correct the realignment of speed values of phase current and line current.
between the actual output speed of the output shaft to the
present speed where the load is varied. Delta-connected windings produce the same value of phase
voltage and line voltage. If the supplied phase voltage is
240 volts, the line voltage is 240 volts. If the line current is
WYE-DELTA STARTING MOTORS 50 amps, the phase current is multiplied by 58 percent (50
x 58% = 29 A). (See Figure 17-19)
A specially wound six-lead motor is required for a wye-delta
starting method.
Motor Starting Tip: The reciprocal of the square root
Note, the wye winding is used to start the motor, which of 3 is found by dividing 1 by 1.732 to derive 58 percent
then switches to the delta winding for the run operation of (1 ÷ 1.732 = 58%).
the motor. Lower current is produced in wye windings due
to lower voltages.
The current flow into two phase windings connected to the
The current in wye windings is equal to the line current and line produces a different value between the phase current
not 58 percent times the line current. Each wye winding and line current. The phase current for delta-connected
has 139 volts (240 V x 58% = 139 V) impressed across it, windings is found by multiplying the line current by 58
instead of 240 volts as in delta windings. A three-phase, percent.
240 volt supply is used to derive these values of voltages
to the motor. Note, the phase-to-phase voltage in a wye system is
multiplied by 58% to derive the winding voltage, and in the
Wye-connected windings have different values of phase delta system, the winding current is multiplied by the phase
voltage and line current. The line voltage is equal to 1.732 current to determine the winding current.
times the voltage-to-ground.
STARTING A MOTOR ON A WYE AND
For example, the line voltage is 208 volts (120 V RUNNING ON A DELTA
x 1.732 = 208 V) when the winding voltage is 120
volts. However, the line current and phase current Line currents and phase currents are the same currents
have the same value for wye systems. The phase in a wye-connected winding. However, the phase voltage
voltage in wye-connected windings can be found by is 58 percent of the line voltage. The voltage value does
multiplying the phase voltage (208 V x 58% = 120 not change in a delta-connected winding, but the winding
V). (See Figure 17-18) current value is 58 percent of the line current. The voltage
17-11
and starting current are reduced when starting a motor on

the wye winding. The circuit is automatically connected to
the delta windings when the motor accelerates up to its
running speed.

Motor Starting Tip: After a motor has been started by

a wye and reaches its running speed, the wye windings
are cut out and the motor then runs on a delta winding.

See Figure 17-20 for a detailed illustration pertaining to the

values of voltage and current when starting a motor on a
wye winding and running it on a delta winding.

The inrush starting current for a motor started on a wye

connection is reduced to one-third the value of the locked-

rotor line current. (See Figure 17-21)

For example: What is the inrush current for a 240
volt, three-phase, Design B, 50 HP motor with a

wye-delta starting method?
Figure 17-19. The phase voltage and line voltage have the
same value, and the winding line current and phase current
Step 1: Finding amps have different values for a delta-connected winding.
Table 430.251(B)

50 HP = 725 A

Step 2: Calculating amps

A = 725 A x .33

A = 239 A

Solution: The starting inrush current is

239 amps.

When designing and selecting the starting torque for a

motor starting on a wye connection and running on a delta
connection, the starting torque is reduced to one-third.

For example: What is the starting torque for a

wye-delta connected motor with a torque of 216

foot-pounds?

Step 1: Finding ft lbs

216 ft lbs x .33 = 71 ft lbs

Solution: The starting torque is reduced
to 71 ft lbs. Figure 17-20. The above illustration shows the values of
voltage and current when starting a motor on a wye winding
and running it on a delta winding. The phase voltage in wye
windings is 58 percent of the line voltage.
17-12
Starting Methods

3
TO
2 POWER

SUPPLY

1

TO START
4 5 6
TO MOTOR 1, 2, AND 3

TO
MO
TO
R

FOR A SCHEMATIC,
SEE TABLE 14 IN ANNEX.
MOTOR

Figure 17-22. The inrush starting current and starting torque
is reduced by 65 percent when designing and installing
part-winding starting methods.


430.4

The requirements for sizing the overcurrent protection device

for a part-winding motor are listed in 430.4. When selecting

the protective device per 430.52(C)(1), the percentages to
be applied are found in Table 430.52. Since only half of the

motor's horsepower is used for starting, only one half of the
percentages listed in Table 430.52 are used for selecting
Figure 17-21. The inrush starting current and torque for a the overcurrent protection device. (See Figure 17-23)
wye-delta connected motor is calculated at 33 percent of
the normal current and torque.
Motor Starting Tip: The size overcurrent protection
device can also be found by multiplying the FLC of the
PART-WINDING STARTING MOTORS motor by the percentages in Table 430.52 and dividing
the size overcurrent protection device by 2.
Part-winding starting is used mostly to reduce the voltage
on weak power systems and prevent voltage disturbances.
No voltage dip will occur when using a part-winding starting
method during the starting and acceleration of the motor.
Two separate parallel windings with two basic starting units
are used for part-winding motors. Each individual starting
unit is designed and selected for half the horsepower rating
of the motor. When the motor is started, one winding of
the motor is connected to the supply voltage. At the preset
time, delay is used at a predetermined time to connect the
second winding of the motor.
When using part-winding starting, only half of the motor’s

copper is utilized during the starting operation. The inrush
starting current and starting torque are reduced by 65
percent when designing and installing part-winding starting
methods. (See Figure 17-22)
17-13

Figure 17-23. Sizing time-delay fuses for a part-winding

starting method to start and run a motor.
17-14
Name Date
Chapter 17: Starting Methods
Section Answer
1. Full-voltage starting for motors have an inrush starting current that varies from _____________ _____________
3-1/2 to _____ times the normal full-load running amps.
(a) 5 (b) 10
(c) 15 (d) 20
2. Reduced voltage starting is accomplished by placing a reactor in _____ with _____________ _____________
each phase of the motor.
(a) series (b) parallel
(c) horizontal (d) vertical
3. The inrush starting current of a motor is reduced to about _____ percent when _____________ _____________
using reactor starting.
(a) 42 (b) 50
(c) 65 (d) 75
4. The starting torque is reduced to about _____ percent of the normal starting _____________ _____________
torque when using reactor starting.
(a) 42 (b) 50
(c) 65 (d) 75
5. The normal inrush starting current is reduced to about _____ percent of the _____________ _____________
locked-rotor current for resistor starting.
(a) 42 (b) 50
(c) 65 (d) 75
6. A tap of _____ percent can be provided to the line voltage to start a motor _____________ _____________
rated above 50 HP when using autotransformer starting.
(a) 42 (b) 50
(c) 65 (d) 75
7. The percentages for autotransformer starting are based on voltage taps _____________ _____________
produced from 25 to _____ percent of the full-load starting torque.
(a) 38 (b) 42
(c) 57 (d) 64
8. Solid state reduced starters use silicon controlled _____to control voltage and _____________ _____________
current flow that is directed through the solid state reduced starters by a gate
(terminal) to start and accelerate motors up to their running speeds.
(a) rectifiers (b) capacitors
(c) reactors (d) resistors
9. The starting current of a motor is approximately 100 to _____ percent of the _____________ _____________
motor’s full-load current rating when using solid state starters.
(a) 200 (b) 300
(c) 400 (d) 600
10. Overloads can be set in a solid state starter to sense any amount of overload _____________ _____________
current higher than the _____ current of the motor.
(a) winding (b) coil
(c) starting (d) running
17-15
Section Answer
_____________ _____________ 11. The motor’s starting torque will be reduced to approximately _____ percent if
the starting current is reduced to 400 percent when using solid state starting.
(a) 50 (b) 60
(c) 70 (d) 80
_____________ _____________ 12. The motor’s starting torque will be reduce to approximately _____ percent if
the starting current is reduced to 200 percent when using solid state starting.
(a) 10 (b) 20
(c) 30 (d) 50
_____________ _____________ 13. By reducing the applied frequency to a value of _____ hertz or less, an
adjustable frequency drive system will start an AC squirrel-cage motor.
(a) 2 (b) 24
(c) 48 (d) 60
_____________ _____________ 14. A three-phase, 480 volt power supply at _____ hertz is used when inverters
are installed.
(a) 2 (b) 24
(c) 48 (d) 60
_____________ _____________ 15. A maximum ambient temperature of _____ is used on most inverters.
(a) 20ºC (b) 40ºC
(c) 75ºC (d) 90ºC
_____________ _____________ 16. An AC squirrel-cage induction motor has an inrush current of approximately
_____ percent of the motors full-load current rating when started across the
line at full voltage and full frequency.
(a) 200 (b) 300
(c) 400 (d) 600
_____________ _____________ 17. An eddy-current clutch is developed by a solid ring or _____ iron (drum
assembly) that is added to encircle the poles of the electromagnets.
(a) soft (b) hard
(c) cast (d) solid
_____________ _____________ 18. When designing and installing eddy-current drives, the AC supply power is
converted to _____ power using AC squirrel-cage induction motors.
(a) DC (b) directional
(c) rotational (d) varying
_____________ _____________ 19. A special wound _____ lead motor is required for a wye-delta starting method.
(a) 3 (b) 6
(c) 9 (d) 12
_____________ _____________ 20. The inrush starting current and starting torque is reduced by _____ percent
when designing and installing part-winding starting methods.
(a) 20 (b) 40
(c) 50 (d) 65
_____________ _____________ 21. Inverters can be used to _____ DC to AC or AC to DC power.

(a) convert (b) change
_____________ _____________ 22. What is the full-voltage starting current supplied to its windings for a 240 volt,
three-phase, 40 HP, Design B motor?
17-16
Section Answer
23. What is the reduced starting current of a 240 volt, three-phase, 40 HP, Design _____________ _____________
B motor when applying resistor starting and using 65 percent resistance?
24. What is the winding current, line current, and transformation current for 208 volt, _____________ _____________
three-phase, 50 HP, Design B motor when applying autotransformer starting
with a 50 percent tap?
25. What is the reduced starting current for a solid state starter with a reduction _____________ _____________
of 200 percent of the full-load current rating for a 480 volt, three-phase, 300
HP, Design B motor?
26. What is the inrush current for a 460 volt, three-phase, 125 HP, Design B, _____________ _____________
squirrel-cage induction motor? (Using an adjustable frequency drive system.)
27. What is the inrush current for a 460 volt, three-phase, 125 HP, Code Letter T, _____________ _____________
squirrel-cage induction motor? (Use code letter method.)
28. What is the actual speed if the synchronous speed for an induction motor is _____________ _____________
1800 RPM and is operating at 5 percent slip where using eddy-current drive?
29. What is the inrush current for a 240 volt, three-phase, 40 HP, Design B motor _____________ _____________
with a wye-delta starting method?
30. What is the starting torque for wye-delta connected windings with a starting _____________ _____________
torque of 208 foot-pounds using wye-delta starting?
31. What size time-delay fuse is required for each winding of a 230 volt, three- _____________ _____________
phase, 50 HP, Design B, part-winding motor?
32. What is the starting current (LRC) of a 460 volt, three-phase, 50 HP Design B _____________ _____________
squirrel-cage induction motor?
33. The windings in a wye connected motor will pull _____% of the phase to phase _____________ _____________
current.
34. The windings of a delta connected motor will pull _____% of the phase to _____________ _____________
phase current.
35. If one phase is lost on the secondary side of a transformer, the motor will pull _____________ _____________
about _____ times the motor's running current.
36. The 58% in the delta connected motor is derived by dividing 1 by _____, which _____________ _____________
will produce the winding voltage.
37. An adjustable frequency drive can be used to start and run the _____ of a _____________ _____________
submersible pump.
38. Overloads can be installed in a solid state starter to protect the motor and _____________ _____________
circuit _____ from over-load conditions.
39. By controlling the _____ to the gate of a solid state controller, the starting _____________ _____________
current and voltage can be adjusted to the desired level for operation.
40. The voltage in the windings of a delta connected motor is _____% of the _____________ _____________
phase-to-phase voltage.
17-17
18
Overcurrent Protection
for Individual Motors
The full-load current (FLC) from Table 430.248 for single-phase and from
Table 430.250 for three-phase shall be used when designing and selecting
the elements to make up circuits supplying power to motors. This current
rating shall be used to size all the elements of the circuit except for the
overload (OL) protection. Table 430.7(B) and Tables 430.251(A) or (B)
are used to find the locked-rotor current (LRC). The overcurrent protection
device shall be sized large enough to hold the LRC in amps and allow the
motor to start and run.
SHORT CIRCUIT, GROUND FAULT,

AND OVERLOAD PROTECTION
TABLE 430.52, 430.52(C)(1), AND (C)(3)
The motor branch-circuit overcurrent protection device shall be capable of carrying the starting
current of the motor. Short-circuit and ground-fault current is considered to be taken care of properly
when the overcurrent protection device does not exceed the values in Table 430.52, as permitted
by the provisions of 430.52(C)(1) with Exceptions.
The overcurrent protection device shall be permitted to be sized greater than the full-load current
of the motor or any other type of equipment that is outlined in Table 240.4(G).
Different percentages are selected for particular overcurrent APPLYING Ex. 1

protection devices based on one of the four columns listed
in Table 430.52. The percentages are used to size and If the values of the branch-circuit, short-circuit, and ground-
select the proper size overcurrent protection device to allow fault protection devices determined from Table 430.52 do not
a certain type of motor to start and run. The motor has a conform to standard sizes or ratings of fuses, nonadjustable
momentary starting current that is necessary for the motor circuit breakers, or possible settings on adjustable circuit
to have power to start and drive the connected load at the breakers, it does not matter if they are capable or not
driven equipment. capable of adequately carrying the load involved; the next
higher setting or rating shall be permitted. In other words,
Note, the overcurrent protection device sized per 430.52(C) you can round up or round down the size of the overcurrent
(1) provides protection from short circuits and ground faults. protection device automatically by choice. (See Figure 18-2)
Overload protection shall be provided for conductors and
motor windings per 430.32(A)(1) or 430.32(C). (See Figure CB
IN PANELBOARD
18-1)
SELECTING MINIMUM SIZE CB TO
ALLOW MOTOR TO START PER APPLYING TO
FLA OF MOTOR x 250% DETERMINES MINIMUM SIZE. IF 250% OF MOTORS FLC DOES NOT
HOWEVER, SMALLER SIZES SHALL BE PERMITTED MOTOR CORRESPOND TO A STANDARD SIZE
TO BE USED CB, THE NEXT HIGHER SIZE SHALL
BE PERMITTED TO BE USED

CB
PANELBOARD

MOTOR

)

Figure 18-2. Where the percentages of Table 430.52

times the full-load current of motor does not correspond

Figure 18-1. Selecting the percentages to determine the to a standard size overcurrent protection device, the next

higher size rating above this percentage shall be permitted
minimum size (rounding down), next size (rounding up),
and maximum size circuit breaker to allow a motor to start to be used.
and run.
APPLYING Ex. 2
Motor Tip: In cases where the values for branch-circuit
protective devices determined by Table 430.52 do not If the ratings listed in Table 430.52 and Ex. 1 to 430.52(C)
correspond to the standard sizes or ratings of fuses, (1) are not sufficient for the starting current of the motor,
nonadjustable circuit breakers, or thermal devices, or the overcurrent protection devices with percentages shown
possible settings of adjustable circuit breakers adequate can be used to start and run motors that have high inrush
to carry the starting currents of the motor, the next higher starting currents. (See Figure 18-3)
size rating or setting shall be permitted to be used.
When nontime-delay fuses are used and they do not exceed
600 amperes in rating, it shall be permitted to increase the
fuse size up to 400 percent of the full-load current, but never
over 400 percent.
APPLYING THE EXCEPTIONS
Time-delay fuses (dual-element) shall not exceed 225
430.52(C)(1), Ex. 1 AND 2 percent of the full-load current, but they may be increased
up to this percentage.
There are Exceptions that permit larger overcurrent
protection devices to be used where the overcurrent
Inverse time-element circuit breakers shall be permitted to
protection device, as specified in Table 430.52, will not
be increased in rating. However:
permit the starting current of the motor to start and run.
Where the motor fails to start and run because of excessive • They shall not exceed 400 percent of the full-load
inrush starting currents, one of the following exceptions can current of the motor for 100 amperes or less or
be applied. • They may be increased to 300 percent where a full-
load current is greater than 100 amperes.
18-2
Overcurrent Protection for Individual Motors
See Figure 18-4 for a detailed illustration on selecting If the specified setting in Table 430.52 is not sufficient for the
percentages for sizing overcurrent protection devices. starting current of the motor, the setting on an instantaneous
trip circuit breaker shall be permitted to be increased,

provided that in no instance it exceeds 1300 percent of the
motor's full-load current ratings for motors marked Class
B, C, or D.

Motor Tip: For Design E and Design B NEMA high-

efficiency motors, the setting on the instantaneous trip
circuit breakers shall be permitted to be adjusted up to

1700 percent to allow the motor to start and run.

See Figure 18-5 for adjusting the maximum trip settings on

instantaneous trip circuit breakers to allow motors to start
Figure 18-3. When the percentages of Table 430.52 and and accelerate their driven load.
430.52(C)(1), Ex. 1 will not allow the motor to start and
CB
run the driven load, the maximum size circuit breaker of PANELBOARD
430.52(C)(1), Ex. 2(c) shall be permitted to be used.
SELECTING MINIMUM PERCENTAGE TO

HIGH-EFFICIENCY ALLOW AN INSTANTANEOUS CB TO START MOTOR PER
MOTOR TABLE 430.52, COLUMN 4
FLA OF MOTOR x 1100% DETERMINES MINIMUM SIZE
NEMA CLASS B
APPLYING Ex. 2(a), (b), AND (c) TO 430.52(C)(1) SELECTING MAXIMUM PERCENTAGE TO
ALLOW AN INSTANTANEOUS CB TO START MOTOR PER
430.52(C)(1), Ex. 2(a) 430.52(C)(3), Ex. 1
FLA OF MOTOR x 1700% DETERMINES MAXIMUM SIZE

USING INSTANTANEOUS TRIP CIRCUIT BREAKERS
43.52(C)(1), Ex. 2(b)
NEC 430.52(C)(3), Ex. 1

Figure 18-5. Determining the minimum and maximum size
setting on an instantaneous trip circuit breaker to allow

430.52(C)(1), Ex. 2(c) the motor to start and run a driven load. Note, after the

minimum setting of the overcurrent protection device has

been determined, a smaller setting shall be permitted to
(1) be selected.

(2)

APPLYING Ex. 2
SIZING AND SELECTING
NEC 430.52(C), Ex. 2(a), (b), AND (c) OVERCURRENT PROTECTION
Figure 18-4. When the percentages of Table 430.52 and DEVICES
430.52(C)(1), Ex. 1 will not allow the motor to start and run,
the maximum percentage of 430.52(C)(1), Ex. 2(a), (b), and
TABLE 430.52, COLUMNS 2, 3, 4,
(c) shall be permitted to be applied. AND 5
The overcurrent protection device shall be sized for the
starting current of the motor and selected to allow the motor
USING INSTANTANEOUS TRIP to start and run. The overcurrent protection device per Table
CIRCUIT BREAKERS 430.52 shall protect the branch-circuit conductors from short
430.52(C)(3), Ex. 1 circuits and ground faults. The following four overcurrent
protection devices selected from Table 430.52 will start
An instantaneous trip circuit breaker shall be used only if it is most motors under normal starting conditions:
adjustable, and is a part of a combination controller that has (1) Nontime-delay fuses per Column 2
overcurrent protection in each conductor. Such combination, (2) Time-delay fuses per Column 3
when used, has to be approved. An instantaneous trip circuit
breaker is allowed to have a damping device, to limit the (3) Instantaneous trip circuit breakers per Column 4
inrush current when the motor is started. (4) Inverse-time circuit breakers per Column 5
18-3
NONTIME-DELAY FUSES TIME-DELAY FUSES

TABLE 430.52, COLUMN 2 TABLE 430.52, COLUMN 3
Nontime-delay fuses are installed with instantaneous trip Time-delay fuses are also equipped with instantaneous trip
features to detect short circuits and thermal characteristics to features to detect short circuits and thermal characteristics
sense slow heat buildup in the circuit. A nontime-delay fuse to sense slow heat buildup in the circuit. Time-delay fuses
will hold 5 times (500 percent) its rating for approximately are used because their time-delay action to allow a motor
1/4 to 2 seconds based upon the type used. to start. Time-delay fuses will hold 5 times (500 percent)
of their rating, which will permit most motors to start and
accelerate the driven load.
For example: What is the holding time in amps for
a nontime-delay fuse of 150 amps? Note, time-delay fuses that are sized at 125 percent or less
of the motor's nameplate FLC rating can provide overload
protection for the motor.
Step 1: Finding holding amps
A = fuse rating x 500% A time-delay fuse will hold 5 times its rating for 10 seconds,
A = 150 A x 500% and this delayed action provides more acceleration time
A = 750 to allow the motor to start without tripping the overcurrent
protection device.
Solution: The holding time in amps of a
nontime-delay fuse is 750 amps.
For example: What is the holding power in amps
Note, this fuse will blow in 1/4 to 2 seconds so the for a time-delay fuse of 150 amps?
motor will have to start and accelerate the load
quickly.
Step 1: Finding holding amps
A = fuse rating x 500%
A = 150 A x 500%
See Figure 18-6 for a detailed illustration of sizing nontime- A = 750
delay fuses to allow motors to start and run.
Solution: The rating of the time-delay fuse is
750 amps.
Note, this fuse holds five times its rating for ten

seconds without blowing and opening the circuit.

See Figure 18-7 for sizing time-delay fuses to hold the

motor's locked-rotor current.

INSTANTANEOUS TRIP CIRCUIT

BREAKERS

TABLE 430.52, COLUMN 4

Instantaneous trip circuit breakers are installed with

instantaneous values of current to respond from short circuits

only. Thermal protection is not provided for instantaneous

trip circuit breakers. Instantaneous trip circuit breakers will
hold about three times their rating on the low setting and

five times their next setting, seven times their next setting,
Figure 18-6. Nontime-delay fuses will hold five times their and approximately ten times their rating on the high setting.
rating, and when this rating is above the locked-rotor current Certain types allow such settings to be adjusted from 0 to
it should allow the motor to start and run based on LRC. 1700 percent. (See Figure 18-8)
18-4
INVERSE-TIME CIRCUIT BREAKERS

TABLE 430.52, COLUMN 5

Inverse-time circuit breakers are designed with instantaneous

trip features to detect short circuits and thermal characteristics

to sense slow heat buildup in the circuit. If heat should occur
in the windings of the motor, the instantaneous values of

current will be detected by the thermal action of the circuit
breaker and will trip open the circuit if it is sized properly.
The magnetic action of the circuit breaker will clear the circuit

if short circuits or ground faults should occur on the circuit

elements or equipment served.

Motor Tip: Inverse-time circuit breakers will hold about

three times their rating for different periods of time
based upon their frame size. A motor with a locked-rotor

current of 585 amps can be started with a 200 amp
circuit breaker.
Figure 18-7. Time-delay fuses will hold five times their
rating, and when this rating is above the locked-rotor current,
it should allow the motor to start and run based on LRC. This can be verified by multiplying the 200 amp circuit
breaker by 3, which is equal to 600 amps; 585 amps divided
by 3 is equal to 195 amps. By rounding up to the next size
circuit breaker per 430.52(C)(1), Ex. 1, the size circuit

breaker is 200 amps, per 240.6(A). This size circuit breaker

allows the motor to start and run. (See Figure 18-9)

OBTAINING FLC RATINGS

TABLES 430.247 THRU 430.250

The FLC ratings for single-phase and three-phase DC and

AC motors are obtained from Tables 430.247 through
430.250. The starting currents (LRC) are obtained from

Tables 430.251(A) and (B).

FLC RATING FOR DC MOTORS

TABLE 430.247

The FLC rating for DC motors is determined from the values

listed in Table 430.247 for motors running at base speed.

For example, the FLC rating for a 120 volt, 10 HP,
DC motor is 76 amps.
Motor's LRC
50 HP = 363 A FLC RATING FOR

Calculating setting using medium
SINGLE-PHASE MOTORS
100 A x 5 = 500 A
TABLE 430.248

The FLC rating for a single-phase motor is determined from
the values listed in Table 430.248 for motors running at usual

speeds and motors having normal torque characteristics.
Figure 18-8. An instantaneous trip circuit breaker with its For example, the FLC rating for a 208 volt, 5 HP,
rating set above the locked-rotor current of a motor will allow single-phase motor is 30.8 amps.
the motor to start and run.
18-5

STARTING CURRENT
FOR THREE-PHASE MOTORS
TABLE 430.251(B)

The starting current (LRC) for a three-phase motor is

determined from the values listed in Table 430.251(B).

For example, the starting current (LRC) for a 208
volt, 50 HP, three-phase, Design B motor is 802
amps.

FLC FOR UNLISTED MOTORS

TABLES 430.247 AND 430.250

The following methods can be used to determine the full-
load current rating in amps for motors that are not listed in

Tables 430.247 through 430.250.
Motor's LRC (1) The horsepower rating of a listed motor shall be

50 HP = 363 A selected that is below the unlisted motor.
Calculating size CB (2) The motor's full-load current rating shall be divided
150 A x 3 = 450 A

CB size is 150 A by its horsepower rating to obtain the multiplier.

(3) The multiplier times the horsepower of the unlisted

motor derives FLC for the unlisted motor.

Motor Tip: The full-load current rating of the motor
is determined by multiplying these values by the
Figure 18-9. Circuit breakers sized at least three times their
horsepower rating of the unlisted motor. (See Figure
rating provide an amp rating above the locked-rotor current
18-10)
of the motor and will hold such LRC. [See Figure 18-12(d)]
FLC RATING FOR

THREE-PHASE MOTORS
TABLE 430.250
The FLC rating for a three-phase motor is determined from
the values listed in Table 430.250 for motors running at

speeds used for belted motors and motors with normal
torque characteristics.

For example, the FLC rating for 460 volt, 30 HP,

three-phase motor is 40 amps.

STARTING CURRENTS

FOR SINGLE-PHASE MOTORS

TABLE 430.251(A)

The starting current (LRC) for a single-phase motor is
determined from the values listed in Table 430.251(A).
Figure 18-10. The above illustrates the procedure for
For example, the starting current (LRC) for a 230 calculating the FLA of a motor not listed in Tables 430.247
volt, 7-1/2 HP, single-phase motor is 240 amps. through 430.250.
18-6
FLC RATINGS USING (1) Nontime-delay fuses (400 percent)

RULE-OF-THUMB METHOD (2) Time-delay fuses (225 percent)
(3) Inverse-time circuit breakers (400 and 300 percent)
The full-load current of a motor may be found by applying
(4) Instantaneous-trip circuit breakers (0-1700 percent
the rule-of-thumb method to horsepower values in Table
based on Design letter or Code letter.)
430.248 for single-phase and Table 430.250 for three-
phase. The table current will not always be exactly the same
as the rule-of-thumb amps.

Overcurrent protection devices, conductors, and other

elements can be sized with the full-load current ratings when

using the rule-of-thumb method. The full-load current ratings

are within a usable range when applying the rule-of-thumb
method to determine the full-load current rating. These

amperage ratings will provide values to calculate elements

for a complete and safe electrical motor system. One of the

following percentages (multipliers) can be applied when

using a rule-of-thumb method to derive full-load amps for a

particular size motor:

(1) When installing 550, 575, or 600 volt, three-phase

motors, the horsepower rating of the motor shall be

multiplied by 1.00 to obtain the full-load current in

amps.



amps.

motors, the horsepower rating of the motor shall be Figure 18-11. The above illustration is a method used by
multiplied by 2.50 to obtain the full-load current in the electrical industry to determine the FLA of motors found
amps. in Tables 430.247 through 430.250.
(4) When installing 220, 230, or 240 volt, single-phase
amps. SIZING OVERCURRENT PROTECTION
(5) When installing 110, 115, or 120 volt, single-phase DEVICES TO ALLOW MOTORS TO
START AND RUN
amps. 430.52(C)(1) AND TABLE 430.52
See Figure 18-11 for a detailed illustration of calculating The branch-circuit protection for a motor may be a fuse
full-load current for motors using the rule-of-thumb method. or circuit breaker located in the line at the point where
the branch circuit originates. The fuse or circuit breaker is
located either at a service cabinet or distribution panel or in
the motor control center. When there is only one motor on a
branch circuit, the fuse or circuit breaker is sized according
SIZING MAXIMUM OVERCURRENT to Table 430.52 and 430.52(C)(1).
PROTECTION DEVICE To use the table properly will require an explanation. There
430.52(C)(1), Ex. 2(a) THRU (c) is the matter of “Design letters.” A Design letter provides
certain electrical characteristics of a particular motor that are
Where the rating specified in Table 430.52 is not sufficient needed to size the overcurrent protection device to permit
for the starting current of the motor, the following ratings the motor to start and accelerate its load. To apply Table
(percentages) shall be applied: 430.52, it is necessary to take the following steps:
18-7
(1) Select the phase of the motor
• Single-phase

• Three-phase (poly-phase)

(2) Select type of motor

• Squirrel-cage induction
• Wound-rotor

• DC

• Synchronous
Note, motors can be single-phase or three-phase types.

(3) Select the Design letter of the motor

• Design B

• Design C

• Design D

• Design E (from Europe, IEC)

(4) Select the type of overcurrent protection device

• Column 2 is for nontime-delay fuses

• Column 3 is for time-delay fuses

• Column 4 is for circuit breakers with instantaneous
trip settings or adjustments

• Column 5 is for circuit breakers with both

instantaneous trip settings and thermal trip

characteristics

See Figures 18-12(a) through (d) for sizing and selecting

the size overcurrent protection devices per Table 430.52 to

allow motors to start and run their driven load.

Note, the minimum (rounded down) and next size (rounded

up) overcurrent protection device will be sized for a particular

type and size motor.

NONTIME-DELAY FUSES

USING THE MAXIMUM SIZE

430.52(C)(1), Ex. 2(a)

If the minimum or next size overcurrent protection device

does not allow the motor start and run, the maximum size
Figure 18-12(a). Determining the minimum and next size
rating of a nontime-delay fuse not exceeding 600 amps shall
nontime-delay fuses per Table 430.52 and 430.52(C)(1)
be permitted to be increased but shall in no case exceed
and Ex. 1 to start and run a motor. A smaller overcurrent
400 percent of the FLC of the motor. (See Figure 18-13) protection device than the minimum size (rounded down)
shall be permitted to be used, if it will start the motor.
TIME-DELAY FUSES USING
MAXIMUM SIZE INVERSE-TIME CIRCUIT BREAKERS
430.52(C)(1), Ex. 2(b) 430.52(C)(1), Ex. 2(c)
To allow a motor to start and run, the rating of a time-delay The rating for inverse-time circuit breakers shall be permitted
fuse shall be permitted to be increased but shall in no case to be increased but shall in no case exceed 400 percent
exceed 225 percent of the FLC of the motor. (See Figure for a full-load current of 100 amps or less. Full-load current
18-14) greater than 100 amps shall be permitted to be increased
up to 300 percent. (See Figure 18-15)
18-8
NOTE: NOTE 1:

TABLE 430.52

NOTE 2:

TABLE 240.4(G) NOTE 3:
430.52(C)(1) 430.52
TABLE 430.52
NOTE 4:

430.32(A)(1)
430.52(C)(1), Ex. 1 430.81 430.32(C) TABLE 430.52(C)(1), Ex
TABLE 430.52 430.83

430.32(A)(1)
430.32(C)
430.52(C)(1) 430.35
TABLE 430.52
240.4(G)
240.6(A)

430.22
310.15(A)(3), IN (2) 430.110(A)

TABLE 310.15(B)(16)

430.57

FIGURE LOOP 1:

430.52(C)(3), Ex. 1

FIGURE LOOP 2:

FIGURE LOOP:
FIGURE LOOP 3:

Figure 18-12(c). Determining the minimum and maximum
setting for an instantaneous trip circuit breaker to start and
Figure 18-12(b). Determining the minimum and next size run a motor. A smaller minimum setting shall be permitted
time-delay fuses per Table 430.52 to start and run a motor. to be used, if it will start the motor.
A smaller time-delay fuse than the minimum size (rounded
down) shall be permitted to be used, if it will start the motor.
MOTOR NOT OVER 1 HP
430.53(A)
MOTORS CONNECTED TO Two or more motors may be installed without individual
overcurrent protection devices if rated less than 1 HP each
INDIVIDUAL BRANCH CIRCUITS and if the full-load current rating of each motor does not
430.53 exceed 6 amps. Motors not rated over 1 horsepower shall
be within sight of the motor, manually started, and portable.
Section 430.32 and 430.42 shall be applied for running
Two or more motors, or one or more motors and other loads,
overload protection for each motor if these conditions are
shall be permitted to be connected to an individual branch not met.
circuit under the following conditions:
(1) motor not over 1 HP, The overcurrent protection device rated at 20 amps or less
can protect a 120 volt or less branch circuit supplying these
(2) smallest rated motor protected, and motors. Branch circuits of 600 volts or less can be protected
by a 15 amp or less overcurrent protection device. (See
(3) listed for other group installations. Figure 18-16)
18-9
NOTE:

FIGURE LOOP:

430.32(A)(1)

430.52(C)(1) 430.32(C)
TABLE 430.52 430.35
240.4(G)

240.6(A)

430.52(C)(1), Ex. 1 430.110(A)

Figure 18-13. Nontime-delay fuses shall be permitted to be
Figure 18-12(d). Determining the minimum and next size increased to a maximum size of 400 percent of the motor's
inverse-time circuit breaker to start and run a motor. full-load current rating (smaller size permitted).
OCPD
CONTROLLER
240.4(G) 430.81
430.52(C)(1) 430.83
TABLE 430.52
TD FUSES OLs
430.52(C)(1), Ex. 2(b) 430.32(A)(1)
TABLE 430.52 430.32(C)

CONDUCTORS DISCONNECTING

430.22 MEANS

430.110(A)
MBJ GEC 310.15(A)(3), IN (2)
TABLE 310.15(B)(16) 430.57
GES

NAMEPLATE
50 HP MOTOR

FIGURE LOOP 1: SEE NOTES IN FIGURE 18-15. DESIGN B
FIGURE LOOP 2: FOR SIZING OTHER MOTOR ELEMENTS,
SEE FIGURE LOOPS 1 AND 2 IN FIGURE 18-14.

Figure 18-14. Determining the maximum size time-delay fuse to start and run a motor (smaller size permitted).
18-10
FIGURE LOOP 1:

by the percentages listed in Table 430.52 for sizing and
FIGURE LOOP 2: selecting fuses or circuit breakers. Each motor controller
FIGURE LOOP 3:
and component installed in the group shall be approved

for such use. The following are elements that shall be sized
and selected properly:
(1) Overcurrent protection devices

430.32(A)(1) (2) Controllers
430.52(C)(1) 430.32(C)
TABLE 430.52 430.35 (3) Running overload protection devices
240.4(G)
240.6(A)

The elements shall be permitted to be installed as a listed
factory assembly or field installed as separate assemblies

listed for such conditions of use.

430.52(C)(1), Ex. 2(c) 430.110(A)

Figure 18-15. An inverse-time circuit breaker shall be
permitted to be increased to a maximum size of 400 percent

of the motor's full-load current rating (smaller size permitted).

SMALLEST RATED MOTOR PROTECTED

430.53(B)

The branch-circuit overcurrent protection device shall be
permitted to protect the smallest rated motor of the group for

two or more motors of different ratings if the largest motor

is permitted to start. The smallest rated motor of the group

shall have its overcurrent protection device set at no higher

value than permitted per Table 430.52. The smallest rated

motor and other motors of the group shall be provided with

overload protection if necessary per 430.32. (See Figure
18-17 and the Ex's to 430.87 and 430.112)

OTHER GROUP INSTALLATIONS

430.53(C)

Two or more motors of any size shall be permitted to be
installed and connected to an individual branch circuit. Figure 18-16. Determining the number of motors permitted
However, the largest motor of the group shall be protected on a 15 amp branch circuit.
18-11
RECEPTACLES
430.62(A)
430.63
430.24 430.24
OCPD 430.25 430.25
220.14(C)

430.62(A)
430.63
1/4 HP MOTOR
BRANCH CIRCUIT 1 , 230 V

366.22
366.23

MBJ GEC

GES 430.28

430.102

1/6 HP MOTOR 1/4 HP MOTOR 1/3 HP MOTOR 430.83
1 , 230 V 1 , 230 V 1 , 230 V

TABLE 430.52

NOTE:

SINGLE MOTOR TAPS

NEC 430.53(D)

Figure 18-18. Taps can be made from a feeder with the

proper conductor size and overcurrent protection device

with each tap.

AUTOMATIC RESTARTING

430.43

A motor that can automatically restart after overloading

(tripping) shall not be installed unless the motor is approved

for such use. Automatic restarting of a motor after shutdown

shall not be installed if the automatic restarting of the motor
can cause injury to personnel. (Also, see 430.44.)

SIZING AN OVERCURRENT

PROTECTION DEVICE FOR TWO

OR MORE MOTORS
Figure 18-17. Determining the number of motors permitted 430.62(A)
on a 15 amp branch circuit using a 15 amp circuit breaker
per 240.6(B) by permission of AHJ. To determine the size overcurrent protection device to be
installed for a feeder supplying two or motors, the following
procedures shall be applied:
(1) Apply Table 430.52 to select largest motor.
(2) Size largest overcurrent protection device for any
SINGLE MOTOR TAPS one motor of the group.
430.53(D) (3) Add FLA of remaining motors.
Any number of motor taps shall be permitted to be installed (4) Do not exceed this value with overcurrent protection
where a fuse or circuit breaker is installed at the point where device rating.
each motor is tapped to the line. This type of installation
made from a feeder per 430.28 and 430.53(D) is often See Figure 18-19 for a detailed procedure for sizing an
utilized. (See Figure 18-18) overcurrent protection device for a feeder motor circuit.
18-12
the sum of the calculated value if it does not correspond to

a standard device.

Note, the size overcurrent protection device for a feeder
supplying two or more motors shall be determined by

selecting the next lower rating if the calculation based on
the percentages per Table 430.52 times the FLA per Table

430.250 does not correspond to a standard overcurrent

protection device per 240.6(A). [See Figures 18-20(a)

through (d)]

FOR SIZING FEEDER CONDUCTORS,

SEE FIGURE 20-12.

FEEDER CONDUCTORS SERVICE
CONDUCTORS

FEEDER PROTECTION

Figure 18-19. Determining overcurrent protection device
OCPD
for a feeder with several motors being protected from short- GUTTER

circuit and ground-fault conditions.
GEC MBJ
GES
OVERCURRENT PROTECTION DEVICE TAPS

FOR MOTORS ON A FEEDER DISCONNECT

430.62(A) AND (B) CONTROLLER

The overcurrent protection device for a feeder with two or MOTORS
more motors shall be permitted to be sized by the following 10 HP 20 HP 25 HP 25 HP

procedure: DES. B DES. B DES. B DES. B
(1) size overcurrent protection device based on motor's

FLC,

(2) size overcurrent protection device based on

conductor’s ampacity, or

(3) conductors with ampacities greater than motor's

FLC rating.

SIZING OVERCURRENT PROTECTION

DEVICE BASED ON MOTOR'S FLC

430.62(A)

The overcurrent protection device for a feeder supplying two

or more motors shall be based on the largest overcurrent

protection device for any motor of the group plus the FLC of
the remaining motors. This procedure requires a selection
Figure 18-20(a). Sizing the circuit breaker for a feeder
of overcurrent protection devices (rounding down) to find
supplying two or more motors.
18-13

FOR SIZING CONDUCTORS, SEE FIGURE 20-11.
FEEDER CONDUCTORS SERVICE CONDUCTORS

FEEDER
PROTECTION OCPD
FOR SIZING CONDUCTORS, SERVICE CONDUCTORS
SEE FIGURES 20-11 AND 20-12.

FEEDER CONDUCTORS

FEEDER TDFs
PROTECTION GUTTER

OCPD
GEC MBJ
GUTTER NTDFs
TDFs GES

TAPS

GEC MBJ DISCONNECT

NTDFs GES
CONTROLLER
TAPS

MOTORS
DISCONNECT 10 HP 15 HP 20 HP 40 HP

DESIGN B DESIGN B DESIGN B DESIGN B
CONTROLLER

10 HP 15 HP 20 HP 25 HP

DESIGN C DESIGN C DESIGN C DESIGN C

Figure 18-20(c). Sizing time-delay fuses for a feeder

Figure 18-20(b). Sizing nontime-delay fuses for a feeder supplying two or more motors.
supplying two or more motors.
18-14

DEVICE BASED ON CONDUCTOR'S
FOR SIZING CONDUCTORS, SEE FIGURES 20-11 AND 20-12.
AMPACITY
SERVICE CONDUCTORS 430.62(A)

The overcurrent protection device for a feeder supplying
FEEDER
FEEDER CONDUCTORS two or more motors shall be permitted to be selected based

PROTECTION on the ampacity of the feeder conductors, if this procedure

provides the greater size device. However, the overcurrent
OCPD

protection device sized per Table 430.52 usually provides
GUTTER
the largest device. (See Figure 18-21)

GEC MBJ
INST. CB
TAPS
GES CONDUCTORS WITH AMPACITIES

DISCONNECT
GREATER THAN MOTOR'S FLC

430.63
CONTROLLER
INST. CB
Feeders may be utilized in supplying one or more motors

10 HP 15 HP 20 HP 25 HP MOTORS plus other loads. The size of the overcurrent protection
DESIGN C DESIGN C DESIGN C DESIGN C device shall be calculated per Articles 430 and 220.
Note, if the ampacity of the conductors produces the largest

overcurrent protection device, this size shall be used. (See

Figure 18-22)

FUTURE ADDITIONS

430.62(B)

For large industrial plants or large capacity installations,
feeders with greater capacity are usually installed to provide

for a future addition of loads or changes that might be made.

The ratings or settings of the feeder overcurrent protective

devices shall be based on the rated ampacity of the feeder
conductors.

Where a feeder carries a motor load in addition to lighting
and/or the appliance loads, the capacity of the feeder shall

be calculated per Articles 210 and 220. To this calculation
is added the capacity of the motor or motors as in 430.62.

These totals are combined to find the ampacity of the feeder

conductors and the overcurrent protection devices for such
feeders.

Motor Tip: If two motors of the same HP are used, only
Figure 18-20(d). Sizing an instantaneous trip circuit breaker one shall be considered as the larger. This motor is then
for a feeder supplying two or more motors. used to calculate the overcurrent protection device rating
and the sum is added to the other motors at 100 percent
of their FLC rating.
Where two or more motors are started simultaneously, the

feeder sizes and overcurrent protection devices shall be
calculated accordingly and require higher ratings.
18-15

Figure 18-21. Sizing a circuit breaker for a feeder supplying two or more motors plus other loads. The motor's FLC shall
be used to size the overcurrent protection device per Table 430.52 and 430.62(A).
18-16

Figure 18-22. Sizing a circuit breaker for a feeder supplying two or more motors plus other loads with the overcurrent
protection device sized on the conductor's ampacity.
18-17
OLP FOR MOTORS

(CUTLER HAMMER)
(A) For 50º C, 55º C, and 75º C rise motors and enclosed
motors having a service factor of 1.0, selected one size
smaller coil (OL).
(B) Ambient temperature of controller lower than motor by

47º F (26º C), use one size smaller coil (OL).
(C) Ambient temperature of controller higher than motor

by 47º F (26º C) use one size larger coil (OL).
OLP FOR MOTORS

(ALLEN-BRADLEY)
(A) Same temperature at controller and motor

Selected based on motor's nameplate current
(B) Higher temperature at controller than motor

Selected higher size OL based on motor's (NPC) based
on motor's NPC being less than Table current.
(C) Lower temperature at controller than motor

Selected lower size OL based on motor's NPC being
less than Table current.
Note 1: (B) and (C) is based on the temperature differences

not exceeding 18º F (10º C).
Note 2: For overload (OL) selection pertaining to size, see

Figures 19-1 and 19-2 in this book.
18-18
Name Date
Chapter 18: Overcurrent Protection for Individual Motors
Section Answer
1. The rating of a nontime-delay fuse not exceeding 600 amperes shall be _____________ _____________
permitted to be increased but shall in no case exceed _____ percent of the
full-load current.
(a) 225 (b) 250
(c) 300 (d) 400
2. The rating of a time-delay (dual-element) fuse shall be permitted to be increased _____________ _____________
but shall in no case exceed _____ percent of the full-load current.
(a) 225 (b) 250
(c) 300 (d) 400
3. The rating of an inverse-time circuit breaker shall be permitted to be increased _____________ _____________
but shall in no case exceed _____ percent for full-load currents of 100 amperes
or less.
(a) 225 (b) 250
(c) 300 (d) 400
4. The rating of an inverse-time circuit breaker shall be permitted to be increased _____________ _____________
but shall in no case exceed _____ percent for full-load currents greater than
100 amperes.
(a) 225 (b) 250
(c) 300 (d) 400
5. For Design E and Design B NEMA motors, the setting on the instantaneous- _____________ _____________
trip circuit breaker shall be permitted to be adjusted up to _____ percent.
(a) 1000 (b) 1100
(c) 1500 (d) 1700
6. A nontime-delay fuse will hold _____ times its rating for approximately 1/4 to _____________ _____________
2 seconds based on the type used.
(a) 2 (b) 3
(c) 5 (d) 10
7. A time-delay fuse will hold 5 times its rating for _____ seconds. _____________ _____________
(a) 5 (b) 10
(c) 15 (d) 20
8. Instantaneous-trip circuit breakers will hold about _____ times their rating on _____________ _____________
the low setting.
(a) 3 (b) 5
(c) 10 (d) 15
9. Inverse-time circuit breakers will hold about _____ times their rating for different _____________ _____________
periods of time based on their frame size.
(a) 3 (b) 5
(c) 10 (d) 15
18-19
Section Answer
_____________ _____________ 10. When installing 575 volt, three-phase motors, the horsepower rating of the
motor shall be multiplied by _____ to obtain the full-load current. (Rule-of-
thumb method)
(a) 1.00 (b) 1.25
(c) 2.50 (d) 10.00
thumb method)
(a) 1.00 (b) 1.25
(c) 5.00 (d) 10.00
thumb method)
(a) 1.25 (b) 2.50
(c) 5.00 (d) 10.00
_____________ _____________ 13. When installing 220 volt, single-phase motors, the horsepower rating of the
thumb method)
(a) 1.25 (b) 2.50
(c) 5.00 (d) 10.00
_____________ _____________ 14. When installing 120 volt, single-phase motors, the horsepower rating of the
thumb method)
(a) 1.25 (b) 2.50
(c) 5.00 (d) 10.00
_____________ _____________ 15. Two or more motors shall be permitted to be installed without individual
overcurrent protection devices if rated less than 1 HP each and the full-load
current rating of each does not exceed _____ amps.
(a) 6 (b) 8
(c) 10 (d) 20
_____________ _____________ 16. Several motors, each not exceeding 1 HP in rating, shall be permitted on a
nominal 120 volt branch circuit protected at not over _____ amps.
(a) 20 (b) 25
(c) 30 (d) 40
_____________ _____________ 17. The overcurrent protection device for a feeder supplying two or more motors
shall be based on the _____ overcurrent protection device for any motor of
the group plus the FLC of the remaining motors.
(a) smallest (b) largest
(c) next size (d) none of the above
_____________ _____________ 18. A motor overload device that can restart a motor automatically after overload
tripping shall not be installed unless _____ for use with the motor it protects.
(a) listed (b) labeled
(c) approved (d) identified
18-20
Section Answer
19. The full-load current rating for a single-phase motor shall be determined from _____________ _____________
the values listed in _____ for motors running at usual speeds and motors
having normal torque characteristics.
(a) Table 430.248 (b) Table 430.250
(c) Table 430.251(A) (d) Table 430.251(B)
20. The locked-rotor current for a three-phase motor shall be determined from the _____________ _____________
values listed in _____.
(a) Table 430.248 (b) Table 430.250
(c) Table 430.251(A) (d) Table 430.251(B)
21. What is the minimum (round down), per 430.52(C)(1), and the next size _____________ _____________
nontime-delay fuse, per 430.52(C)(1), Ex. 1, for allowing a 50 HP, 230 volt,
three-phase, Design letter B motor to start and run?
22. What is the next, per 430.52(C)(1), maximum (round up) size time-delay fuse, _____________ _____________
per 430.52(C)(1), Ex. 2, for a 50 HP, 230 volt, three-phase, Design B motor
to start and run?
23. What is the minimum and maximum (setting) for an instantaneous-trip circuit _____________ _____________
breaker used for starting a 50 HP, 230 volt, three-phase, Design E motor?
24. What is the minimum (round down) and next size inverse-time circuit breaker _____________ _____________
used for starting a 50 HP, 230 volt, three-phase, Design B motor?
25. What is the maximum (round up) size nontime-delay fuse used for starting a _____________ _____________
50 HP, 230 volt, three-phase, Design B motor?
26. What is the maximum (round up) size time-delay fuse used for starting a 50 _____________ _____________
HP, 230 volt, three-phase, Design B motor?
27. What is the maximum (round down) size inverse-time circuit breaker used for _____________ _____________
starting a 50 HP, 230 volt, three-phase, Design B motor?
28. What size overcurrent protection device (circuit breaker) is required to supply _____________ _____________
a feeder load having a group of 10 HP, 15 HP, 20 HP, and 25 HP, 460 volt,
three-phase, Design B motors?
29. What size FLC rating is required for a 3 HP, 240 volt, single-phase, Design B _____________ _____________
motor, when applying the rule-of-thumb method?
30. What size FLC rating is required for a 30 HP, 220 volt, three-phase, Design B _____________ _____________
33. When derating for a feeder circuit, the largest of the derating factor in amps _____________ _____________
or the _____% rule is used.
34. When calculating the size time delay fuse for a feeder circuit, determine the _____________ _____________
_____ motor and add the remaining motors and select the size of the fuses.
18-21
Section Answer
_____________ _____________ 35. When sizing the conductors for a feeder circuit, take the largest motor at
_____%.
_____________ _____________ 36. One disconnecting means and one controller can be used to connect and
operate a _____ of motors.
_____________ _____________ 37. In a group rated installation of a number of motors, each motor shall be
protected from _____ conditions
_____________ _____________ 38. The FLC of a 460 volt, three-phase, 50 HP motor is _____ amps when using
the rule-of-thumb method.
_____________ _____________ 39. The maximum size time-delay fuse to start and run a motor is _____%.
_____________ _____________ 40. When a NEMA, Design B, energy efficient type motor is installed, an
instantaneous circuit breaker can be adjusted to a maximum of _____%.
18-22
19
Overload Protection
for Individual Motors
Devices such as thermal protectors, thermal relays, or fusetrons may be
installed to provide running overload protection for motors rated more than
1 horsepower. The service factor or temperature rise of the motor shall be
used when sizing and installing the running overload protection for motors.
The running overload protection is set to open at 115 or 125 percent of the
motor's full-load current. Under certain conditions of use, the running overload
protection shall be set at 115 percent when the motor is not marked with a
service factor or temperature rise. Time-delay fuses selected and sized at
these percentages provide overload or backup overload protection.
MINIMUM SIZE OVERLOAD PROTECTION

430.32(A)(1)
The amperage for full-load current ratings listed in Tables 430.247 through 430.250 shall not
be used when sizing the running overload protection. The full-load current listed with the motor's
nameplate shall be used to size the setting of the separate running overload protection.
Note, 430.32(C) will now permit an overload unit or fuse(s) to be used to protect motor winding(s)
and conductors from harmful overload conditions.
The running overload protection shall be selected and rated SERVICE FACTOR
no larger than the following minimum percentages based on
the full-load current rating listed on the motor's nameplate: For motors marked with a service factor of not less than 1.15
(1) Motors with a marked service factor not less than or a service factor less than 1.15, the following percentages
1.15, use 125 percent x FLA. of the motor's nameplate amps shall be used to ensure
protection to the motor's insulation:
(2) Motors with a marked temperature rise not over
40°C, use 125 percent x FLA. (1) Not less than 1.15, use 125 percent of the motor's
nameplate rating.
(3) All other motors, 115 percent x FLA.
(2) Less than 1.15, use 115 percent of the motor's
See Figure 19-1 for a detailed illustration pertaining to nameplate rating.
determining the minimum size overloads based on service
factors and temperature rise.
TEMPERATURE RISE
FIGURE LOOP:

430.52(C)(1)

The temperature rise in motor windings is affected by the
ABLE 430.52 altitude. Less heat is carried from the windings in higher

430.83 altitudes because thinner air flows through the inlets and
430.32(A)(1) HP
430.57 430.110(A) outlets of the motor. Elevations of 3300 ft or less allow thicker

430.55
430.32(A)(1) air to carry heat away effectively. Motors above elevations
of 3300 ft must be derated. For derating transformers,
see pages 7-6 and 7-8 in this book.
Motors must be derated 1 percent for every 330 ft above

3300 ft.
For example, a 460 volt, 50 horsepower, three-
phase motor pulling 62 amps and installed at an
SIZING PROCEDURE
altitude of 3630 ft must be derated to a running
current of 61.38 amps [(62 A x 1% = .62 A)

(62 A - .62 = 61.38 A)].

Motors must be derated 10 percent for every 1000 ft above
3300 ft.

For example, a 460 volt, 50 horsepower, three-

phase motor pulling 62 amps and installed at an
altitude of 9300 ft (10% for every 1000 ft above

3300 ft = 60%) must be derated to a running current

of 24.8 amps (62 A x 60% = 37.2 A (62 A - 37.2 =

24.8 A).

Note, 40 percent of 62 amps produces the same results.

For motors marked with a temperature rise of not over 40°C

or a temperature rise over 40°C, the following percentages

shall be used:

(1) Not over 40°C, use 125 percent of the motor's

nameplate rating.

(2) Over 40°C, use 115 percent of the motor's

nameplate rating.

(3) Motor not marked, use 115 percent of the motor's

nameplate rating.

Due to the starting and running current period of the motor,

the overload could trip open. A higher percentage shall be
permitted to be applied per 430.32(C) if the overloads should
Figure 19-1. Determining the minimum size overloads trip open. If the overloads should trip open after applying
based on service factor and temperature rise. 430.32(C)(1), apply shunting rule per 430.35.
19-2
Overload Protection for Individual Motors
OTHER CONDITIONS For example, overload protection may be provided

for a motor by a 70 amp fuse or circuit breaker if the
For 50°C, 55°C, and 75°C rise motors, and enclosed motors motor will start and run using this size overcurrent
having a service factor of 1.0, select one size smaller coil. protection device. A time delay fuse usually holds
When ambient temperature of the controller is lower than five times its rating for 10 seconds (70 A x 5 = 350 A).
the motor by 26°C (47°F), use one size smaller coil.
Single-phasing occurs when one ungrounded (phase)
When ambient temperature of the controller is higher than conductor is lost in a three-wire system. Consider that if
the motor by 26°C (47°F), use one size larger coil. a motor is pulling 62 amps and Phase C is lost, the motor
will be now be pulling 107.4 amps (62 A x 1.732 = 107.4 A).
SIZING OVERLOADS FROM COVER
For a detailed illustration, see Figure 19-3.
The motor's nameplate full-load running current is used
when sizing the overloads from the cover of a magnetic
starter or controller. The motor's full-load current rating is not
FIGURE LOOP:
increased by 125 percent when the overloads are selected
using this procedure. (See Figure 19-1)
430.52(C)(1)
TABLE 430.52 430.83

SIZING OVERLOADS FROM CHART
430.110(A)

430.32(C)

430.57
The motor's nameplate full-load current rating is used when

sizing the overloads from the chart of a magnetic starter, a
motor control center, or the manufacturer's catalog.

MAXIMUM SIZE OVERLOAD

PROTECTION SIZING PROCEDURE

430.32(C)

The selection of the running overload protection (overload

relay) shall be permitted to be selected at higher percentages
NOTE:

if the percentages of 430.32(A)(1) are not sufficient. The

running overload protection device or fuses shall be
selected to trip or shall be rated no larger than the following

percentages of the motor's (nameplate) full-load current
rating:

(1) Motors with a marked service factor not less than

1.15, use 140 percent x FLA.

(2) Motors with a marked temperature rise not over

40°C, use 140 percent x FLA.

(3) All other motors, use 130 percent x FLA.

See Figure 19-2 for a detailed illustration pertaining to

determining the maximum size overloads based on service

factor and temperature rise.

SINGLE-PHASING

Overloads used in a magnetic starter shall be selected at 62
amps or less per 430.6(A)(2) [using nameplate amps (62 A)
of motor] to protect the motor windings from single-phasing
or overheating due to the driven load. However, when the
percentages per 430.32(A)(1) are not exceeded, fuses or Figure 19-2. Determining the maximum size overloads
circuit breakers shall be permitted to be used. based on the service factor and temperature rise.
19-3
Based on the motor's nameplate rating, the 70 amp NONAUTOMATICALLY STARTED

overcurrent protection device does not exceed 125 percent
of the motor’s nameplate FLC. The 70 amp overcurrent The overload protection shall be permitted to be shunted for
protection device trips open due to an overload of 107.4 a nonautomatically started motor. However, it shall only be
amps on Phases A and B. (See Figure 19-3) permitted to shunt or cut out the overload protection during
start, provided the shunting device cannot be left in use after
The percentage listed in 430.32(A)(1) shall be permitted to starting. Fuses or time-delay circuit breakers are installed
be applied to the following types of devices: and are rated or set so as not to exceed 400 percent of the
full-load current rating of the motor.
(1) Circuit breakers
(2) Time-delay fuses
(3) Thermal cutouts AUTOMATICALLY STARTED
(4) Thermal relays Automatically started motors shall not shunt or cut out
(5) Motor switches with thermal devices overload protection. The following exceptions permit
overload protection to be shunted or cut out when starting
(6) Thermal devices designed into motors
motors automatically:
(1) The starting period of the motor is greater than
the time-delay of the available motor overload

protective device.

(2) Where a listed means is provided that:
(a) Senses the motor rotation and will auto-
matically prevent the shunting or cutout if
the motor fails to start.
(b) The time of shunting is limited for the over-
load protection or cutout to a point that is

less than the locked-rotor current rating of

the motor that is being protected.

(c) Causes shutdown, if the running position has
not been reached and the motor will have to

be restarted manually.

SIZING CONTROLLERS

430.81 AND 430.83

The sizes and types of motor controllers shall be installed

with a horsepower rating at least equal to the motor to be
controlled. However, there is an exception to this rule for
motors rated at and below a certain horsepower rating.
Figure 19-3. Single-phasing occurs when one phase is lost
in a three-wire system. The remaining phases will carry STATIONARY MOTORS OF
about 1.732 times the original running current of 62 amps. 1/8 HORSEPOWER OR LESS
430.81(A)
The branch-circuit protection device shall be permitted to
serve as the controller where the motor is rated 1/8 HP or
SHUNTING OLs DURING less.
STARTING PERIOD
For example, motors less than 1/8 HP, where
430.35 they are mounted stationary or permanent and the
construction is such that one or more might fail
The following two methods shall be used when shunting during operation, the branch-circuit elements plus
overloads during the motor's starting period: the motor won't be damaged. In other words, the
(1) Nonautomatically started components of the circuit won't be burned out, etc.
(2) Automatically started (See Figure 19-4)
19-4
OCPD to the appropriate provisions of this article governing

CONTROLLER overload protection.
CB
A molded case switch shall be permitted as a controller for
MOTOR
all motors. (See Figures 19-7 and 19-11)
WINDINGS
Note, the controller shall be sized at least equal to the

horsepower of the motor. Care must be exercised when
1/8 HP OR LESS MOTOR
120 V replacing an existing motor with a high-efficiency motor and
MBJ GEC
GES NOTE: MOTOR COULD OPERATE A using the existing controller and electrical system.
WALL-MOUNTED CLOCK.
STATIONARY MOTORS OF 1/8 HORSEPOWER OR LESS

NEC 430.81(A)
Figure 19-4. The branch-circuit overcurrent protection

device shall be permitted to serve as a controller for a 1/8
HP or less motor.

PORTABLE MOTOR OF 1/3
HORSEPOWER OR LESS

430.81(B)

The controller shall be permitted to be an attachment plug

and receptacle or cord connector that is acceptable for use

with portable motors rated 1/3 HP or less. (See Figure 19-5)
Figure 19-5. The controller for a motor of 1/3 HP or less
shall be permitted to be an attachment cap and receptacle
OTHER THAN HORSEPOWER RATED or cord connector.
430.83(A)
The following conditions, other than horsepower rated
controllers, shall be permitted to be used for energizing and
deenergizing circuits supplying motors:

(1) Inverse time circuit breakers

(2) Stationary motors rated 1/8 HP or less and portable
motors rated 1/3 HP or less

(3) Stationary motors rated 2 HP or less (300 volts or

less)

(4) Torque motors

HORSEPOWER RATINGS

430.83(A)(1) THRU (A)(3)

Controllers, other than inverse time circuit breakers and

molded case switches, shall have horsepower ratings at the

application voltage not lower than the horsepower rating of

the motor. See the requirements below for circuit breakers
and molded case switches.

A branch circuit inverse-time circuit breaker shall be
permitted as a controller for all motors. Where this circuit Figure 19-6. Controllers shall have a horsepower rating at
breaker is also used for overload protection, it shall conform least equal to the horsepower of the motor.
19-5
INVERSE-TIME CIRCUIT BREAKERS

430.83(A)(2) 430.52(C)(1)
TABLE 430.52

CB
3-POLE 430.83(C)
Inverse-time circuit breakers shall only be permitted to be
installed as a controller where rated in amps. If such a circuit
breaker is also used for motor overload protection, it shall be
sized at 125 percent or less of the motor's nameplate current
rating per 430.6(A)(2) and 430.32(A)(1). (See Figure 19-7)

430.52(C)(1)

TABLE 430.52
STATIONARY MOTORS OF 2 HORSEPOWER OR LESS

NEC 430.83(C)
Figure 19-8. For stationary motors rated 2 HP or less, a

general-use snap switch shall be permitted to be used if
sized not less than twice the motor’s full-load current.

NOTE:

TORQUE MOTORS
INVERSE-TIME CIRCUIT BREAKERS 430.83(D)
NEC 430.83(A)(2)
Figure 19-7. A circuit breaker rated at 125 percent of the The motor controller for a torque motor shall have a
motor's FLA shall be permitted to be used as a controller for continuous duty, full-load current rating not less than the
the motor and also provide overload protection. nameplate current rating of the motor. (See Figure 19-9)
Motor Tip: If the motor controller is rated in horsepower

and not marked or rated as above, to determine the
amperage or horsepower rating, use Table 430.247
SMALL MOTORS through 430.250.
430.83(B)
Stationary motors rated 1/8 HP or less and portable motors

rated 1/3 HP or less shall be permitted to serve as controllers
and shall not be required to be horsepower rated. These
horsepower-rated motors, because of their smaller locked-
rotor currents, can be disconnected by cord-and-plug

430.52(C)(1)
connections. TABLE 430.52

CB
3-POLE 430.83(D
STATIONARY MOTORS OF
2 HORSEPOWER OR LESS
430.83(C)

For a stationary motor rated 2 HP or less, the controller shall
be permitted to be a general-use switch rated for at least
twice the motor's full-load current. An AC general-use snap
TORQUE MOTORS
switch shall be permitted to be installed as the controller NEC 430.83(D)
where the full-load current rating of the switch does not
exceed 80 percent (1 ÷ 1.25 = 80%) of the branch-circuit Figure 19-9. The controller for a torque motor shall be
rating. (See Figure 19-8) capable of holding the amps indefinitely.
19-6
VOLTAGE RATING • An instantaneous trip circuit breaker that is part of a

listed combination motor controller, or
480.83(E)
• A listed self-protected combination controller.
A controller with a straight voltage rating of, for example,
240 volts or 480 volts, shall be permitted to be applied in See Figure 19-12 and 19-13 for permitted disconnecting
a circuit in which the nominal voltage between any two means to deenergize the power circuit.
conductors does not exceed the controller's voltage rating.
A controller with a slash rating, for example, 120/240 volts or

480Y/277 volts, shall only be applied in a solidly grounded
circuit in which the nominal voltage-to-ground from any

conductor does not exceed the lower of the two values of
the controller's voltage does not exceed the higher value of
the controller's voltage rating. (See Figure 19-10)

SIZING THE DISCONNECTING

MEANS TO DISCONNECT BOTH THE
CONTROLLER AND MOTOR
430.109(A) AND 430.110(A)
The disconnecting means for motor circuits shall have

an amperage rating of at least 115 percent of the full-
load current rating of the motor per 430.110(A). The
disconnecting means shall be horsepower rated and

capable of deenergizing locked-rotor currents per Tables
430.251(A) and (B). For detailed rules, see 430.109(A)(1). Figure 19-10. Controllers with a slash rating shall be used
(See Figure 19-11) in a solidly grounded system only.
OTHER THAN HORSEPOWER RATED

430.109(B) THRU (G)

Sections 430.109(B) through (G) permit other than a

horsepower rated disconnecting means to be used to

deenergize the power circuit to certain types of motors:

• Stationary motors rated 1/8 HP or less

• Stationary motors rated 2 HP or less (300 volts or
less)
• Autotransformer-type controlled motors

• Torque motors

GENERAL REQUIREMENTS

430.109(A)

The disconnecting means shall be permitted to be one of

the following, as specified in this section:

• A listed motor-circuit switch rated in horsepower,

• A listed molded case circuit breaker,
Figure 19-11. The disconnecting means shall be sized by
• A listed molded case switch,
multiplying the motor's FLA by 115 percent.
19-7

OCPD

DISCONNECTING MEANS NEC LOOP

LOCATION 430.102
OPERATION 430.103

ON AND OFF 430.104
CB READILY ACCESSIBLE 430.107
TYPE 430.109
SIZING 430.110

1/8 HP OR LESS MOTOR
MBJ GEC 120 V

GES

STATIONARY MOTORS OF 1/8 HORSEPOWER OR LESS

NEC 430.109(B)

Figure 19-14. Motors rated 1/8 horsepower or less shall be
permitted to be disconnected by the overcurrent protection
device located in the panelboard that is used to supply the

circuit.
Figure 19-12. The disconnecting means shall be at least
equal to the horsepower of the motor.
2 HORSEPOWER OR LESS
430.109(C)

For a stationary motor rated 2 HP or less, the controller
shall be permitted to be a general-use switch rated for at
least twice the motor's full-load current. An AC general-
use snap switch shall be permitted to be installed as the

controller, where the full-load current rating of the switch

does not exceed 80 percent of the branch-circuit switch.
(See Figure 19-15)

AUTOTRANSFORMER-TYPE

CONTROLLED MOTORS
430.109(D)

Motors rated between 2 HP through 100 HP shall be

Figure 19-13. The disconnecting means for a motor shall permitted to be installed with a separate disconnecting
be permitted to be an approved instantaneous trip circuit means (general-use switch) if the motor is equipped with
breaker. an autotransformer-type controller and complies with all the
following conditions:
(1) The motor drives a generator that is provided with
overload protection.
(2) The controller is capable of interrupting the locked-
1/8 HORSEPOWER OR LESS rotor current of the motor.
430.109(B)
(3) The controller is provided with a no-voltage release.
For a stationary motor rated 1/8 HP or less, the branch- (4) The controller is provided with running overload
circuit overcurrent protection device shall be permitted to protection not exceeding 125 percent of the motor's
serve as the disconnecting means. This rule is permitted full-load current rating.
because the windings of such motors do not produce locked- (5) Separate fuses or an inverse-time circuit breaker is
rotor currents high enough to damage such motors, circuit rated at 150 percent or more of the motor's full-load
conductors, or elements. (See Figure 19-14) current rating. (See Figure 19-16)
19-8
OCPD AC GENERAL-USE

430.52(C)(1) SNAP SWITCH
TABLE 430.52
80% OF THE AMPERE
RATING OF THE SWITCH
CB
430.109(C)

DISCONNECTING
MEANS
MBJ GEC

GES SHALL BE TWICE THE
AMPS OF MOTOR

2 HP OR LESS MOTOR
300 VOLTS OR LESS

STATIONARY MOTORS OF 2 HORSEPOWER OR LESS
NEC 430.109(C)

Figure 19-15. This illustration lists the rules pertaining to
the disconnecting means for motors rated 2 HP or less. Figure 19-17. This illustration lists the rules for disconnecting
means used to disconnect motors rated at 40 HP or more.
OCPD
CORD-AND-PLUG CONNECTED MOTORS
CB OR FUSES 430.109(F)
OR MORE OF MOTOR'S FLC NEC LOOP
430.81 For a cord-and-plug-connected motor, a horsepower-rated
CB 430.82
430.83
attachment plug and receptacle, flanged surface inlet and
430.84 cord connector having ratings no less than the motor ratings
shall be permitted to serve as the disconnecting means. A
horsepower-rated attachment plug and receptacle, flanged
SWITCH surface inlets, receptacles, or cord connectors shall not
CONTROLLER
MBJ GEC
be required for a cord-and-plug-connected appliance
GES in accordance with 422.33, a room air conditioner in
CONTROLLER accordance with 440.63, or a portable motor rated 1/3 HP
2 HP TO 100 HP or less. (See Figure 19-18)
THE LRC OF THE MOTOR
WITH OL PROTECTION
RELEASE
OL
PROTECTION NOT EXCEEDING
125% OF THE MOTOR'S FLC

AUTOTRANSFORMER-TYPE CONTROLLED MOTORS

NEC 430.109(D)

Figure 19-16. This illustration lists the rules for a

disconnecting means and controller used to disconnect and
control motors rated between 2 HP to 100 HP.

ISOLATING SWITCHES

430.109(E)

The disconnecting means shall be permitted to be a general-

use or isolating switch for DC stationary motors rated at
40 HP or greater and AC motors rated 100 HP or greater. Figure 19-18. A receptacle and attachment cap used as a
However, such disconnects shall be plainly marked "Do not disconnecting means for motors shall be at least equal to
operate under load." (See Figure 19-17) motor's horsepower rating.
19-9
TORQUE MOTORS Note, a disconnecting means shall always be required to

430.109(G) be located in sight from the controller location. A single
disconnecting means shall be permitted to be located
The disconnecting means for a torque motor shall be adjacent to a group of coordinated controllers mounted
permitted to be installed as a general-use switch. Such adjacent one to another, such as on a multi-motor
switch shall be capable of handling the locked-rotor current continuous process machine.
of the motor indefinitely. (See Figure 19-19)
For further information pertaining to sizing, selecting, and
locating such controllers and disconnecting means, review

430.83, 430.102, 430.103, 430.107, and 430.109 very

carefully.

FIGURE LOOP:

ARTICLE 100

Figure 19-19. The disconnecting means for a torque motor
shall be permitted to be a general-use switch. WITHIN SIGHT
NEC ARTICLE 100
NEC 430.102(A) AND (B)(2)
LOCATION OF THE Figure 19-20. The disconnecting means shall be within
DISCONNECTING MEANS FOR sight and within 50 ft (15 m) of the controller, motor, and
THE CONTROLLER AND MOTOR driven machinery.
430.102 AND 430.107

LOCKED IN THE OPEN POSITION
A motor and its driven machinery or load shall be installed 430.102(A) AND (B)
within sight of the controller for the motor. This rule provides
safety for electricians and maintenance personnel while Section 430.102(A) and (B) permits the disconnect on the
servicing such machinery and circuit elements. line side of the controller, if within sight and within 50 ft (15
m), and capable of being individually locked open, to serve
as the disconnecting means for both the controller and
WITHIN SIGHT motor. In this case, note that the motor shall be installed
within sight and within 50 ft (15 m) of the disconnecting
ARTICLE 100, 430.102(A), AND means of the controller. [See Figures 19-21(a) and (b)]
430.102(B)(2)
The disconnecting means shall be installed within sight of the CANNOT BE LOCKED
motor controller. All of the ungrounded (phase) conductors
shall be disconnected from both the motor and controller IN THE OPEN POSITION
supplying the motor circuit. The disconnecting means shall 430.102(A) AND 430.102(B)
be installed within sight of the motor and not more than 50
ft (15 m) from the motor. If such a disconnecting means is For motors rated 600 volts or less, an additional disconnecting
not installed within 50 ft (15 m) of the controller, motor, and means shall be mounted by the motor and within sight where
driven equipment, other provisions for disconnecting the the disconnecting means installed by the controller cannot
motor shall be made. The controller has a direct relationship be locked in the open position. The controller disconnecting
to the disconnecting means and shall be installed within sight means for a motor branch circuit over 600 volts shall be
and within 50 ft (15 m) of the disconnecting means. The permitted to be located out of sight of the motor branch-
motor does not have a direct relationship with the controller. circuit controller and motor. However, the controller shall
(See Figure 19-20) have a warning label that marks and lists the location and
19-10
identification of the disconnecting means. To completely

satisfy this rule, such disconnecting means shall be capable DOES NOT COMPLY
of being locked in the open position. [See Figure 19-22(a)]
APPLYING EXCEPTION

430.102(B)
COMPLIES
Ex. (a) and (b) to 430.102(B) do not require an additional
430.102(B), Ex.
disconnect to be installed within sight of the motor where
NEC LOOP
the disconnecting means would be impractical or increase
430.102(B), Ex.
hazards. An additional disconnecting means is not required 430.102
110.22
where it is located in an industrial installation that has
430.110(A)
written safety procedures and only qualified employees are
permitted to work on the equipment involved. [See Figure

430.57
19-22(b)] 430.58

430.55
LOCKING MEANS
LOCKED IN THE OPEN POSTION

NEC 430.102(B), Ex.

Figure 19-21(b). The locked door of a panelboard shall not
be permitted to serve as the required disconnecting means

for a motor. However, an individual locked circuit breaker
shall be permitted to serve as the disconnecting means.

POWER SUPPLY

600 V OR LESS
DISCONNECT NEC ARTICLE 100

LOCKED
CONTROLLER
WITHIN SIGHT DISCONNECTING MEANS IS LOCKED
IN OPEN POSITION AND WITHIN
SIGHT OF CONTROLLER AND MOTOR. DISCONNECTING MEANS OUT OF SIGHT OF MOTOR
AND LOCKED IN THE OPEN POSITION.
NO ADDITIONAL DISCONNECT LOCKED IN THE OPEN POSITION

DISCONNECT
REQUIRED
NEC 430.102(A), Ex. 1
CLEARANCE
MARKED
MOTOR DIRECTORY Figure 19-22(a). If the disconnecting means is within sight
WITHIN SIGHT SIZING
OF DISCONNECT FUSEHOLDERS and 50 ft (15 m) of controller and can be locked in the open
position, an additional disconnecting means shall not be

required to be installed by the motor.

Figure 19-21(a). Locating the disconnecting means to

disconnect power conductors to motors rated 600 volts or
less.
19-11
POWER SUPPLY
CONTROLLER
WITHIN SIGHT
SUPPLY CAPABLE
OF BEING
LOCKED

DISCONNECTING
MEANS IS WITHIN SIGHT OF
CONTROLLER PER 430.102, Ex.
DISCONNECT 1 NOT
WITHIN SIGHT
MOTOR
NOTE 1: MOTOR LOCATED IN INDUSTRIAL FACILITY WITH

QUALIFIED PERSONNEL AND WRITTEN PROCEDURES AND
COMPLYING WITH THE (a) AND (b) TO 430.102(B). DIS-
CONNECTING MEANS 2 IS NOT REQUIRED.
NOTE 2: DISCONNECTING MEANS 2 IS NOT REQUIRED, IF
IMPRACTICAL OR INCREASED HAZARDS ARE PRESENT PER
430.102(B), Ex. (a). ALSO, SEE IN 1 TO 430.102(B).
APPLYING EXCEPTIONS
NEC 430.102(B), Ex. (a) AND (b)
Figure 19-22(b). Under certain conditions of use, an
additional disconnecting means is not required to be
installed within sight of the motor. When disconnecting valve
actuator motors (vams) are involved, see 430.102(A), Ex.
3. [See Figure 19-22(c)]

Figure 19-22(c). No disconnecting means required per Ex. 3 to

430.102(A) for vams.
19-12
Name Date
Chapter 19: Overload Protection for Individual Motors
Section Answer
1. Motors with a temperature rise not over 40ºC shall have their (minimum) running _____________ _____________
overload protection [per 430.32(A)(1)] sized at _____ percent.
(a) 100 (b) 115
(c) 125 (d) 140
2. Motors above elevations of _____ ft shall be derated for temperature rise. _____________ _____________
(a) 1000 (b) 1800
(c) 2600 (d) 3300
3. Motors shall be derated _____ percent for every 330 ft above 3300 ft for _____________ _____________
temperature rise.
(a) 1 (b) 3
(c) 5 (d) 10
4. Motors shall be derated _____ percent for every 1000 ft above 3300 ft for _____________ _____________
temperature rise.
(a) 1 (b) 3
(c) 5 (d) 10
5. Motors with a service factor not less than 1.15 shall have their (maximum) _____________ _____________
running overload protection [per 430.32(C)] sized at _____ percent.
(a) 100 (b) 115
(c) 125 (d) 140
6. The branch-circuit protection device shall be permitted to serve as the controller _____________ _____________
where the motor is rated _____ horsepower or less.
(a) 1/16 (b) 1/8
(c) 1/3 (d) 1/2
7. The controller shall be permitted to be an attachment plug and receptacle, that _____________ _____________
is acceptable for use with portable motors rated _____ HP or less.
(a) 1/16 (b) 1/8
(c) 1/3 (d) 1/2
8. If an inverse-time circuit breaker is used for motor overload protection, it shall _____________ _____________
be sized at _____ percent or less of the motor’s nameplate current rating.
(a) 100 (b) 115
(c) 125 (d) 150
9. Stationary motors rated _____ HP or less shall be permitted to serve as _____________ _____________
controllers and shall not be required to be horsepower rated.
(a) 1/16 (b) 1/8
(c) 1/3 (d) 1/2
10. For a stationary motor rated _____ HP or less, the controller shall be permitted _____________ _____________
to be a general-use switch rated for at least twice the motor’s full-load current.
(a) 2 (b) 5
(c) 7-1/2 (d) 10
19-13
Section Answer
_____________ _____________ 11. An AC general-use snap switch shall be permitted to be installed as the
controller where the full-load current rating of the switch does not exceed _____
percent of the branch-circuit rating.
(a) 50 (b) 80
(c) 100 (d) 115
_____________ _____________ 12. The disconnecting means for motor circuits shall have an ampere rating of at
least _____ percent of the full-load current rating of the motor.
(a) 50 (b) 80
(c) 100 (d) 115
_____________ _____________ 13. For a stationary motor rated _____ HP or less, the branch-circuit overcurrent
protection device shall be permitted to serve as the disconnecting means.
(a) 1/16 (b) 1/8
(c) 1/3 (d) 1/2
_____________ _____________ 14. Motors rated over 2 HP to _____ HP shall be permitted to be installed with a
separate disconnecting means (general-use switch), if the motor is equipped
with an autotransformer-type controller.
(a) 40 (b) 50
(c) 100 (d) 150
_____________ _____________ 15. The disconnecting means shall be permitted to be a general-use or isolating
switch for DC stationary motors rated at _____ HP or greater.
(a) 40 (b) 50
(c) 100 (d) 150
_____________ _____________ 16. The disconnecting means shall be permitted to be a general-use or isolating
switch for AC stationary motors rated at _____ HP or greater.
(a) 40 (b) 50
(c) 100 (d) 150
_____________ _____________ 17. The disconnecting means shall be installed within sight of the motor and not
more than _____ ft from the motor.
(a) 25 (b) 50
(c) 60 (d) 80
_____________ _____________ 18. A horsepower-rated attachment plug and receptacle shall not be required for
a portable motor rated _____ HP or less.
(a) 1/16 (b) 1/8
(c) 1/3 (d) 1/2
_____________ _____________ 19. The disconnecting means for a torque motor shall be permitted to be installed
as a(n) _____ switch.
(a) horsepower (b) AC
(c) DC (d) general-use
_____________ _____________ 20. An additional disconnecting means is not required where it is located in
a(n) _____ installation that has written safety procedures and only qualified
employees are permitted to work on the equipment involved.
(a) residential (b) commercial
(c) industrial (d) agricultural
_____________ _____________ 21. What size overload protection (minimum) is required for 20 HP, 460 volt, three-
phase, Design B motor with a nameplate rating of 48 amps, temperature rise
of 40ºC, and a service factor of 1.15?
19-14
Section Answer
22. What size overload protection (maximum) is required for 20 HP, 460 volt, three- _____________ _____________
phase, Design B motor with a nameplate rating of 48 amps, temperature rise
of 40ºC, and a service factor of 1.15?
23. What is the horsepower rating of the disconnecting means (motor rated switch) _____________ _____________
for a 50 HP, 460 volt, three-phase, Design B motor?
24. What is the horsepower rating of the controller for a 25 HP, 460 volt, three- _____________ _____________
phase, Design B motor?
25. What size horsepower rated receptacle and attachment plug is required for a _____________ _____________
20 HP, Design B motor? Note, the installation is not designed to unplug under
load.
19-15
20
Motor Feeder and
Branch-Circuit Conductors
Branch-circuit conductors shall be sized by the percentages based on the
use of loads that they supply. These loads are rated as either continuous
or noncontinuous. When sizing branch-circuit conductors, the continuous
loads shall be calculated at 125 percent and the noncontinuous loads at 100
percent. The duty cycle operation of the driven load shall also be permitted
to be used to size conductors.
Capacitors are installed when the power factor is low and the currents are
high, thus correcting the power factor and reducing the currents.
To determine which section of the National Electrical Code (NEC) to use when
sizing conductors to supply motors and other types of equipment loads, see
Table 220.3
SIZING CONDUCTORS FOR SINGLE MOTORS

430.6(A)(1) AND 430.22
Branch-circuit conductors supplying a single motor shall have an ampacity not less than 125 percent
of the motor's full-load current rating as outlined in Tables 430.247, 430.248, 430.249, and 430.250,
respectively.
For example, a 20 HP, 208 volt, three-phase motor per Table 430.250 has a full-load current
of 59.4 amps. The full-load amps (FLA) for sizing the conductors is determined by multiplying
59.4 amps x 125 percent which equals 74.25 amps.
A motor will normally have a starting current of 4 to 6 times • 190 percent, where a rectifier bridge of the single-
the full-load current of the motor's FLA for motors marked phase, half-wave type is used.
with code letters A through G, and 8-1/2 to 15 times for
NEMA B, high-efficiency motors. Design B, C, and D motors • 150 percent, where a rectifier bridge of the single-
have a starting current of about 4 to 6 times the full-load phase, full-wave type is used.
amps when starting and driving a motor load.

430.24
430.25
There are heating effects on the conductors that develop
when motors are starting and accelerating the driven load.
To eliminate such effects, the conductor's current-carrying
capacity is increased by taking 125 percent of the motor's 430.32(A)(1)

TABLE 430.37
full-load current rating.
430.52(C)(1)
TABLE 430.52

For example, a motor with a FLC rating of 42

amps shall have conductors with a current-carrying
capacity of at least 52.5 amps (42 A x 125% = 52.5

A) to safely carry the load and protect the insulation

due to overload conditions. 430.22
310.15(A)(3), IN (2)
TABLE 310.15(B)(16)
FIGURE LOOP:

SIZING CONDUCTORS FOR

SINGLE-PHASE MOTORS

430.22

Section 430.6(A)(1) requires the full-load current for single-

phase motors to be obtained from Table 430.248. This FLC

rating is then multiplied by 125 percent per Table 220.3 and
430.22 to derive the total amps to select the conductors from

Table 310.15(B)(16) to supply power to the motor windings.

(See Figure 20-1)


THREE-PHASE MOTORS

430.22

Section 430.6(A)(1) requires the full-load current for three-

phase motors to be obtained from Table 430.250. This FLC
rating is multiplied by 125 percent per Table 220.3 and

430.22 to derive the total amps to select the conductors for

the motor windings. (See Figure 20-2)

DIRECT-CURRENT MOTOR-RECTIFIER

SUPPLIED
430.22(A) Figure 20-1. Determining the size branch-circuit conductors
to supply single-phase motors.
The conductor ampacity on the inut of the rectifier shall
not be less than 125 percent of the rated input current to SIZING CONDUCTORS FOR
the rectifier for DC motors operating from a rectified power
supply. Where DC motors operate from a rectified single- MULTISPEED MOTORS
phase power supply, the conductors between the field wiring 430.22(B)
output terminals of the rectifier and the motor shall have an
ampacity of not less than the following percentages of the The circuit conductors for multispeed motors shall be
motor full load current rating: sized large enough, to the controller, to supply the highest
20-2
Motor Feeder and Branch-Circuit Conductors
nameplate full-load current rating of the multispeed motor

winding involved. A single overcurrent protection device shall

be permitted to serve each speed of a multispeed motor
per 430.22(B). The speed with greater amps shall be used
to size the overcurrent protection device and conductors.

Overload protection shall be provided for each speed to
protect each winding from excessive current during an

overload condition. (See Figure 20-3)

430.24
430.25 430.32(A)(1)
430.32(C)

430.62(A)

430.63

430.52(C)(1)

TABLE 430.52

TABLE 430.37

430.22)
310.15(A)(3), IN (2)
TABLE 310.15(B)(16)

FIGURE LOOP:

Figure 20-3. Determining the size branch-circuit

conductors to supply multispeed motors.

SIZING CONDUCTORS FOR WYE-

START AND DELTA-RUN MOTORS
430.22(C)

The branch-circuit conductors for wye-start and delta-run
Figure 20-2. Determining the size branch-circuit conductors connected motors shall be selected based on the full-load
to supply three-phase motors. current on the line side of the controller shall not be less than
20-3
125 percent of the motor full-load current. The capacity of the other half is energized, so both halves are energized and
conductors between the controller and the motor shall not carry equal current to drive the load.
be less than 72 percent of the motor full-load current rating.
Separate overload devices shall be used on a standard
Note, the selection of conductors between the controller part-winding-start induction motor to protect the windings
and the motor shall be based on 58 percent (1 ÷ 1.732 = from excessive, damaging currents. This means that each
.58) of the motor's full-load current times 125 percent for half of the motor winding has to be individually provided
continuous use. (See Figure 20-4) with overload protection. These requirements are covered
in 430.32 and 430.37. Each half of each winding has a trip

current value that is one half of the specified running current.

As required by 430.52(C)(1), each of the two motor windings

shall have branch-circuit, short-circuit, and ground-fault

protection that is to be selected at not more than one half
the percentages listed in 430.52(C)(1) and Table 430.52.

(See Figure 20-5)

Motor Tip: Section 430.4, Ex. permits a single device

with this one half rating, for both windings, provided

that it will permit the motor to start and run. If a time-

delay (dual element) fuse is used as a single device
for both windings, its rating shall be permitted if it does

not exceed 150 percent of the motor’s full-load current.

Figure 20-4. Determining the size conductors to supply

motors starting on a wye and running on a delta.


PART-WINDING MOTORS

430.22(D)

Induction or synchronous motors that have a part-winding

start are designed so that when starting they energize the

primary armature winding first. After starting, the remainder
of the winding is energized in one or more steps. The

purpose of this arrangement is to reduce the initial inrush

current until the motor accelerates its running speed.

The inrush current at start is the locked-rotor current and
at times can be quite high. A standard part-winding-start
induction motor is designed so that only half of its winding Figure 20-5. Determining the size branch-circuit conductors
is energized at the start; then, as it comes up to speed, the to supply part-winding motors.
20-4
SIZING CONDUCTORS FOR SIZING CONDUCTORS FOR

DUTY CYCLE MOTORS ADJUSTABLE SPEED DRIVE
430.22(E) SYSTEMS
430.122(A) AND ARTICLE 100
Conductors for a motor used for short-time, intermittent,
periodic, or varying duty do not require conductors to be sized Power conversion equipment, when supplied from a branch
with a current-carrying capacity of 125 percent of the motor's circuit, includes all elements of the adjustable speed drive
full-load current. Table 430.22(E) permits the conductors system. The rating in amps is used to size the conductors,
to be sized with a percentage times the nameplate current which are based upon the power required by the conversion
rating based on the duty cycle classification of the motor. equipment. When the power conversion equipment provides
overcurrent protection for the motor, no additional overload
When sizing conductors to supply individual motors that are protection is required.
used for short-time, intermittent, periodic, or varying duty,
the requirements of Table 430.22(E) shall apply. Varying The disconnecting means can be installed in the line
heat loads are produced on the conductors by the starting supplying the conversion equipment, and the rating of the
and stopping duration of operation cycles, which permits disconnect shall not be less than 115 percent of the input
conductor sizing changes. In other words, such conductors current rating of the conversion unit.
are never subjected to continuous operation due to ON
and OFF periods, and therefore conductors are never fully Power conversion equipment requires the conductors to be
loaded for long intervals of time. For this reason, conductors sized at 125 percent of the rated input of such equipment.
can be downsized. (See Figure 20-6)
Motor Tip: Power conversion equipment contains solid

state units that change the cycles or chop part of the
waveforms to vary the speed of squirrel cage motors
as needed for the application. (See Figure 20-7 and
Page 17-7)

Figure 20-6. Determining the size conductors to supply duty Figure 20-7. Determining the size conductors to supply
cycle related motors. power conversion equipment.
20-5
WOUND-ROTOR SECONDARY then used to size the conductors. Noncontinuous nonmotor

loads shall be sized at 100 percent. Continuous nonmotor
430.23 loads shall be sized at 125 percent. (See Figure 20-9)
Wound-rotor motors are three-phase motors that are
installed with two sets of leads. The main leads to the motor
windings (field poles) are one set, and the secondary leads
to the rotor are the other set. The secondary leads on one
end connect to the rotor through slip rings, and the other
of the leads connects through a controller and a bank of

resistors. The speed of the motor varies when the amount

of resistance in the motor circuit is varied. The rotor will turn
slower when the resistance is greater in the rotor, and faster
when such resistance is lowered.

CONTINUOUS DUTY

430.23(A)
The conductors shall have an ampacity not less than 125

percent of the full-load secondary current of the motor

where secondary leads are installed between the controller
and the motor. The secondary full-load current rating is

obtained from the manufacturer or found on the nameplate
of the motor.


OTHER THAN CONTINUOUS DUTY

430.23(B)

When installing a motor to be used for a short-time,

intermittent, periodic, or varying duty, the secondary

conductors shall be sized not less than 125 percent of the

secondary current per Table 430.22(E). The classification

of service determines the correct percentages to select and
apply, when sizing the conductors, based on the cycles of

the motor.

SIZING CONDUCTORS FOR RESISTORS,

SEPARATED FROM CONTROLLER

430.23(C)

Where the secondary resistor is separate from the controller,

the ampacity of the conductors between the controller and

resistor shall not be less than the resistor duty classification

percentages listed in Table 430.23(C). (See Figure 20-8)


SEVERAL MOTORS

430.24

The full-load current rating of the largest motor shall be
multiplied by 125 percent to select the size conductors for

a feeder supplying a group of two or more motors. The
remaining motors of the group shall have their full-load Figure 20-8. Determining the size conductors to supply
current ratings added to this value, and this total amperage is wound-rotor motors.
20-6
FEEDER CONDUCTORS SERVICE CONDUCTORS

FIGURE LOOP:

430.62(A)

FEEDER
PROTECTION OCPD 430.24

GUTTER 366.22 430.52(C)(1)
366.23 TABLE 430.52

GEC MBJ 430.28

TDFs TAPS GES
430.102(B)
DISCONNECT

430.83
CONTROLLER
430.7(A) (B)
TABLE 430.52
10 HP 15 HP 20 HP 40 HP MOTORS
460 V 460 V 460 V 460 V
DESIGN B DESIGN B DESIGN B DESIGN B

Figure 20-10. Sizing the feeder conductors to supply power
to a group of motors.

Figure 20-9. Determining the size conductors for a feeder DETERMINING LARGEST MOTOR
to supply several motors. BASED ON THE DUTY CYCLE
430.24, Ex. 1
Feeder conductors supplying power to two or more motors
utilized to serve duty-cycle loads per 430.22(E) shall have
the largest motor selected based on their conditions of use.
(See Figure 20-11)
SEVERAL MOTORS ON A FEEDER MOTOR IN A HEATING UNIT

430.24 430.24, Ex. 2
Feeder conductors supplying several motors shall be Section 424.3(B) shall be used to calculate the size
sized to carry 125 percent of the FLC rating of the highest conductors to supply power to fixed electric space heating
rated current motor plus the sum of the FLC ratings of all units that are equipped with motor operated equipment.
remaining motors on the circuit. (See Figure 20-10) (See Figure 20-12)
20-7

BLOWER MOTOR IS 3 AMPS.
NOTE: FOR SIMPLICITY, THE DISCONNECT
SERVICE CONDUCTORS AND CONTROLLER TO EACH MOTOR IS
430.24, Ex. 1 NOT SHOWN.
SEE FOR RULES
CONCERNING SUBDIVIDING THE
OCPD SERVICE CONDUCTORS HEATING ELEMENTS.
430.62(A) JUNCTION BOXES
314.16(B)(1) thru (B)(5)
314.28(A)(1) thru (A)(3) OCPD CAN SERVE AS DISCONNECT IF
OCPD IT CAN BE LOCKED IN OPEN POSITION
430.52(C)(1) AND
TABLE 430.52 110 A OCPD HEATING UNIT WITH
BLOWER MOTOR

FEEDER CONDUCTORS
430.24, Ex. 1 NAMEPLATE
MOTOR kW, 3 A
FLC SIZING CONDUCTORS

VARYING DUTY
MBJ MOTOR (NP)

FLC MOTOR NAMEPLATE EMT
GEC FLC MBJ
INTERMITTENT
GES DUTY SHORT-TIME DUTY GEC
DISCONNECTING
GES MEANS

Figure 20-12. Sizing conductors to supply heating unit.

Figure 20-11. Sizing feeder conductors for the largest motor For other than motor loads, Article 220 and other applicable
load based on the duty cycle per 430.22(E). articles shall be used to calculate such loads. The ampacity
required for the feeder conductors shall be equal to the total
MOTORS WITH INTERLOCKS loads involved. The overcurrent protection devices used to
protect conductors and elements from short circuits and
430.24, Ex. 3 ground faults shall be sized per 430.7(D), 430.7(D)(2),
430.24, 430.62(A) and 430.63. (See Figure 20-14)
Motors that operate with other loads and are interlocked
so as not to operate at the same time shall be permitted to
have the feeder conductors based on the interlocked group
producing the greater FLA rating. (See Figure 20-13)
FEEDER DEMAND FACTORS
SIZING CONDUCTORS FOR MOTORS 430.26
AND OTHER LOADS There are specific installations where there may be a
430.25 number of motors connected to a feeder, and because of
their operations, certain motors do not operate together.
The motor load shall be calculated per 430.22 or 430.24 Therefore, the feeder conductors shall be sized according
when designing combination loads that consist of one to the group that has the greater current rating per 430.24.
or more motor loads on the same circuit with lights, (See Figure 20-15)
receptacles, appliances, or any combination of such loads.
20-8

Figure 20-13. Sizing conductors to supply power to the

motors and other loads where they do not operate together.

DC MOTORS

430.29

Conductors connecting a motor controller to power
accelerating and dynamic braking resistors in the armature
circuit of DC motors shall be sized by the percentages listed Figure 20-15. Sizing feeder conductors when applying
in Table 430.29. (See Figure 20-16) demand factors.
The conductors supplying power to a DC motor shall be Note, DC circuitry is identified or color coding is used when
sized at 125 percent of the FLC of the motor. Overcurrent required per 210.5(C)(1) and (C)(2).
protection devices shall be sized to carry the starting current
of the motor. (See Figure 20-17)
20-9
NOTE 1 :

NOTE 2:

NOTE 3 :

NOTE 4 :

215.2(A)(1), Ex. 2EXAMPLE D3(a) ANNEX D

230.70

250.142(B)

215.2(A)(1)

430.102

FIGURE LOOP:

Figure 20-14. Calculating the size conductors for motors and other loads supplied by a feeder.

Figure 20-16. Sizing conductors for a dynamic resistor bank mounted separately from the controller and DC motor.
20-10
OCPD STARTING RHEOSTAT be less than one-third the ampacity of the motor circuit

conductors. The larger of the two calculations shall be used
RESISTANCE DC MOTOR for the capacitor supply conductors. (See Figure 20-18)
HP
NO VOLTAGE
RELEASE COIL

A2

F2 F1
A1
TERMINAL
TERMINAL MOTOR
JUMPER BOARDS ARMATURE
RESISTANCE
MBJ
POWER SUPPLY PANEL
GEC
THWN cu. CONDUCTORS

BUILDING STEEL

Figure 20-17. Sizing overcurrent protection device and
conductors for a DC motor. [See Figure 16-12(a) and

128(b)]

Figure 20-18. There are two calculations to be performed,
CAPACITORS and one of them shall be selected to size the capacitor
460.8(A) circuit conductors. Note, the greater of the 1/3 calculation
or 135 percent calculation shall be used. (See Figure 15-9)
The ampacity of capacitor circuit conductors shall not be
less than 135 percent of the rated current of the capacitor.
The leads for a capacitor that supplies a motor shall not
20-11
FINDING MICROFARADS
Motor Control Center Tip: The overcurrent protection
The microfarads for a capacitor may be found by applying cannot exceed the rating of the common power bus of
the following equation: a motor control center. It shall be permitted to use an
overcurrent protective device with a rating less than the
159,300 x A common power bus, provided it is of sufficient size to
C =
Hz x V x 1.732 carry the load determined in accordance with Part II of
159,300 x 143 A Article 430.
C =
60 x 208 V x 1.732
22,779,900
C =
21,615.36
SERVICE EQUIPMENT
C = 1,053.9 mF 430.95
The above microfarads (mF) were calculated based on the When motor control centers are used as service equipment,
FLC of 143 amps from the 50 horsepower, three-phase, 208 they shall have a main disconnect that disconnects all
volt motor in Figures 20-18 and 15-9. ungrounded (phase) conductors. If necessary, a second
service disconnect shall be permitted to be used to feed
Note, the number 159,300 is a constant that is always used additional equipment. If a grounded (neutral) conductor is
when applying the above equation. used, a main bonding jumper shall be installed.
See Figure 20-19(a), (b), and (c) to determine the size

conductors and setting of an instantaneous trip circuit
MOTOR CONTROL CENTERS breaker to supply a 50 HP, three-phase, 460 volt motor from
PART VIII OF ARTICLE 430 a motor control center (MCC).
MCC USED AS
Motor control centers are used wherever centralized control SERVICE EQUIPMENT
THE OCPD FOR THE MOTOR
of a number of motors is feasible and desired. They provide CONTROLLER UNIT IN THE
a control location where incoming and outgoing lines to MCC SHALL BE PERMITTED
TO SERVE AS THE MOTOR
branch circuits can be consolidated. INLINE DISCONNECTING MEANS
DISCONNECT FOR THE MOTOR, PER
FOR MCC 430.102(B), Ex.
In addition to the obvious advantages of reduced installation
cost, centralized control eliminates the need for time-
FIGURE LOOP: FOR CONTROL
consuming trips to remote areas in a plant to shut down TRANSFORMER IN A MCC, SEE
FIGURE 21-10.
equipment or restart a motor that has tripped out its circuit
due to overload. In the event of a power failure, motor control
centers provide a rapid, safe means of restoring power. SERVICE EQUIPMENT
Orderly and sequential start-up of process motors, fans, NEC 430.95
pumps, and blowers is critical. In some industrial operations,
automatic restart is dangerous after a power interruption. Figure 20-19(a). Motor control center used as service
equipment shall have a main disconnect to disconnect
ungrounded (phase) conductors.
430.94
GROUNDING
Overcurrent protection shall be provided for these units
based on the current rating of the power bus and the 430.96
requirements of Article 240. This protection shall be
provided either by an overcurrent device located ahead of All sections of motor control centers shall be connected
the motor control center or by a main overcurrent protection together with an equipment grounding conductor or bus
device that is within sight of the center. sized per 250.122. All equipment grounding conductors
shall be connected to this conductor or bus. (A bus is almost
always used.) (See Table 250.122 in the NEC)
20-12
BUSBARS AND CONDUCTORS

430.97

The following shall be considered for busbars and

conductors:

• Support and arrangement

• Phase arrangement

• Minimum wire-bending space
• Spacing

• Barriers

SUPPORT AND ARRANGEMENT
430.97(A)

Figure 20-19(b). Sizing the conductor for a three-phase, 460 Busbars shall be protected and held rigidly in place.
volt, 50 HP, Design B motor supplied from a motor control Conductors shouldn't be installed in vertical sections of the
center. (See Figure 21-10 for control transformer.) motor control center unless necessary or unless protected
from the busbars by a barrier.
PHASE ARRANGEMENT
430.97(B)
The phase arrangement for three-phase systems shall be

A, B, and C from front to back, top to bottom, or left to right.
An exception is made for back-to-back units with vertical
buswork. (See Figure 20-20)

Figure 20-19(c). Setting an instantaneous trip circuit Figure 20-20. Busbars and conductors shall be arranged
breaker to start and run a 460 volt, 3Ø, 50 HP, Design B and grounded per 430.97(A) through (E).
motor supplied from a motor control center.
20-13
MINIMUM WIRE-BENDING SPACE

430.97(C)

The minimum wire-bending space at the motor control
center terminals and minimum gutter space shall be as

required in Article 312. [Also, see Table 312.6(A) and (B)]

SPACINGS NOTE:

110.26(E)(1); (E)(2)408.18(B).
430.97(D)

Spacings between motor control center bus terminals and
other bare metal parts shall not be less than specified in
Table 430.97(D).
BARRIERS MARKING OF MOTOR CONTROL CENTERS

NEC 430.98(A)
430.97(E)
Figure 20-21. The dedicated space above a motor control
Barriers shall be placed in all service-entrance motor control center shall be provided per 110.26(E).
centers to isolate service busbars and terminals from the
remainder of the motor control center.
BRANCH/FEEDER-CIRCUIT
CONDUCTORS
MARKING OF MOTOR CONTROL 430.122(A)
CENTERS
Circuit conductors supplying power conversion equipment
430.98(A) included as part of an adjustable-speed drive system shall
have an ampacity not less than 125 percent of the rated input
Motor control centers shall be marked according to 110.21, to the power conversion equipment. (See Figure 20-22)
and such marking shall be plainly visible after installation.
Marking shall also include common power bus current rating
and motor control center short-circuit rating.

Note, motor control units in a motor control center shall

comply with 430.8.

Motor Control Center Tip: Part VIII to Article 430 and

430.1, IN 1 refers to installation requirements for motor
control centers contained in 110.26(E) and 408.18(B).

The requirements of 110.26(E) specify dedicated space

for a motor control center and physical protection
from mechanical systems that might leak or otherwise

adversely impact a motor control center. (See Figure
20-21)

ADJUSTABLE-SPEED DRIVE

SYSTEMS Figure 20-22. The above illustrates the procedure for
PART X TO ARTICLE 430 calculating the load in amps to size the conductors supplying
the power conversion equipment.
When designing and installing electrical systems for
adjustable-speed drives, the installation provisions of Note, electrical resonance can result from the interaction of
Part I through Part IX are applicable unless modified or the nonsinusoidal currents from this type of load with power
supplemented by Part X. factor correction capacitors.
20-14
BYPASS DEVICE BYPASS CIRCUITS

430.122(B) 430.124(B)
For an adjustable speed drive system that utilizes a For adjustable speed drive systems that utilize a bypass
bypass device, the conductor ampacity shall not be less device to allow motor operation at rated full load speed,
than required by 430.6. The ampacity of circuit conductors motor overload protection as described in Article 430, Part
supplying power conversion equipment, included as part III, shall be provided in the bypass circuit.
of an adjustable speed drive system that utilizes a bypass
device shall be the larger of either of the following:
(1) 125 percent of the rated input to the power MULTIPLE MOTOR APPLICATIONS
conversion equipment or 430.124(C)
(2) 125 percent of the motor full-load current rating
as determined by 430.6. For multiple motor application, individual motor overload
protection shall be provided in accordance with Article 430,
For an illustrated description, see Figure 20-23. Part III. (See Figure 20-24)

OVERLOAD PROTECTION
430.124

Overload protection of the motor shall be provided.

INCLUDED IN POWER CONVERSION

EQUIPMENT
430.124(A)

Where the power conversion equipment is marked to

indicate that motor overload protection is included, additional
overload protection shall not be required.


protecting the motor from overload when using a bypass

device.

MOTOR OVERTEMPERATURE

PROTECTION – GENERAL

430.126(A)

Adjustable speed drive systems shall protect against motor

overtemperature conditions where the motor is not rated to

operate at the nameplate rated current over the speed range
required by the application. This protection shall be provided
in addition to the conductor protection required in 430.32.
Protection shall be provided by one of the following means:
(1) Motor thermal protector in accordance with 430.32
Figure 20-23. The above illustrates the procedures for (2) Adjustable speed drive system with load- and
calculating the load in amps to size the conductors for a speed-sensitive overload protection and thermal
bypass drive system. memory retention upon shutdown or power loss
20-15
Thermal memory retention upon shutdown or power loss DISCONNECTING MEANS

is not required for continuous duty loads per 430.126(A)
(2), Ex. 430.128
(3) Overtemperature protection relay utilizing thermal The disconnecting means shall be permitted to be in the
sensors embedded in the motor and meeting the incoming line to the conversion equipment and shall have
requirements of 430.32(A)(2) or (B)(2) a rating not less than 115 percent of the rated input current
(4) Thermal sensor embedded in the motor whose of the conversion unit.
communications are received and acted upon by
an adjustable speed drive system
PHASE CONVERTERS
For a detailed description of these requirements, see Figure
20-25 and IN to 430.126(A).
455.6(A) AND 455.7(A)
Phase converters are used to convert single-phase power

to three-phase power. The disconnecting means shall be

located within 50 ft (15 m) and within sight per 455.8(A).
Where the voltage is not the same, the output-to-input ratio

shall be applied per 455.6(A).

Branch-circuit conductors shall be sized at 125 percent
times the phase converter’s nameplate single-phase input

full-load current rating, in amps. The overcurrent protection
device shall be sized at 125 percent times the phase
converter’s nameplate single-phase input full-load amps.
The overcurrent protection device shall not exceed 125

percent but shall be equal to or lower than 125 percent.
(See Figure 20-26)
Branch-circuit elements such as overcurrent protection

devices and conductors supplying specific loads shall be
calculated at 250 percent of the equipment’s full-load amp
Figure 20-25. The above illustrates the procedure for rating. (See Figure 20-27)
determining protection for motor overtemperature problems.
Feeder conductors that convert single-phase power to
three-phase power to supply power to two or more phase
MULTIPLE MOTOR APPLICATIONS converters shall be sized at 250 percent times the three-
430.126(B) phase amperage of all motors and other loads served. The
overcurrent protection device shall be sized at 250 percent
For multiple motor application, individual motor times the full-load three-phase amps of all motors and other
overtemperature protection shall be provided per 430.126(A). loads. If the percentage does not correspond to a standard
size, the next size overcurrent protection device above this
Note, the relationship between motor current and motor percentage shall be permitted to be selected per 455.7.
temperature changes when the motor is operated by an (See Figure 20-28)
adjustable speed drive. When operated at reduced speed,
overheating of motors may occur at current levels less than
or equal to a motor’s rated full load current. This is the result FIRE PUMPS
of reduced motor cooling when its shaft-mounted fan is ARTICLE 695
operating at less than rated nameplate RPM.
Article 695 covers the installation of electric power
sources, interconnecting circuits, and switching and control
AUTOMATIC RESTARTING AND equipment dedicated to fire pumps.
ORDERLY SHUTDOWN
Note, for more information on fire pump installations, see
430.126(C) NFPA 20, NFPA 37, and for maintenance checks, NFPA 110.
The provisions of 430.43 and 430.44 shall apply to the motor
overtemperature protection means.
20-16

Figure 20-27. Branch-circuit elements such as overcurrent

protection devices and conductors supplying specific loads
shall be calculated at 250 percent of the equipment’s full-
Figure 20-26. Branch-circuit conductors shall be sized load current rating, in amps.
at 125 percent times the phase converter’s nameplate
single-phase input full-load amperage. The overcurrent
protection device shall be sized at 125 percent times the SIZING CONDUCTORS
phase converter’s nameplate single-phase input full-load
current, in amps.
695.6(C)(1) AND 430.22
Conductors shall be sized with enough capacity so that they
POWER SOURCES are protected against short-circuit currents. By sizing the
695.3(A) conductors to the fire pump motors at 125 percent of the
motor's FLA, this should be accomplished. For sizing the
Section 695.3(A) covers power sources that are permitted conductors to one motor, see 430.22 and for more than one
to supply power to fire pump installations. motor, plus other loads, see 430.24. (See Figure 20-30)
Power sources such as a reliable service, an on-site

generator, a separately derived system, or a tap ahead
of the service disconnecting means shall be considered
dependable power supply systems when serving fire pumps
and other related equipment. (See Figure 20-29)
20-17

LOAD
FEEDER
PHASE CONVERTERS

INPUT OUTPUT
MBJ OTHER LOADS

GEC

GES
MOTOR MOTOR MOTOR
5 HP, 230 V 7 1/2 HP, 230 V 10 HP, 230 V
SPECIFIC LOAD
Figure 20-29. The above shows power sources that are
permitted to supply fire pump installations.

FOR WHAT IS CONSIDERED RELIABLE POWER, SEE HEADING
OVERCURRENT PROTECTION DEVICE ON PAGE 20-19.

SUPPLYING CONDUCTORS

SIZING CONDUCTORS

FIRE PUMP
CONTROLLER

FIRE PUMP MOTOR
HP
PIPING

Figure 20-28. Feeder conductors that convert single-phase
power to three-phase power for supplying power to two or
more phase converters shall be sized at 250 percent times

the three-phase amperage of all motors and other loads
served. The overcurrent protection device shall be sized Figure 20-30. The above shows the procedure for sizing
at 250 times the full-load three-phase amps of all motors the conductors to supply a fire pump.
and other loads.
20-18
SIZING OVERCURRENT PROTECTION SIZING TRANSFORMER USED AS

DEVICE A SEPARATELY DERIVED SYSTEM
695.5(B), (C)(2), AND 230.90(A), Ex. 4 695.5(A) AND 695.6(B)(1)
The overcurrent protection device shall protect the Section 695.5(A) permits a transformer dedicated to
conductors and fire pump motor and accessories from short supplying a fire pump to be rated at a minimum of 125
circuits. (See Figure 20-31) percent of the sum of the rated full load of the fire pump
motor(s), the rated full loads of pressure maintenance pump
Note, reliable power supply is a supply that won't shut down motor(s), and the full-load amps of any associated fire pump
or fail more than four hours in a year as outlined in NFPA accessory equipment connected to the transformer.
20-A.9.2.3.1(4).
Secondary overcurrent protection for the transformer
shall not be permitted, and the primary overcurrent
protection device shall not be set above 600 percent of the
transformer’s full-load current rating.

SIZING TRANSFORMER ELEMENTS

Section 695.5(A) covers the requirements for sizing a

separately derived system, 695.5(B) deals with sizing the

overcurrent protection device, and 695.5(C)(2) outlines the
rules that require the overcurrent protection device to carry
the locked-rotor current of the transformer indefinitely.


DEVICE FOR A SEPARATELY DERIVED
SYSTEM
695.5(B)
Section 696.5(B) requires the overcurrent protection
device on the primary side of a separately derived system,
supplying power to a fire pump installation, to carry the

secondary circuit indefinitely.

Note, such secondary currents include both normal full-load
operating currents, as well as the locked-rotor current of the

motor. (See Figure 20-32)

When separately derived systems are used to supply power

to fire pumps and accessories, they are usually installed in

the fire pump room with the fire pump controller.

Note, the transformer shall supply power until pump motor
failure. This requirement allows the motor to pump water to

fight the fire for as long as possible.

Figure 20-31. The above shows the procedure for sizing

the overcurrent protection device to allow a fire pump to
operate until failure.
20-19

Figure 20-32. The above shows the procedure for sizing

the transformer and primary overcurrent protection device
for a fire pump installation.

Figure 20-33. Sizing the transformer to use as a separately

derived system to supply a fire pump.
20-20
Name Date
Chapter 20: Motor Feeder and Branch-Circuit Conductors
Section Answer
1. Branch-circuit conductors supplying a single motor shall have an ampacity not _____________ _____________
less than _____ percent of the motor’s full-load current rating.
(a) 100 (b) 115
(c) 125 (d) 135
2. When sizing conductors for wye start and delta run motor at continuous use, _____________ _____________
the selection of conductors between the controller and the motor shall be based
on _____ percent of the motor’s full-load current times 125 percent.
(a) 25 (b) 33
(c) 42 (d) 58
3. Conductors used for periodic duty with a continuous rated motor shall have a _____________ _____________
current-carrying capacity of _____ percent of the motor’s full-load current.
(a) 125 (b) 140
(c) 150 (d) 175
4. The disconnecting means shall be permitted to be installed in the line supplying _____________ _____________
the conversion equipment and the rating of the disconnecting means shall
not be less than _____ percent of the input current rating of the conversion
equipment.
(a) 115 (b) 125
(c) 135 (d) 150
5. Power conversion equipment requires the conductors to be sized at _____ _____________ _____________
percent of the rated input of such equipment or by the nameplate information.
(a) 115 (b) 125
(c) 135 (d) 150
6. The conductors supplying power to a DC motor (rated continuous) shall be _____________ _____________
sized at _____ percent of the full-load current of the motor.
(a) 100 (b) 115
(c) 125 (d) 135
7. Feeder conductors supplying several motors shall be sized to carry _____ _____________ _____________
percent of the full-load current rating of the highest rated current motor plus
the sum of the full-load current ratings of all remaining motors on the circuit.
(a) 85 (b) 100
(c) 115 (d) 125
8. The ampacity of capacitor circuit conductors shall not be less than _____ _____________ _____________
percent of the rated current of the capacitor.
(a) 100 (b) 125
(c) 135 (d) 150
9. The phase arrangement (motor control centers) for three-phase systems shall _____________ _____________
be _____.
(a) front to back (b) top to bottom
(c) left to right (d) all of the above
20-21
Section Answer
_____________ _____________ 10. When sizing conductors for continuous duty motors, the conductors shall have
an ampacity of not less than _____ percent of the full-load secondary current
of the motor.
(a) 100 (b) 125
(c) 150 (d) 200
_____________ _____________ 11. What size THWN (branch-circuit) copper conductors are required for a 3 HP,
208 volt, single-phase, Design B motor?
230 volt, three-phase, Design B motor?
460 volt, three-phase, 15 minute rated intermittent duty cycle motor?
_____________ _____________ 14. What size THWN (branch-circuit) copper conductors are required to supply
power conversion equipment with a rated input of 112 amps?
_____________ _____________ 15. What size THWN (branch-circuit) copper conductors (line side) are required
to supply a 50 HP, 208 volt, three-phase, Design B part-winding motor?
_____________ _____________ 16. What size THWN (feeder) copper conductors are required to supply 30 HP,
40 HP, and 50 HP, 460 volt, three-phase, Design B motors?
_____________ _____________ 17. What size THWN (feeder) copper conductors are required to supply a 10 HP,
208 volt, three-phase, 5 minute rated intermittent duty cycle; 15 HP, 208 volt,
three-phase, 15 minute rated intermittent duty cycle motor; and 20 HP, 208
volt, three-phase motor?
_____________ _____________ 18. What size THWN (branch-circuit) copper conductors are required to supply
a 20 kVAR, 208 volt, three-phase capacitor connected to a 40 HP, 208 volt,
three-phase, Design B motor?
_____________ _____________ 19. An overcurrent protection device for a fire pump can be sized at _____% under
certain conditions of use.
(a) 175 (b) 250
(c) 300 (d) 600
_____________ _____________ 20. A single-phase service can be used to supply a _____ -phase _____.
(a) three (b) converter
20-22
21
Control Circuit Conductors
and Components
Control circuit conductors are designed and installed so that they may be
tapped from the motor power supply circuit or supplied from the service
equipment. Overcurrent protection for control circuits that are tapped on the
load side of controllers are designed and installed per 430.72. Overcurrent
protection for control circuits supplied from a source of power other than the
motor circuit's source of power is designed and installed per 725.43 and
725.45. Lower voltage may be provided by control transformers that are
installed for controlling motor circuits and related systems.
TYPES OF CONTROL CIRCUITS

430.72 AND 725.43
A motor-control circuit tapped on the load side of fuses and circuit breakers utilized for motor branch
circuits shall protect such conductors, or supplementary protection devices shall be provided.
The size of the control circuit conductors and the rating of the motor branch-circuit device will be
determined by this method of protection. Motor-control circuits are classified as remote-control circuits
where such circuits derive their power from other than the motor branch-circuit conductors. Various
situations permit fuses or circuit breakers to be utilized to protect remote motor control circuits. For
further information, see 725.43 and 725.45.
ONLY SHORT CIRCUIT PROTECTION

Motor Control Tip: Remote-control circuits shall have 430.72(B), Ex. 1
their disconnecting means located immediately adjacent
to the disconnecting means used to disconnect the Control-circuit conductors shall have short-circuit and
branch-circuit conductors supplying the controller and ground-fault protection and shall be protected by the motor
motor. Sometimes an interlock in the disconnect for branch-circuit, short-circuit, and ground fault protection
the motor controller is used for this purpose that allows device, where a hazard is created by the opening of the
the controller, motor-, and remote-control circuit to be control circuit.
disconnected simultaneously.
CONDUCTORS FROM SECONDARY OF

CONDUCTOR PROTECTION CONTROL TRANSFORMERS
430.72(B) 430.72(B), Ex. 2
The secondary conductors of the control transformer circuit

Conductors larger than 14 AWG are selected from Tables
shall be permitted to be protected by the primary side of the
310.15(B)(16) through 310.15(B)(19) for motor-control
transformer. The transformer shall be protected per 450.3(B)
circuit conductors that are tapped from a motor power
and Table 450.3(B). A two-wire secondary for a transformer
circuit. Overcurrent protection for conductors smaller than 14
installed outside or within the control starter enclosure shall
AWG shall not exceed the values listed in Table 430.72(B),
be permitted to be protected per 240.4(F) and 240.21(C)(1).
Column A. Conductors 18 AWG and 16 AWG shall be
protected at the following amperage ratings:
The secondary conductor ampacity shall be multiplied by the
(1) 18 AWG shall be protected at 7 amps when used secondary-to-primary voltage ratio to provide protection in
for remote-control circuits. accordance with 450.3(B) and Table 450.3(B). Where the
rated primary current is 9 amps or greater and 125 percent
(2) 16 AWG shall be protected at 10 amps when used of this current does not correspond to a standard rating of a
for remote-control circuits. fuse or circuit breaker, the next higher standard size shall be
permitted to be selected. Where the rated primary current is
Fuses selected at either 1 amp, 3 amp, 6 amp, or 10 amp less than 9 amps, but is 2 amps or greater, an overcurrent
are normally used to protect these conductors from short protection device rated or set at not more than 167 percent
circuits, ground faults, and overloads. See 240.6(A) for of the primary current shall be permitted to be used. Where
selection of such fuse sizes. the rated primary current is less than 2 amps, an overcurrent
protection device rated or set not greater than 300 to 500
percent shall be permitted to be used. (See Figure 21-1)
CONTROL TRANSFORMER
DISCONNECT FOR
CONTROL CIRCUIT
SERVICE FUSE 430.72(B) 430.75(A)
EQUIPMENT 725.45(D) CONTROL
CONDUCTORS
OCPD

2
SUPPLY CONTROLLER 3
480 V 430.83

SUPPLY

480 V
C

SUPPLY
MBJ GEC
VOLTAGE
GES DISCONNECTING

240 V
MEANS

430.102(A) AND (B)

START AND STOP
FIGURE LOOP: FOR MCC, SEE FIGURE 21-10. STATION

NOTE: CENTRAL TRANSFORMERS CAN BE
INSTALLED IN CONTROLLER

Figure 21-1. Control-circuit conductors are supplied by a control transformer and protected by fuses on primary side.
21-2
Control Circuit Conductors and Components
For example, if the primary full-load current of a the ampacity rating of sizes 14 AWG and larger conductors.
motor control transformer is less than 2 amps, the Overcurrent protection for conductors smaller than 14
overcurrent protection device shall be permitted to AWG shall not exceed the values listed in Table 430.72(B),
be calculated and sized at 500 percent times such Column C.
full-load current in amps per 430.72(C)(4).
Conductors rated 18 AWG through 10 AWG shall be
CONDUCTORS IN ENCLOSURES permitted to be protected with the following sized overcurrent
protection devices:
430.72(B)(2)
(1) 18 AWG = 7 amps
Motor-control circuit conductors that do not extend beyond (requires 7 A OCPD)
the control equipment enclosure shall be permitted to
be protected by the motor branch-circuit fuses or circuit (2) 16 AWG = 10 amps
breakers. Table 430.72(B), Column B permits this type of (requires 10 A OCPD)
installation where the devices do not exceed 400 percent of (3) 14 AWG = 45 amps
the ampacity rating of sizes 14 AWG and larger conductors. (15 A x 300% = 45 A and requires 45 A OCPD)
Overcurrent protection for conductors smaller than 14
AWG shall not exceed the values listed in Table 430.72(B), (4) 12 AWG = 60 amps
Column B. Conductors rated 18 AWG through 10 AWG (20 A x 300% = 60 A and requires 60 A OCPD)
shall be permitted to be protected with the following sized (5) 10 AWG = 90 amps
overcurrent protection devices. (30 A x 300% = 90 A and requires 90 A OCPD)
(1) 18 AWG = 25 amps (6) Conductor 8 AWG and larger = 300 percent
(7 A x 400% = 28 A and requires 25 A OCPD)
(2) 16 AWG = 40 amps Note, the above protection shall be required anytime the
(10 A x 400% = 40 A and requires 40 A OCPD) control circuit is used for remote control of a coil in a motor
controller enclosure.
(3) 14 AWG = 100 amps
(25 A x 400% = 100 A and requires 100 A OCPD) See Figure 21-3 for selecting such conductors based on
(4) 12 AWG = 120 amps the overcurrent protection device rating.

(5) 10 AWG = 160 amps

(6) 8 AWG and larger = 400 percent

Motor Control Tip: The free air ampacities of Table
310.15(B)(17) for 60°C wire are used to determine the
ampacity ratings for the control circuit conductors. This
type of installation has more free space to dissipate the

heat where control conductors are installed in the open

air space of enclosures instead of enclosed raceways.

See Figure 21-2 for selecting such conductors based on

the overcurrent protection device rating.

CONDUCTORS RUN REMOTE

430.72(B)(2)

Motor-control circuit conductors that extend beyond the

control equipment enclosure shall be permitted to be
protected by the motor's branch-circuit fuse or circuit Figure 21-2. Control circuit conductors located in controller
breaker. Table 430.72(B), Column C permits this type of and protected by the branch-circuit overcurrent protection
installation where the devices do not exceed 300 percent of device.
21-3

Control circuit transformers with limited power sources are

required per 725.41(A)(1) to be designed and protected
per 450.3(B), Ex. Section 430.72(C)(1) refers to 725.41(A)
(1), which requires overcurrent protection devices to be

designed and placed in the secondary of Class 1 control
circuit transformers per 450.3(B), Ex.

TRANSFORMERS LESS THAN 50 VA

430.72(C)(3)

Protection shall not be needed for control transformers rated
less than 50 VA that are located in the controller enclosure
and an integral part of the controller. The motor circuit
overcurrent protection device protects the transformer for

this type of installation.

TRANSFORMERS LESS THAN 2 AMPS

430.72(C)(4)
Where the rated primary current is less than 2 amps, an
overcurrent protection device rated or set not greater than
Figure 21-3. Control circuit conductors are run remote and 300 to 500 percent shall be permitted to be used.
protected by the branch-circuit overcurrent protection device
in the panelboard. For example, if the primary full-load current of a
motor control transformer is less than 2 amps, the
overcurrent protection device shall be permitted to
CONTROL CIRCUIT TRANSFORMERS be calculated and sized at 500 percent times such
430.72(C)(1) THRU (C)(5) full-load current.
Article 450 is used for designing the protection of TRANSFORMERS WITH OTHER
control circuit transformers. The following control circuit
transformers shall be sized accordingly: APPROVED MEANS
(1) Transformers with overcurrent protection omitted. 430.72(C)(5)
(2) Transformers rated Class 1, 2, and 3, Control circuit transformers shall be permitted to be
(3) Transformers less than 50 VA, protected where provided with other approved means.
(4) Transformers less than 2 amps, and
(5) Transformers with other approved means.
PROTECTION OF CONDUCTOR
TRANSFORMERS WITH FROM PHYSICAL DAMAGE
OVERCURRENT PROTECTION OMITTED 430.73
430.72(C), Ex.
Remote motor-control circuit conductors that are outside the
Overcurrent protection shall be omitted where the opening control device shall be installed in a raceway or be suitably
of the control circuit would create a hazard, such as in the protected from physical damage if damage to the motor
case of a control circuit for a fire pump motor. control circuit could create a hazard.
TRANSFORMERS RATED
CLASS 1, 2, AND 3 ELECTRICAL ARRANGEMENT
430.72(C)(2) OF CONTROL CIRCUITS
430.74
The FLC for a control circuit transformer that is rated 1000
volt-amps or less and 30 volts or less shall be increased Motor-control circuits that are grounded on one side shall
167 percent per 725.41(A)(2). be arranged in such a manner that an accidental ground in
21-4
control circuits remote from the motor controller will comply MORE THAN 12 CONDUCTORS
with the following:
430.75(A), Ex. 1
(1) The motor will not start and
A disconnecting means shall not be required to disconnect
(2) The motor will not bypass manually operated 12 or more control circuit conductors that are permitted
shutdown devices or automatic safety shutdown to be located other than adjacent to each other when the
devices. following conditions are complied with:
(1) Access to energized parts is limited to qualified
persons only.
DISCONNECTION OF CONTROL
(2) Access to live parts in motor control circuits is
CIRCUIT CONDUCTORS AND POWER permitted by a warning sign that is permanently
430.75(A) located on the outside of each equipment enclosure
door or cover. The sign warns that the disconnecting
Motor control circuits shall be disconnected from all sources means for the motor-control circuit is located
of supply when the disconnecting means is in the open remotely. Such sign shall also list the location and
position. The disconnecting means for the starter may be identify each disconnect and its use.
installed to serve as the disconnecting means for the motor
circuit conductors if the control circuit conductors are tapped
from the line terminal of the magnetic starter. An auxiliary CLASS 1 CIRCUITS
contact shall be installed in the disconnecting means of 725.41
the controller, or an additional disconnecting means shall
be mounted adjacent to the controller, to disconnect the Class 1 circuits are divided into two types: power-limited and
motor control circuit conductors if they are fed from another remote-control and signaling circuits. Power-limited Class
source and are not tapped from the starter conductors. (See 1 circuits are limited to 30 volts and 1000 volt-amperes.
Figure 21-4) Class 1 remote-control and signaling circuits are limited
to 600 volts, but there are not any limitations on the power
output of the source.
Note, the rules pertaining to Class 1 circuits for motor control

are reviewed in this section.
FOR MCC, SEE FIGURE 21-10. POWER-LIMITED CIRCUITS

DISCONNECTING MEANS
FOR CONTROL TRANSFORMER

725.41(A)
TRANSFORMER STOP AND
SERVICE START STATION Class 1 power-limited circuits are supplied from a power
EQUIPMENT
source that has a rated output of not more than 30 volts
and a power limitation of 1000 volt-amps. Class 1 power-
limited circuits have a current limiter on the power source
POWER SOURCE
that supplies them. This limiter is an overcurrent protection
POWER SOURCE CONTROLLER device that restricts the amount of supply current to the
OCPD circuit in the event of an overload, short circuit, or ground
OCPD
fault. These Class 1 circuits shall be permitted to be supplied
from a transformer or other type of power supply such as
MBJ generators or batteries.
GEC
GES DISCONNECTING MEANS
FOR MOTOR
REMOTE CONTROL OR
TRANSFORMER CAN BE LOCATED IN CONTROLLER. SIGNALING CIRCUITS
MOTOR 725.41(B)

Class 1 remote control and signaling circuits shall be

permitted to operate at up to 600 volts and have no limitation
Figure 21-4. One disconnecting means or a number of on the power rating of the source. Class 1 systems generally
disconnects may be required to disconnect a control circuit shall meet most wiring requirements for power and light
and power supply to a motor. circuits. Class 1 remote control circuits are commonly used
21-5
in motor controllers that operate mechanical processes,

elevators, conveyors, and equipment that is controlled from

one or more remote locations. Class 1 signaling circuits are
used in nurses' call systems in hospitals, electric clocks,

bank alarm systems, and factory call systems. (See Figure

21-5)

CLASS 2 AND 3 CIRCUITS

725.121(A) AND (B)

Class 2 and Class 3 circuits are defined by two tables, one
for AC current and one for DC current. In general, a Class
2 circuit operating at 24 volts with a power supply durably

marked “Class 2” and not exceeding 100 volt-amperes is

the type most commonly used.

A Class 2 circuit is defined as that portion of the wiring

system between the load side of a Class 2 power source

and the connected equipment. Because of its power
Figure 21-5. Class 1 remote control and signaling circuits
limitations, a Class 2 circuit is considered safe from a fire
shall be permitted to operate up to 600 volts with or without
initiation standpoint and provides acceptable protection
power limitations.
from electric shock.
A Class 3 circuit is defined as that portion of the wiring

system between the load side of a Class 3 power source
and the connected equipment. Due to its power limitations, CONTROL CIRCUITS IN RACEWAYS,
a Class 3 circuit is not considered safe from a fire-initiation
standpoint. Since higher levels of voltage and current are
CABLES, AND ENCLOSURES
permitted for Class 3 than for Class 2 circuits, additional 725.48
safeguards are specified to provide protection from an
electric shock hazard that might be encountered. Class 1 control circuits shall be permitted to be installed
in raceways, cables, and enclosures using the following
Power for Class 2 and Class 3 circuits is limited either installation procedures:
inherently (in which no overcurrent protection is required)
(1) Two or more Class 1 circuits and
or by a combination of a power source and overcurrent
protection scheme. (2) Class 1 circuits with power conductors.
The maximum circuit voltage is 150 volts AC or DC for a TWO OR MORE CLASS 1 CIRCUITS
Class 2 inherently limited power source, and 100 volts AC
or DC for a Class 3 inherently limited power source. The 725.48(A)
maximum circuit voltage is 30 volts AC and 60 volts DC for
a Class 2 power source limited by overcurrent protection, Class 1 circuits shall be permitted to occupy the same
and 150 volts AC or DC for a Class 3 power source limited cable, enclosure, or raceway without regard to whether
by overcurrent protection. (See Figure 21-6) the individual circuits are AC or DC current, provided all
conductors are insulated for the maximum voltage of any
For example, heating system thermostats are com- conductor in the cable, enclosure, or raceway. (See Figure
monly Class 2 systems, and the majority of small 21-7)
bells, buzzers, and annunciator systems are Class
2 circuits. Class 2 also includes small intercom- CLASS 1 CIRCUITS WITH POWER
municating telephone systems in which the voice CONDUCTORS
circuit is supplied by a battery and the ringing circuit
is supplied by a transformer.
725.48(B)(1)
Class 2 and 3 systems do not require the same wiring Class 1 circuits and power supply circuits shall be permitted
methods as power, light, and Class 1 systems. There are to occupy the same cable, enclosure, or raceway only in
cases that require a 2 in. (50 mm) separation between these situations where the equipment power system is functionally
systems. (See Tables 11(A) or (B) to Ch. 9 in the NEC.) associated. (See Figure 21-7)
21-6

Figure 21-6. The maximum voltage is usually 100 volts AC or DC for a Class 2 inherently limited power source, and 150
volts AC or DC for a Class 3 inherently limited power source.
Section 725.48(B)(2) clarifies they shall be permitted to be

mixed where installed in factory- or field-assembled control
centers.
Section 725.48(B)(3) permits mixing for underground

conductors in a manhole if all of the following conditions
NOTE 1:

are met:
NOTE 2: (1) The power supply or Class 1 circuit conductors are

in a metal-enclosed cable or Type UF cable.

(2) The conductors are permanently separated from
the power supply conductors by a continuous,
firmly fixed nonconductor, such as flexible tubing,
in addition to the insulation on the wire.
(3) The conductors are permanently and effectively
separated from the power supply conductors and
FIGURE LOOP:
securely fastened to racks, insulators, or other

approved supporting means. (See Figure 21-8)

725.48(B)(1)
WHEN TO DERATE THE AMPACITY
725.51(A) AND (B)

Where only Class 1 circuit conductors are in a raceway, the

number of conductors shall be permitted to be determined
725.48(A) (B)
by the provisions of 300.17. The ampacity adjustment
CLASS 1 CIRCUITS WITH POWER CONDUCTORS factors given in Table 310.15(B)(3)(a) apply only if such
NEC 725.48(A) AND (B)(1) conductors carry continuous loads in excess of 10 percent
of the ampacity of each control conductor routed through
Figure 21-7. Class 1 circuits shall be permitted to occupy the raceway system.
the same cable, enclosure, or raceway without regard
to whether the individual circuits are AC or DC current, The number of power supply conductors and Class 1 circuit
provided all conductors are insulated for the maximum conductors pulled through a raceway based on the rules
voltage of any conductor in the cable, enclosure, or raceway. of 725.48 shall be determined per 300.17. The ampacity
21-7
adjustment factors, given in Article 310, Table 310.15(B)

(3)(a) to Ampacity Tables of 0 to 2000 volts apply to the
following conditions:

(1) All conductors where the Class 1 circuit conductors

carry continuous loads in excess of 10 percent of
the ampacity of each conductor and where the total

number of conductors is four or more.
(2) The power supply conductors only, where the Class

1 circuit conductors do not carry continuous loads
in excess of 10 percent of the ampacity of each
conductor and where the number of power supply
conductors is four or more. (See Figure 21-9)

Motor Control Tip: Class 1 circuit conductors installed
in cable tray systems shall comply with the rules and

regulations of 392.22 and 392.80 as well as Article 392.

NOTE:

725.48(B)(3)(3)

725.48(B)(3)

725.48(B)(3)

CLASS 1 CIRCUITS WITH POWER CONDUCTORS
NEC 725.48(B)(1)

Figure 21-8. Class I circuits, when properly installed, shall Figure 21-9. The derating factors given in Table 310.15(B)
be permitted to be installed in manholes with power supply (3)(a) apply only if such control conductors carry continuous
circuits. loads in excess of 10 percent of the ampacity of each
conductor routed through the raceway system.
Note, for determining if the grounded (neutral conductor

is current-carrying, see 310.15(B)(5)(c) in the NEC.
MOTOR CONTROL CENTER
TRANSFORMER
430.72(C)(4)
A primary and secondary control transformer installed in
a motor control center can be used for controlling a coil in
a magnetic starter in a controller unit. (See Figure 21-10)
21-8

Figure 21-10. A primary and secondary protected control

transformer installed in a motor control center for coil control
of a magnetic starter used in a controller unit.
Note, for determining if the neutral or control circuits are

current-carrying, see 725.51(B)(1); (2) and 310.15(B)(5)
(c) in the NEC.
21-9
Name Date
Chapter 21. Control Circuit Conductors and Components
Section Answer
1. Conductors _____ AWG shall be protected at 7 amps when used for remote _____________ _____________
control circuit conductors that extend beyond enclosure.
(a) 18 (b) 16
(c) 14 (d) 12
2. Conductors _____ AWG shall be protected at 10 amps when used for remote _____________ _____________
control circuit conductors that have separate protection provided.
(a) 18 (b) 16
(c) 14 (d) 12
3. Power sources other than transformers shall be permitted to be increased up _____________ _____________
to _____ percent per 725.41(A)(2).
(a) 110 (b) 115
(c) 125 (d) 167
4. Protection is not needed or control transformers rated less than _____ volt- _____________ _____________
amps and are located in the controller enclosure and an integral part of the
controller.
(a) 15 (b) 20
(c) 50 (d) 75
5. A disconnecting means shall not be required to disconnect _____ or more _____________ _____________
control circuit conductors that are permitted to be located other than adjacent
to each other when access to energized parts is limited to qualified persons
only and access to live parts in motor control circuits is permitted by a warning
sign.
(a) 6 (b) 12
(c) 15 (d) 18
6. Class 1 power-limited circuits are supplied from a power source that has a _____________ _____________
rated output of not more than _____ volts and a power limitation of 1000 volt-
amps or less.
(a) 30 (b) 40
(c) 50 (d) 75
7. The maximum circuit voltage is _____ volts AC or DC for a Class 2 inherently _____________ _____________
limited power source.
(a) 100 (b) 120
(c) 150 (d) 175
8. The maximum circuit voltage is _____ volts AC or DC for a Class 3 inherently _____________ _____________
limited power source.
(a) 100 (b) 120
(c) 150 (d) 175
9. Class 2 and Class 3 systems, installed in hoist ways, do not require the same _____________ _____________
wiring methods as power, light, and Class 1 systems. However, a _____ in.
separation shall be required between these systems.
(a) 1 (b) 2
(c) 6 (d) 12
21-11
Section Answer
_____________ _____________ 10. Where only Class 1 circuit conductors are in a raceway, the derating factors
given in Table 310.15(B)(3)(a) apply only if such conductors carry continuous
loads in excess of _____ percent of the ampacity of each control conductor
routed through the raceway system.
(a) 2 (b) 5
(c) 6 (d) 10
_____________ _____________ 11. Control-circuits are considered current-carrying if the current in amps is greater
than _____% of the conductor's amapcity.
(a) 5 (b) 10
_____________ _____________ (c) 15 (d) 20
12. The neutral is current-carrying if more than _____% of the neutral current is
_____________ _____________ harmonic related.
(a) 5 (b) 10
(c) 25 (d) 50
_____________ _____________ 13. A control transformer can be installed in a motor _____ center
(a) control (b) combination
_____________ _____________ 14. Under certain installation rules, a Class _____ can be run with the power
conductors in a motor circuit.
(a) 2 (b) 3
(c) 1 (d) none of the above
_____________ _____________ 15. A 120 volt control circuit is considered _____ limited.
(a) power (b) nonpower
_____________ _____________ 16. A Class 2 or 3 circuit shall be _____ and marked as such.
(a) listed (b) approved
(c) identified (d) none of the above
_____________ _____________ 17. Two or more Class 2 circuits can be routed through the same _____.
(a) cable (b) raceway
(c) enclosure (d) all of the above
_____________ _____________ 18. What size overcurrent protection device is permitted for motor-control circuit
conductors that are located in the enclosure and supplied by 12 AWG copper
conductors?
_____________ _____________ 19. What size overcurrent protection device is permitted for motor-control circuit
conductors that are run remote and supplied by 12 AWG copper conductors?
_____________ _____________ 20. What size overcurrent protection device is required for motor-control circuit
conductors that are supplied by a 2400 VA, 480 volt, two-wire control
transformer?
21-12
22
Connecting Controls
for Operation
A means for starting and stopping shall be provided for all electric motors and
their driven load. Either manual magnetic starters or motor control centers
are used as a controlling means for commercial and industrial motors.
The power supply is connected to the manual starter in series through the
contacts to the motor leads. Magnetic starters are controlled by pressure,
temperature, light, start-and-stop buttons, etc., which provide automatic
starting and stopping of motors.
Note, review Chapter 23 and Tables 1 through 14 of Annex A for troubleshooting

techniques on control circuits and components.
MAGNETIC STARTERS
Magnetic starters are the most common type of controllers in the electrical industry. They are
equipped with normally open (NO) power contacts that can be closed by applying voltage to their
closing coils. Coil voltages may range in values from 24 to 480 volts. Control voltage is used to
close the contacts and provide power to the motor. The device used to control the voltage to the
coil may be manually or automatically controlled. Different wiring procedures are required for each
method. The motor windings are protected from overload conditions by an overload relay unit that
is provided in the magnetic starter circuitry. (See Figure 22-1)

For example: What is the minimum wire bending
NORMALLY OPEN THERMAL
(NO) CONTACTS OVERLOAD START AND STOP space required for 1 - 2 AWG conductor per terminal
CONTACTS PUSHBUTTONS
AUXILIARY TEMPERATURE
within the enclosure housing for a magnetic starter?
CONTACTS L1 POWER
L2 LINES PRESSURE
L3 LIGHT
THERMAL
OVERLOAD
T1 L1 L2 L3 Step 1: Finding space
RELAY MOTOR
UNIT T2 LINES Table 430.10(B)
T3
CLOSING
2
2 AWG conductor = 2-1/2"
COIL
C 3 AUX.
Solution: The minimum wire bending space
OLs required is 2-1/2 in.
T1 T2 T3
MAGNETIC
STARTER
ENCLOSURE
TWO-WIRE CONTROL SYSTEMS

Two-wire control circuits are designed and installed to
Figure 22-1. This illustration shows a magnetic starter that is eliminate a voltage release during a power failure. This type
designed to be controlled automatically or nonautomatically. of installation (no voltage release) means that the coil circuit
is maintained through the contacts of the pilot device until it
is disconnected. The contacts to the pilot device controlling
the circuit to the coil usually remains closed and connects
COMPONENTS power immediately to the coil when the power to the circuit
is restored. Two-wire devices are designed and installed to
The terminals L1, L2, and L3 are the terminals used to be used for two-wire control circuits. These types of devices
connect the branch-circuit conductors from the power line include single-pole switches, pressure switches, float
to the magnetic starter. The branch-circuit conductors for switches, thermostats, limit switches, etc. (See Figure 22-2)
the magnetic starter shall be sized and selected per 430.22
and Table 310.15(B)(16).
POWER SUPPLY
The terminals T1, T2, and T3 are used to connect the 240 V
3
magnetic starter to the motor leads. The minimum wire
bending space at the terminals within the enclosure housing
L1 L2 L3
for the magnetic starter shall comply with Table 430.10(B).
Where terminal housings are provided on motors, the
2
minimum space required shall comply with 430.12. 3 AUX.
CONTROLLED BY PILOT
The branch-circuit conductors are connected from the DEVICES SUCH AS:
SINGLE POLE SWITCH
power supply to the motor leads by stationary contacts. PRESSURE SWITCH T1 T2 T3
Contacts will eventually become tarnished from the making FLOAT SWITCH MAGNETIC
STARTER
LIMIT SWITCH
and breaking when starting and stopping motors with their THERMOSTAT ENCLOSURE
TO
driven loads. The contacts are energized and deenergized OTHER RELATED MOTOR
DEVICES
by the closing coil. The control circuit operating this coil
shall be designed and selected per 430.72 and 725.43.
The connection of the power circuit conductors to the
motor leads are bridged from auxiliary contact points 2 and Figure 22-2. This illustration shows a magnetic starter that
3. The temperature rise in the motor windings is sensed is controlled by a two-wire control circuit.
by the thermal overload relay unit. If the setting of the
overload relay is exceeded by the temperature rise in the
motor windings, the coil circuit is opened by the overload THREE-WIRE CONTROL SYSTEMS
contacts, dropping out the power circuit conductors to the
motor. Overload contacts are designed to be connected in Three-wire control circuits are designed and installed to
series from L2 to the coil and from that point to the controlling provide a voltage release during a power failure. Power is
devices supplied by L1. The coil control circuit is opened energized to the coil by pushing the starting button, which
by the overload contacts due to the heat of an overload is normally open (NO), causing the contacts to close and
condition. energize power to the motor.
22-2
Connecting Controls for Operation
A three-wire control circuit consists of a start button with POWER TO MOTOR

normally open (NO) contacts and a stop button with CIRCUIT IS APPLIED
BY THESE MOTOR
normally closed (NC) contacts. The auxiliary contacts are L1 L2 L3 STARTER CONTACTS
CLOSING
connected in parallel for the start button and in series for
the stop button. No voltage protection means that the coil 2
3 AUX.
circuit is maintained through the normally closed contacts STOP
of the stop button. The control circuit is completed with an MAGNETIC
extra set of contacts (auxiliary contacts 2 and 3) through the NORMALLY OPEN STARTER
(NO) BUTTON T1 T2 T3 ENCLOSURE
stop button, and it holds power to the circuit until the stop PRESS TO START
button is pressed, which deenergizes the circuit to the coil
NORMALLY CLOSED
and drops out the control circuit. The extra set of contacts (NC) BUTTON
(auxiliaries 2 and 3) will not close again until the coil has MOTOR
been energized by the start button. (See Figure 22-3)
A NORMALLY OPEN (NO) START BUTTON IS
POWER SUPPLY PRESSED TO ENERGIZE POWER TO THE COIL AND
240 V CLOSE THE MOTOR STARTER CONTACTS.
3

L1 L2 L3
POWER TO MOTOR
CIRCUIT IS OPEN
2 BY MOTOR STARTER
3 AUX. L1 L2 L3 CONTACTS OPENING
START
2
NORMALLY OPEN STOP 3 AUX.
START
(NO) BUTTON T1 T2 T3
MAGNETIC
NORMALLY CLOSED STARTER MAGNETIC
(NC) BUTTON ENCLOSURE NORMALLY OPEN STARTER
TO (NO) BUTTON
MOTOR T1 T2 T3 ENCLOSURE
STOP

NORMALLY CLOSED
(NC) BUTTON
Figure 22-3. A three-wire circuit installed to control voltage PRESS TO STOP
MOTOR
to the coil of a magnetic starter.
A NORMALLY CLOSED (NC) STOP BUTTON IS PRESSED
TO DEENERGIZE POWER TO THE COIL AND OPEN THE MOTOR
By pressing the normally open start button in a three-wire STARTER CONTACTS.
control circuit, power energizes the coil and closes the motor
starter contacts. By pressing the normally closed stop button
in a three-wire control circuit, power is deenergized to the Figure 22-4. The normally open start button connects power
holding circuit to the coil, opening the motor starter contacts to the coil and the normally closed stop button disconnects
and disconnecting voltage to the motor. (See Figure 22-4) power to the holding circuit to the coil in a three-wire control
circuit.
CONTROL DEVICES
Motor control circuits may be equipped with control devices START STATIONS
to perform a variety of operations. The following types
of control devices may be added to the control circuit to Extra start buttons may be added as needed for control
regulate the starting and stopping of the motor: purposes, but they must be connected in parallel with the
(1) Start buttons, start button to energize the control circuit to the coil. These
(2) Stop buttons, contacts close and start the motor. (See Figure 22-5)
(3) Jog buttons,
(4) Auxiliary contacts,
STOP STATIONS
(5) Emergency or extra motor stop buttons,
(6) Hand-off automatic switches, Extra stop buttons can be added as needed for control
purposes, but they must be connected in series to
(7) Forward-reverse stop stations,
deenergize power to the coil of the magnetic starter. These
(8) Float switches, and extra stop buttons may be located at various locations to
(9) Pressure switches, etc. stop the motor. (See Figure 22-6)
22-3

Figure 22-5. Extra start buttons may be added for the control
Figure 22.7. When jogging the motor, the magnetic starter
of motor control circuits and power circuits.
must be wired with a jog relay in the control circuit so that
there is no chance of locking in the circuit.
Control Tip: A motor may be stopped by any type of
switch that is connected in series with the holding circuit AUXILIARY CONTACTS
(auxiliary contacts 2 and 3) to the coil. Note, contacts
connected in series interrupt the power source and An extra auxiliary contact may be added to one side of a
disconnect the circuit. magnetic starter to control a circuit to another coil or device.
The extra auxiliary contact may be installed either normally
open or normally closed. If the auxiliary contact is normally
open, its function is to close the control circuit. Auxiliary
contacts are installed with one side being connected to L1
and the other side being routed and connected to the coil
to be controlled. (See Figure 22-8)

Figure 22-6. Extra stop buttons may be added for the motor
control and power circuits.

JOG STATIONS

Jog buttons are installed for jogging, and they let the motor
run as long as the jog button is depresssed. When jogging
the motor, the magnetic starter must be wired with a jog relay
in the control circuit so that there is no chance of locking Figure 22-8. An extra auxiliary contact may be added to
in. The jog button has normally open contacts that are one side of a magnetic starter to control a circuit to another
connected in parallel with the start button and two normally coil or device.
closed contacts (CR&M) that are connected in series with
the stop button and auxiliary terminal No. 3. The jog button is
held down to connect the power to the main coil and jog the MOTOR STOP STATIONS
motor. The jog button's normally open contacts will prevent
the holding coil from locking in and running the motor. (See A master stop button may be installed for safety when it is
Figure 22-7) connected in series with the wire from L1 to the first stop
22-4
Connecting Controls for Operation
button in the control circuit. The contacts remain in the open FORWARD-REVERSE STOP STATIONS
position when the master stop button is turned off manually.
The coil of the magnetic starter cannot be energized since The motor may be wired to rotate in the forward or reverse
the contacts of the stop button are in the open position, direction by installing a forward-reverse stop pushbutton
which disconnects the power of L1 from the components of station. The rotation of the motor is stopped by pressing
the control circuit. (See Figure 22-9) the stop button. By pressing the forward button, terminal
3 and terminals 3 through 6 are connected to one side
of the forward control coil. The power circuit conductors

are connected to the motor by the contacts of the forward
magnetic starter being closed and energizing the coil. The
reverse button for reverse rotation must not be pressed
until the stop button is pressed and the motor has stopped.
By pressing the reverse button, terminals 5 through 7 are
energized to one side of the reverse control coil. The power
circuit conductors are connected to the motor by the contacts
of the reverse magnetic starter being closed and energizing

the coil. (See Figure 22-11)

Figure 22-9. A master stop button may be installed for safety

when it is connected in series with the wire from L1 to the
first stop button in the control circuit.

HAND-OFF AUTOMATIC SWITCHES

A motor may be started manually or automatically by

installing a hand-off automatic switch. When starting the

motor automatically, a remote control device may be

installed. The coil may be energized to start the motor by
installing pilot devices such as float switches, limit switches,
and pressure switches, etc. (See Figure 22-10)

Figure 22-11. The coil is energized by pressing the forward

button for forward rotation and pressing the reverse button
POLIT for reverse rotation.
DEVICE L1 L2 L3
OFF
2
HAND
AUTO 3 AUX. FLOAT SWITCHES
Float switches (liquid level switches) may be installed and
NORMALLY OPEN T1 T2 T3 controlled by hardware that floats on a liquid.
(NO) BUTTON
MAGNETIC
NORMALLY CLOSED
STARTER TO For example, a sump pump in a basement is con-
ENCLOSURE MOTOR
(NC) BUTTON trolled by the use of a float switch. The float permits
the switch to turn the pump motor on when the water
reaches a level in the sump. The float of the switch
Figure 22-10. Installing a hand-off automatic switch in the will turn the pump motor off when the water reaches
control circuit to start a motor. a lower level.
22-5
PRESSURE SWITCHES
Pressure switches (pressure operated) are vacuum switches

that are defined as the absence of pressure. Pressure
switches are designed and installed in applications where
fluids (gases or liquids) are placed under pressure and turn
equipment ON or OFF at some preset operating pressure,
or at a pressure level beyond which it would be unsafe to
operate.
For example, pressure switches are installed in

steam generators and electrically operated air com-
pressors to maintain the correct operating pressures
and to detect the pressure level beyond which it
would be unsafe to operate.
22-6
Name Date
Chapter 22. Connecting Controls for Operation
Section Answer
1. The terminals _____ are used to connect the branch-circuit conductors from _____________ _____________
the power line to the magnetic starter.
(a) L1, L2, and L3 (b) M1, M2, and M3
(c) S1, S2,, and S3 (d) T1, T2, and T3
2. The terminals _____ are used to connect the magnetic starter to the motor _____________ _____________
leads.
(a) L1, L2, and L3 (b) M1, M2, and M3
(c) S1, S2, and S3 (d) T1, T2, and T3
3. _____ control circuits are designed and installed to eliminate a voltage release _____________ _____________
during a power failure.
(a) Two-wire (b) Three-wire
4. Which of the following types of control device may added to the control circuit _____________ _____________
to regulate the starting and stopping of the motor?
(a) start buttons (b) auxiliary contacts
(c) float switches (d) all of the above
5. Extra start buttons may be added as needed for control purposes but they _____________ _____________
must be connected in _____ with the start button to energize the control circuit
to the coil.
(c) rotationally (d) directionally
6. Extra stop buttons may be added as needed for control purposes but they _____________ _____________
must be connected in _____ to deenergize power to the coil of the magnetic
starter.
(c) rotationally (d) directionally
7. When using a jog button to jog the motor, the magnetic starter must be wired _____________ _____________
with a jog _____ in the control circuit so that there is no chance of locking in.
(a) contact (b) switch
(c) relay (d) coil
8. Auxiliary contacts are installed with one side being connected to _____ and _____________ _____________
the other side being routed and connected to the coil to be controlled.
(a) L1 (b) M1
(c) S1 (d) T1
9. A master stop button may be installed for safety when it is connected in series _____________ _____________
with the wire from _____ to the first stop button in the control circuit.
(a) L1 (b) L2
(c) T1 (d) T2
10. A motor may be started _____ by installing a hand-off automatic switch. _____________ _____________
(a) manually (b) automatically
22-7
Section Answer
_____________ _____________ 11. What are the components marked A through I?

_____________ _____________ 12. Connect the magnetic starter for two-wire operation.

_____________ _____________ 13. Connect the three-wire circuit to control a magnetic starter.

22-8
Section Answer
_____________ _____________
14. Connect the additional stop button for the magnetic starter.

15. Connect the additional start button for the magnetic starter. _____________ _____________

16. Connect the jog button to the magnetic starter for the jogging of the motor. _____________ _____________

22-9
Section Answer
_____________ _____________ 17. Connect the additional auxiliary contact to the magnetic starter to control a
circuit to another coil or device.

_____________ _____________ 18. Connect the master stop button for disconnecting the control circuit.

_____________ _____________ 19. Connect the hand-off automatic switch in the control circuit to start a motor.

_____________ _____________ 20. Two or three-wire _____ circuits can be wired to start and stop one or more
motors.
(a) control (b) feeder
22-10
23
Troubleshooting Motor
Most commercial and industrial motor applications require the controller to be
capable of being operated from remote locations. This scheme of automatic
operation occurs in response to signals from such pilot devices as thermostats,
float switch pressure, limit switches, etc. These devices allow the magnetic
starter to be controlled as necessary from any location. However, manual
control can also be used with the starter, mounted so that the operator has
easy access to the controls.
A motor that fails to run must be checked to determine the problem. These
problems can be defective windings in the motor or a defective electrical
apparatus associated with the operation of the motor.
This chapter covers the techniques necessary to troubleshoot electrical motors

and components pertaining to their operation and control.
Note, review Chapter 22 for control connections. For troubleshooting tips,

see Tables 1 through 14 of Annex A in the back of this book.
TROUBLESHOOTING SPLIT-PHASE MOTORS

When troubleshooting single-phase, split-phase motors, there are various components with different
electrical characteristics that have to be considered before attempting to test for and determine
operating problems.
CONNECTING LEADS AND WINDINGS

There are basically two procedures for connecting the
leads of motors to the power supply line. The first step is to

identify the motor winding conductors. The NEMA tagging

method for new motors identify the running winding leads

as T1 and T2. The starting winding leads are tagged T3 and
T4. For older motors, the identification method of tagging

winding leads is M1 and M2 for the running windings and S1
and S2 for the starting windings. However, some leads in

older motors are tagged as follows:
(1) S1 and S2 for starting

(2) R3 and R4 for running

For some motors, the leads may be color-coded as follows:

(1) Red is T1,
(2) Blue is T2,
(3) Yellow is T3, and
Figure 23-1. The above illustration shows the windings of
(4) Black is T4. a single-phase motor being connected by markings and
color coding of leads.
The above color coding is typical. However, color coding
can vary greatly from manufacturer to manufacturer.
TESTING FOR GROUNDS
See Figure 23-1 for a detailed illustration of connecting the
leads of a motor based on its tagging method. A winding is grounded if it makes electrical contact with the
metal of the motor housing, etc. To determine whether the
winding is grounded, a continuity tester may be used. One
SINGLE-PHASE, SQUIRREL-CAGE test lead of the tester must be connected to the winding and
INDUCTION MOTORS the other lead to the motor frame. If a reading is taken, the
winding is grounded to the motor's enclosure in some way.
Single-phase, split-phase induction motors consist of a In like manner, one lead of the ohmmeter is connected to the
housing and a laminated iron core stator with embedded winding and the other to the motor's frame and if a reading
windings located inside the motor housing. A rotor made of can be made, the winding is grounded.
copper bars is set in slots in an iron core and connected by
copper rings around both ends of the core with plates that
are bolted to the housing. The motor enclosure also supports TESTING FOR OPEN CIRCUITS
the bearings, the rotor shaft, and centrifugal switch. The
centrifugal switch opens the circuit to the starting winding The cause of an open circuit in a split-phase motor can
when the motor reaches its running speed. be a loose or dirty connection or broken conductor, which
may be in either the running or the starting winding, or the
centrifugal switch.
Motor Tip: The type of rotor mentioned above is often
called a squirrel-cage rotor since the configuration of To determine whether the running winding is open or not,
the copper bars resembles a cage. the leads of the tester or ohmmeter are connected to the
ends of the winding. If the tester or the ohmmeter has a
reading, the circuit is complete. If there is no continuity on
TESTING WINDINGS the tester or no reading on the ohmmeter, there is an open
circuit. (See Figure 23-2)
To detect defects in a single-phase, split-phase induction
motor, both the running and starting windings must be
tested for: TESTING FOR SHORT CIRCUITS
(1) grounds,
Two or more turns of wire that make contact with each other
(2) open circuits, and electrically are the cause of short circuits. There are other
(3) short circuits. cases where excessive heat develops from overloads and
23-2
Troubleshooting Motor Windings and Components
makes the insulation defective and causes shorts to occur. An open circuit on a capacitor can be checked by using a
A short circuit is easy to spot because smoke comes from neon voltage tester. If the neon tester does not glow during
the winding while the motor is running or drawing excessive the test, the capacitor can be considered defective.
current at no load conditions. Any one of the following can
be utilized to find a short circuit: Note, this tester is not to be used on mica grid capacitors.
(1) Run the motor and locate the hot winding. This
winding is normally the one that is short circuited Capacitors can be checked by placing the leads of an
when tested. ohmmeter to the capacitor bridge. If the needle pegs and
then falls to zero, the capacitor is good. An in-line fuse can
(2) Place a growler on the core of the stator and move be connected to one side of the capacitor's terminal. If the
it from slot to slot until a rapid vibration occurs. This fuse does not blow, the capacitor is good.
coil is short circuited.
(3) Connect the winding to a low DC voltage and take See Figure 23-4 for a detailed illustration of how to test
a voltage measurement. The winding with the least capacitors for an open or short circuit.
voltage drop is the one that is short circuited.
Motor Testing Tip: Check the type of capacitor used
See Figure 23-3 for a detailed illustration of how to locate before selecting the testing method to test it.
short circuits using the growler method.
SUPPLY
READINGS ARE RECORDED

WINDINGS SWITCH MOTOR
STARTING STARTING
T4 T1
T3
T2

ROTOR WINDINGS
RUNNING
IF RESISTANCE IS READ
ON LEADS, WINDINGS
ARE USUALLY OKAY.

Figure 23-2. If the windings to the run and start show

continuity using a ohmmeter, the windings are usually okay.

TESTING CAPACITORS
The reasons for a capacitor to suddenly become defective

can be caused by either of the following:
(1) Overheating or
(2) Excessive voltage.
Figure 23-3. The above illustration shows a growler and

Note, a defective capacitor must be replaced with one that hacksaw blade being utilized to test for short circuits.
has about the same value of capacitance. If one with a
different capacitance value is used, the motor may not have
the necessary starting torque to start and run. TESTING CENTRIFUGAL SWITCHES
When checking capacitors, they must be removed from A centrifugal switch that is defective causes considerable
the circuit and have their capacitance measured. Such trouble that is difficult to find unless the troubleshooter is
measurement will detect either open or shorted capacitors. familiar with the operating characteristics of such switches.
For best results, measure the resistance of a capacitor with If the switch fails to close when the rotor stops, the motor will
an ohmmeter; if the capacitor is shorted, the meter will read not start again when supplied with line power. The switch's
less than 10 ohms. However, if the capacitor is good, the failure to close normally is caused by dirt, grit, or some other
resistance reading will be about 50 ohms or greater. foreign material getting into the contacts of the switch.
23-3
If the centrifugal switch and the starting windings are to SINGLE-PHASE, SHADED-POLE
be tested for an open circuit, connect the test leads to the
starting winding circuit. If there is no reading, the contacts
MOTORS
of the centrifugal switch may not be closed.
Shaded-pole motors are single-phase induction motors
To verify this condition, the rotor can be pushed lengthwise equipped with a short circuited auxiliary winding that is
toward the front end. If this causes the contacts to close, the displaced in a magnetic position from the main winding. The
tester will show a reading. Such trouble can be corrected auxiliary winding is called the shading coil and surrounds a
by adding several insulating washers to the pulley end of portion of the pole. The main winding surrounds the entire
the motor shaft to push the rotor forward. If a reading of the pole and may consist of one or more coils per pole to provide
tester cannot be taken, the trouble is in the centrifugal switch the proper running power.
(starting switch). See Figure 23-5 for the testing procedure
to verify if a centrifugal switch is good or bad.
TESTING WINDINGS
Motor Testing Tip: If the fiber insulating washers do The windings can be tested by using an ohmmeter. If the
not correct the problem, the switch must be changed. windings are not defective, the ohmmeter will have a reading
that proves that the windings have continuity. A battery test
light or lamp also can be used to make such test.
For example, the test light will glow if the windings

have continuity and will not glow if the windings are
broken. (See Figure 23-6)
TESTING REVERSE SWITCHES

Reverse switches can be tested by placing one of the tester

leads to the line side of the switch and the other lead to the

load side. If a reading is taken, the switch contacts are good.
A multiposition switch with two or more speeds is checked
using the same procedure. (See Figure 23-7)

Figure 23-4. The above illustration shows a capacitor being

tested with an ohmmeter.

Figure 23-5. The above illustration shows the testing of a Figure 23-6. The above illustration shows the windings of
centrifugal switch using an ohmmeter. a shaded-pole motor being tested for continuity.
23-4

Figure 23-7. The above illustrates the procedure for testing Figure 23-8. The above illustration shows the procedure
the reversing switch to a shaded-pole motor. for testing the windings of a universal motor.
TESTING BRUSHES
UNIVERSAL MOTORS The continuity of the brushes through the armature winding
Universal motors are an adaptation of series-connected can be tested by placing one lead of the ohmmeter to one
DC motors and they are named “universal” because they side of the brushes and other lead to the other side of
can be connected on either AC or DC and they operate in the brushes. If a measurement can be read, the brushes
the same manner. are setting properly on the commutator. Therefore, good
continuity should be made. If a reading is not obtained, the
Basically, the universal motor contains field windings on the setting of the brushes must be checked as follows:
stator within the frame and armature with the ends of its (1) Check for the wrong brush position.
windings brought out to a commutator at one end. Carbon
(2) Check for brushes off-neutral plane.
brushes are held in place by the motor's end plate, which
allows them to have contact with the commutator. (3) Check the setting of brushes riding on the
commutator.
When an AC or DC current is applied to a universal motor,
such current flows through the field coils and the armature See Figure 23-9 for a detailed illustration on how to check
windings, which are in series. The magnetic field set up by the continuity of brushes.

the field coils in the stator reacts with the current-carrying

wires on the armature and produces the desired rotation of
the motor and the equipment served.

TESTING WINDINGS

To ensure winding continuity, the field windings of a universal
motor must be measured using an ohmmeter or light tester.
If a reading cannot be measured, an open circuit is present

and the following test must be performed:

(1) Test motor leads for an open circuit.

(2) Check brushes for the right setting.
(3) Check the cleanness of the commutator. Figure 23-9. The above illustration shows one of the
(4) Check the spring tension of the brushes riding on methods used to test brushes on a universal motor.
the commutator.
(5) Test the windings for grounds. SINGLE-PHASE REPULSION MOTORS
Single-phase repulsion motors are divided into the following
See Figure 23-8 for a detailed illustration of troubleshooting
types:
a universal motor.
23-5
(1) repulsion,

(2) repulsion induction-run,
(3) repulsion induction start, and
(4) induction run.
Even though there are several motor types, there are

specific construction characteristics that are definitely

common to each type. Such characteristics are as follows:
(1) Each has a stator with a running winding similar to
that of a split-phase motor.
(2) The rotor has a slotted core with embedded windings.

(3) Bearings are mounted in the end plates to support

the rotor shaft.
(4) Carbon brushes are fitted in holders and ride on

the commutator.
(5) Either the front end plate or the rotor shaft supports
the brush holders.

Troubleshooting techniques are based on the type of
repulsion motor under test.


TESTING WINDINGS for testing the windings of a repulsion motor.
The windings of repulsion motors can be tested phase-to-

ground by the use of an ohmmeter. If there is a reading from

one lead of the motor windings to the frame of the motor,
there is a short circuit of some kind.

If the motor fails to start and run when the switch is
energized, the trouble may be any one of the following:
(1) Burned out fuse or tripped circuit breaker.
(2) Worn bearings.
(3) Brushes stuck in the holder.

(4) Worn brushes.
(5) Open circuit in the stator or armature.
(6) Wrong brush-holder position.

(7) Shorted armature.

See Figure 23-10 for a detailed illustration of how to test

the windings of repulsion motors for continuity.
See Figure 23-11. This figure illustrates the procedures to
use when testing the conductivity of the brushes and their
relationship to the commutator and armature windings.
TESTING BRUSHES
Brushes can be tested by placing one lead of the ohmmeter

to one side of the brushes and the other lead to the other TROUBLESHOOTING THREE-PHASE
side of the brushes. If a reading is measured, the continuity INDUCTION MOTORS
of the brushes to the commutator and armature windings is
usually good. (See Figure 23-11) A typical three-phase induction motor has three main parts,
which are as follows:
23-6
(1) Stator,

C
(2) Rotor, and B
A 1
(3) End plates. A C L1 3 9 T1 TO L1
C 7 T2 TO L2
6 4
B B L2 T3 TO L3
The stator consists of a steel frame and a laminated iron
core and winding formed of individual coils placed in slots. B A L3
8
The rotor may be constructed of a squirrel-cage or wound C
LEADS 5 2
A
rotor type.
LEADS
T1 TO L1
Three-phase induction motors have relatively constant 1
T2 TO L2
speed characteristics and are available in designs that
4 T3 TO L3
provide a variety of torque values. Some are designed to L1 7
have a high starting torque and others have a low starting C
torque. Some draw a normal starting current while others B L2

are designed with a high starting current. L3 6 8
9
A 5
LEADS 2
3
The end plates or brackets are bolted to each side of the
stator enclosure and contain the bearings in which the shaft L1 L2 L3 Tie Together L1 L2 L3 Tie Together

rotates freely. To C To B To A A, B, & C T1 T2 T3 T4 T7, T5 T8, T6 T9

Figure 23-12(a). The above illustration shows the
There are two methods by which to connect the stator procedure for connecting six- and nine-lead motors in a
windings of a three-phase induction motor to a three-phase wye configuration.
power supply:
(1) Wye or star ( )
Y
(2) Delta or triangle ( ∆ )
When using either method, the windings are so connected

that only three leads come from the windings in the stator,
which make the line connections a very simple task.
SIX LEAD MOTOR NINE LEAD MOTOR
L1
A
See Figures 23-12 (a) and (b) for a detailed illustration of
L2 1
how to connect the leads from the windings of three-phase A
B 6 9 T1 TO L1
motors to the power supply leads. C
C
L3
T2 TO L2
4
B T3 TO L3
LEADS 3 7
B
C 8 5
TESTING AND FINDING THE LEADS OF A 2
WYE MOTORS
T1 L1
L1 L2
Wye-connected motors have four individual circuits to find A
T4
T6 T9
and mark : A
L2 T7
L3
B
(1) Three circuits with two leads each and C B C
L3 T3 T8 T5
T2
(2) One circuit with three leads.
L1 L2 L3 L1 L2 L3 Tie Together
Connect Connect
A TO A B TO B C TO C T1 T2 T3 T4 T7, T5 T8, T6 T9
TAKING MEASUREMENTS DELTA CONNECTION DELTA CONNECTION

The leads and internal connections can easily be identified
by drawing the windings to resemble a wye and then in a Figure 23-12(b). The above illustration shows the
right handed motion spirally decrease and number each procedure for connecting six- and nine-lead motors in a
winding end as shown in Figure 23-13. delta configuration.
23-7

A NINE-LEAD

WYE-CONNECTED MOTOR

Connection of Leads

Figure 23-14(a). The above illustration shows the procedure

for determining the number of circuits in a wye motor and

temporarily marking them for testing procedures.
TAKING MEASUREMENTS

marking the leads of a wye motor by drawing and following VOLTAGE TESTING WINDING CIRCUITS
a decreasing spiral (circle) and numbering each lead as
shown. The windings of wye-connected motors can be tested for
correct markings by applying 240 volts to leads T7, T8, and
T9 respectively. Windings T1 and T4, T2 and T5, and T3 and T6
will act like the secondary of a transformer, with T7, T8, and
Each circuit winding can be determined by using an T9 serving as the primary. In other words, a voltage is set up
ohmmeter or continuity tester as follows: in the secondary by the applied voltage in the primary. There
is a transformer relationship taking place in the windings of
(1) Connect one lead of the tester to any selected lead the motor. After starting the motor, once it is running, take
of the circuit and read for continuity between each readings on the induced windings (T1 and T4, T2 and T5, and
of the other eight leads. T3 and T6) by using a voltmeter as follows:
(2) When a continuity measurement between two other (1) Read each circuit,
leads is found, the three-wire circuits have been
found that make up the internal winding of the wye. (2) Voltage reading should be about 125 to 130 volts,
(3) Readings must be continually made until all four (3) Voltage readings could be less than 125 to 130
circuits have been found. volts, and
(4) After finding and isolating the leads, mark the three- (4) Readings may be 75 to 85 volts, which is okay as
wire leads T7, T8, and T9. long as they are about equal.
(5) Temporarily mark the other leads as follows: See Figure 23-14(b) for a detailed illustration of applying
(a) T1 and T4 for one-circuit winding. this procedure.
(b) T2 and T5 for the second-circuit winding.
(c) T3 and T6 for the third-circuit winding.
TESTING OTHER LEADS

Testing Tip: The circuit windings are now marked and
ready for voltage testing.
With the motor running, the other lead that is temporarily
identified as T4 must be connected to T7 and tested as
follows:
See Figure 23-14(a) for a detailed illustration of applying (1) Read the voltage between T1 and T8 and
this procedure. (2) Read the voltage between T1 and T9.
23-8
TEST 1, 2, AND 3

Test 1
Test 2
Test 3

125130 V 125130 V 125130 V

TESTING LEADS MARKED T1 - T4, T2 - T5, AND T3 - T6

VOLTAGE TESTING WINDING CIRCUITS

Figure 23-14(b). The above illustration shows leads T7, T8,

and T9 being supplied by 240 volts and leads T1 and T4, T2

and T5, and T3 and T6 being read to check if such circuits

measure about 125 to 130 volts each. Motor is ready to

test other leads.
If both readings are measured with values of about 330 to
340 volts, leads T1 and T4 can be permanently marked T1

and T4. However, if such readings are about 125 to 130 volts,
reverse T1 to T4 and test the remaining leads as follows:

(1) If readings between T1 and T8, and T1 and T9 are

not equal,
a. Disconnect T4 from T7 and connect T4 to T8

and the supply line.

b. Read the voltage between T1 and T7 and

T1 and T9.

(2) If voltage readings are equal and about 330 to 340
volts.
a. Mark T1 as T2 permanently.
b. Mark T4 as T5 permanently.
Figure 23-14(c). The above illustrates the procedure for
However, if readings are about equal between 125 to 130 identifying the leads of a wye motor.
volts, mark the leads as follows:
(1) Disconnect leads T1 and T4.
Note, the same method of identification is used for the other
(2) Interchange and mark T2 and T5. two circuits that are temporarily marked T2 and T5 and T3
(3) Change T1 to T5. and T6. A position must be determined where both circuits
(4) Change T4 to T2. have readings that are about equal and measure 330 to 340
volts. [See Figure 23-14(e)]
If the voltage readings are different, disconnect and
reconnect as follows: After all the leads of the circuits have been marked, leads T4,
T5, and T6 must be connected together and voltage readings
(1) Disconnect T4 from T8. must be taken between T1, T2, and T3. Such readings should
(2) Read between T1 and T7 and T1 and T8. have voltages measuring about 230 volts.
(3) If readings are about 330 to 340 volts are measured,
permanently identify T3 and T6. With the motor power off, disconnect leads T7, T8, and T9,
and then connect leads T1, T2, and T3 to the power supply
See Figures 23-14(c) and (d) for a detailed illustration of line. T1 must be connected to the line to which T7 was
applying the above procedures. previously connected and T2 to the same line as T8 was
23-9
connected. T3 has to be connected to the same line as T9

and T4; T5 and T6 are still connected together to make up

the wye connection.

Start the motor unloaded, and if all lead markings are right,

the motor rotation in relationship with T1, T2, and T3 should

be connected in the same manner as when T7, T8, and T9

were connected.

Motor Testing Tip: The above voltage readings are

based on a three-phase, 230/460 volt, induction motor.

Voltage readings will vary for a motor that has a different

voltage.

Figure 23-14(e). The above is the final procedure for testing,

checking, and marking leads of a wye-connected motor.

TESTING AND FINDING THE LEADS OF

DELTA MOTORS

Delta-connected motors with nine leads have only three

circuits with three leads to find and mark on each.

TAKING MEASUREMENTS

The leads can be easily found by drawing the windings to

resemble a delta triangle, and then in a right hand motion
spirally decrease and number each coil end as shown in
Figure 23-15.

Each circuit winding can be determined by using a ohmmeter
or continuity tester as follows:

(1) Read the resistance between one lead and the
others until two match up to one winding of leads.

(2) The first lead is used to find the other two common
windings.

(3) The common lead is marked T1 and the other leads

temporarily marked T4 and T9.

(4) The common lead of the next group is determined
and marked T2 with the other leads temporarily
being marked T5 and T7.

(5) The common lead of the final group is found and
Figure 23-14(d). The above illustrates the procedure for marked T3 with the other leads being temporarily
identifying the leads of a wye motor. marked T6 and T8.
23-10
After properly marking the leads, T1, T4, and T9 are connected
to a 240 volt power supply. With the motor subjected to no
load conditions, lead T7 is then connected to the power
supply line. [See Figure 23-16(a)]

Voltage readings are taken as follows, to find and mark the

leads of the motor:
(1) Read the voltage between T1 and T2.

(2) If the voltage reads about 460 volts, the markings
are right and can be permanently identified.
(3) If readings are of 400 volts or less, interchange T5

and T7 or T4 and T9.
(4) Read the voltage again; if readings of about 230
volts are measured, then read 5.

(5) Interchange leads T5 with T7 and T4 with T9.

(6) The readings should now measure about 460 volts

between T1 and T2.
(7) The leads connected together as T4 and T7 can be

permanently identified.
Figure 23-15. The above illustrates the procedure for (8) The remaining leads in each group can be marked
marking the leads of a delta motor by drawing a decreasing as T9 and T5.
spiral (circle) and numbering each lead as shown.

Figure 23-16(a). The above illustration shows the procedure for determining the number of circuits in a delta motor and
temporarily marking them for testing purposes.
23-11
FINAL READINGS

Connect one of the leads to the last winding of the group

and measure T9; identify as follows:

(1) If about 460 volts is read between T1 and T3, the

lead can be permanently marked as T6.

(2) If a reading of 400 volts or less is measured,

interchange T6 and T8.

(3) If 460 volts is read between T1 and T3, T6 is changed

to T 8 and permanently identified. Note, T 8 is
changed to T6.
(4) If about 460 volts can be read between leads

T1, T2, and T3, the leads are considered correctly
marked. Figure 23-16(d). The above illustration shows a voltage
reading on leads and either permanently marking them or
See Figures 23-16(b) through (g) for testing procedures making further tests to determine the permanent markings.
pertaining to Test 1 through Test 6.

Figure 23-16(b). The above illustration shows 240 volt Figure 23-16(e). The above illustration shows a voltage
supply being connected to leads T1, T4, and T9 so that the reading on leads and either permanently marking them, or
windings can be tested and permanently marked. making further test.

Figure 23-16(c). The above illustration shows the procedure .
Figure 23-16(f). The above illustrations shows a voltage
for reading voltage on leads and marking them based on reading on leads; either they are permanently marked, or
voltage measurements. further testing is done.
23-12

Figure 23-16(g). Two tests are performed to identify all leads of a delta-connected motor. If the previous connections of
T1, T4, and T9 do not produce proper voltage measurements, connect leads T5 with T7 or T4 with T9 and then apply test 2
and the rotor of the motor should rotate in the same direction as in test 1. (See rotation test above.)
DOUBLE CHECK MARKINGS

The rotors of such motors are wound with insulated windings
With the motor supply off, reconnect T2, T5, and T7 to the
that are connected with slip rings mounted on the rotors.
supply line. Lead T2 is connected to the line as T1. Lead
Rotor windings are called secondary windings and they have
T5 is connected to the location that T4 was previously
the same number of poles as the stator windings.
connected. In like manner, line T7 is connected where T9 was
connected. The motor should rotate in the same direction
Rotor windings are connected to external resistors by
as it did before.
brushes and slip rings. The resistors can be used to reduce
the starting current of the motor and also to regulate the
After stopping the motor and disconnecting the power
speed of the motor. Reduce the resistance in the rotor and
source, connect leads T3, T6, and T8 to the power supply
the motor will speed up. Increase the resistance in the rotor
line where T2, T5, and T7 were previously connected. The
and the motor will slow down.
motor should rotate in the same direction as it did before.
[See Figure 23-16(g)]
Motor Testing Tip: The above voltage readings are TESTING SLIP RINGS
based on a three-phase, 230/460 volt, induction motor.
Voltage readings will vary for motors that have a different The continuity between the slip rings and brushes to the
voltage. rotor can be interrupted by any of the following conditions:
(1) Slip rings are dirty.
(2) Slip rings are not set against the rotor.
TROUBLESHOOTING WOUND-ROTOR (3) Slip rings are broken.
MOTORS
Wound-rotor motors are induction motors that are equipped Any condition above can be corrected by cleaning slip rings
with stator windings, called primary windings, that are or refitting brushes to make good electrical contact. If slip
connected in a three-phase wye or delta configuration. rings are broken, they must be replaced. (See Figure 23-17)
23-13

TESTING CONTROLLER AND

RESISTORS

The circuitry from the resistor bank or drum controller may
be open. Such a condition will not allow the resistance to

be increased or decreased to the rotor for starting or speed
control. Any one of the following conditions can cause this

problem:

(1) Fuse may be blown.

(2) Circuit breaker may be open.

(3) Windings of rheostat may be open.

To solve such a problem, check fuses and replace any
that is blown, or verify if a circuit breaker is tripped open.

Replace rheostat if it is defective, or bridge across the
resistor windings to complete the circuit. (See Figure 23-19)

Figure 23-17. The above illustration shows the main items to

check when slip rings are considered the source of trouble.

TESTING BRUSHES
The continuity of the brushes to the rotor can be interrupted

by any one of the following conditions:

(1) Brushes are chipped or broken.

(2) Brushes are not making proper contact.
(3) Variac setting is not correct.

Any condition above can be corrected by replacing brushes

or readjusting spring tension or completely replacing. Reset
variac as necessary to make proper continuity. (See Figure

23-18)

Figure 23-19. When checking the starting and running

problems of wound-rotor motors, test for open contacts of

start and stop buttons and resistor (rheostat) windings. Also
test for blown fuses and circuit breakers in primary windings
that may be tripped open.

TESTING WINDINGS

To test windings, connect one lead of the ohmmeter to

the frame of the motor and the other lead to one of the

motor leads. If a reading is measured, then the winding
is grounded. To ensure the test is adequately performed,
move the test lead to each lead of the motor. However, if a
measurement is not read to the frame of the motor, check
Figure 23-18. The above illustration shows the procedure the leads to the windings and a reading should be obtained.
for checking the continuity of the brushes to the commutator. (See Figure 23-20)
23-14
(3) Check for a blown fuse.

(4) Check for an open circuit breaker.

(5) Check the variac windings for an open circuit.

(6) Check the exciter variac for proper setting.

(7) Check the exciter variac for a short.

If any of these defects are found, fix or replace as necessary.

(See Figure 23-21)

TESTING SLIP RINGS

DC voltage is applied through brushes to slip rings and

then to the rotor. If the slip rings fail to conduct this voltage
Figure 23-20. The above illustration shows the procedure to the rotor, the motor will not function properly. Any one of
for checking the continuity of windings between phases and the following problems can cause the slip rings to interrupt
the ground. Note, the metal frame of the motor is grounded the DC supply to the rotor:
to the metal conduit or equipment grounding conductor in (1) Dirt on slip rings.
the circuit.
(2) Slip rings are broken.
(3) Slip rings are open.
TROUBLESHOOTING SYNCHRONOUS (4) Open circuit from the DC source.
MOTORS Anyone of the conditions above can be corrected by cleaning
or resetting the slip rings and by checking the circuitry to
Synchronous motors have stators that are constructed
see if an open circuit exists. A blown fuse must be replaced
in the same manner as regular squirrel-cage induction
and a tripped circuit breaker must be reset to restore the
motors. In addition, the rotors of synchronous motors have
DC power voltage to the rotor windings.
coils (damper windings) wound on laminated poles and

connected to slip rings on shafts. A squirrel-cage winding

is usually embedded in the pole faces to start the motor.
For control, a small DC generator called an exciter is used

to energize the rotor coils.

Note, synchronous motors operate at synchronous speed.

They can be controlled to produce leading current and thus
improve on power factor.

TESTING EXCITER

Another motor or damper windings on a rotor can be used

to start a synchronous motor. At some point, slightly below

the motor's synchronous speed, a DC source of power is

fed into the rotor through slip rings and the motor will run at

its synchronous speed. The following test can be made to

determine if the exciter is delivering DC current to the rotor:

(1) Test for a defective exciter,

(2) Test for DC power (voltage),

(3) Test for an open exciter circuit, and

(4) Test for a low exciter output.

If any of the above problems exist, they can be corrected by

applying one of the following troubleshooting techniques:
Figure 23-21. The above illustration shows the testing
(1) Turn the rotor by hand and check the exciter output. procedure for determining the output of the exciter power
(2) Check for a DC open circuit. for a synchronous motor.
23-15
TROUBLESHOOTING DC MOTORS

The major parts of DC motors are the armature, field poles,

frames, end brackets, and brush riggings. Armatures are the
rotating parts of such motors, and they consist of laminated
iron cores with slots. Coils of wire are placed in these
slots. Each core is pressed on a steel shaft that holds the

commutator of a DC motor, and current is conducted from

the brushes to the coils in the slots.

TESTING THE OUTPUT

To check the output for an open circuit, there are three
complete circuits to be tested. [See Figures 23-22(a) and
(b)]
The testing can be performed as follows:

(1) Test for an opening in the armature circuit.
(2) Test for a problem in the brushes.
(3) Test for connection to the brushes. Figure 23-22(b). The above illustration shows the procedure
(4) Test for openings in the series or shunt field. for testing the windings of a DC motor.
(5) Test for a circuit reading from one winding to
another.
Any one of the above problems can be corrected by TESTING WINDINGS

replacing or resetting the brushes as needed. If there is an
opening in the series or shunt field, correct it by fixing the The leads to DC motors can be identified by using an
loose connection on the open winding. ohmmeter or continuity tester as follows:
(1) The first step is to find the three circuits of the
armature, the series field, and the shunt field.

(2) By performing the test above, three pairs of leads
are obtained.
(3) The ohmmeter will read a higher resistance for one
pair of leads (shunt winding).

(4) The ohmmeter will read a lower resistance for the

remaining two sets of leads.

MARKING LEADS

By removing the brushes, readings can be taken and the
ohmmeter should not record a measurement. These leads
are to be connected to the armature and must be marked

A1 and A2.

The remaining pair should be connected to the series field
leads. Such leads should be marked as follows:

(1) The shunt field leads must be marked F1 and F2.
(2) The series field leads must be marked S1 and S2.
Figure 23-22(a). The above illustrates the procedure for After final checks, the motor is ready to be connected to the
testing the armature, shunt windings, and series windings power supply and put into service. [See Figures 23-22(a)
for open circuits. and (b)]
23-16
TROUBLESHOOTING CONTROL with the circuit supplying the voltage to the line side of the
magnetic starter. (See Figure 23-24)
CIRCUITS

Before attempting to troubleshoot a control circuit, it

is necessary to understand the basic operation and
construction of magnetic starters.

A typical magnetic starter consists of a magnet assembly, a
coil, an armature, and contacts. The armature is controlled
by current through such coil. The contacts are mechanically

connected to the armature so that when the armature is in

the closed position, the contacts are closed. This action of
the starter connects power to the motor. When the coil is
energized and the armature and contacts are in the closed

position, the starter is in the picked-up position and the

armature is in the sealed-in position.

Note, the coil has a fair amount of inrush current when
energized by the control device. Such inrush current can

be as high as 5 to 10 times the sealed-in current.

DETERMINING INRUSH CURRENT
Information on magnetic coils are normally listed in units of
calculating the inrush and seal-in amps for a coil in a
volt-amperes (VA) per manufacturer's specifications.
magnetic starter.
For example, for a magnetic starter rated 500 VA

inrush and 50 VA sealed-in, the inrush current of a
120 volt coil is 500/120 volt, or 4.2 amps. A starter

with a 480 volt coil pulls only 500/480 volt, or 1.04
amps inrush, and 50/480 volt, or .104 amps sealed-
in current. (50 VA x 10 = 500 VA)

See Figure 23-23 for a detailed illustration of how to
calculate such inrush current.

TESTING FUSES

When testing fuses, first test the incoming power supply
line to verify if there is a voltage. If a reading between the
ungrounded (phase) conductors cannot be measured, check

for the following:
(1) Blown fuse,
(2) Open circuit breaker,

(3) Poor connections, and

(4) Broken switch blades.
Figure 23-24. The above illustrates the procedure for testing
A voltage tester rated for the correct voltage can be used fuses. Tests 1, 2, and 3 show fuses are good because they
as follows: have readings of 480 volts.
(1) Test for voltage between L1 and L2.
Motor Testing Tip: The above test must never be taken
for L1, L2, or L3 to ground because a back-feed through
If voltage readings are measured and they are the same the motor windings can be read with one blown fuse,
as the supply voltage to the starter, there is not a problem and the other two fuses can still be energized.
23-17
The fuses in the disconnect switch should be tested for

defects where the three-phase supply circuit is rated at 480
READING SUPPLY
volts. A measurement of 480 volts to the load side of fuses 480 V 480 V, 3
L1 and L2 indicates L1 and L2 are not defective.
L1 L2 L3
As shown in Figure 23-25, measurements between L1 and
L2, L1 and L3, and L2 and L3 indicates that fuse B is defective. START HOLDING COIL CIRCUIT
2 2 3
3
STOP READING
480 V

IF READINGS ARE
480 V PHASE-TO-PHASE,
SUPPLY V IS OKAY L2

L1 START
1 2 3 OVERLOADS
T1 T2 T3
STOP
MOTOR
HC

Figure 23-26. The above illustrates the procedure for testing
the voltage to the line side of the magnetic starter.

(1) Check overloads for open contacts.

(2) Reset overloads for continuity.

(3) Check for loose wires.
Figure 23-25. The above illustrates the procedures for (4) Check for burned or discolored elements.
testing fuses. Tests 4, 5, and 6 show fuses B, C, and A are
defective because they do not have readings of 480 volts. If the above trouble points are checked and measurements
are read and they turn out to be correct, the overloads can be
eliminated as a source of trouble. However, if readings are
not recorded, the overloads could be the source of trouble.
TESTING FOR POWER TO MAGNETIC The procedure for Test 2 is to read the voltage from L1 to
STARTERS the control side of the coil.
At the line side of the magnetic starter, measure the voltage

between L1, L2, and L3. Readings of 480 volts between all Motor Testing Tip: Do not read from the overload side
three phases indicate that supply voltage is available at of the coil to obtain measurement.
these terminals. (See Figure 23-26)
If a reading is measured here, the coil is usually good.

TESTING OVERLOADS However, if a reading is not obtained, the coil is normally
defective and has an open path. For such a problem, check
The procedure for testing the overloads (Test 1) is to read the for the following:
voltage from L1 to the line side of L2, the overload terminals. (1) Loose wire,
(See Figure 23-27)
(2) Broken wire, or
If a reading is not measured, there is a broken or loose wire (3) Defective coil.
from L1 to the line side terminal of the overloads previously
checked. If a reading is recorded between L1 and the load To correct the above problem, fix the loose or broken wire
side terminal of the overloads, this indicates an open wire or replace the coil if necessary. To continue the procedure
or overload contact is present. The following trouble points for Test 2, read the voltage between L1 and the load side
should be checked for a problem: terminal of the same overloads. (See Figure 23-28)
23-18
IF 480 V IS READ,
VOLTAGE THROUGH
OLs IS OKAY READING
480 V
TEST 1 SUPPLY
FOR SIMPLICITY, 480 V, 3
ONLY ONE OL IS SHOWN. L1 L2 L3 HOLDING
START L1 L2 L3
L1 L2 CONTACTS
READING
480 V
STOP OLs
HC 2
TEST 1 2 3 3
OL START
START
L1 START L2 OLs
STOP OL
STOP OL T1 T2 T3 STOP CONTACTS
HC HC
TEST 2 OL
2 3 MOTOR 2 3 UNITS
TEST 2 T1 T2 T3

IF VOLTAGE IS READ,
Figure 23-27. This illustration shows the procedure for COIL IS NORMALLY GOOD.
VOLTAGE READING
INDICATES COIL IS
testing the voltage through the overloads and to the coil. GOOD


for testing the voltage to a coil to determine if it is defective.

TESTING CONTROL DEVICES

There are many types of control devices that are used to

energize and deenergize the power to the coil that causes
the contacts in the magnetic starter to close. The closing of
these contacts provides line voltage to the windings of the
motor. The following are procedures used to troubleshoot
two-wire or three-wire control devices.
Figure 23-28. The above illustrates common problems that

could cause interruption of the voltage through the overloads
to the coil terminals.
TESTING COIL TESTING TWO-WIRE DEVICES
To perform Test 1 above, read between L1 and the side of First perform a reading between L1 and the side of the two-
the coil that is connected to the overloads. If a reading can wire device connected to the coil. If a reading is measured
be measured, the wire between the coil and overload is not here, the two-wire switch to the coil is not defective. The
defective. However, no recorded measurement indicates a two-wire switch can be checked by reading each side of
loose connection, broken wire, or defective coil. the switch. If a reading between the terminals of the switch
can be read, the switch is not defective. If no measurement
Test 2 is accomplished by reading between L1 and the is recorded, it is an indication that the switch is open or
control device side of the coil. If a measurement is recorded, defective and must be replaced. However, loose or bad
the coil should be good. No reading between these points connections between conductors and switch terminals are
indicates that there is an open path. This open path can be often the source of trouble. Therefore, always check for
caused by a defective coil, loose connection, or defective these problems by visually looking for arcing, burning, or
overload. (See Figure 23-29) discolored wire and terminals. (See Figure 23-30)
23-19

for testing the voltage of a two-wire control circuit. If the
switch or overload contacts are good, voltage should be
read at the coil. Figure 23-31. The above illustration shows the procedure
for testing the line voltage from the line to the contacts of
the stop and start button and coil.
TESTING THREE-WIRE DEVICES

The general procedure for troubleshooting a problem in

a three-wire control circuit such as a start-and-stop push
button station can be performed as follows:
(1) Check the circuit overcurrent protection device for:

(a) Power circuit voltage.

(b) Control circuit voltage.

(2) Open contacts of the stop button.
(3) Closed contacts of the start button.

(4) Open overload contacts.

(5) Defective coil.

(6) Holding contacts of the magnetic starter.

TESTING THE CIRCUIT

Test for voltage between L1 and L2, including L3 if necessary.
If there is no voltage measured, one or more fuses are blown Figure 23-32. The above illustration shows the procedure
or a circuit breaker has opened. Don’t overlook broken or for testing the contacts of a stop button in a three-wire control
loose wires, for often they can be the cause of lost power. circuit, using a resistance testing procedure.
However, if voltage readings are present, eliminate problem
number 1 as a source of trouble and move on to problem TESTING FOR CLOSED CONTACTS ON THE
number 2. (See Figure 23-31)
START BUTTON (NO POWER)
To perform this test, read from the side of the stop button
TESTING FOR OPEN CONTACTS ON THE connected to L1 and to the side of the start button terminated
STOP BUTTON (NO POWER) to the holding coil. If no resistance can be read, the contacts
of the start button are open.
To perform an ohmmeter test, read between L1 and the side
of the stop button that is connected to the start button and Note, a recorded measurement indicates that a jammed
terminal 2 of the holding contacts. If a reading is measured, contact or loose wire is the source of trouble. By eliminating
problem number 2 of open contacts in the stop button can problem number 3 as the trouble, move on to problem
be eliminated and problem number 3 is now considered. number 4 and test for voltage through the overloads. (See
(See Figure 23-32) Figure 23-33)
23-20
THREE-WIRE CIRCUIT THREE-WIRE CIRCUIT

TEST 2
R NOTE 1: TEST 1 AND 2

TEST 1

R

TEST 1
TEST RESULTS TEST 2

NOTE 2:

Note,
PROBLEM NO. 4

PROBLEM NO. 3
TESTING FOR CLOSED CONTACTS ON THE START BUTTON TESTING FOR OPEN OVERLOAD CONTACTS
(NO POWER)
Figure 23-33. The above illustration shows the procedure for testing the contacts of the overloads in a three-wire
for testing the contacts of a start button in a three-wire control circuit.
control circuit.

TESTING FOR OPEN OVERLOAD CONTACTS

Using the leads of the tester, read for voltage between L1
and the side of the overloads connected to L2. If no voltage
measurement can be read in Test 1, there is a loose or

broken wire from L2 through the overloads. If the reading in
Test 2 is okay, eliminate problem number 4 and move on

to problem number 5. (See Figure 23-34)

TESTING FOR DEFECTIVE COILS

To perform this test, read from L1 to the side of the coil
connected to the start button contacts and the holding coil
contacts. If a voltage reading is recorded by the voltmeter,
the coil is assumed to be okay. To be certain, read the coil
for continuity using an ohmmeter, after removing the coil Figure 23-35. The above illustration shows the procedure
from the circuit. (See Figure 23-35) for testing a coil in a three-wire circuit to determine if it is
defective.
TESTING HOLDING CONTACTS
This test is made by testing from L1 to terminal L2 of the TROUBLESHOOTING VARIABLE

holding coil with the start button energized. A voltage FREQUENCY DRIVES (VFD)
reading should be measured, indicating that the contacts
are closing when the coil circuit is made. If no voltage First of all, the drive should be installed away from any high
reading is recorded, the voltage to the coil is restricted by heat-producing apparatus. The airflow around the drive unit
open contacts in the start button. As always, consider the must be maintained at all times, with no other equipment
possibility of loose or broken wires at the contacts of the or materials restricting air flow. Air conditioning should be
stop or start buttons, etc. (See Figure 23-36) provided to help cool the drive unit and its components.
23-21
SUPPLY Shorted diodes or silicone-controlled rectifiers easily can

VOLTAGE
L1 L2
HOLDING L1 L2 L3 be determined by checking across their terminals with a
START CONTACTS
volt-ohmmeter. Good rectifier cells have infinite resistance
STOP OLs
with reverse polarity and read approximately mid-scale with
HC
2 3 2 forward polarity. Silicone controlled rectifiers have resistance
3 readings ranging from 12,000 to infinity. (See Figure 23-38)
START

OL
STOP CONTACTS

WITH THE START BUTTON OLs
PRESSED AND LINE VOLTAGE OV

IS NOT READ, THE HOLDING
CONTACTS ARE NOT CLOSING. T1 T2 T3

VOLTMETER


testing the contacts of the holding circuits in a three-wire
control circuit.

Figure 23-37. The above illustration shows a readout board

Most troubleshooting procedures may be performed with being used to troubleshoot a problem with the operation
the following tools: voltmeter, oscilloscope, digital voltmeter, of an adjustment speed drive unit. Note, this is just one
AC ammeter, clamp-on ammeter, and standard hand tools. of the readout solutions that can be performed when
troubleshooting a drive unit. For troubleshooting tips, see
Today's VFD systems have self-diagnostic readouts. It is Table 6 of the Annex.
imperative to have the manufacturer's manual for a particular
unit and to follow the manufacturer's instructions on the use
of the diagnostic system.
FOR MORE TROUBLE SHOOTING
TIPS, SEE TABLE 6 OF THE ANNEX.
For basic troubleshooting: GATE CATHODE
(1) Check incoming AC power supply; GATE POWER

APPLIED HERE
(2) Check all overcurrent protection devices;
SCR
(3) Check output to motor; NO
GATE GATE
POWER POWER
(4) Check tach feedback to controller if used;
(5) If need be, consult manufacturer's manual for NO ANODE
CURRENT
correct troubleshooting procedure. FLOWING OHMMETER
CURRENT
FLOWING
Figure 23-37 illustrates the troubleshooting procedures
using a readout board to determine the cause of trouble. 12 k MEASURED
(SCR IS GOOD)
Note, within the adjustable speed drive system, there are

low and high voltages of both AC and DC present.
Figure 23-38. Silicone-controlled rectifiers can be tested
For safety, ALWAYS: by using an ohmmeter. The ohmmeter will either measure
12,000 ohms, or the needle will peg if the silicone-controlled
(1) check all AC power sources. rectifier is good.
(2) check the DC bus for voltage.
a. allow sufficient time to discharge any power
supply capacitors. TROUBLESHOOTING
Note, the equipment ground and DC bus ground may not be EDDY-CURRENT DRIVES
the same potential. Most DC bus grounds float. Do not let
the oscilloscope cabinet touch the chassis of the adjustable Eddy-current drive controllers usually consist of a voltage
speed controller. Remember that incorrectly connecting the reference circuit, anti-hertz circuit, DC amplifier circuit,
leads to the silicon-controlled rectifiers (SCRs) will damage feedback circuit, and various potentiometers for controlling
them. output speed of the magnetic drive system.
23-22
If a higher drive speed is designed, the speed potentiometer It is much more difficult to test diodes for triacs and diacs.
can be turned to a higher setting, which results in the When using an ohmmeter, both devices should normally
following: show an open circuit in both directions. If they do not, they
(1) The DC output voltage of the potentiometer is are almost always defective. [See Figures 23-40(a) and (b)]
increased. (Command Voltage)

(2) When the command voltage is increased, an
error voltage is produced between the command
voltage and the feedback voltage coming from
the tachometer generator (or magnetic pickup
frequency to voltage converter). The error causes
an increased voltage to be applied to the magnetic

drive coupling field through a silicon-controlled
rectifier. This increased field excitation causes
the magnetic drive coupling to accelerate until

the feedback voltage signal again aligns to the
command voltage signal.

Note, the difference between the command voltage and

the feedback voltage is the error voltage. When the drive is

operating at a steady speed, the error voltage is practically

zero. For more detailed information on troubleshooting
eddy-current drives, see Table 5 of the Annex.

TESTING CERTAIN COMPONENTS Figure 23-40(a). When testing a triac with an ohmmeter,
the triac is usually not defective if the measurement reads
Testing a diode can be done by using an ohmmeter. If a an open circuit.
diode (forward biased) measures a low resistance with the
ohmmeter connected across it and a high resistance with
the diode reversed (reversed biased), the diode is in all
probability okay. However, if the diode shows either high
or low resistance in both directions, it is usually open or

shorted and needs replacing. (See Figure 23-39)

Figure 23-40(b). When testing a diac with an ohmmeter,

the diac is normally not defective if the measurement reads

an open circuit.

TROUBLESHOOTING THE
WINDINGS OF A WYE MOTOR
FOR GROUNDS

To test for grounds in a wye-connected motor, connect one
test lead to the frame of the motor and one test lead to one of
the leads of the motor. If a resistance reading is measured, a
Figure 23-39. If a diode has a high resistance measurement winding is grounded. To ensure a more accurate test, move
in one direction and a low resistance reading in the reverse the test lead to each lead of the motor and take resistance
direction, the diode is normally good. measurements.
23-23
For checking each winding individually in a star-connected winding is grounded. To ensure a more accurate test, move
motor, disconnect the windings at the star point and test the test lead to each lead of the motor and take resistance
each winding for a ground. (See A in Figure 23-41) measurements.
Part B in Figure 23-41 shows the procedure for checking For checking each winding individually in a delta-connected
all the windings for a ground to the frame of the motor. motor, disconnect the windings at the delta point and test
each winding for a ground. (Part A in Figure 23-42)
TROUBLESHOOTING THE WINDINGS

OF A DELTA MOTOR FOR GROUNDS Part B in Figure 23-42 shows the procedure for testing all
the windings for a ground to the frame of the motor.
To test for grounds in a delta-connected motor, connect one
test lead to the frame of the motor and one test lead to one of Note, for more troubleshooting tips, see Tables 1 through
the leads of the motor. If a resistance reading is measured, a 11 of Annex A in the back of this book.

Figure 23-41. If a resistance is read on any winding or all the windings, a ground to the frame of the motor is usually
present.

Figure 23-42. If a resistance is read on any winding or all the windings, a ground to the frame of the motor is usually
present.
23-24
TROUBLESHOOTING SOLID STATE Note, the problem can be the circuitry leading into or out of
the solid state board. However, if the circuitry or the solid
CIRCUIT BOARDS state board is not the cause of trouble, then it would be
logical to conclude that there are mechanical problems or
Assuming that a motor in a process machine will not start there is a defective motor.
and run, the procedure for troubleshooting the circuitry to
and from the solid state board(s) can be performed as shown
in Figure 23-43.

Figure 23-43. The above diagram shows the components that are checked to determine why the motor will not start and
run. (See the Troubleshooting Procedures)
Note: For troubleshooting tips, see Table 15 in Annex A of

this book.
23-25
Name Date
Chapter 23: Troubleshooting Motor Windings and Components
Section Answer
1. The NEMA tagging method for new motors identifies the running windings _____________ _____________
leads as _____.
(a) L1 and L2 (b) M1 and M2
(c) S1 and S2 (d) T1 and T2
2. The NEMA tagging method for new motors identifies the starting winding leads _____________ _____________
as _____.
3. For older motors, the identification method for tagging winding leads is _____ _____________ _____________
for the running windings.
4. For older motors, the identification method for tagging running windings is _____________ _____________
_____ for the starting windings.
5. To detect defects in a single-phase, split-phase induction motor, both the _____________ _____________
running and starting windings must be tested for:
(a) grounds (b) open circuits
(c) short circuits (d) all of the above
6. The cause of an open circuit in a split-phase, squirrel-cage induction motor _____________ _____________
can be a loose or dirty connection or broken conductor, which may be in the
_____.
(a) running winding b) starting winding
(c) centrifugal switch (d) all of the above
7. The windings for a single-phase, shaded-pole motor can be tested by using _____________ _____________
a(n) _____.
(a) ohmmeter (b) voltmeter
(c) ampmeter (d) none of the above
8. To ensure winding continuity, the _____ windings of a universal motor must _____________ _____________
be measured using an ohmmeter or light tester.
(a) running (b) starting
(c) field (d) rotational
9. The continuity of the brushes through the _____ winding can be tested by _____________ _____________
placing one lead of the ohmmeter to one side of the brushes and the other
lead to the other side of the brushes for an universal motor.
(a) stator (b) armature
(c) field (d) coil
23-27
Section Answer
_____________ _____________ 10. If a single-phase repulsion motor fails to start and run when the switch is
energized, the trouble may be:
(a) worn bearings (b) brushes stuck in the holder
(c) shorted armature (d) all of the above
_____________ _____________ 11. The windings of wye-connected motors can be tested for correct markings by
applying 240 volts to leads _____.
(a) T1, T2, and T3 (b) T4, T5, and T6
(c) T7, T8, and T9 (d) T1, T3, and T5
_____________ _____________ 12. Windings _____ of a wye-connected motor will act like the secondary of a
transformer.
(a) T1 and T2, T3 and T4, and T5 and T6
(b) T1 and T3, T2 and T6, and T4 and T5
(c) T1 and T4, T2 and T5, and T3 and T6
(d) T1 and T5, T2 and T6, and T3 and T4
_____________ _____________ 13. If the slip rings for a synchronous motor fail to conduct voltage to the _____,
the motor will not function properly.
(a) rotor (b) stator
(c) armature (d) coil.
_____________ _____________ 14. By removing the _____ of a DC motor, a reading can be taken and the ohmmeter
should not record a measurement.
(a) centrifugal switch (b) brushes
(c) stator (d) armature
_____________ _____________ 15. Information on magnetic coils is normally listed in units of _____ per
manufacturers specifications for determining inrush current.
(a) amps (b) voltage
(c) resistance (d) volt-amps
_____________ _____________ 16. A voltage tester rated for the correct voltage can be used for testing the voltage
for fuses between _____.
(a) L1 and L2 (b) L1 and L3
(c) L2 and L3 (d) all of the above
_____________ _____________ 17. The procedure for testing the overloads (Test 1) is to read the voltage from L1
to the line side of _____.
(a) L2 (b) L3
(c) L5 (d) L6
_____________ _____________ 18. To perform an ohmmeter test for open contacts on the stop button, read between
L1 and the side of the stop button that is connected to the start button and
terminal _____ of the holding contacts.
(a) 1 (b) 2
(c) 3 (d) 6
_____________ _____________ 19. To perform testing for closed contacts on the start button, read from the side of
the stop button connected to L1 and to the side of the start button terminated
to the holding _____.
(a) winding (b) stator
(c) coil (d) armature
23-28
Section Answer
20. To test for grounds in a wye-connected motor, connect one test lead to the _____________ _____________
_____ of the motor and one test lead to one of the lead of the motor.
(a) coil (b) frame
(c) stator (d) rotor
21. Connect the leads for a wye configuration six-lead motor. _____________ _____________

_____________ _____________
22. Connect the leads for a delta configuration six-lead motor.

23. Number the leads for each winding in a delta configuration nine-lead motor. _____________ A___________

B___________

C___________

D___________

E___________

F___________

G___________

H___________

I___________
23-29
Section Answer
_____________ A___________ 24. Number the leads for each winding in a wye configuration nine-lead motor.

B___________

C___________

D___________

E___________

F___________

G___________

H___________

I___________
_____________ _____________ 25. Mark where the testing leads are to be placed when testing the voltage to the
line side of the magnetic starter. (For simplicity, test each overload.)

_____________ _____________ 26. Mark where the testing leads are to be placed when testing the voltage through
the overloads and to the coil.

23-30
Section Answer
27. Mark where the testing leads are to be placed in two different tests to determine _____________ _____________
the common problems that could cause the interruption of voltage through the
overloads to the coil terminals.

28. Mark where the testing leads are to be placed from two different tests to _____________ _____________
determine the voltage to a coil if it is defective. (Voltage is measured at Test
1 and Test 2.)

23-31
Section Answer
_____________ _____________ 29. Mark where the testing leads are to be placed when testing the line voltage to
the contacts (HC) of the stop and start buttons.

_____________ _____________ 30. Mark where the testing leads are to be placed when testing the contacts of a
stop button in a three-wire control circuit using resistance.

_____________ _____________ 31. Mark where the testing leads are to be placed when testing the contacts of a
start button in a three-wire control circuit.

23-32
Section Answer
32. Mark where the testing leads are to be placed in two different tests for testing _____________ _____________
the contacts of the overloads in a three-wire control circuit.

33. Mark where the testing leads are to be placed in two different tests for testing a _____________ _____________
coil in a three-wire circuit to determine if it’s defective. (No voltage is measured
at Test 1.)

34. Mark where the testing leads are to be placed when testing the contacts of the _____________ _____________
holding circuit in a three-wire control circuit with the start button held closed.

23-33
Section Answer
_____________ _____________ 35. Referring to problems 25 through 34, one basic troubleshooting method is to
check the ____ power supply.
(a) outgoing (b) incoming
_____________ _____________ 36. The _____ contacts keep the contactor energized and powers the motor.
(a) holding (b) release
_____________ _____________ 37. Silicon-controlled rectifiers can be tested by using an _____.

(a) ohmmeter (b) voltmaster
(c) ampmeter (d) all of the above
_____________ _____________ 38. When testing the contacts of a stop button and resistance is not read, the stop
button is _____.
(a) closed (b) open
_____________ _____________ 39. The contacts for the _____ button are usually marked 2 and 3.
(a) stop (b) jog
(c) start (d) all of the above
_____________ _____________ 40. Overloads are installed on the side of the coil and supplied from _____ and
contact 3.
(a) L1 (b) L2
(c) L4 (d) L5
23-34
24
Compressor Motors
Article 440 deals with individual or group installations having hermetically
sealed motor compressors. The techniques for designing the proper size
conductors, disconnecting means, and controllers are discussed.
The conductors supplying power to heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration

(HACR) equipment are sized from the full-load amp (FLA) ratings of the
compressor and condenser motor. These FLA ratings are increased by 125
percent per 440.32 to compensate for the starting periods and overload
conditions.
The overcurrent protection devices protecting the branch circuits from

short-circuit and ground-fault currents are sized from the provisions listed in
440.22(A), which requires the FLA ratings to be increased from 175 percent
up to 225 percent to allow the HACR equipment to start and run without
tripping the overcurrent protection device ahead of the circuit.
Note, the elements used to supply the branch circuits to HACR equipment
may be required to be selected by the branch-circuit selection currents listed
on the nameplate of the equipment per 440.4(C) and 110.3(B).
NAMEPLATE LISTING

440.1

The overcurrent protection devices, running overload
protection devices, conductors, disconnecting means, and

controllers shall be sized and selected by the information
provided on the nameplate listing for air-conditioning and
refrigeration equipment. The information on the nameplate
is very important to installers and service personnel;
therefore, the nameplate shall never be removed from the
air-conditioner or refrigeration equipment.

MARKINGS ON HERMETIC

REFRIGERANT MOTOR-

COMPRESSORS AND EQUIPMENT

440.4
Hermetic refrigerant motor-compressors shall be provided

with a marking on the nameplate giving the manufacturer’s
name, trademark, or symbol and designating the
identification, number of phases, voltage, and frequency.

The information provided on the nameplate of the hermetic

refrigerant motor-compressor is used to determine the
ratings of branch-circuit conductors, ground fault protection,

short circuits, disconnecting means, controllers, and other
components of the electrical system.

MARKINGS ON CONTROLLERS

440.5

Controllers shall be marked with information that lists the
manufacturer’s name, trademark, or symbol, identifying

voltage, phases, full-load current, locked-rotor current rating,
or horsepower. Figure 24-1. If the branch-circuit selection current (BCSC)
on the nameplate calls for a certain circuit size and
overcurrent protection device size, this rating shall be used
AMPACITY AND RATING instead of actually calculating such values and sizes per
440.22(A) and 440.32.
440.6
The full-load current rating listed on the nameplate of the
motor-compressor shall be used to determine the branch- HIGHEST RATED (LARGEST) MOTOR
circuit conductor rating, short-circuit protection rating, motor 440.7
overload protection rating, controller rating, or disconnecting
means rating. The branch-circuit selection current (if greater) When sizing the conductors for a feeder supplying air-
shall be applied if shown instead of the full-load current conditioning units and motors per 430.24, the full-load
rating. The full-load current rating shall be used to determine current of the largest motor is multiplied by 125 percent.
the motor's overload protection rating. The full-load current The full-load current ratings of the remaining motors are
rating listed on the compressor nameplate shall be used added to this total to derive the total FLA.
when the nameplate for the equipment does not list a full-
load current rating based on the branch-circuit selection See Figures 20-11 and 20-12 for illustrations pertaining
current. (See Figure 24-1) to this rule.
24-2
Compressor Motors
When sizing the overcurrent protection device for two or SINGLE MACHINE
more motors per 430.62(A), the full-load current of the
largest motor is multiplied by the percentages listed in Table 440.8
430.52. The full-load current ratings of the remaining motors
are added to this total to derive the FLA. Each motor controller shall be provided with an disconnecting
means. Air-conditioning and refrigeration systems are
The full-load current ratings listed on the nameplate of considered to be a single machine even though they consist
the motor-compressor shall be used to determine the size of any number of motors. The number of disconnecting
conductors and overcurrent protection device using the means to be provided are determined by applying 430.87,
same procedure. The larger of the two shall be used. Ex. and 430.112, Ex.
See Figure 24-2 for a feeder supplying motors and air-

conditioning units.
DISCONNECTING MEANS
440.11
Note, the air-conditioning unit is the largest motor and not
one of the motors in the group. The full-load current rating of the nameplate or the nameplate
branch-circuit selection current of the compressor, whichever
is greater, shall be used to size the branch-circuit conductors
and the disconnecting means to disconnect air-conditioning
POWER SUPPLY OCPD and refrigeration equipment.

FEEDER
CONDUCTORS

GUTTER RATING AND INTERRUPTING
TAPS CAPACITY

440.12
DISCONNECTING MEANS
The full-load current rating of the nameplate or the nameplate

branch-circuit selection current of the compressor,
CONTROLLER whichever is greater, shall be sized at 115 percent to size

the disconnecting means. A horsepower rated switch, circuit
7 1/2 HP 10 HP breaker, or other switches shall be permitted to be used
230 V MOTORS as the disconnecting means per 430.109 and 430.110(A).
(See Figure 24-3)

Design Tip: A minimum load is derived when applying

115 percent for sizing the disconnecting means.
Therefore, on larger units the 115 percent may not be

of sufficient ampacity for opening the circuit under load.

The horsepower amperage rating may be selected from

Tables 430.247 through 430.250 when corresponding

to the nameplate current rating or branch-circuit selection

current of the motor-compressor or equipment when listed in

amperage and not horsepower. The horsepower amperage
rating for locked-rotor current shall be selected from Tables
430.251(A)and (B) when the nameplate fails to list the

locked-rotor current.

Note, the disconnecting means shall be sized with enough
capacity in horsepower to be capable of disconnecting the

total locked-rotor current. (See Figure 24-4)
Figure 24-2. The above shows the calculation procedure The full-load current rating of the nameplate shall be
for sizing conductors and overcurrent protection devices permitted to be used to size a circuit breaker at 115 percent
where the air-conditioning unit or motor is the largest in the or more to disconnect a hermetically sealed motor from the
group of air-conditioning units and motors. power circuit. (See Figure 24-5)
24-3
Design Tip: The circuit breaker shall be sized at 115

percent or more of the branch-circuit selection current if it

is greater in rating, so as to be capable of disconnecting

the circuit safely.

Two or more hermetic motors or combination loads such as
hermetic motor loads, standard motor loads, and other loads
shall have their separate values totaled to determine the
rating of a single disconnecting means. This total rating shall
be sized at 115 percent to determine the size disconnecting

means required to disconnect the circuits and components

in a safe and reliable manner. (See Figure 24-6)

Figure 24-4. Sizing horsepower rating to select disconnecting

means based on the locked-rotor current.

CORD-CONNECTED EQUIPMENT

440.13

For cord-and-plug connected equipment such as room air-

conditioners, home refrigerators and freezers, drinking water
coolers, and beverage dispensers, a separable connector

or attachment plug and receptacle shall be permitted to be

used to serve as a disconnecting means. (See Figure 24-7)

Design Tip: In some cases, room air-conditioners shall
not be permitted to have a cord-and-plug connection
Figure 24-3. The full-load current rating of the nameplate to serve as their disconnecting means, as when
or the nameplate branch-circuit selection current of the unit switches for manual control are installed in air-
compressor, whichever is greater, shall be sized at 115 conditioners mounted over 6 ft (1.8 m) above finished
percent to size the disconnecting means. grade.
24-4
Compressor Motors

SERVICE CONDUCTORS CONDUCTORS
OCPDs
OVERLOADS AND
DISCONNECT
OCPD

OCPD DISCONNECTING MEANS
) GUTTER

CONDUCTORS
MBJ

GEC A/C UNIT A/C UNIT

GES 230 V 230 V

MOTOR FLA 25 A FLA 20 A
230 V LRA 160 A LRA 140 A
FLA 42 A
LRA 232 A

Figure 24-5. The full-load current rating of the nameplate

shall be permitted to be used to size a circuit breaker at
115 percent or more to disconnect a hermetically sealed

compressor motor from the power circuit.

Figure 24-6. Two or more hermetic motors or combination

loads, such as hermetic motor loads, standard motor loads,
and other loads, shall have their separate values totaled to
determine the rating of a single disconnecting means.

LOCATION

440.14
The disconnecting means for air-conditioning or refrigeration

equipment shall be located within sight and within 50 ft (15
m) and shall be readily accessible to the user. An additional
Figure 24-7. Cord-and-plug connected equipment such circuit breaker or disconnecting switch shall be provided
as room air-conditioners, home refrigerators and freezers, at the equipment if the air-conditioning or refrigeration
drinking water coolers, and beverage dispensers shall be equipment is not within sight or within 50 ft (15 m). The
permitted to be disconnected by a cord and receptacle. A disconnecting means shall be permitted to be installed within
separable connector or an attachment plug and receptacle or on the air-conditioning or refrigeration equipment. For the
shall be permitted to be used to serve as such disconnecting use of unit switches located in air-conditioning units, review
means. 422.34 per AHJ. (See Figure 24-8)
24-5
RATING AND SETTING FOR INDIVIDUAL

MOTOR-COMPRESSORS

440.22(A)

The overcurrent protection device for hermetically sealed
compressors shall be selected at 175 percent (for minimum)
or 225 percent (for maximum) of the compressor FLA rating
or the branch-circuit selection circuit current, whichever is

greater. (See Figure 24-9)

Overcurrent protection devices for hermetically sealed
compressors shall be permitted to be selected up to 225
percent to permit the motor to start if the compressor will
not start and develop speed when the rating is 175 percent
or less.

PANELBOARD
OUT OF SIGHT WALL
FOR LABELING,
SEE
OCPD Design Tip: A normal circuit breaker shall not be
installed when the equipment is marked for a particular
DISCONNECTING MEANS fuse size or HACR circuit breaker rating. The branch-

circuit conductors shall be protected only by that
SEETO specified fuse size or HACR circuit breaker rating.
AIR CONDITIONER
WITHIN 50' (15 m) AND
WITHIN SIGHT OF UNIT
MBJ
GEC
RATING OR SETTING FOR EQUIPMENT
GES
440.22(B)
When sizing the overcurrent protection device, the rating
or setting shall be selected to comply with the number of
hermetic motors, or combination of hermetic motors, and
Figure 24-8. The disconnecting means for air-conditioning standard motors installed on a circuit.
or refrigeration equipment shall be located within sight
and within 50 ft (15 m) and be readily accessible to the
user. An additional circuit breaker or disconnecting switch SIZING OVERCURRENT PROTECTION
shall be provided at the equipment if the air-conditioning
DEVICES FOR TWO OR MORE HERMETIC
or refrigeration equipment is not within sight or within 50
ft (15 m). MOTORS
440.22(B)(1)
APPLICATION AND SELECTION
440.22 The overcurrent protection device for a feeder supplying two
or more air-conditioning or refrigerating units shall be sized
The branch-circuit fuse or circuit breaker ratings for to allow the largest unit to start and allow the other units to
hermetically sealed motors shall be sized with enough start at different intervals of time. The full-load current rating
capacity to allow the motor to start and develop speed of the nameplate or the branch-circuit selection current
without tripping open the overcurrent protection device due rating of the largest motor, whichever is greater, shall be
to the momentary inrush current of the compressor and sized at 175 percent if there are two or more hermetically
other elements. Maximum protection is always provided sealed motors installed on the same feeder. (See Figure
by the ratings and settings of the overcurrent protection 24-10)
device being sized with values as low as possible. Hermetic
refrigerant motor-compressors shall be protected by Overcurrent protection devices for hermetically sealed
properly sizing and selecting the ratings and settings of the motors shall be permitted to be selected up to 225 percent
overcurrent protection devices to protect the branch-circuit to allow the motor to start if the motor will not start and
conductors and other elements in the circuit from short- develop speed when the rating is selected at 175 percent
circuit and ground-fault conditions. or less. (See Figure 24-11)
24-6
Compressor Motors
SERVICE CONDUCTORS

CONDUCTORS DISCONNECTING MEANS
CONDUCTORS

OCPDs
OVERLOADS
DISCONNECT
OCPD
OCPD

DISCONNECTING MEANS

SEETO
OCPD
A/C UNIT
WITH SINGLE A/C UNIT A/C UNIT A/C UNIT
COMPRESSOR 208 V 208 V 208 V
CONDUCTORS
MBJ COMPRESSOR COMPRESSOR COMPRESSOR
FEEDER FLA 28 A FLA 25 A FLA 23 A
GEC CONDENSER CONDENSER CONDENSER
FLA 2.5 A FLA 2.5 A FLA 2.5 A
CONDUCTORS GES

COMPRESSOR
FLC 19 A

FOR SIZING CONDUCTORS, CONDENSER
SEE FIGURE 19-16. FLC 2.5 A

Figure 24-9. The overcurrent protection device for
hermetically sealed compressors shall be selected at 175
percent (for minimum) or 225 percent (for maximum) of Figure 24-10. The full-load current rating of the nameplate
the compressor's FLA rating or the branch-circuit selection or the branch-circuit selection current rating of the largest
circuit current, whichever is greater. Note, a smaller size motor, whichever is greater, shall be sized at 175 percent if
overcurrent protection device shall be permitted to be used there are two or more hermetically sealed motors installed
then selected per solution, if air-conditioning unit will start on the same feeder.
and run.

SERVICE CONDUCTORS
DISCONNECTING MEANS

OCPD

OCPD

A/C UNIT A/C UNIT A/C UNIT
208 V 208 V 208 V

MBJ COMPRESSOR COMPRESSOR COMPRESSOR
FEEDER FLA 28 A FLA 25 A FLA 23 A
GEC CONDENSER CONDENSER CONDENSER
FLA 2.5 A FLA 2.5 A FLA 2.5 A
GES
SEE FIGURE LOOP IN FIGURE 19-12.

Figure 24-11. Overcurrent protection devices for hermetically sealed motors shall be permitted to be selected up to 225
percent to allow the motor to start if the motor will not start and develop speed.
24-7

DEVICES FOR HERMETIC MOTORS AND
OTHER LOADS WHEN A HERMETICALLY

SEALED MOTOR IS THE LARGEST

440.22(B)(1)

When installing hermetically sealed motors and other loads
such as motors on the same circuit, and the largest motor of

the group is hermetic, the same procedure used for two or
more hermetic motors on a feeder shall be used to size the
overcurrent protection device. The full-load current rating of

the nameplate or the branch-circuit selection current rating
of the largest hermetic motor, whichever is greater, shall be

sized at 175 percent, and the sum of the full-load current

ratings of the other motors added to this largest hermetic
motor load.


DEVICES FOR HERMETIC MOTORS AND

OTHER LOADS WHEN A MOTOR IS THE
LARGEST

440.22(B)(2)

When installing hermetically sealed motors and other loads
such as motors on the same circuit, and the largest in the

group is a motor, the overcurrent protection device shall be

sized and selected based on the percentages from Table
430.52. The maximum branch-circuit overcurrent protection

device shall be used when the standard motor is the largest
of the group, and the sum of the full-load current ratings of

the remaining hermetically sealed motor and other motors
of the group added to the largest motor. The next lower

standard size overcurrent protection device below this total
sum shall be installed per 240.6(A). (See Figure 24-12)

Design Tip: The next larger standard size overcurrent

protection device is not permitted to be installed, for
there is not an exception to permit the next higher size

per 440.22(B)(2) or 430.62(A).
Figure 24-12. When hermetically sealed motors and
other loads, such as motors, are being installed on the
same circuit, and the largest in the group is a motor, the
USING A 15 OR 20 AMP overcurrent protection device shall be sized and selected
OVERCURRENT PROTECTION DEVICE based on the percentages from Table 430.52.
440.22(B)(2), Ex. 1
When the equipment will start, run, and operate on a 15 or USING A CORD-AND-PLUG CONNECTION NOT
20 amp, 120 volt, single-phase branch circuit, or on a 15 OVER 250 VOLTS
amp, 208 volt or 240 volt, single-phase branch circuit, with 440.22(B)(2), Ex. 2
a 15 or 20 amp overcurrent protection device, such device
shall be permitted to be used to protect the branch circuit. The rating of the overcurrent protection device shall be
However, the values of the overcurrent protection device in determined by using the rating on the nameplate of the cord-
the branch circuit shall not exceed the values marked on the and-plug connected equipment serving single-phase, 250
nameplate of the equipment. (See Figure 24-13) volt or less, hermetically sealed motor. (See Figure 24-14)
24-8
Compressor Motors
NOTE: PROTECTIVE DEVICE RATING NOT

110.3(B).
TO EXCEED THE MANUFACTURER’S
NEC LOOP
440.4(C) VALUES

440.22(A) 440.22(C)

440.32
The manufacturer’s values marked on the equipment shall

not be exceeded by the overcurrent protection device rating,

where the maximum overcurrent protection device ratings
on the manufacturer's heater table for use with a motor
controller are less than the rating or setting per 440.22(A)
and (B). (See Figure 24-15)

USING A 15 OR 20 AMP OVERCURRENT PROTECTION

DEVICE BRANCH-CIRCUIT CONDUCTORS
NEC 440.22(B)(2), Ex. 1 440.31
Figure 24-13. Where the equipment will start, run, and In general, to prevent conductors and motor elements of
operate on a 15 or 20 amp, 120 volt, single-phase branch the branch circuit from overheating, the conductors shall be
circuit, or on a 15 amp, 208 volt or 240 volt, single-phase sized with enough capacity to allow a hermetic motor to start
branch circuit, a 15 or 20 amp overcurrent protection device and run. To ensure adequate sizing, a derating factor of 80
shall be permitted to be used to protect the branch circuit. percent shall be applied to the branch-circuit conductors or
such conductors shall be sized at 125 percent of the load.
NEC LOOP
440.13 440.14, Ex. 2
440.63
440.13
440.62

440.64

USING A CORD-AND-PLUG CONNECTION
NOT OVER 250 VOLTS
NEC 440.22(B)(2), Ex. 2
Figure 24-14. The rating of the overcurrent protection device Figure 24-15. The manufacturer’s values marked on
shall be determined by using the rating of the nameplate of the equipment shall not be exceeded by the overcurrent
the cord-and-plug connected equipment having a single- protection device rating where the maximum overcurrent
phase, 250 volt or less, hermetically sealed motor. protective device ratings on the manufacturer’s heater table
for use with a motor controller are less than the rating or
setting per 440.22(A) and (B).
24-9
SINGLE MOTOR-COMPRESSORS TWO OR MORE MOTOR

440.32 COMPRESSORS
440.33
The conductors supplying power to an air-conditioning or
refrigerating unit shall be sized to carry the load of the unit Two or more compressors plus other motor loads can be
plus an overload for a period of time that will not damage connected to a feeder. The largest compressor shall be
the elements. The full-load current rating of the nameplate calculated at 125 percent of its FLA, and the remaining
or branch-circuit selection current, whichever is greater, shall compressor loads are added to this total at 100 percent of
be sized at 125 percent to size and select the conductors their FLA ratings. For units with a branch-circuit selection
supplying hermetically sealed motors. (See Figure 24-16) current, the circuit conductors are selected and based on
the nameplate values. (See Figure 24-17)
FOR SIZING OVERCURRENT

PROTECTION DEVICE, SEE FIGURE 19-9.

CONDUCTORS
OCPDs
SERVICE
CONDUCTORS OVERLOADS
DISCONNECT

OCPD
DISCONNECT
OCPD

BRANCH-CIRCUIT
SELECTION CURRENT

GEC A/C UNIT

MBJ
GES

CONDUCTORS

THHN
cu.

Figure 24-17. Two or more compressors plus the other

motor loads can be connected to a feeder. The largest
compressor shall be calculated at 125 percent of its FLA
and the remaining compressor loads are added to this total

at 100 percent of their FLA ratings.
or branch-circuit selection current, whichever is greater, shall
be sized at 125 percent to size and select the conductors
supplying hermetically sealed motors.
24-10
Compressor Motors
COMBINATION LOADS MULTIMOTOR AND COMBINATION

440.34 LOAD EQUIPMENT
440.35
Two or more motor-compressors with motor loads plus other
loads may be connected to a feeder or service conductors. The marking on the nameplate shall be used when sizing the
The largest compressor or motor load shall be calculated at branch-circuit conductors for multimotor and combination
125 percent plus 100 percent of the remaining compressors load equipment. The conductors shall be installed to have
and motors. The other loads shall be calculated at 125 a rating equal to the nameplate rating. Each individual
percent for continuous and 100 percent for noncontinuous motor or load contained in the unit shall not be required to
operation per 215.2(A)(1), and these total values used to be calculated individually to size and select the conductors.
select conductors. (See Figure 24-18)

CONTROLLERS FOR

MOTOR-COMPRESSORS

440.41

When installing the wiring for a motor-controller, the circuit

supply conductors are run from a motor controller and
connected to the terminals of the compressor. The full-load

current rating and the locked-rotor current rating of the
compressor motor shall be sized at continuous operation.

MOTOR-COMPRESSOR

CONTROLLER RATING

440.41(A)
The full-load current rating on the nameplate or the branch-
circuit selection current ratings, whichever is greater, shall
be used to size and select the motor controller. If necessary,

the locked-rotor current rating of the motor shall be permitted

to be used to size and select the motor controller. (See
Figure 24-19)

Design Tip: The motor controller shall be sized and

selected using the same procedure as used for the

sizing of the disconnecting means.

MOTOR-COMPRESSOR AND

BRANCH-CIRCUIT OVERLOAD
PROTECTION
440.51
Figure 24-18. Two or more motor-compressors with motor The overload (OL) protection for compressors may be
loads plus other loads may be connected to a feeder or accomplished by using overcurrent protection devices in
service conductors. The largest compressor or motor load separate enclosures, separate overload relays, or thermal
shall be calculated at 125 percent, plus 100 percent of the protectors that are an integral part of the compressor.
remaining compressors and motors, plus the other loads.
24-11

or the branch-circuit selection current ratings, whichever is
Figure 24-20. The overload relay for the motor-compressor
greater, shall be used to size and select the motor controller.
shall trip at not more than 140 percent of the full-load current
rating. If a fuse or circuit breaker is used for the protection
of the motor-compressor, it shall trip at not more than 125
APPLICATION AND SELECTION percent of the full-load current rating.
440.52
The overload relay for a motor-compressor shall trip at not
MOTOR-COMPRESSORS AND
more than 140 percent of the full-load current rating. If a EQUIPMENT ON A 15 OR 20 AMP
fuse or circuit breaker is used for the protection of the motor- BRANCH CIRCUIT NOT
compressor, it shall trip at not more than 125 percent of the
full-load current rating. (See Figure 24-20) CORD-AND-PLUG CONNECTED
440.54
OVERLOAD RELAYS Overload protection shall be provided for direct- or fixed-
wired motor-compressors and equipment that is connected
440.53 to 15 or 20 amp, 120 volt, single-phase branch circuits.
Short-circuit and ground-fault protection is not provided by Note, a 15 amp overcurrent protection device is required
overload relays and thermal protectors. Overload relays for 240 volt, single-phase branch circuits.
and thermal protectors respond to any type of heat buildup
and open with a delay action that will not operate instantly, The full-load current rating of the hermetically sealed motor
even on short circuits or ground faults. The branch-circuit shall be selected at 140 percent when sizing separate
overcurrent protection device for the circuit shall operate overload relays. Hermetic motors shall be provided with
and clear the circuit under short-circuit and ground-fault fuses or circuit breakers that provide sufficient time delay
conditions. to allow the motor to come up to running speed without
tripping open the circuit due to the high inrush current. (See
Figure 24-21)
24-12
Compressor Motors

(3) In contact with metal

NEC LOOP
(4) Operating over 150 volts-to-ground
440.54
440.54(A) (5) Wired with metal-clad wiring
440.54(B)
440.55 (6) Located in a hazardous location
(7) Installed in damp location (within reach of the user)

See Figure 24-23 for the wiring methods that shall be

permitted to be used to ground room air-conditioners.
NEC LOOP

440.60

440.61
NOTE:

440.55(A)

440.62

440.63
MOTOR-COMPRESSORS AND EQUIPMENT
ON A 15 OR 20 AMP BRANCH CIRCUIT NOT

CORD-AND-PLUG CONNECTED
NEC 440.54

Figure 24-21. Overload protection shall be provided for
direct- or fixed-wired motor compressors and equipment

that is connected to 15 or 20 amp, 120 volt, single-phase

branch circuits.

CORD-AND-ATTACHMENT
PLUG CONNECTED MOTOR-

COMPRESSORS AND EQUIPMENT ON
15 OR 20 AMP BRANCH CIRCUITS CORD-AND-ATTACHMENT PLUG CONNECTED

MOTOR-COMPRESSORS AND EQUIPMENT ON
440.55 15 OR 20 AMP BRANCH CIRCUITS
NEC 440.55
When attachment plugs and receptacles or cord connectors
are used for circuit connection they shall be rated no higher Figure 24-22. When attachment plugs and receptacles or
than 15 or 20 amps for 120 volt, single-phase circuits, or cord connectors are used for circuit connection, they shall
15 amps, for 208 or 240 volt, single-phase branch circuits. be rated no higher than 15 or 20 amps, for 120 volt, single-
(See Figure 24-22) phase circuits, or 15 amps, for 208 or 240 volt, single-phase
branch circuits.
ROOM AIR-CONDITIONERS
440.60

Room air-conditioners are usually cord-and-plug connected

when installed on 120/240 volt, single-phase systems.

However, they may be hard-wired. Air-conditioners are

always hard-wired when installed on three-phase systems

or on electrical supply systems over 250 volts.

GROUNDING

440.61

The following wiring methods, when utilized to wire in

room air-conditioners, shall be connected to an equipment
grounding conductor:

(1) Cord-and-plug connected
Figure 24-23. The above shows wiring methods that shall
(2) Hard-wired (if within reach of the ground or
be permitted to be used to ground room air-conditioners.
grounded object)
24-13
BRANCH CIRCUIT REQUIREMENTS

440.62

The full-load current rating of a room air-conditioner shall

be marked on the nameplate and shall not operate at more
than 40 amps on 250 volts. The branch-circuit overcurrent

protection device shall be installed with a rating no greater
than the circuit conductor's ampacity or the rating of the

receptacle serving the unit, whichever is less. The ampacity

of a cord-and-plug connected air-conditioning window unit

shall not exceed 80 percent of the branch circuit where no
other loads are served. If other loads are served by the

branch circuit, the cord-and-plug connected air-conditioner

unit shall not exceed 50 percent of the branch circuit. [See

Figures 24-24(a) and (b)]

DISCONNECTING MEANS

440.63

A cord-and-plug shall be permitted to serve as the
disconnecting means for the room air-conditioner if all the

following conditions are met:
(1) Operates at 250 volts or less Figure 24-24(a). The ampacity of a cord-and-plug connected
(2) Controls are manually operated air-conditioning window unit shall not exceed 80 percent of
(3) Controls are within 6 ft (1.8 m) of the floor the branch circuit where no other loads are served.
(4) Controls are readily accessible to the user
A room air-conditioner shall be permitted to be hard-wired

and located within sight of the service equipment, or it may
be wired so that it is readily accessible to a disconnecting
switch for the user. However, such switch shall be located
within sight and/or within the unit. [See Figures 24-25(a)

and (b)]

Design Tip: The rules for three-phase room air-

conditioners shall not be used for these type of units.
Three-phase room air-conditioners shall be hard-wired
and shall be installed with a disconnecting means that

is readily accessible to the user.

SUPPLY CORDS

440.64

Room air-conditioners installed with flexible cords shall be
a length that is limited to 10 ft (3 m) for 120 volt circuits and
6 ft (1.8 m) for 208 or 240 volt circuits. Long cords shall not Figure 24-24(b). If other loads are served by the branch
be used because they are dangerous. Long cords can also circuit, the cord-and-plug connected air-conditioner unit shall
be a shock or fire hazard. (See Figure 24-26) not exceed 50 percent of the branch circuit.
24-14
Compressor Motors

Figure 24-25(a). A cord-and-plug shall be permitted to serve

as the disconnecting means for a room air-conditioner if it
operates at 250 volts or less and its controls are manually
Figure 24-26. Room air-conditioners installed with flexible
operated, within 6 ft (1.8 m) of the floor, and readily
cords shall have a length that is limited to 10 ft (3 m) for
accessible to the user.
120 volt circuits and 6 ft (1.8 m) for 208 or 240 volt circuits.

TROUBLESHOOTING A

COMPRESSOR MOTOR

To check the motor-compressor safely, turn off the

disconnect switch and disconnect all wiring from the motor
terminals in the terminal box. The terminal at the right when
facing the compressor motor, will be the starting terminal.

Note, the center terminal is the common and the left

terminal is the running winding terminal.

Using an ohmmeter, troubleshoot the windings for grounds
as follows.

TESTING RUNNING WINDINGS

The first step in testing running windings is to disconnect
Figure 24-25(b). A cord-and-plug shall be permitted to all wires from the motor terminals. To check for resistance
serve as the disconnecting means even if the room air in the running winding, touch the ohmmeter leads to the
conditioner's manual controls are located above 6 ft (1.8 m) "common" and "running" terminals and take a measurement.
from finished grade. (See Figure 24-27)
24-15
A/C UNIT
TESTING FOR GROUNDS
L1 L2 L3
C The ohmmeter method can be used for testing grounds.
S R
COMP.
One test lead is touched to the motor frame and the other is
touched to each motor terminal. If the resistance measured
is below one million ohms, a ground from a winding is

R assumed. (See Figure 24-29)
S C
FOR MORE Note, for more troubleshooting tips, see the illustrations in
TROUBLESHOOTING
TIPS, SEE CHAPTER 23
Chapter 23 and Table 7 of Annex A.
AND TABLE 7 IN ANNEX. .4 TO 3.9 OHMS
IS MEASURED
A/C UNIT

L1 L2 L3
Figure 24-27. The running winding is usually not defective C
S R
if a resistance reading of a 0.4 to 3.9 ohms is measured. COMP.

R
S C
TESTING STARTING WINDINGS
FOR MORE
The second step is to test the resistance in the starting TROUBLESHOOTING
TIPS, SEE CHAPTER 23
winding; this test can be performed by touching the AND TABLE 7 IN ANNEX.
OVER A MILLION
OHMS IS MEASURED
ohmmeter leads to the "common" and "starting" terminals.
The resistance reading in the running winding from R to C
will measure the lowest, and the starting winding from S to
C will be higher. Between R and S, the reading is the total Figure 24-29. If a reading of over one million ohms-to-
of the two, from 2.4 to 22.9 ohms. (0.4 R + 2 R = 2.4 R - 3.9 ground is measured, there is usually no ground present.
R + 19 = 22.9 R) (See Figure 24-28)
A/C UNIT
L1 L2 L3
C
S R
COMP.
R
S C
FOR MORE

TROUBLESHOOTING
TIPS, SEE CHAPTER 23 2 TO 19 OHMS
AND TABLE 7 IN ANNEX. IS MEASURED

Figure 24-28. The starting winding is usually not defective

if a resistance reading of 2 to 19 ohms is measured.
24-16
Name Date
Chapter 24. Compressor Motors
Section Answer
1. The full-load current rating of the nameplate or the nameplate branch-circuit _____________ _____________
selection current of the compressor, whichever is greater, shall be sized at
_____ percent to size the disconnecting means.
(a) 100 (b) 115
(c) 125 (d) 135
2. The disconnecting means for air-conditioning or refrigeration equipment shall _____________ _____________
be located within sight and within _____ ft, and shall be readily accessible
to the user.
(a) 10 (b) 20
(c) 25 (d) 50
3. The overcurrent protection device for hermetically sealed compressors shall _____________ _____________
be selected at _____ percent (minimum) of the compressor’s FLA rating.
(a) 175 (b) 200
(c) 225 (d) 250
4. The overcurrent protection device for hermetically sealed compressors shall _____________ _____________
be selected at _____ percent (maximum) of the compressor’s FLA rating.
(a) 175 (b) 200
(c) 225 (d) 250
5. The rating of the overcurrent protection device shall be determined by using _____________ _____________
the rating on the nameplate of the cord-and-plug connected equipment serving
a single-phase, _____ volt or less hermetically sealed motor.
(a) 120 (b) 250
(c) 277 (d) 480
6. Two or more compressors plus the other motor loads can be connected to a _____________ _____________
feeder. The largest compressor is calculated at 125 percent of its FLC, and
the remaining compressor loads are added to this total at _____ percent of
their FLA ratings.
(a) 100 (b) 125
(c) 150 (d) 175

7. The overload relay for a motor-compressor shall trip at not more than _____ _____________ _____________
percent of the full-load current rating.
(a) 110 (b) 115
(c) 125 (d) 140
8. Overload protection shall be provided for direct- or fixed-wired motor- _____________ _____________
compressors and equipment that is connected to _____, 120 volt, single-phase
branch-circuits.
(a) 15 or 20 (b) 20 or 30
(c) 30 or 40 (d) 40 or 50

9. Room air conditioners shall be grounded to an equipment grounding conductor _____________ _____________
when operating over _____ volts-to-ground.
(a) 100 (b) 120
24-17
Section Answer
_____________ _____________ 10. The full-load current rating of a room air conditioner shall be marked on the
nameplate and shall not operate at more than _____ amps on 250 volts.
(a)30 (b) 40
(c) 50 (d) 100
_____________ _____________ 11. A cord-and-plug shall be permitted to serve as the disconnecting means for
the room air conditioner if it operates at _____ volts or less.
(a) 50 (b) 120
(c) 150 (d) 250
_____________ _____________ 12. A cord-and-plug shall be permitted to serve as the disconnecting means for
the room air conditioner if the controls are within _____ ft of the floor.
(a) 6 (b) 8
(c) 10 (d) 12
_____________ _____________ 13. Room air conditioners installed with flexible cords shall be a length that is
limited to _____ ft for 120 volt circuits.
(a) 6 (b) 10
(c) 12 (d) 15
_____________ _____________ 14. Room air conditioners installed with flexible cords shall be a length that is
limited to _____ ft for 208 or 240 volt circuits.
(a) 6 (b) 10
(c) 12 (d) 15
_____________ _____________ 15. The ampacity of a cord-and-plug connected air-conditioning window unit shall
not exceed _____ percent of the branch circuit where no other loads are served.
(a) 25 (b) 50
(c) 80 (d) 100
_____________ _____________ 16. A disconnect means shall be placed within _____ ft. of the A/C unit.
(a) 50 (b) 75
_____________ _____________ 17. The starting winding of a compressor is usually not defective if a resistance
of _____ to _____ ohms is measured.
(a) 2 to 19 (b) 3 to 25
(c) 4 to 21 (d) none of the above
_____________ _____________ 18. Cord and plug connected A/C units (window type) shall not be supplied with
_____-phase circuits.
(a) single (b) two
(c) three (d) none of the above
_____________ _____________ 19. When time-delay fuses are used to provide overload protection, they shall
exceed _____% of the motor compressor.
(a) 125 (b) 150
_____________ _____________ 20. When testing a motor compressor for a ground, if over _____ ohms is read,
there is usually no grounded condition.
(a) 25,000 (b) 50,000
(c) 75,000 (d) 1,000,000
24-18
Section Answer
21. The running winding of a motor compressor is usually not defective if a _____________ _____________
resistance reading of _____ to _____ ohms is measured.
(a) 0.4 to 3.0 (b) 0.5 to 2.1
22. What size nonautomatic circuit breaker is required for an air-conditioning unit _____________ _____________
with a compressor rated at 29 amps and the condenser fan rated at 2.5 amps?
23. What size nonfused disconnect is required for an air-conditioning unit with a _____________ _____________
compressor rated at 29 amps and the condenser fan rated at 2.5 amps?
24. What size horsepower rated disconnect is required for an air-conditioning with _____________ _____________
a compressor rated at 29 amps and the condenser fan rated at 2.5 amps with
a 200 amp locked-rotor current rating? Note, the supply voltage is 480 volt,
three-phase.
25. What size horsepower rated disconnect is required for the following loads on _____________ _____________
a three-phase, 230 volt system:
• Air-conditioning unit with a compressor rated at 29 amps with a 200
amp locked-rotor current rating
26. What size circuit breaker (nonautomatic) is required to disconnect a hermetic _____________ _____________
sealed motor for an air-conditioning unit rated at 29 amps? (Supply voltage is
208 volt, three-phase.)
_____________ _____________
27. What size horsepower rated disconnecting means is required to disconnect
the following motor loads on a three-phase, 230 volt system:
• Motor rated at 38 amps with a 212 amp locked-rotor current rating
_____________ _____________
28. What is the minimum size overcurrent protection device, per 440.22(A),
required for an individual air-conditioning unit with a compressor rated at 20
amps and the condenser rated at 2.5 amps?
_____________ _____________
29. What is the maximum size overcurrent protection device, per 440.22(A),
required for an individual air-conditioning unit with a compressor rated at 20
amps and the condenser rated at 2.5 amps.
_____________ _____________
30. What is the minimum size overcurrent protection device, per 440.22(B)(1),
required for a feeder with the following loads on a 230 volt, three-phase system:
• Air-conditioning unit with a compressor rated at 29 amps and the con-
denser fan rated at 2.5 amps
24-19
Section Answer
_____________ _____________ 31. What is the maximum size overcurrent protection device, per 440.22(B)(1),
required for a feeder with the following loads on a 230 volt, three-phase system:
denser rated at 2.5 amps

_____________ _____________ 32. What size overcurrent protection device is required for a feeder with the
following loads on a 230 volt, three-phase system:
• 10 HP, 230 volt, three-phase, Design Letter B motor
_____________ _____________ 33. What size THHN copper conductors are required to supply an air-conditioning
unit with a compressor rated at 20 amps and the condenser fan rated at 2.5
amps?
_____________ _____________ 34. What size THHN copper conductors are required to supply an individual air-
conditioning unit with a branch-circuit selection current of 30 amps?
_____________ _____________ 35. What size THWN copper conductors are required for a feeder with the following
loads on a 208 volt, three-phase system:
denser fan rated at 3 amps
_____________ _____________ 36. What size THWN copper conductors are required for a feeder with the following
loads on a 208 volt, three-phase system:
denser fan rated at 3 amps
• Other loads of 80 amps (continuous)
_____________ _____________ 37. What size controller is required for an individual air-conditioning unit with a
compressor rated at 20 amps (BSCS) and the condenser fan rated at 2.5 amps
on a 230 volt, single-phase system?
_____________ _____________ 38. What size overload relay and fuses are required for an air-conditioning unit
with a compressor rated at 20 amps on a 240 volt, three-phase system?
_____________ _____________ 39. What is the maximum value for a THWN copper conductor ampacity for a 10
AWG branch-circuit conductor supplying an air-conditioning window unit?
_____________ _____________ 40. What is the maximum value for a THWN copper conductor ampacity for a 10
AWG branch-circuit conductor supplying an air-conditioning window unit with
other loads such as lighting and receptacle loads?
24-20
Annex
Troubleshooting
Tables
Qualified personnel with proper testing equipment and tools may use
the tables in this annex for troubleshooting problems related to motors,
controls, adjustable speed drives, and eddy-current drives. However, these
instructions do not cover all details or variations in equipment, nor do they
provide for every possible condition to be met in actual practice.
The following tables in this annex can be used for troubleshooting tips:
• Troubleshooting induction motors ...................................... Table 1

• Troubleshooting repulsion and universal motors ................ Table 2
• Troubleshooting wound-rotor motors ................................. Table 3
• Troubleshooting synchronous motors ................................ Table 4
• Troubleshooting eddy-current drives .................................. Table 5
• Troubleshooting adjustable speed drives ........................... Table 6
• Troubleshooting compressor motors .................................. Table 7
• Troubleshooting generators ............................................... Table 8
• Troubleshooting contactors and relays .............................. Table 9
• Troubleshooting dry type transformers ............................... Table 10
• Symbols and abbreviations ................................................ Table 11
• Determining FLC (in amps) of transformers and motors..... Table 12 A
• Determining LRC (in amps) based on the phases, HP and
Voltage of the motor......................................................... Table 12 B
• Determining the size overloads .......................................... Table 13
• Connection of starting on wye and running on
a delta and part winding motors ........................................ Table 14
• Troubleshooting procedures for determining why the
motor will not start and run...........................................................Table 15
• Troubleshooting solid state circuit boards............................ Page 23-25
A-II
TROUBLESHOOTING INDUCTION MOTORS
AC Single-Phase Motors
AC Three Motors
Phase With
Capacitor Capacitor Shaded
Motors Brushes
Split Phase Start Start & Run Poles
Symptoms What To Do
• Fails to start and run A, B, F, C A, B, F, H, C A, B, H, I, Q A, B, I, P, Q A. B, E A, B, L, M
• Motor does not always start, even
without a load. Runs forward or
in reverse when started by
manual means F, C F, H, C H, E E
• Starts and runs but heats very
rapidly G, D G, D H, D D D D
Stallcup’s® Generator, Transformer, Motor and Compressor
• Starts and runs but overheats D D H, D D D D

• Sparking and arcing at brushes J, K, L, M, N
• Severely high speed with
sparking at the brushes O
• Increase in amps and motor
overheats D, P, Q D, P, Q D, P, Q D, P, Q D, P, Q L, P, Q
• Motor blows OCPD and continues
to operate when switch is off D, R D, R D, R D, R D, R D, R
• Problems with vibration J, K, L, M, N, S
Possible Causes
A — Open circuit K — Commutator is dirty

B — Circuit open in motor winding (See Figure 15-4 in Chapter 15) L — Brushes are worn
C — Circuit open in starting winding M — Armature winding is shorted or open
D — Winding is short-circuited or grounded N — Brushes not aligned and set
E — More than one winding is open O — Shunt winding is open
F — Open contacts in centrifugal switch P — Problems with bearings
G — Centrifugal starting switch is not operating properly Q — Rotor problems
H — Capacitor is defective R — Winding is grounded
I — Motor is overloaded S — Armature winding is shorted
J — Problems between mica and commutator
TABLE 1
Annex
TROUBLESHOOTING REPULSION AND UNIVERSAL MOTORS

Symptoms What To Do
• Failure to start A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I J, K, L
• Excessive noise M, N, O, P, Q
• Bearings overheating P, Q, R, S, T, U, V, X, Y, Z, AA, BB
• Excessive brush wear CC, DD, EE, FF, GG, HH
• Overheating of motor II, JJ
• Commutator burned out KK, LL, MM, NN, OO
• Governor problems PP, QQ, RR, SS, TT, UU, VV, XX
Possible Causes
A — Blown fuse AA — Excessive end thrust

B — Circuit breaker open BB — Excessive side pull
C — Low voltage CC — Dirty commutator
D — No voltage DD — Improper contact with commutator
E — Open circuit EE — Excessive load
F — Improper line connections FF — Governor not acting promptly
G — Excessive load GG — High mica
H — Brushes are worn or sticking HH — Rough commutator
I — Brushes are incorrectly set II — Obstruction of ventilation system
K — Excessive end play JJ — Overloading
L — Bearings are frozen KK — Worn bearings
M — Unbalance conditions LL — Moisture
N — Bent shaft or loose parts MM — Acids or alkalies
O — Faulty alignment or worn bearings NN — Harmful dust accumulation
P — Dirt in air gap OO — Overloading
Q — Uneven air gap PP — Governor mechanism sticking
R — Motor needs oil QQ — Worn or sticking brushes
S — Dirty oil RR — Low frequency in supply circuit
T — Oil not reaching shaft SS — Low voltage
U — Excessive grease TT — Incorrect connections or
V — Excessive belt tension incorrect brush settings
X — Rough bearing surface UU — Excessive load
Y — Bent shaft VV — Incorrect spring tension
Z — Misalignment of shaft and bearing
TABLE 2
A-III
TROUBLESHOOTING WOUND-ROTOR MOTORS

Symptoms What To Do
• Failure to start A, B, C, D, E,
• Motor will not come up to speed F, G, H, I, J, K, L, M, BB, CC
• Excessive noise N, O, P, Q, R, S, T,
• Overheating of bearings U, V, W, X, Y, Z, AA
• Overheating of motor DD, EE
• Rotor or stator burned out FF, GG, HH, II
Possible Causes
A — Blown OCPD S — Dirt in air gap

B — Low or no AC field supply T — Uneven air gap
C — Bearings stuck or binding U — Motor needs oil
load V — Dirty oil
D — Open or shorted field W — Oil not reaching shaft
E — Open or shorted rotor X — Excessive grease
F — Broken slip rings Y — Rough bearing surface
G — Open control device Z — Bent shaft
H — Low AC supply voltage AA — Misalignment of shaft and
I — Binding load bearing
K — Insufficient oil or grease BB — Broken or chipped brushes
L — Low frequency in supply CC — Improper brush contact
circuit DD — Obstruction of ventilating
M — Dirt on slip rings system
N — Vibration EE — Overloading
O — Bent shaft FF — Worn bearings
P — Loose parts GG — Moisture
Q — Faulty alignment HH — Dust accumulation
R — Worn bearings
TABLE 3
A-IV
Annex
TROUBLESHOOTING SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS

Symptoms What To Do
• Motor will not start
and run A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J, K, L,
• Motor will not accelerate
to speed J, K, L, N
• Motor fails to pull into step M, L, N
• Motor pulls out of step or
trips OCPD O, P, Q, R, S, T, U, V
• Overheating W, X, Y
Possible Causes
A — Faulty connections O — Exciter voltage low

B — Open circuit on one circuit P — Open circuit in field
C — Short circuit on one phase and exciter circuit
D — Voltage falls too low Q — Short-circuit in field
E — Friction too high R — Reversed field
F — Field excited S — Load fluctuates widely
G — Too great of load T — Excessive torque peak
H — Automatic field relay U — Power fails
not working V — Line voltage too low
I — Wrong direction of rotation W — Overload condition
K — Low voltage X — Over or under excitation
L — Field excited Y — No field excitation
M — No field excitation
N — Inertia of load excessive
TABLE 4
A-V
TROUBLESHOOTING EDDY-CURRENT DRIVES

Symptoms What To Do
• Motor does not start A, B, C, D, E, F
• Motor runs but has no output S, T, U, V, W, X
• Drive stops during operation G, H, I, J ,K, L
• Unit overheats Y, Z, AA, BB, CC
• Erratic operation M, N, O, P, Q, R
• Runs at full speed only DD, EE, FF
• Magnetic drive at stand-still
or lower speed than expected
with the speed potentiometer
set at a higher speed GG, HH, II
• Magnetic drive set at 100%
speed with no control JJ, KK
• Magnetic drive has intermitten
speed up or slow down LL, MM, NN

Possible Causes
A — Loss of AC power CC — Brake not releasing or machine
B — Defective switch or breaker binding
C — Blown fuse DD — Controller malfunction, check
D — Motor starter not closing controller
E — Overload or safety interlock open EE — Loss of velocity feedback signal
F — Loose or incorrect wiring or (Tach. Gen. or Mag. Pickup)
defective motor FF — Mechanical lock up of clutch drum
G — Controller malfunction, check and rotor
controller GG — Possible stall conditions or overload
H — Drive is overloaded on the drive unit. Turn off control.
I — Safety interlock Check driven load for restriction or
K — Loose connection fault condition.
L — Open or defective clutch coil, HH — Possible open circuit in the drive unit
check brushes first field circuit. Check brushes and slip
M — Controller malfunction rings for continuity.
N — Velocity feedback malfunction II — Check output voltage to the drive unit.
(Tach. Gen. or Mag. Pickup If no or incorrect voltage check the
malfunction) silicon controller rectifiers (SCRs), if
O — Electric noise or radio frequency the gate pulse board is not sending
interference pulse to the SCRs, replace SCRs and
P — Loose wiring connection pulse board as needed.
Q — Contaminated slip rings JJ — If voltage to drive unit is correct, then
R — Sticking or worn out brushes check “Feedback” voltage from the
S — Check controller for input voltage tachometer generator (magnetic
T — Loose or incorrect wiring pickup).
U — Open safety interlock KK — Check pulse board and SCRs.
V — Brushes not making contact LL — Check brushes and collector rings on
W — Brake not releasing drive unit
X — Open or defective clutch coil MM — Check for loose or broken wires on
Y — Overload, check motor current the tachometer generator (or magnetic
Z — Operating below minimum speed pickup).
AA — Air passages blocked on magnetic NN — Check for proper adjustment of the
drive unit tach generator or magnetic pickup.
BB — Recirculating cooling air or ambient
temperature too high
TABLE 5
A-VI
Annex
TROUBLESHOOTING ADJUSTABLE SPEED DRIVES

Symptoms What To Do
• Overcurrent A, B, C, D
• Tachometer loss E, F, G, H, I, J, K, L, M, N
• Overspeed O, P, Q, R, S
• Field current loss T, U, V, W, X
• Sustained overload Y, Z, AA
• Blower motor starter open BB, CC, DD
• Open armature EE, FF, GG
• Motor thermostat trip HH, II, JJ, KK, LL, MM, NN, OO
• Controller thermostat trip PP, QQ, RR, SS
• AC line synchronization fault TT, UU, VV, WW, XX
Possible Causes
A — Incorrect armature current feedback CC — Disconnected, loosely connected, or
scaling damaged blower motor starter wiring
B — One or more thyristors not operating DD — Blower motor overload
C — Improper current minor loop tuning EE — Motor armature winding not connected
D — Motor armature winding damaged or open circuit
E — Tach coupling failure FF — Blown inverting fault (DC) fuse
F — Disconnected, loosely connected, or GG — Inverting fault breaker tripped
damaged tach wires HH — Damaged or disconnected motor ther-
G — Pulse tach supply voltage low mostat wiring
H — Incorrect tach polarity II — Inadequate ventilation
I — Incorrect analog tach scaling JJ — Blower motor failure
K — Motor armature winding not con- KK — Incorrect blower rotation
nected or open circuit LL — Blocked ventilation slots
L — Blown inverting fault MM — Clogged filters
M — Inverting fault breaker tripped NN — Excessive armature
N — Tachometer failure OO — One or more thyristors not operating
O — Incorrect tach scaling PP — Inadequate heat sink ventilation
P — Blown field supply QQ — Inadequate cabinet ventilation
Q — Improper speed loop tuning RR — Heat sink fan failure
R — Pulse tach quadrature set to ON for SS — Damaged or disconnected controller
a non-regenerative drive thermostat wiring
S — Incorrect pulse tach wiring TT — Blown AC line fuse(s)
T — Motor field wiring UU — AC line frequency not within required
U — Blown field supply fuse(s) range of 48 - 62 Hz
V — Blown AC line fuse(s) VV — Excessive AC line noise or distortion
W — Field supply failure WW— Unstable AC frequency
X — Disconnected, loosely connected, or XX — Disconnected, loosely connected, or
damaged wiring harness damaged J6 ribbon cable
Y — Incorrect armature current feedback
scaling
Z — Blown field supply fuse(s)
AA — Mechanical binding preventing the
motor shaft from rotating freely
BB — Blown blower motor starter fuse(s)
TABLE 6
A-VII
TROUBLESHOOTING COMPRESSOR MOTORS

Symptoms What To Do
• Compressor hums and fails
to start A, B, C, D, E, F
• Compressor hums and cycles
on overload protector, but fails
to start G, H, I, J
• Starting winding remains in circuit
after the compressor starts G, K, L, M, N
• Compressor starts but cycles
on overload F, G, M, O, P
Possible Causes
A — Disconnect switch is open J — Compressor motor is defective
B — Blown fuse or CB is open K — Starting relay is defective
C — Defective wiring L — Starting capacitor is weak
D — Overload protector is tripped M — Running capacitor is defective
E — Control contacts are open N — Compressor motor is defective
F — Overload protector is defective O — Compressor motor partially grounded
G — Low voltage P — Unbalanced line voltage (3Ø supply)
H — Starting capacitor is defective
I — Starting relay contacts are not
closing
TABLE 7
A-VIII
Annex
TROUBLESHOOTING GENERATORS
Symptoms What To Do
• Commutator A
• Armature B, C, G
• Brushes D, E, F
• Overloaded R
• Short circuit S
• Broken circuit T
• Open circuit G, H, I, J, K, L
• Excessive current
— in shunt winding
— in series winding U, V
Possible Causes
A — Check for worn-in grooves or ridges N — Check for a ground and leak from
out of round short-circuit on line
B — Check for short-circuit coils O — Check for a dead short circuit on
C — Check for broken coils line
D — Check setting at neutral points P — Check for excessive current
E — Check and verify if they are in line Q — Check for eddy currents
F — Check and verify if they are making R — Too many amps taken from machine
good contact S — Usually caused by dirt and such at
G — Check for broken wires commutator bars
H — Check for open switch T — Usually caused by a loose or broken band
I — Check for safety fuses melted or or wire, and such
broken U — Reduce speed and decrease voltage at
J — Check for faulty connections terminals
K — Check for external circuit opening V — By shunting, decrease current through
L — Check for brushes not in contact field (remove some of field winding)
M — Check for excessive loading
TABLE 8
A-IX
TROUBLESHOOTING CONTACTORS AND RELAYS

Symptoms What To Do
• Failure to energize A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J,
• Failure to deenergize K, O, P, Q
• Equipment fails to operate with
contactor closed L, M, N
• Pitted or discolored contacts R, S, T
• Chatter or humming contactor U, Z
• Coil has excessive temperature V, W, X, Y
Possible Causes
A — Blown fuse, open line switch, or O — Contacts in controlling or protective
break in wiring tripping circuits are closed, shorted,
B — Line voltage is below normal or shunted
C — Overload relay is open or set too low P — Tripping devices are defective, such as
D — Control lever or start button is in undervoltage relay plunger stuck or out of
OFF position adjustment, defective stop button, or
E — Pull-in circuit open, shorted, or defective time-relay
grounded Q — Contact pressure spring or armature
F — Contacts in protective or controlling spring is too weak or improperly adjusted
circuit open or a pigtail connection is R — Contacts are overheated from overload
broken S — Contacts are not fitted properly
G — Operating coil open or grounded T — Wiping action of contacts on closing is
circuit insufficient
H — Loose or disconnected coil wire U — Free movement of armature is hindered
I — Test coil and replace if necessary due to deformed parts, dirt, or lint
J — Normally closed contacts are welded V — Excessive current or voltage is measured
together W — Short circuit is found in coil
K — Normally opened contacts are X — Excessive eddy current and hysteresis is
welded together measured
L — One contact is not closing Y — High room temperature is detected
M — Contacts are burned Z — Voltage drop is measured at coil when
N — Contact pigtail connection is broken closing
TABLE 9
A-X
Annex
TROUBLESHOOTING DRY TYPE TRANSFORMERS

Symptoms What To Do
• Overheating A, B, C, D, E
• Cable overheating P
• Insulation is burned R, S, T
• Failure of insulation J, K, L, M, N
• Secondary voltage
is too high G
• CB is open or fuse is blown O
• Excessive vibration and noise Q
Possible Causes
A — Continuous overload problems M — Lightning surges are detected
B — Wrong external connections are N — High core temperature due to high input
found voltage or low frequency is measured
C — Poor ventilation is detected O — Short circuits, ground-faults, or overloads
D — High surrounding air temperatures are detected
are present P — Improperly bolted connections are found
E — Clogged air ducts or inadequate Q — Core clamps are loose or other loose
ventilation problems hardware is found on enclosure
F — Loose connections to transformer R — Lightning surge is found
terminal are found S — Switching or line disturbance is detected
G — Input voltage high or dirt accumula- T — Broken bushings are found
tions on primary terminal leads are
found
H — Terminal boards are not on correct
tap position
I — Coils are short-circuited
J — Continuous overloads are measured
K — Dirt accumulations are found on
coils
L — Mechanical damage is found
TABLE 10
A-XI
WIRING PROCEDURES
NOT
CONNECTED CONNECTED POWER CONTROL
CONTACT IDENTIFICATION
SPST – Single Pole SPST – Single Pole SPST – Single Pole
Single Throw Single Throw Double Throw
Single Double Single Double Single Double
Break Break Break Break Break Break
NO NO NC NC NC NC
DPST – Double Pole DPDT – Double Pole

Single Throw Double Throw
Single Double Single Double Single Double
Break Break Break Break Break Break
NO NO NC NC NC NC
IDENTIFICATION OF POWER CONDUCTORS & TERMINALS

Phases Single-phase Single-phase Three-Phase
Line Markings L1 L1, L2 L1, L2, L3
Terminal Markings T1 T1, T2 T1, T2, T3
WIRING METHODS
AC Armored Cable NMC Nonmetallic-Sheathed Cable
BX Trade Name for AC NPLFA Nonpower-Limited Fire Alarm Circuit
EMT Electrical Metallic Tubing OFNP Nonconductive Optical Fiber Plenum
ENT Electrical Nonmetallic Tubing Cable
FMC Flexible Metal Conduit PLFA Power-Limited Fire Alarm Circuit
ITC Instrument Tray Cable PLTC Power-Limited Tray Cable
IMC Intermediate Metal Conduit PVC Plastic Conduit
LTFMC Liquidtight Flexible Metal Conduit RMC Rigid Metallic Conduit
LTFNC Liquidtight Flexible Non-Metallic RNMC Rigid Nonmetallic Conduit
Conduit SE Service-Entrance Cable
MC Metal-Clad Cable SNM Shielded Nonmetallic Sheathed Cable
MI Mineral Insulated Metal-Sheathed TC Tray Cable
Cable USE Underground Service-Entrance Cable
NM Nonmetallic-Sheathed Cable
TABLE 11
A-XII
Annex
DETERMINING FLC (in amps) OF TRANSFORMERS AND MOTORS
AC MOTORS TRANSFORMERS
SINGLE-PHASE SINGLE-PHASE
FULL LOAD AMPERES
AMPERES
HP 115 V 208 V 230 V MIN. kVA
TRANSFORMER RATING 120 V 240 V 480 V 600 V
kVA
1 8.33 4.17 2.08 1.67
1/ 4.4 2.4 2.2 .53
6 1 1/2 12..5 6.25 3.13 2.50
1/ 5.8 3.2 2.9 .70 2 16.7 8.33 4.17 3.33
4
1/ 7.2 4.0 3.6 .87 3 25.0 12.5 6.25 5.00
3
5 41.7 20.8 10.4 8.33
1/ 9.8 5.4 4.9 1.18
2 7 1/2 62.5 31.3 15.6 12.5
3/ 13.8 7.6 6.9 1.66 10 83.3 41.7 20.8 16.7
4
15 125 62.5 31.3 25.0
1 16 8.8 8 1.92
20 167 83.3 41.7 33.3
1 1/2 20 11 10 2.4 25 208 104 52.1 41.7
2 24 13.2 12 2.88 30 250 125 62.5 50
3 34 18.7 17 4.1 37 1/2 313 156 78.0 62.5
50 417 208 104 83.3
5 56 30.8 28 6.72
75 625 313 156 125
7 1/2 80 44 40 9.6 100 833 417 208 167
10 100 55 50 12 150 1,250 625 313 250
167 1,392 696 348 278
200 1,667 833 417 333
THREE-PHASE
250 2,083 1,042 521 417
FULL LOAD AMPERES 333 2,775 1,388 694 555
HP 208 V 230 V 460 V 575 V MIN. 500 4,167 2,083 1,042 833
TRANSFORMER
kVA THREE-PHASE
1/ 2.4 2.2 1.1 0.9 0.9
2 AMPERES
3/ 3.5 3.2 1.6 1.3 1.2
4 kVA
1 4.6 4.2 2.1 1.7 1.5 RATING 120 V 240 V 480 V 600 V
1 1/2 6.6 6 3 2.4 2.1 3 8.3 7.2 3.6 2.9
2 7.5 6.8 3.4 2.7 2.7 6 16.6 14.4 7.2 5.8
3 10.6 9.6 4.8 3.9 3.8 9 25.0 21.6 10.8 8.7
5 16.7 15.2 7.6 6.1 6.3 15 41.6 36 18 14.4
7 1/2 24.2 22 11 9 9.2 20 55.6 48.2 24.1 19.3
10 30.8 28 14 11 11.2 25 69.5 60.2 30.1 24.1
15 46.2 42 21 17 16.6 30 83.0 72 36 28.8
20 59.4 54 27 22 21.6 37 1/2 104 90.3 45.2 36.1
25 74.8 68 34 27 26.6 45 125 108 54 43
30 88 80 40 32 32.4 50 139 120 60.2 48.2
40 114 104 52 41 43.2 60 167 145 72.3 57.8
50 143 130 65 52 52 75 208 180 90 72
60 169 154 77 62 64 100 278 241 120 96.3
75 211 192 96 77 80 112.5 312 270 135 108
100 273 248 124 99 103 150 415 360 180 144
125 343 312 156 125 130 200 554 480 240 192
150 396 360 180 144 150 225 625 540 270 216
200 528 480 240 192 200 300 830 720 360 288
250 — — 302 242 400 1,110 960 480 384
300 — — 361 289 500 1,380 1,200 600 480
350 — — 414 336 750 2,080 1,800 900 720
400 — — 477 382 1,000 2,780 2,400 1,200 960
450 — — 515 412 1,500 4,150 3,600 1,800 1,440
500 — — 590 472 2,000 5,540 4,800 2,400 1,920
TABLE 12 A
A-XIII
Maximum Locked-Rotor Current in

Amperes, Single Phase
Rated
Horsepower 115 Volts 208 Volts 230 Volts
1/2 58.8 32.5 29.4
3/4 82.8 45.8 41.4
1 96 53 48
1-1/2 120 66 60
2 144 80 72
3 204 113 102
5 336 186 168
7-1/2 480 265 240
10 1000 332 300
Maximum Motor Locked-Rotor Current in Amperes, Two- and Three-Phase, Design B, C, and D*
Rated 115 Volts 200 Volts 208 Volts 230 Volts 460 Volts 575 Volts
Horsepower
B, C, D B, C, D B, C, D B, C, D B, C, D B, C, D
1/2 40 23 22.1 20 10 8
3/4 50 28.8 27.6 25 12.5 10
1 60 34.5 33 30 15 12
1-1/2 80 46 44 40 20 16
2 100 57.5 55 50 25 20
3 ----- 73.6 71 64 32 25.6
5 ----- 105.8 102 92 46 36.8
7-1/2 ----- 146 140 127 63.5 50.8
10 ----- 186.3 179 162 81 64.8
15 ----- 267 257 232 116 93
20 ----- 334 321 290 145 116
25 ----- 420 404 365 183 146
30 ----- 500 481 435 218 174
40 ----- 667 641 580 290 232
50 ----- 834 802 725 363 290
60 ----- 1001 962 870 435 348
75 ----- 1248 1200 1085 543 434
100 ----- 1668 1603 1450 725 580
125 ----- 2087 2007 1815 908 726
150 ----- 2496 2400 2170 1085 868
200 ----- 3335 3207 2900 1450 1160
250 ----- ----- ----- ----- 1825 1460
300 ----- ----- ----- ----- 2200 1760
350 ----- ----- ----- ----- 2550 2040
400 ----- ----- ----- ----- 2900 2320
450 ----- ----- ----- ----- 3250 2600
500 ----- ----- ----- ----- 3625 2900
TABLE 12 B
A-XIV
Annex
The following table represents heater selection tables applicable to the overload relays used in Westinghouse Control
Centers.

Note:
When selecting heating coils based on “other

calculations,” see pages 19-1 and 19-2 in this

book.

TABLE 13
A-XV

TABLE 14
A-XVI
Annex
TROUBLESHOOTING PROCEDURES FOR

DETERMINING WHY THE MOTOR WILL NOT START AND RUN
1. Check to see if there is proper voltage going to L1 and L2 on the input board.
2. Check to see if there is proper voltage going to L1, L2, and L3 on the output board.
3. Check the output coming from the feedback board. If output is present, go to step 11.
4. Check the output coming from the input board. If output is present, go to step 8.
5. Check that the start/stop circuit works properly.
6. Check the input device for a proper signal going to input board.
7. Replace the input board. Problem should now be taken care of.
8. Check feedback device #1 for proper feedback.
9. Check feedback device #2 for proper feedback.
10. Replace the feedback board. Problem should now be take care of.
11. Check the output coming from the output board. if output is present, go to step 14.
12. Make sure there is power going to the output board.
13. Replace the output board.
14. Check if there is anything mechanically wrong with the system.
15. Replace the motor, if necessary.
TABLE 15
A-XVII
Abbreviations
A – amps
AC – alternating current
A/C – air conditioning
AEGCP – assured equipment grounding conductor program
AHJ – authority having jurisdiction
Alu. – aluminum
ASCC – available short–circuit current
AWG – American Wire Gauge
AXFMR – autotransformer
BC – branch circuit
BCSC – branch–circuit selection current
BJ – bonding jumper
BK – black
BL – blue
BR – brown
°C – Celsius
CB – circuit breaker
CEE – concrete–encased electrode
CL – code letter
CM – circular mills
CMP – Codemaking Panel
Comp. – compressor
Cond. – condenser
Cont. – continuous
cu. – copper
cu. in. – cubic inches
D K
dia. – diameter kFT – 1000’

DC – direct–current kV – kilovolts
DPCB – double pole circuit breaker kVA – kilovolt–amps
kvar – kilovar
E kW – kilowatts
kWH – kilowatt–hour
EBJ – equipment bonding jumper
Eff. – efficiency L
EGB – equipment grounding bar
EGC – equipment grounding conductor L – length of conductor
EMT – electrical metallic tubing Ld. – load
ENT or ENMT – electrical nonmetallic tubing LPB – lighting panelboard
Ex. – Exception LRA – locked rotor amps
EExde – increase safety LRC – locked–rotor current
Eexe – flameproof/increased safety components LTFMC – liquidtight flexible metal conduit
Epf – explosionproof LTR – long time rated
F M
°F – Fahrenheit MA – milli–amps
FLA – full–load amperage max. – maximum
FLC – full–load current
MEL – maximum energy level
FMC – flexible metal conduit
mf – microfarads
FPN – fine print note
MGFA – maximum ground–fault available
FREQ. – frequency
min. – minimum
ft – foot
min. – minute
MR – momentary rated
G
Mt. – motor
G – ground
N
GE – grounding electrode
GEC – grounding electrode conductor
N – neutral
GES – grounding electrode system
NACB – nonautomatic circuit breaker
GFL – ground–fault limiter NB – neutral bar
GFCI – ground–fault circuit interrupter NEC – National Electrical Code®
GFPE – ground–fault protection of equipment NEMA – National Electrical Manufacturers Association®
GR – green NFD – nonfused disconnect
GRY – gray NFPA – National Fire Protection Association®
GSC – Grounded service conductor NLTFMC – nonmetallic liquidtight flexible metal conduit
NTDF – nontime–delay fuse
H
O
H – hot conductor
HACR – heating, air conditioning, cooling, and refrigeration OCP – overcurrent protection
HP – horsepower OCPD – overcurrent protection device
Htg. – heating OL – overload
Hz – hertz OLP – overload protection
OLs – overloads
I OR – orange
OSHA – Occupational Safety and Health Administration
I – amperage or current
IEC – International Electrotechnical Commission P
IG – Isolated ground
in. – inches PF – power factor
INVT – inverse–time circuit breaker Ph. – phases (hots)
INST. CB – instantaneous trip circuit breaker pri. – primary
INTP – interpole PSA – power supply assembly
IRA – inrush amps PU – purple
ITSC – intrinsically safe circuits
A-XX
Annex
R – ohms or resistance
RD – red
REC. – receptacle
RMC – rigid metal conduit
SBS – structural building steel

SCC – short–circuit current
sec. – secondary
SDS – separately derived system
SF – service factor
SIA – seal–in amps
SP – single–pole
S/P – single–phase
SPCB – single–pole circuit breaker
sq. ft – square foot (feet)
sq. in. – square inches
SS – synchronous speed
STR – short–time rated
SWD – switched disconnect
SWG – switchgear
TDC – time–delay cycle

TDF – time–delay fuse
TDL – time–delay limiter
TP – thermal protector
TR – temperature rise
Tran. – transformer
TS – trip setting
TV – touch voltage
UF – underground feeder
V – volts
VA – volt–amps
VD – voltage drop
W – watts
WC – winding current
WT – white
WP – weatherproof
WV – winding voltage
XFMR – transformer
YEL – yellow
A-XXI
Glossary of Terms
Across-the-line starter is a device consisting of contactor and overload relay that is used to start an
electric motor by connecting it directly to the supply line.
Active power is the true electrical power or real power supplying the load.
Air gap is the air space between two electrically related parts such as the space between poles of a
magnet or poles in an electric motor.
Alternating current (AC) is the current in an electrical circuit that alternates in flowing, first with a positive
polarity and then with a negative polarity.
Alternator is a rotating machine whose output is AC.
Ambient conditions are the conditions of the atmosphere adjacent to electrical equipment.
Ambient temperature is the temperature of the surrounding atmosphere cooling medium, which comes
into contact with the heated parts of equipment.
Ambient temperature compensated is a device, such as an overload relay, which is not affected by
the temperature surrounding it.
Ampacity is the current, in amperes, that a conductor can carry continuously under the conditions of
use without exceeding its temperature rating.
Ampere is a unit of intensity of electrical current produced in a conductor by an applied voltage.
Ampere is an unit of measure for current flow. Note that one ampere equals a flow of one coulomb of
charge per second.
Apparatus is a set of control devices used to help perform the intended control functions, operating by
its own means.
Apparent power is the sum of active power and reactive power. It is determined by multiplying voltage
times current.
Arc-chute is a cover around contacts designed to protect Capacitor-start motor is an AC split-phase induction motor that
surrounding parts from arcing effects. has a capacitor connected in series with an auxiliary winding which
provides a way for it to start. This auxiliary circuit is designed to
Armature is a special designed rotor. disconnect to the motor when it reaches its speed.
Armature reaction is the reaction of the magnetic field produced Circuit is an electrical network of conductors that provides one or
by the current on the magnetic lines of force which are produced more paths for current.
by the field coil of an electric motor or generator.
Circuit breaker is a device designed to open and close a circuit
Automatic is a means of self acting that operates by its own either by a nonautomatic means or by an automatic means due
mechanism, such as a change in pressure or temperature. to a predetermined overload of current.
Automatic controller is a motor or other control mechanism which Combination starter is a magnetic starter having a manually
uses automatic pilot devices as activating devices. These devices operated disconnecting means built into the enclosure that houses
may be pressure switches, level switches, or thermostats. the magnetic contactor or starter.
Autotransformer starter is equipped with an autotransformer Commutator is a device which reverses the connections to the
designed to reduce the voltage to the motor terminals and reduce revolving loops on the armature.
the starting current. It will still start the motor.
Compensating windings are the windings embedded in the main
Auxiliary contacts are contacts in addition to the main-circuit pole pieces of a compound DC motor.
contacts and function with their movement.
Component is the smallest element of a circuit.
Auxiliary device is any device other than motors and motor
starters necessary to fully operate the machine or equipment. Contacts are connecting parts which co-act with other parts to
connect or disconnect a circuit.
Auxiliary interlock: Contactor is a electromechanical device for connecting and

disconnecting an electric power circuit.
• Mechanical – A physical device or arm so arranged that it
cannot close both starter circuits at the same time. Control is a device or group of devices used in some predetermined
manner to govern the electric power delivered to an apparatus.
• Electrical – An additional contact mounted on the side of a
magnetic starter. Control circuit carries the signals directing the performance of
the controller.
B Control circuit transformer is a control circuit transformer utilized

to supply a reduced voltage suitable for the operation of control
Bearings are devices used to support the motor shaft; they allow devices.
it to rotate smoothly.
Control circuit voltage is the control circuit voltage providing the
Bimetallic disc is a disc made up of two strips of dissimilar metals operation to the coils of magnetic devices.
combined to form a single strip.
Control, three-wire is a control function which utilizes a momentary
Branch circuit is that portion of a wiring system extending beyond contact pilot device and a holding circuit contact to provide voltage
the final overcurrent device protecting the circuit. to the coil of a controller. The holding circuit maintains the control
circuit voltage.
Breakdown torque is the maximum torque that a motor develops
under increasing load conditions at rated voltage and frequency Control, two-wire is a control function which utilizes a maintained
without an sudden drop in rotating speed. contact type pilot device to provide undervoltage release.
Brushes are sliding contacts, usually made of carbon, which Controller is a device, or group of devices, that is used in some
are located between a commutator and the outside circuit in a predetermined manner to connect and disconnect the electric
generator or motor. power delivered to the apparatus.
Copper loss is the electrical power lost through the resistance of

the coils due to the current flowing through the wire of the coils.
C
Core is the magnetic path through the center of the coil or the
Capacitance is the ability to store electricity in an electrostatic field. transformer.
Capacitor is a device that is designed to introduce capacitance Core losses are the losses of power in the coil (core) due to eddy
into an electric circuit. currents and hysteresis.
A-XXIV
Glossary
Core transformer is an electrical transformer with the core inside Electron flow is the flow of electrons from a negative point to a
of the coils. positive point in a conductor.
Counterelectromotive force is the voltage induced in the Electrostatic charge is the electrical charge stored by a capacitor.
armature coil of an electric motor.
Electrostatic field is the stored electrical charge on the surface
Counter torque is a repulsion force between two magnetic fields. of an insulator.
Excitation is creating a magnetic field to be used to create

D electromagnetics when an electric current is passed through a coil.
Delta-delta connected is a coil connection in which the primary

and secondary coils are delta connected. F
Delta-wye connected is a connection in which the primary are Feeder is the conductors between the service equipment and the
delta connected while the secondary windings are wye connected. branch-circuit overcurrent device.
Diagram shows the electrical connection between the parts of the Float switch is a switch operated by a float and is responsive for
control, and external connections. the level of liquid.
Direct-current (DC) is a current that always flows in only one Foot switch is a switch suitable for operation by an operator’s foot.
direction.
Frequency is the rate at which AC changes its direction of flow;
Disconnect means is a motor circuit switch intended to connect it is normally expressed in terms of hertz (cycles) per second.
and disconnect a circuit to a motor. It must be rated in horsepower
and capable of interrupting the maximum current. Fuse is an overcurrent protection device with a circuit opening
fuseable member that opens when overheated by current passing
through it.
E
G
Eddy currents are the electrical currents circulating in the core
of a transformer as the result of induction. Gate is one of the leads on a thyristor. This lead is the one that
normally controls output when it is correctly biased.
Efficiency is the ratio of output power (watts) to input power
(watts). Generator is a rotating machine that changes mechanical energy
into DC.
Electric motor is a machine that converts electrical energy to
mechanical energy. Generator action induces voltage into a wire that cuts a magnetic
field.
Electricity is electrical charges in motion. Such movement is called
current and is measured in amps. Ground is any point on a motor component at which the ohmic
resistance between the component and the motor frame is one
Electrolytic capacitor is a capacitor that uses a liquid or past as megaohm or less.
one of its electrical storage plates.
Guarded is covered, shielded, fenced, enclosed, or otherwise
Electromagnet is a magnet comprised of a coil of wire wound protected by means of suitable covers or casings, barriers, rails or
around a soft-iron core. When current is passed through the wire, screens, mats or platforms, removing the likelihood of dangerous
a magnetic field is produced. contact or approach by persons or objects to a point of danger.
Electromagnet is a temporary magnet created by passing an

electric current through a coil wound around a soft iron or other H
magnetic core.
Hermetic refrigerant motor compressor is a combination
Electromagnetism is a magnetic field that exists around a wire consisting of a compressor and motor, both of which are enclosed
or other conductor if a current is passing through it. in the same housing, with no external shaft or shaft seals, the motor
operating in the refrigerant.
Electromechanical is a device that uses electrical energy to create
mechanical motion of force. Hertz is a measurement of frequency and it actually means cycles
per second of AC.
Electromotive force is a voltage or force that causes free
electrons to move in a conductor. High side marking in a transformer indicates the high-voltage
winding.
Electron is a negative electric charge.
A-XXV
Horsepower is a unit of measure for power and it represents the Locked-rotor current of a motor is taken from the line when the
force times distance times time. For example, one horsepower (HP) motor starts or the rotor becomes locked in place.
equals 746 watts, or 33,000 ft lb per minute, or 550 ft lb per second.
Hysteresis is the property of a magnetic substance that causes Low side in a transformer, this marking indicates the low-voltage
the magnetization to lag behind the magnetizing force. winding.
I M
Impedance is the total opposition to current flow in a circuit and Magnetic drive (magnetic clutch) is an electromagnetic device
is measured in ohms. that is connected between a three-phase motor and its load. Its
main purpose is regulating the speed at load rotated speed.
Induced current is the current that flows in a conductor because
of a changing magnetic field. Magnetic fields are the invisible lines of force found between the
north and south poles of a magnet.
Inductance is electromotive force that results from a change in
magnetic flux surrounding a circuit or conductor. Magnetic lines of force in a magnetic field are imaginary lines
that show the direction of the magnetic flux.
Induction is the generation of electricity by magnetism.
Magnetic starter is actuated by an electro-magnetic means.
Inductive reactance is the opposition in ohms to an AC as a
result of induction. This is voltage resulting from cutting lines of Maintained contacts close the circuit when the push button is
magnetic force. pressed and will open the circuit when the push button is pressed
again.
Interlock is an electrical or mechanical device actuated by the
operation of a different device in which it is directly related. Manual controller is a device that is manually closed or opened.
Intermittent duty is a requirement or service that demands Manual reset is a device that requires manual action to re-engage
operations for alternate intervals of (1) load and no load; or (2) the contacts after an overload.
load and rest; or (3) load, no load, and rest; such alternate intervals
being definitely specified. Megaohm is one million ohms.
Inverter is a circuit capable of receiving a positive signal and sends Motor action is the mechanical force that exist between magnets.
out a negative one or vice versa. It is a device that changes AC Two magnets approaching each other will either pull toward or
to DC or vice versa. push away from the other. In other words, there is a pull and push
action between the rotor and field poles of the motor.
Isolating transformer is used to electrically isolate one circuit
from another. Multi-speed motor is a motor capable of operating at two or more
fixed speeds.
Jogging is the rapid and repeated opening and closing of the N

circuit to start a motor from rest for the purpose of creating small
movements of the motor or driven load. NEMA (National Electrical Manufacturers Association) is an
organization that establishes certain voluntary standards relating
to motors such as operating characteristics, terminology, basic
K dimensions, ratings, and testing.
kVA is the term used to rate transformers. No-load speed is the speed reached by the rotor or armature
when it rotates.
kvar is the reactive power in a circuit.
Nonautomatic requires personal action and operation of devices
kW is used to rate the load of certain types of equipment and such. for its control means.
Nonreversing is a control function that provides for operation in

L one direction only.
Lamination consist of sheet material sandwiched together to Normally open and normally closed is a term that when applied
construct a stator or rotor of a rotating machine. to a magnetically operated switching device, signifies the position
that the contacts are in.
Limit switch is operated by a part or motion of a power-driven
piece of equipment. Such operation alters the electric or electronic Normally closed contacts are motor control contacts (set) that
circuits related to the equipment. are open when the push button is depressed.
A-XXVI
Glossary
Normally open contacts are contacts (set) that are closed when Power factor is the figure that indicates what portion of the current
the push button is depressed. delivered to the motor is used to do work.
Primary coil is one of two coils in a transformer.
O
Prime mover is the primary power source that can be used to
Ohm is a unit of electrical resistance of a conductor. drive a generator.
Out-of-phase is a condition in which two or more phases of AC Pull-in to torque is the maximum torque at which an induction
are changing direction at different intervals of time. motor will pull into step.
Overexcited is a condition in which a synchronous motor is Pull-out torque is the maximum torque developed by a motor for
equipped with a DC field that supplies more magnetization than one minute, before it pulls out of step due to an overload.
is needed.
Pull-up torque is the minimum torque developed by an induction
Overload protector is a device affected by an abnormal operating motor during the period of acceleration from rest to full speed.
condition that causes the interruption of current flow to the device
governed. Push button control is the control and operation of equipment
through push buttons used to activate relays.
Overload relay is a device that provides overload protection for
conductors and electrical equipment. Push button switch is a switch utilizing a button for activating a
coil and contact to open or close a circuit.
Overcurrent protective device (OCPD) is a device that operates
on excessive current that causes the interruption of power to the
circuit if necessary. R
Rainproof is an enclosure constructed to prevent rain from

P interfering with operation of the apparatus.
Parallel circuit is a circuit in which all positive terminals are Raintight is an enclosure constructed to exclude rain under
connected at a common point and all negative terminals are specified test conditions.
connected to another point.
Rated-load current is the load rated-load current for a hermetic
Periodic duty is a type of intermittent duty in which the load refrigerant motor-compressor if the current resulting when the
conditions are regularly recurrent. motor-compressor is operated at the rated load, rated voltage,
and rated frequency of the equipment it serves.
Permanent-capacitor motor is a single-phase electric motor that
uses a phase winding and capacitor in conjunction with the main Rating is a designated limit of operating characteristics based
winding. The phase winding is controlled by the capacitor, which on conditions of use such as load, voltage, frequency, and so on.
remains in the circuit at all times.
Rating, continuous is the rating that defines the substantially
Permanent magnetism is magnet that will keep its magnetic constant load that can be carried for an indefinitely long time.
properties indefinitely.
Reactive power is the reactive voltage times the current, or voltage
Permeability is a condition in which domains in a magnetic core times the reactive current, in an AC circuit.
can be made to line up to create magnetism.
Rectifier is an electrical device that converts AC to DC by allowing
Phase is the relationship of two wave forms that have the same the current to move in only one direction.
frequency.
Relay is a device that operates by a variation of a condition that
Phase angle is the difference in angle between two sine wave affects the operation of other devices in an electric circuit.
vectors.
Relay contacts are closed or opened by movement of a relay
Phase shift is the creation of a lag or advance in voltage or current armature.
in relation to another voltage or current in the same electrical circuit.
Reluctance is the ratio between the magnetomotive force and
Phase voltage is the voltage across a coil. the resulting flux.
Polarity is a condition in which a magnet has north and south Reset is to restore a mechanism or device to a prescribed state.
poles that are positive and negative charge.
Reset, automatic is a function that operates automatically to
Polyphase is more than one phase, usually three-phase, when reestablish certain circuit conditions.
related to generators, transformers, and motors.
Reset, manual is a function that requires a manual operation to
Pounds force is an English unit of conventional measurement reestablish certain circuit conditions.
for force.
A-XXVII
Residual magnetism is the magnetism remaining in the core of a Shaded-pole motor is a single-phase squirrel cage induction
coil or an electromagnet after the current flow has been removed. motor with stator poles slotted and used to create two sections
in each pole.
Resistance is a property of conductors that makes them resist
the movement of current flow. Shading coil is a copper ring or coil that is set into a section of
the pole piece and its function is to produce the lagging part of a
Resistance starting is a reduced-voltage starting method rotating magnetic field for starting torque.
employing resistances that are short-circuited in one or more steps
to complete the starting cycle of a motor, and such. Short is any two points of a motor with zero, or extremely low,
resistance between them or between two motor components.
Resistors are electrical-electronic devices which are attached to
a circuit to produce resistance to current flow. Short-time rating is referring to the motor load that can be carried
for a short and definitely specified time.
Rheostat is a variable resistor with a fixed terminal and a movable
contact. Shunt field is a type of field coil designed for a DC motor that is
connected in parallel with the armature.
Rotor is the rotating section that rotates within the stator of a motor.
Silicon-controlled rectifier (SCR) is a semiconductor device that
Rotor impedance is the phasor sum of resistance and inductive has the ability to block a voltage that is applied in either direction.
reactance. On a signal applied to its gate, it is capable of conducting current
even when the signal has been removed.
RPM is the revolutions per minute.
Single-phase is having only one AC or voltage in a circuit.
Running torque is the torque or turning effort determined by the
horsepower and speed of a motor at any given point of operation. Slip is the difference between the synchronous speed of a motor
and the speed at which it operates.
S Slip-ring motor has a rotor with the same number of magnetic

poles at the stator.
Saturated is when an electrical or magnetic component cannot
receive any more electrical current or magnetism. Slip rings are equipped with circular bands on a rotor which are
used to transmit current from rotor coils to brushes.
Saturation is a point at which a magnet will not receive any more
flux density. Slip speed is the difference between the rotor speed and
synchronous speed in an induction motor.
Sealing, voltage or current is the voltage or current required
to seat the armature of a magnetic circuit closing device to the Soft neutral position is a condition in which the brushes of a
make position. repulsion electric motor are aligned with the stator field.
Secondary coil is the coil that is connected to the load in the Solid state devices contain circuits and components using
electrical circuit. semiconductors.
Service factor is the number by which the horsepower rating is Solid state controls are devices that control current to motors
multiplied to determine the maximum safe load that a motor can through semiconductors.
carry continuously at its rated voltage and frequency.
Solid state relay uses semiconductor devices.
Self excitation is a condition of supplying excitation voltages by
a device on the generator rather than from an outside source. Split-phase (resistance-start) motor is a single-phase induction
motor equipped with an auxiliary winding connected in parallel
Self induction is a counterelectromotive force produced in a with the main winding.
conductor when the magnetic field produced by the conductor
collapses or expands after a change in current flow. Squirrel-cage rotor is designed with a rotor made up of metal
bars that are short-circuited at each end.
Separate excitation is a condition of producing generator field
current from an independent source. Starter is a controller for accelerating a motor from rest to its
running speed.
Series circuit is a circuit in which all resistances and other
components are connected so that the same current flows from Starter, automatic is a starter that automatically controls the
starting of a motor.
point to point.
Starter, autotransformer is a starter which is provided with an
Series field is the total magnetic flux caused by the action of the
autotransformer that provides a reduced voltage for starting.
series winding in a rotating piece of machine.
Stall torque of an energized motor produces when the rotor is
Series motor is a motor in which the field and armature circuits
not rotating.
are connected in series.
A-XXVIII
Glossary
Starter, part-winding applied voltage to partial sections of the T

primary winding of an AC motor.
Tachometer is a device that is capable of measuring rotational
Starter, reactor includes a resistor that is connected in series speed of rotating machines.
with the primary winding of an induction motor to provide reduced
voltage for starting. Tap changer is a mechanical device that has the ability to change
the voltage output of a transformer.
Starter, wye-delta connects the motor leads in a wye configuration
for reduced voltage starting and reconnects the leads in a delta Taps are fixed electrical connections located at specific positions
configuration for the run position. on a transformers coil.
Starting torque is the amount of torque produced by a motor Temperature, ambient is the temperature of the medium such as
as it breaks the motor shaft from standstill and accelerates to its air, oil, and such into which the heat of the equipment is dissipated.
running speed.
Terminal is a point at which an electrical element may be
Static electricity is electricity at rest. It is also known in the industry connected to another electrical element.
as a static charge.
Terminal board is an insulating base equipped with one or more
Stator is the portion that contains the stationary parts of the terminal connectors used for making electrical connections.
magnetic circuit with associated windings when installed in a motor.
Thermal, cutout is an overcurrent protective device having a
Stator field contains a magnetic field set up in the electric motor heater element that affects a fusible member that opens, the circuit
when the motor is energized and electric current is flowing. due to an overload.
Stator poles are the shoes on an electric motor stator that hold Thermal protector is a protective device that is an integral part of
the windings and the magnetic poles of the stator. the motor designed to protect the motor windings from dangerous
overloads.
Switch is a device for making, breaking, or changing the
connections in an electric circuit. Thermocouple is a device that consists of two unlike metals joined
together, and when heat is applied, a current will flow.
Switch, float is responsive to the level of a liquid.
Thermostat is an instrument that responds to changes in
Switch, foot is a switch that is operated by an operator’s foot. temperature to effect control over an operating condition.
Switch, general-use is a general-use type non-horse rated switch Three-phase alternator is a rotating machine that generates three
capable of interrupting the rated current at the rated voltage. separate phases of AC.
Switch, limit is operated by some part or motion that alters the Three-phase electric motor is a motor that operates from a
electrical circuit associated with the equipment. three-phase power supply.
Switch, master controls the operation of contactors, relays, or Timer is a device designed to delay the closing or opening of a
other similar operated devices. circuit for a specific period of time.
Switch, motor circuit is rated in horsepower, and is capable of Torque is a force that produces a rotating or twisting action.
interrupting the maximum operating current of the motor.
Torque, breakdown is the maximum torque that a motor develops
Switch, pressure is operated by fluid pressure and such. with rated voltage when applied at rated frequency.
Switch, selector is a manually operated multiposition switch that Torque, locked rotor is the minimum torque that a motor develops
is used for selecting an alternative control circuit. at standstill when rated voltage is applied at rated frequency.
Synchronous is a condition in which the currents and voltages Transformer is an device designed to change the voltage in an
are in-step or in-phase. AC electrical circuit. Step-up transformers increase the voltage and
lower the current. Step-down transformers decrease the voltage
Synchronous motor is an induction motor that runs at and raise the current.
synchronous speed.
Transformer efficiency is the ratio of input to output power.
Synchronous speed is the constant speed to which an AC motor
adjusts itself, depending on the frequency of the power source and Turns ratio is the ratio of the number of turns in the primary winding
the number of poles in the motor. of a transformer to the number of turns in the secondary winding.
Two-capacitor motor is an induction motor that uses one capacitor

for starting and one for running.
A-XXIX
Under excited is a term used to describe the magnetizing power

of synchronous motor.
Undervoltage protection is a device that operates on the

reduction or failure of voltage and has the ability to maintain the
interruption of power.
Undervoltage release is a device that operates on the reduction

or failure of voltage and has the ability to interrupt the power but
not to prevent the reestablishment of the circuit.
Unity power factor is a power factor of 1, and this is the best PF

that can be obtained in an electrical system.
V
V
Vector is an in-phasor diagram having lines with a specific length

and direction.
Voltage is a force that, when applied to a conductor, produces a

current in the conductor.
Watt is a unit of electrical power and is the product of voltage and

amperage.
Wattmeter is an instrument used for measuring electrical power.
Wye or star connection is an electrical connection in which all of

the terminals are joined at the neutral junction. After it is connected
it resembles a wye connection.
Wye-wye connection is the coil arrangement in which both the

primary and the secondary coils are wye-connected.
A-XXX

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Part II: Transformers

Part III: Motors

Part II. TRANSFORMERS

Part III. MOTORS

For example, generators can be utilized as emergency systems, standby

A portable generator can provide power for construction, remodeling, maintenance,

Magnetism is one of the fundamental forces involved in the use of electricity.

 Figure 1-2. The above illustrates a permanent magnet,

 When a current-carrying conductor is formed into a loop,

 For example, one side of the loop will be a north

Theory Tip: When a coil is grasped in the left hand with

Figure 1-4. The magnetic lines of force between the poles  

An electric current flowing through a conductor creates a 

ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION  

tive movement between a conductor and a magnetic field,

ALTERNATING-CURRENT (AC) POWER

Figure 1-10(a). The above illustrates the most popular

Figure 1-11. The above illustrates the different types of

Chapter 1: Magnetism and Electromagnetism

The conversion of mechanical to electrical energy occurs in the generator

BASIC OPERATION OF GENERATORS

As the armature rotates in the field, a voltage is generated

Figure 2-1. The above illustrates an armature rotating

 By this operation, current flows out of the exciter armature

As an armature revolves in a DC generator, the armature

The effect of this procedure produces an increase in the

Another method is to place the commutating poles in the

   

Figure 2-6. The above illustrates the use of interpoles

conductors, no lines of force are intersecting the conductors 

One complete revolution of the rotor through 360 degrees   

is considered one cycle.  

See Figure 2-7 for a detailed illustration of a two-pole

 Figure 2-8. The above illustrates two- and four-pole

THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A

For example, a generator is a machine that

TYPICAL SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR GENERATOR EXCITERS

TYPICAL SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR 

induction generators must always operate in parallel with 

A typical induction generator is essentially the same as that 

GAS TURBINE ENGINES

COMPONENTS OF AN Adequate pressure is applied at intervals during the stacking

MECHANICAL COMPONENTS 

(2) The core,  

The stator frame, called the housing, is fabricated from steel

The stator core is basically built up of low-loss segmental WYE-CONNECTED SYSTEMS

Figure 2-16. The above illustrates a generator that has its

 This type of construction is utilized in high-speed generators.

cycle. In other words, air passes through only one time.

Generator Tip: This type of cooling system sometimes

   

Figure 2-19. The above shows a generator engine cooled

Note, a source of cooling water must be pumped through

GAS-TO-WATER HEAT EXCHANGER

STATIC EXCITATION 

Figure 1-2. The above illustrates a permanent magnet,

When a current-carrying conductor is formed into a loop,

For example, one side of the loop will be a north

Figure 1-4. The magnetic lines of force between the poles

An electric current flowing through a conductor creates a

ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

By this operation, current flows out of the exciter armature

conductors, no lines of force are intersecting the conductors

One complete revolution of the rotor through 360 degrees

is considered one cycle.

Figure 2-8. The above illustrates two- and four-pole

TYPICAL SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR

induction generators must always operate in parallel with

A typical induction generator is essentially the same as that

MECHANICAL COMPONENTS

(2) The core,

This type of construction is utilized in high-speed generators.

STATIC EXCITATION

1. A prime mover can be _. _ _____

8. A typical synchronous generator consists of field windings supplied by DC _ _

445.13, Ex.

For example, a generator with 100 amp output shall

GUARDS FOR ATTENDANTS

DISCONNECTING MEANS REQUIRED

2. Two-wire, DC generators shall be permitted to have overcurrent protection _ _

inadvertent parallel operations are to be avoided.

PART III – LEGALLY REQUIRED

INSIDE FACILITY

OVERCURRENT PROTECTION

source equipment where removal of a grounding or bonding

LOAD MANAGEMENT

the connectged load, the standby source shall have a