Jurnal Senam Lantai
Jurnal Senam Lantai
Jurnal Senam Lantai
Science of Gymnastics Journal is supported by Foundation for financing sport organisations in Slovenia,
Slovenian Research Agency and International Gymnastics Federation.
SCIENCE OF GYMNASTICS JOURNAL Vol. 7 Issue 1: 2015
CONTENTS
Paschalis Kirialanis
George Dallas
Allessandra di Cagno KNEE INHURIES AT LANDING AND
Giovanni Fiorilli TAKE OFF PHASE IN GYMNASTICS 17
Mahammad Mehrtash
Hadi Rohani THE EFFECTS OF 6 MONTHS SPECIFIC AEROBIC
Esmail Farzaneh GYMNASTIC TRAINING ON MOTOR ABILITIES
Rasoul Nasiri IN 10 – 12 YEARS OLD CHILDREN 51
Damian Jeraj
Linda Hennig
David Schmidt-Maaß BOOK REVIEW: THE SCIENCE OF GYMNASTICS 69
Natalie Durand-Bush
Jean Côté
Gordon Bloom JOHN H. SALMELA, Ph.D. A CELEBRATION OF LIFE 77
1
18-20th of June 2015
Organizers:
Prezydent
Miasta Sopotu
Jacek Karnowski
MEDIA PATRONAGE:
SCIENCE OF GYMNASTICS JOURNAL Vol. 7 Issue 1
2015
EDITORIAL
Dear friends,
We are entering into the 7th year of publishing our journal. Up until this issue, 91 original
scientific articles and 6 review articles have been published. With this issue (17 th) we cross the
threshold of 100 published articles which is quite a significant number for a highly specialized
journal. For this year it is our plan again to publish 20 articles. Our journal has been recently
entered into the ErihPlus data base for humanities and social sciences. The process of evaluation
took more than half a year but was successfully completed.
Just after we published last issue, sad news came from Brazil. Our friend, who dedicated his life
to gymnastics and science, John H. Salmela passed away. In his memory his friends Natalie
Durand-Bush, Jean Côté, Gordon Bloom wrote John H. Salmela, Ph.D, Celebration of life.
The first article in the current issue is by Pia M. Vinken (Germany). She explores short term
effects of elastic taping on gymnast's performance. Please take note and transfer her results to
practice: for healthy gymnasts, taping has no use.
The second article is also medical in content. It was written by Greek Italian authors Paschalis
Kirialanis, George Dallas, Allessandra Di Cagno and Giovanni Fiorilli and deals with knee
injuries at the landing and take -off phases. Most common causes of injury seem to be landings
in floor exercises and take-offs in vaulting.
The third article is again from Germany. Damian Jeraj and Thomas Heinen conducted a research
of coaches manual guidance techniques. They discovered that timing is much more important
than the angle or the force the coach uses.
The forth article by Petr Hedbávný and Miriam Kalichová of the Czech Republic looks at how
to optimize velocity on Yurchenko vault. As it is currently performed by both man and women
it may be interesting to coaches of artistic gymnastics.
In this issue we have another article from Asia (two articles by authors from China have already
been published): more specifically, from Iran, where Mahammad Mehrtash, Hadi Rohani,
Esmail Farzaneh and Rasoul Nasiri monitored effects of six months of specific aerobic
gymnastics training on motor abilities of 10-12-year-old boys.
The sixth article is about judging and is contributed by the author of these lines who conducted a
research study on reliability and validity of spectators judging along with professional judges.
The results are surprising and show that it may be possible to include spectators into the judging
process.
The seventh article is a review of book 'Science of Gymnastics' written by German authors
Damian Jeraj, Linda Hennig and David Schmidt-Maaß. In previous issues we presented lists of
new books on the market; this issue features our first book review.
3
SCIENCE OF GYMNASTICS JOURNAL Vol. 7 Issue 1
2015
Finally, Anton Gajdoš prepared for Short Historical Notes II a memo about three excellent
gymnasts: Larisa Latynina, Vera Časlavska and Viktor Čukarin.
Just to remind you, if you quote the Journal: its abbreviation on the Web of Knowledge is SCI
GYMNASTICS J. I wish you pleasant reading and a lot of inspiration for new research projects
and articles,
Ivan Čuk
Editor-in-Chief
4
Vinken M.P. SHORT-TERM EFFECTS OF ELASTIC TAPING ON GYMNAST'S Vol. 7 Issue 1: 5 -
Pia M. Vinken
Original
article
Abstract
It was explored whether three different applications of elastic tape on the lower limbs of
active, healthy gymnasts influence their vertical jumping performance. 16 gymnasts randomly
performed drop jumps, squat jumps, and counter movement jumps on a force platform in four
experimental conditions: 1. no tape application, 2. rectus femoris tape application, 3. triceps
surae tape application, and 4. sham tape application. Five task-relevant parameters were
calculated in order to represent vertical jumping performance in the three vertical jumping
tasks: 1) contact time during take-off phase, 2) peak vertical force during take-off phase, 3)
flight duration, 4) peak vertical impact force during landing phase, and 5) time to peak vertical
impact force during landing phase. A decrease in flight duration during drop jumping, and
counter movement jumping appeared when elastic tape was applied. During drop jumping
gymnasts’ flight duration decreased when elastic tape was applied to the triceps surae muscle.
During counter movement jumping gymnasts’ flight duration decreased when elastic tape was
applied on the rectus femoris muscles. It is concluded that there is no apparent beneficial need
for active, healthy gymnasts to apply elastic tape in order to enhance vertical jumping
performance.
INTRODUCTION
The implementation of elastic tape application of elastic tape on the lower limb
straps in the applied sport became quite may influence vertical jumping
apparent in the last few years. The primary performance. To approach this, three
aim in using these tape straps is to support different applications of elastic tape at the
muscle functioning, when athletes are lower limb were examined to influence
suffering from an injury, or in case of vertical jumping performance in three
restricted muscle functioning due to overuse different jumping tasks.
and/or harm. However, elastic tape straps There are several conceptualizations for
may also be used in terms of prevention, or the cotton elastic tape straps in sport science
even performance enhancement when and related fields. These conceptualizations
muscle functioning is not restricted are kinesio tape (O’Sullivan & Bird, 2011;
(Kumbrink, 2012). Therefore, the aim of Williams, Whatman, Hume, & Sheerin,
this study was to explore whether the 2012), kinaesthetic tape (Bassett, Lingman,
& Ellis, 2010), and elastic tape (Huang, (Fu et al., 2008), isokinetic quadriceps
Hsieh, Lu, & Su, 2011). There are also femoris muscle strength, lower limb
specific brand names, such as Kinesio Tape, performance and subjective perception of
K-Tape , Kintex , or alike. In this strength (Vercelli et al., 2012),
manuscript the term elastic tape is used, tensiomyographic response of vastus
referring to tape straps that can be stretched lateralis and medialis muscles, maximum
longitudinally up to 120-140% of their power output, performance of counter
original length, and shorten after they were movement jump and 10-m-sprint (De Hoyo,
attached to the skin (Halseth, McChesney, Álvarez-Mesa, Sañudo, Carrasco, &
DeBelsio, Vaughn, & Lien, 2004). Domínguez, 2013) as well as during
Elastic taping is hypothesized in sport measurements of vertical and horizontal
prevention and sport rehabilitation to jumping performance and dynamic balance
improve body functioning when for instance (Nunes, de Noronha, Cunha, Ruschel, &
dealing with pain, blood and lymph flow, Borges 2013).
sensory perception, as well as joint, muscle, Inconclusive evidence concerning
and fascia functioning (Kase, Wallis, & performance related effects of elastic taping
Kase, 2003). However, a systematic review might in part be explained by
conducted on the use and treatment efficacy methodological differences between the
of elastic taping highlights, that the studies just mentioned, like for instance
reviewed articles neither indicated a clinical differences in tape application procedures,
significance of elastic tapingonpain participant characteristics, measurement
reduction (shoulder and neck), scapular procedures, or empirical tasks. Given that
kinematics, muscle strength, elastic taping is likely to influence vertical
electromyographic activity, nor on cervical jumping performance (Huang et al., 2011;
range of motion. It is argued that the Mostert -Wentzel et al., 2012) this may be
discussed studies failed to report significant of special, practical interest when the
effects mainly due to insufficient experimental tasks implemented cover the
methodological quality (Bassett et al., requirements of the sporting event.
2010). Nevertheless, a meta-analysis Compared to other sport disciplines like
concerning the use of elastic taping in team sports, combat sports, swimming and
treatment and prevention of sport injuries track and field, the jumping performance in
indicated that elastic taping could have a artistic gymnastics training and competition
small, yet beneficial effect on muscle is quite manifold and requires two-legged
strength but fails for instance to affect reactive take-offs, decelerated landings as
proprioception at the ankle (Williams et al., well as generating momentum with and
2012). without a counter movement (Arkaev &
Empirical results of elastic, lower leg Suchilin, 2004). The standardized
taping on active, healthy subject’s experimental vertical jumping tasks
performance are also conflicting. Positive implemented in this study cover the
effects of elastic taping occurred for characteristics of gymnasts’ vertical jumping
instance when measuring relative peak during training and competition. For
torque changes of the vastus medialis instance, reactive take-offs occur in floor
muscle via surface electromyography and vaulting events and represent the drop
(Slupik, Dwornik, Bialoszewski, & Zych, jump. Generating momentum with and
2007), vertical ground reaction force without a counter movement occurs in
(Huang et al., 2011), and height of flight mounts to beam, pommel horse and parallel
(Mostert-Wentzel et al., 2012) when bars as well as in artistic floor and beam
performing a vertical jump. Furthermore, no leaps, thus representing the squat jump, and
or even contradictory effects of elastic tape the counter movement jump. Additionally, it
occurred when measuring isokinetic muscle is of special interest to explore possible
strength of the anterior and posterior thigh performance related effects of elastic taping
Science of Gymnastics 6 Science of Gymnastics
Vinken M.P. SHORT-TERM EFFECTS OF ELASTIC TAPING ON GYMNAST'S Vol. 7 Issue 1: 5 -
in gymnastics because the use of tapes, force platform with a sampling rate of 1000
bandages and/or orthoses in gymnastic Hz (TrueImpulseTM, Northern Digital Inc.,
competitions is restricted unless they are
Canada). It was decided to use the
skin-coloured (FIG, 2013). aforementioned standardized vertical
Given that for instance elastic taping is jumping tasks, since they also occur in
likely to influence gymnasts’ vertical general artistic gymnastic situations.
jumping performance (Huang et al., 2011; During all jumps, the arms were held at
Mostert-Wentzel, 2012) at least two the hip, whereas take-off and landing of
questions arise: First, does the hypothesized each jump occurred on the force platform.
effect of elastic taping depend on the kind of
When performing a drop jump, the gymnast
the vertical jumping task (e.g., drop jump
dropped from a gymnastic block onto the
vs. squat jump vs. counter movement
force platform and performed a reactive
jump)? Second, does the hypothesized effect
maximum vertical jump. The height
of elastic taping depend on the tape
between the surface of the block and the
application area and/or procedure (e.g.,
surface of the force platform was 35 cm.
rectus femoris muscle and/or triceps surae
Bobbert and colleagues (1986) suggest
muscle)? Exploring these questions may
reveal if different elastic tape applications dropping heights between 20 and 40 cm
may influence different requirements of regarding joint reaction forces, mechanical
vertical jumping. output and quality of jumping performance
(Bobbert, Mackay, Schinkelshoek, Huijing
In order to address these questions, it
& van Ingen Schenau, 1986). Additionally,
was explored whether three different
the dropping height of the gymnastic block
applications of elastic tape on the lower
fits the requirements of gymnastics training
limbs of active and healthy gymnasts
and conditioning (Arkaev & Suchilin,
influence their corresponding jumping
2004). When performing a squat jump, the
performance in three different vertical
gymnast got into a squatted resting position
jumping tasks. It was hypothesized that
with an individually preferred knee-angle
elastic tape applications on gymnasts’ rectus
between 70 and 90° (Baechle & Earle, 2008;
femoris and triceps surae muscles influences
Bobbert, Gerritsen, Litjens, & Van Soest,
vertical jumping performance. Rectus
1996). From this resting position, the
femoris and triceps surae muscles primarily
gymnast performs a maximum vertical
affect vertical jumping performance (Finni,
jump. When performing a counter
Komi, & Lepola, 2000; Viitasalo, Salo, &
movement jump, the gymnast performed a
Lahtinen, 1998). Therefore, if any effects
maximum vertical jump starting from an
occur, tape applications on these muscles
upright standing position followed by a
most likely should influence gymnast’s
downward movement to an individually
vertical jumping performance. Additionally
preferred knee-angle between 70-90°
it was hypothesized that this effect may or
(Baechle & Earle, 2008; Bobbert et al.,
may not depend on the vertical jumping
1996; Bobbert et al., 1986). Knee-angles
tasks, namely the drop jump, the squat
were controlled first, via visual observation.
jump, and the counter movement jump. A
Second, each trial was videotaped with a
sham tape application was hypothesized to
digital high-speed video camera (Casio
have no influence on vertical jumping
Exilim ZR-400) operating at 120 Hz and
performance but should function as a
with a spatial resolution of 640 x 480 pixels.
control condition (Williams et al., 2012).
The camera was placed orthogonal to the
METHODS performing gymnast’s sagittal axis and 5 m
away from the centre of the force platform.
Experimental Tasks. Gymnasts were A movement analysis with the software
instructed to perform drop jumps, squat utilius easyINSPECT (CCC-Software, 2008)
revealed no deviations of knee-angles above
jumps, and counter movement jumps on a
90° or below 70°. Prior to each jump,
Science of Gymnastics 7 Science of Gymnastics
Vinken M.P. SHORT-TERM EFFECTS OF ELASTIC TAPING ON GYMNAST'S Vol. 7 Issue 1: 5 -
the gymnast was instructed to jump as high maximum vertical peak force of the take-off
as possible. Additionally in all tape (F1) and landing (F2) phase in Newton.
application conditions, the gymnast was The task parameters just mentioned on
instructed in such a way that all tape the one appear in each of the three vertical
applications support vertical jumping jumping tasks and thus make the tasks
performance. The instruction was: “This comparable. On the other hand these
tape applications is positively influencing parameters can modulate force diagrams and
your general vertical jumping performance, rely to further parameters, which cannot be
and we want to explore in which jumping assessed directly like for instance internal
task which tape application may best load etc. Furthermore the five parameters
support your vertical jumping performance.” calculated are sensitive to interventions of
the vertical jumping tasks (Bobbert et al.,
Task Analysis. Vertical ground reaction 1986; Finni et al., 2000).
force measurements and time-discrete task Tape Application Procedures. The
parameters of all vertical jumping elastic tape applied in this study was a
performances were analysed using a force black, 5 cm wide, elastic tape (K-Tape®,
platform operating with a sampling rate of biviax GmbH, Germany). It was decided to
1000 Hz. Following the argumentation of use black tape throughout the whole study to
previous studies (Enoka, 2002; Marina, avoid colour preferences. Nevertheless, one
Jemni & Rodríguez, 2013; Mkauer, Jemni, may argue in line with the philosophy of
Amara, Chaabèn & Tabka, 2012) and with elastic taping that black elastic tape should
the help of a professional sport enhance and empower muscle functioning
biomechanist, five task parameters (Kase et al., 2003; Kumbrink, 2012). In one
occurring in each jumping task were tape application condition (RFTA), the left
calculated in order to represent vertical and right rectus femoris muscle was taped
jumping performance during take-off-, from origin to insertion (proximal to distal)
flight- and landing phase in the three using a Y-shaped elastic tape strap (Vercelli
vertical jumping tasks. The parameters et al., 2012). In another tape application
were: 1) contact time during take-off phase condition (TSTA), the left and right triceps
(t0 – t1), 2) peak vertical force during take- surae muscle was taped from origin to
off phase (F1), 3) flight duration (t1 – t2), 4) insertion (proximal to distal) using a Y-
peak vertical impact force during landing shaped elastic tape strap (Nunes et al.,
phase (F2), and 5) time to peak vertical 2013). It was decided to apply the elastic
impact force during landing phase (t2 – t3). tape from origin to insertion and with 50-
1), 3) and 5) indicate the durations between 75% of stretch, because this direction and
starting and end point of each phase in amount of stretch is thought to facilitate and
Milliseconds. t0 was defined as the first activate the taped muscle (Kase et al., 2003;
deviation of vertical ground reaction force Kumbrink, 2012). In an additional tape
from the resting position’s vertical ground application condition, a sham tape (Vercelli
reaction force (zero in the drop jump and et al., 2012) was applied on the left and right
approx. body weight in the squat and muscle belly of both, rectus femoris and
countermovement jump). t1 was defined as triceps surae muscles perpendicular to their
the last deviation from zero before the final muscle fibre orientation. Here, two I-shaped
take-off. t2 was defined as the first deviation elastic tape straps were applied without
from zero following the initial landing additional stretch (SHTA, c.f. Fig. 1). A
contact. t3 was defined depending on the professional taping expert was asked to
time of the peak vertical impact force during apply all elastic tapings.
the landing phase (F2). F1 and F2 indicate the
Figure 1. Schematic representation of the elastic tape applications implemented in this study. In
the baseline condition no tape was applied neither on gymnast’s rectus femoris nor triceps surae
muscles (dotted grey lines). In the RFTA and TSTA conditions elastic tape was applied from
origin to insertion on either gymnast’s rectus femoris or triceps surae muscles. In the SHTA
condition elastic tape was applied on the muscle belly and perpendicular to muscle fibre
orientation of gymnast’s rectus femoris and triceps surae muscles.
Table 1
Aggregated data of vertical jumping task performance
Baseline Tape Application Conditions
Jumping Task No tape RFTA TSTA SHTA
Parameter Mean SE Mean SE Mean SE Mean SE F(3, 45) p Cohen’s f
Drop Jump
Contact time during take-off phase [ms] 207.33 ± 10.02 212.48 ± 15.39 209.00 ± 12.60 207.70 ± 14.05 0.237 .870 -
Peak force during take-off phase [N] 2296.51 ± 29.48 2290.14 ± 32.23 2300.61 ± 26.82 2282.25 ± 28.46 0.171 .915 -
Flight duration [ms] 487.44 ± 10.02 476.92 ± 9.83 471.20 ± 9.33 476.25 ± 10.37 3.229 .031 0.46
Peak impact force during landing phase [N] 2006.43 ± 56.70 2054.08 ± 51.93 1987.45 ± 53.14 2076.06 ± 55.51 1.438 .244 -
Time to peak impact force during landing phase [ms] 80.50 ± 2.42 83.21 ± 2.06 82.30 ± 1.84 82.53 ± 2.18 0.739 .534 -
Squat Jump
Contact time during take-off phase [ms] 359.17 ± 20.50 366.07 ± 17.12 350.08 ± 12.16 368.63 ± 16.93 0.690 .563 -
Peak force during take-off phase [N] 1578.34 ± 89.41 1606.22 ± 99.30 1601.22 ± 90.66 1591.41 ± 94.37 0.783 .510 -
Flight duration [ms] 479.59 ± 11.15 475.44 ± 11.69 471.84 ± 11.31 471.45 ± 10.78 1.732 .174 -
Peak impact force during landing phase [N] 2037.38 ± 63.46 2065.24 ± 50.86 2033.04 ± 51.16 2074.78 ± 57.20 0.588 .626 -
Time to peak impact force during landing phase [ms] 82.65 ± 2.81 87.57 ± 2.81 86.30 ± 2.85 87.25 ± 3.16 2.142 .108 -
Counter Movement Jump
Contact time during take-off phase [ms] 756.53 ± 31.23 769.80 ± 29.85 776.94 ± 30.03 772.45 ± 33.59 0.860 .469 -
Peak force during take-off phase [N] 1619.69 ± 96.38 1621.75 ± 85.04 1607.18 ± 85.26 1645.18 ± 68.93 0.243 .866 -
Flight duration [ms] 492.85 ± 11.79 480.33 ± 13.53 490.28 ± 12.88 488.81 ± 13.14 4.105 .012 0.52
Peak impact force during landing phase [N] 2022.91 ± 65.20 1987.12 ± 60.63 1980.40 ± 63.04 1997.80 ± 101.97 0.217 .884 -
Time to peak impact force during landing phase [ms] 83.32 ± 2.35 86.02 ± 3.04 86.73 ± 2.86 86.41 ± 3.70 0.950 .424 -
Figure 2. Means and standard errors of gymnast’s flight duration in the three vertical jumping
tasks a) the drop jump, b) the counter movement jump and c) the squat jump in the four study
conditions (* = significant difference at p < .05 according to Tukey HSD post-hoc analysis).
A sham tape application was flight duration during the counter movement
hypothesized to have no influence on jump significantly decreased. This may be
vertical jumping performance but should due to the fact that the facilitative tape
function as a control condition. In all tape application (from origin to insertion) on
application conditions gymnasts were gymnasts’ rectus femoris muscles inhibits
instructed in such a way that each tape the stretching part during the stretch-
application is due to support vertical shortening cycle of the counter movement
jumping and is thought to function as a during this specific jumping task (Finni et
performance-enhancing tool. However, it al., 2000). The same may be true for the
should be explored in which parameters, drop jumping task in which gymnasts’ flight
which tasks and which amount these effects duration decreased in the triceps surae tape
occur. application condition compared to the
Most surprisingly, and in contrast to baseline condition without an elastic tape
most of the results of the former studies on application. The result that there is no
performance related effects of elastic tape significant effect on flight duration during
(c.f. Huang et al., 2011; Mostert-Wentzel et the squat jumping task underlines the
al., 2012), the results of this study revealed a argumentation, that facilitative elastic tape
decrease in flight duration during drop application (from origin to insertion) has a
jumping and counter movement jumping performance hampering effect on vertical
when elastic tape was applied. In the rectus jumping performance in jumping tasks
femoris tape application condition gymnasts containing a stretch-shortening cycle,
whereas no such effect could be shown for a contraction as well as sensory input. But
vertical jumping task performed from a these effects are yet speculative and open to
resting position without any stretch- further investigations.
shortening movement (squat jump). However, the flight duration in vertical
The sham tape application was jumping is highly depending on the way the
hypothesized to have no influence on gymnast performs the landing phase (e.g.
jumping performance but should function as bend or straight ankle, knee and hip joints;
a control condition (Williams et al., 2012). Horita, Komi, Nicol, & Kyröläinen, 2002)
In line with the results of former studies and 36 jumps may result in fatigue, these
implementing an elastic tape application as aspects do not seem explain the decrease in
a control condition (Chang, Chou, Lin, Lin, gymnasts’ flight time. First, gymnasts’
& Wang, 2010; Fratocchi et al., 2013; general execution of the vertical jumping
Mostert-Wentzel et al., 2012; Vercelli et al., tasks was well trained and did not vary
2012) the results of this study revealed no significantly during the study progress.
performance influencing effect of the sham Additionally in a general floor, vault or
tape application condition when it is applied beam warm- up and/or preparatory drill
on the muscle belly of the rectus femoris gymnasts are exposed to about 80 reactive
and triceps surae and perpendicular to their take-offs and 60-80 take-offs with and
muscle fibre orientation. In the sham tape without a counter-movement (e.g. basic
application it was decided to apply the drills, gymnastic leaps, somersaults) and the
elastic tape perpendicular to the muscle appropriate number of landings (Arkaev &
fibre orientation of rectus femoris and Suchilin, 2004). Second, in spite of that,
triceps surae to avoid mechanical co- means and standard errors of the four jumps
interactions of neighbouring muscles (c.f. of each vertical jumping task in each tape
vastus intermedius, vastus lateralis, vastus application condition were calculated and
medialis, tibialis anterior) which may have utilized for further statistics.
occurred when the sham tape application There are several limitations of this
would have been applied longitudinal and study, and three specific aspects should be
next to the intended muscles. However, highlighted. First, it was decided to assess
gymnasts in this study reported to indicate vertical jumping performance by means of a
no manipulation of the tape application force platform since former studies
conditions, the sham tape application should indicated a positive effect of elastic taping
be quite similar to the other tape application on vertical jumping performance (Huang et
conditions. Containing for instance the same al. 2011; Mostert-Wentzel et al., 2012).
amount of elastic tape, and/or focusing on However, the same vertical jumping
one body segment area in each tape performance may result from different
application condition should be appropriate activation patterns of the leg muscles
for future studies. (Enoka, 2002) thus masking the isolated
Quite confidently, the decreasing, yet effect of elastic taping on one particular
performance hampering effect of the elastic area. Future studies could integrate more
tape application on the triceps surae during complex measurements in their designs such
the drop jump and on the rectus femoris as electromyographic measurements or
during the counter movement jump, seems alike. Second, it was decided to apply the
to be caused mostly by mechanical elastic taping from origin to insertion, which
properties instead of superstitious effects, should have a facilitating and activating
like for instance increased attention, effect on the taped muscle (Kase et al.,
hampering tactile perception or a negative 2003; Kumbrink, 2012). Surprisingly our
attitude. Nevertheless the elastic tape results revealed a contrary result. Therefore,
application may have a facilitating effect on on the one hand it seems advisable for
factors such as inter- and intramuscular future studies to implement both tape
coordination or even muscular co- application directions into their design
(Vercelli et al., 2012). On the other hand healthy, active gymnasts to apply elastic
possible effects of tape applications tape in order to enhance vertical jumping
implemented on (soft) tissues other than performance. Conflicting scientific results
muscle, like for instance tendon, ligament, may thus indicate that generalized effects
capsule, and other joint structures should be are controversial and positive influences in
investigated (O’Sullivan & Bird, 2011). one specific characteristic can induce a
Third, one could argue that elastic taping decrease in another performance influencing
may have different performance related characteristic. Although, athletes may use
effects in more coordinative task in which elastic tape for individual reasons such as
participants need to respond and adjust their comfort or even the belief in its clinical
movements according to natural or significance, it still seems to be of high
manipulated changes in the task execution, interest to study potential effects of elastic
like for instance in tasks affording dynamic taping in a standardized methodological
balance and/or dealing with perturbation. approach and in light of the requirements of
Therefore it might be beneficial to explore the sporting event.
the effects of elastic taping on tasks with
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ACKNOWLEDGE
Corresponding author:
Pia M.Vinken
Georg-August-University Göttingen
Institute of Sport Sciences
Sprangerweg 2
37075 Göttingen
E-Mail: [email protected]
Tel: +49 (0) 551 3910474
Fax: +49 (0) 551 395641
Giovanni Fiorilli4
1 Department of Physical Education and Sport Science. Democritus University of Thrace,
Greece
2
Department of Physical Education and Sport Science, National and Kapodistrian University of
Athens, Greece
3
Department of Physical Education and Sport Science, University of Rome,Italy
4
Department of Medicine and Health Science, University of Molise, Campobasso, Italy
Original
article
Abstract
The purpose of the present study was to record the incidence of knee injuries in Greek artistic
gymnasts in relation to the event and exercise phase. Two hundred artistic gymnasts aged 12.2
±
2.8 years from different clubs of North and South Greece volunteered to participate in this study
for the 2010-2012 seasons. Authors twice a week registered any injury occurred during practice
or event which made the gymnast miss the next practice or event session. Results showed that
gymnasts sustained 49.5% of knee injuries in landing mainly in the floor routines causing
ligament sprains with these injuries to be occurring at the pre-competition season, usually
during training time. Furthermore, knee injuries at take off phase (11.9%) occurred mainly in
the vaulting horse on forward rotation exercises on the first competition level. Conclusively,
coaches mainly must use supplementary soft mats during training to restrict pressure on knee
joints on landing phase and control the amount of jumping in an effort to reduce the
possibilities to increase knee injuries, especially in this particular age group gymnasts.
INTRODUCTION
al., 1993). Numerous studies support that times the participant's BW (Karacsony &
the most injured body parts in AG are the Čuk, 2005). Thus, the large changes in knee
lower extremities (Andrish, 1985; Bak et al., and hip joints in the range of motion (ROM)
1994; Hunter & Torgan, 1983; Hutchison & suggest that these joints play a greater role
Ireland, 1995; Kolt & Kirkby, 1999; Pfister than the ankle in adjusting to landings
et al., 1985), especially in ankle and knee (McNitt-Gray, 1991). However, there is luck
joints (Bale & Goodway, 1990; Garrick & of studies about the risk factors causing
Requa, 1980; Kerr & Minden, 1988; injuries during these two phases. The
Pettrone & Ricciardelli, 1983; Tenvergert et purpose of this study was to investigate the
al., 1992). risk factors for the knee injuries especially
Most injuries are related with landing during landing and takeoff phase in AG.
(Kirialanis et al., 2002; Lindner & Caine,
1990; McNitt-Gray et al., 1994; Meeusen & METHODS
Borms, 1992; Panzer, 1987; Verhagen et al.,
2000). This phase not only affects the final Subjects. Two hundred artistic gymnasts
rank of gymnasts during competition (100 males and 100 females) (aged:
(Leskosek et al., 2010), but also entails a 12.2±2.8, years, mass 35.6±11.2 kg, height
high risk of injury, mainly due to the high 141.5±15.8 cm,) from different clubs of
impact magnitudes of 14 to 18 Body Weight North and South Greece volunteered to
applied to one leg (Panzer, 1987), and to the participate in this study. Authors twice a
mat’s instability (Arampatzis et al., 2002, week registered any injury that occurred
2003). Landing imposes forces on the body during practice or event which made the
that must be absorbed primarily by the gymnast miss the next practice or event
musculoskeletal components of the lower session.
extremities. If the loads become too great Statistical Analysis. An analysis of
for the body to accommodate, a potential correspondence was used after an analysis
injury situation arises (Dufek & Bates, of frequencies to estimate the relation
1990). Drawing programs with exercises for between the criterion variables and the
good landing in gymnastics, separated from predictor variables for gymnasts.
the all routine, would help to decrease
impact forces during landing (Gervais, RESULTS
1997). Takeoff and land are important
phases in gymnastics routines. Previous From the analysis of frequencies,
studies showed that the magnitude of impact gymnasts sustained 49.5% of knee injuries
forces tends to increase with the skill in landing and 11.9% in take off. Analysis
complexity and with the increase of falling of correspondence revealed that three
height (Karacsony & Cuk, 2005; Marinsek, factors explain the total variance of the
2010; McNitt-Gray et al., 1994; Panzer, depended variables included in the analysis.
1987), ranged from 3.9 to 14.4 times the The eigenvalues and the percent of variation
gymnast's body weight (BW) (McNitt-Gray explained by each factor are presented.
et al., 1993; Panzer, 1987).Take off also is a The first factor was created by the
phase used primarily in the vault, floor depended variables related to the take off
exercise and balance beam (BB) exercises. (blocking) (Table 2) and the depended
The take off imposes forces on the body, variables related to the training
primarily in the musculoskeletal characteristics (strength training – flexibility
components of the lower extremities. Takei training-warm-up etc).
(1989) reported that the average horizontal The second factor was created by the
and vertical forces during periods were 2970 depended variables related to the take off
N, which translated into 4.9 times the BW and variables related to the landing (Table
of the subjects. In addition, forces at takeoff 3).
at different somersaults can be up to 13.9
The third factor was created by the axes which interpret the 80.5% of total
depended variables related to the take off variation.
and variables related to the fall. (Table 1). By table 2, it is realized that knee
It is evident that knee injuries from injuries at the landing occur at the pre-
landings mainly occur during backward competition season, usually during training
saltos particularly in the floor exercise time, when the training duration is more
causing ligament sprains. Moreover, the than four hours a day and the repetition of
time of rehabilitation lasts more than 2 elements on the vault is more than twenty.
months, in most not “selected” gymnasts Knee injured gymnasts present re-injury and
sustained one injury in the knee over the first aids are usually given by a
season (for the competition gymnastics). In physiotherapist. Also, variables that are
the side of the first and third factor axes, related to the knee injuries at the landing are
where are located the take off (blocking) are the lack of safety and spotting equipment
loaded the variables of table 3. e.g. springboard tumbling, foam pits which
As it turns out from table 3, knee reduce up to 50% peak vertical ground
injuries at take off phase occurred mainly in reaction forces (VGRF) (Daly et al, 2001;
the vaulting horse on forward rotation Wilson et al, 1989). Landing at the
exercises (forward saltos), and they are competition season under normal conditions
presented to the first competition level without using thick and soft landing mats
(beginners: ages 7-10 for boys and 7-9 for and not practicing special landing elements
girls), in not “selected” gymnasts and they can be a risk factor for knee injuries.
did not need medical care, due the fact that In the side of the first factor axis where
the duration of rehabilitation was less than are located knee injuries at the take off, the
one month. variables that are loaded usually occur
From the analysis of correspondence during training time, when the training
for the relation between the phases at which duration is more than 2-4 hours daily, and
occurred the knee injuries and the predictor the repetition of taking off is more than 30
variables as risk factors resulted two factor times in a training day (table 3).
Table 1
Eigenvalue % of variance and % Cumulative variation
Table 2
Variables that are included in the side of factor axes where are located knee injuries due take-off
Table 3
Variables that are loaded in the side of factor axes where are located knee injuries due landing
DISCUSSION
Knee injuries concerning the phase exercise on the vault and after dismounts,
of injuries. Our results that came from take-
can cause big forces in the ankle joint and
off (49.5%) and landing (11.9%) are in
particularly in the ligaments. Another factor
which contributes to an increasing in the
agreement with previous studies (Bak et
al., 1994; Garrock & Requa, 1980; Gervais, frequency of a knee injuries at the landing
1997; Hudash & Albright, 1993; Hunter & includes the number of hours spent training
Torgan, 1983; Kirialanis et al., 2003; daily (> 2-4 hours daily for the knee injuries
Pettrone & Ricciardelli, 1987; Readhead, and > 4 hours daily for the ankle injuries).
1987; Tauton et al., 1988) which support No reports exist particularly for the knee
that the repeated jumps and landings at injuries at the landing in relation to the
dismounts can cause problems in young duration of training. However, the duration
gymnasts. of training has been incriminated by the
Knee injuries at landing. The analysis researchers weekly (Pettrone & Ricciardelli,
1983) generally for knee injuries in
of equivalences revealed that the greater gymnastics (Bak et al., 1994; Caine et al.,
number of knee injuries at landing occurs 1994). Also, another external factor that
during floor exercise. This finding seems to affect the appearance of knee
reinforces data of Linder and Caine (1990)
injuries at landing is the lack of certain
which report that 40% of the injuries
happened in floor exercise, in erroneous spotting apparatus like tumbling floor, foam
movement and from a lack of the body pits.
control at the phase of landing. Also, it was Our results are partly equivalent with
shown by the results that when gymnasts are reports of Goodway et al (1990), which
landing at the competition period outside of support that in gymnastics teams that had
foam pits without using thick landing mat, it fewer safety equipment, more injuries
influences the appearance of knee injuries. occurred, whereas Lowry and Le Veau
Ligament sprains at the knee during (1982) support that the presence of safety
landing are the most common injuries that equipment does not ensure that they will be
occur usually after exercises with back used. Meeusen and Borms (1992) report that
rotation and particularly during landing after various spotting equipment are used for the
back somersaults, result that verify previous protection from various injuries,
data (Caine et al., 1989; Vergouwen, 1986). emphasizing however that it constitutes
Also, Andrish (1985) supports that ligament question for investigation how much it
sprains have the second place as for the really happens. On the contrary, other
frequency but are the most serious and they studies (Pettrone & Ricciardelli, 1983;
need surgical attention. Weiker & Ganim, 1982), did not find a
It is realized that knee injuries at significant relationship between injuries and
landing are more serious than ankle injuries safety equipment. However, Wilson et al
as a result of the longer time for (1989) found that peak VGRF reduced by
rehabilitation (2 vs 1 month for knee and 50% with the use of a mat and sprung floor,
ankle injury, respectively) and despite that a compared with a mat placed directly on a
lot of knee injured gymnasts tried to concrete floor. Daly et al (2001), in their
continue training after the injury; they review report that no formal controlled
presented re-injury. Perhaps, this it is owed studies have evaluated the effectiveness of
to the complexity of the knee articulation matting, sprung floors, padded vaults, or
and to the Special Forces where it accepts other protective devices suggest that safety
the knee at the landing. With this devices and protective equipment are
ascertainment agree findings of Bos and Sol designed to reduce the magnitude of impact
(1982), which report that landing during
fact that “selected” gymnasts will have the female gymnasts. Am J Sport Med, 17, 811–
suitable mobility, characteristics and fitness, 820.
which for some number of researchers Claessens, A.L., Veer, F.M., Stijnen,
constitute risk factors that affect the V., Lefevre, J., et al. (1991).
appearance of injuries (Ekstand & Anthropometric characteristics of
Gilliquist, 1983; Meeusen & Borms, 1992; outstanding male and female gymnasts. J
Micheli, 1985; Steele & White, 1986). Sport Sci, 9, 53-74.
Daly, P.M., Bass, S.L., & Finich, C.F.
CONCLUSIONS (2001). Balancing the risk of injury to
gymnasts: How effective are the counter
Coaches must mainly use measures? Brit J Sport Med, 35, 834-838.
supplementary soft mats during training to Dixon, M. & Fricker, P.(1993).
restrict pressure on knee joints during the Injuries to elite gymnasts over 10 years.
landing phase. Further, a strict control and Med Sci Sport Exer, 25(12), 1322-1329.
recording of the amount of exercises that is Dufek, J.S. & Bates, B.T. (1990). The
performed during daily training must be evaluation and prediction of impact forces
done in order to regulate the progressive during landing. Med Sci Sport Exer, 22(3),
volume of training, especially in this 370-377.
particular age group of gymnasts. Ekstrand, J. & Gilliquist, J. (1983).
Soccer injuries and their mechanisms. A
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ACKNOWLEDGE
Corresponding author:
Dallas George
National and Kapodistrian University of
Athens, Department of Physical education
and Sport Science Chloes & Chrisoupoleos,
19002 Paiania, Athens Greece
Mobile phone: +0030 6936 592 665
FAX: +0030 210 727 6028
E-mail: [email protected]
Original
article
Abstract
The aim of this study was to explore the effect of different manual guidance techniques on
performance-related variables of a backward salto. We simulated a backward salto by means of
a computer model. Changes in performance-related variables were calculated as a result of
isolated and combined hand applications. We created seven conditions that varied in angle and
amount of added forces, the location of the added forces, and the activation time of the added
forces, resulting in 231 simulation runs. We found that the most effective guidance technique
was situation specific, because reducing or increasing the gymnast’s rotation speed and adding
movement height are interdependent. To accompany a movement, it is possible to use an
isolated hand application at the iliac crest during the flight phase of the salto, but for stronger
support it is necessary to apply a guidance technique immediately at takeoff. When using a
guidance technique that involves both hands, it seems that the timing of the hand application is
more critical than the angle or amount of added force a coach uses. .
INTRODUCTION
Hubbard, 2009), often focusing on the
In the current study, we wanted to outcome (Hiley & Yeadon, 2008). Other
analyze the effects of a specific manual studies have been aimed at optimizing the
guidance technique on the performance of a equipment used (Cagran, Huber, & Müller,
backward salto. In the research field of 2010; Gu & Li, 2007), evaluating models
sports simulation a variety of models have against real performance (Sheets &
been developed and the literature reveals a Hubbard, 2008), or predicting new
number of different aims (for a review see techniques (Čuk, Atiković, & Tabaković,
Chow & Knudson, 2011). Much of the 2009; Heinen, Jeraj, Vinken, Knieps,
research has to do with identifying optimal Velentzas, & Richter, 2011). The aim of the
sports techniques or optimal sports current study was to evaluate the effects of
movements (Mkaouer, Jemni, Amara, various techniques for manually applying
Chaabèn, & Tabka, 2012; Sheets & additional force on movement performance
kg) during training, while she performed landmark data, the computer simulation
single backward saltos from stand to stand model was used in its 2D version.
(10 trials). The gymnast was videotaped Therefore, the motions of both feet, both
after she gave informed consent. The data shanks, both thighs, both upper arms, both
collection was carried out according to the forearms, and both hands, respectively, were
ethical guidelines of the local university. linked, so that the two segments (one from
The performances were videotaped using a each body side) were treated as one
digital video camera (Casio EX-FH100) segment.
operating at 120 frames/s (spatial resolution: The model was furthermore customized
640 × 480 pixels). The camera was placed to the real gymnast through the
approximately 5 m from the gymnast and determination of subject-specific inertial
orthogonal to the movement plane and was parameters (Yeadon, 1990, Yeadon &
calibrated with a 2 × 2 m calibration square. Morlock, 1989). These input parameters
A national-level gymnastics coach was comprised segmental inertial parameters and
asked to select the best performance of the the gymnast’s performance in terms of
gymnast from the videotaped sequences of calculated and smoothed angle–time
the 10 salto trials. The gymnast’s best histories. Initial conditions consisted of the
performance was digitized using the gymnast’s vertical and horizontal release
software Simi Motion (Simi Reality Motion velocities of the center of mass and the
Systems, 2012) . The two- dimensional (2D) angular velocity about the transverse axis at
coordinates of the body landmarks were release. The Kutta–Merson algorithm was
reconstructed from the digitized data using used with a frame rate of 300 Hz and a
the direct linear transformation algorithm variable integration step size of 0.00167 s to
(Shapiro, 1978). A digital filter was applied solve the model’s motion. Output from the
for data smoothing. A mean temporal error model comprised the resulting motion of the
of ± 0.0033 s and a mean spatial error of ± gymnast as well as the angular momentum
0.008 m were calculated from the data. The and the height of flight (Gervais & Dunn,
corresponding joint angle histories were 2003). A three-dimensional computer
calculated from the 2D coordinates of the graphics model of the human body was used
segment endpoints. to illustrate the model output after the
To estimate the additional forces a motion was solved (see Figure 1).
coach can create when guiding the salto Procedure. The present study consisted
manually, we measured the maximum of two phases. In the first phase, the
isometric force with a force-measuring backward salto of the regional gymnast was
device in body and ankle positions such as if simulated. All relevant parameters were
the coach would guide the movement. Based integrated in the model, namely, the
on the measured maximal isometric force gymnast’s angle–time histories, the
with both hands of 150 N, we defined three gymnast’s vertical and horizontal velocity at
different force amplitudes for the release, and the angular velocity about the
simulations: 50 N, 100 N, and 150 N. transverse axis at the release.
Simulation model. We used a In the second phase, the simulated
computer simulation model based on 16 performance was estimated from the
body segments, developed to simulate skills resulting motion as well as from the height
in gymnastics was used (Heinen et al., of flight and the angular momentum of the
2011). The 16 segments represented two model for each simulated variant of the
feet, two shanks, two thighs, the hip and different hand applications. The simulation
lower trunk, the middle trunk, the upper variants were (1) isolated hand application
trunk, two upper arms, two forearms, two simulations in four conditions (n = 84
hands, and the gymnasts’ head. Fifteen simulation runs) and (2) combined hand
joints connected the segments. Since the application simulations in three conditions
input data was generated from 2D body
salto model
Figure 1. Illustration of a simulated backward salto from takeoff (TO) to touchdown (TD),
together with its corresponding movement phases and hand contact phases on (1) thigh and (2)
iliac crest, during which guiding forces were applied. Note: For illustration purposes, the time
course is not true to scale.
Thigh
[nor
1.0
0.6
0.8
For
0.4
0.2
0.0
(a) 0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40
Time [s]
1.0
0.6
0.8
For
0.4
0.2
0.0
(b) 0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40
Time [s]
Figure 2. Normalized force–time histories when applying different guiding forces to the
backward salto model: (a) hand contact on thigh, (b) hand contact on iliac crest (solid line: early
activation, dotted line: longer activation with same magnitude, dashed line: later activation).
RESULTS
differences between early and short hand conditions (2a–c) are as follows: Condition
contact and longer hand contact. However, 2a: The simulation showed a small effect on
longer isolated hand contact on the iliac angular momentum. Condition 2b:
crest had a slightly stronger effect on Simulating a longer contact time on the iliac
reduction of angular momentum. Condition crest showed no differences on height of
1d: The simulation showed only a weak flight. However, there was a small effect on
effect on angular momentum and on height angular momentum, slightly higher than in
of flight for the isolated hand application at condition 2a. Condition 2c: Simulating a
the iliac crest with a later activation. later activation of force applied on the iliac
Effects of combined hand applications For crest showed almost the same effect on
a detailed illustration of the estimated angular momentum and a small effect on
output angular momentum and height of height of flight as compared to the previous
flight, see Figure 4. Taken together, the conditions.
results of the simulation
Figure 3. Isolated effects (conditions 1a–d) of applying guiding hand contact forces in different
directions and with different magnitudes on angular momentum and height of flight of the
backward salto. Note: A negative angle of force value indicates that the force was applied in a
caudal direction, and a positive angle of force value indicates that the force was applied in a
cranial direction. MS represents the values for the simulated salto without any guiding hand
contact force.
Figure 4. Combined effects (conditions 2a–c) when applying guiding hand contact forces on the
thigh and iliac crest in different directions and with different timings (simultaneous on thigh and
iliac crest, longer on iliac crest, later on iliac crest) on angular momentum and height of flight of
the backward salto. Note: A negative angle of force value (AoF) indicates that the force was
applied in a caudal direction, and a positive angle of force value indicates that the force was
applied in a cranial direction.
DISCUSSION
The aim of the simulation was to performance is required. The low root mean
explore the effects of manual guidance square value of 1.8° and the time difference
(input) on movement kinematics (output). of only 0.0033 s between simulated
Initially, a good match between the movement and videotaped performance
simulated movement and a videotaped meant that we had achieved a good match
Science of Gymnastics 3 Science of Gymnastics
Jeraj D., Heinen T., THE SIMULATION OF COACHES' MANUAL GUIDANCE Vol. 7 Issue 1: 27 -
for angle rotation and flight time (Hiley & But if the gymnast needs more support
Yeadon, 2007). Thus, the results of the and it is necessary for the coach to apply
simulation results can be considered help immediately at takeoff, a combined
applicable to real life. effect on height of flight and angular
We found that late hand application on momentum is possible with an isolated hand
the iliac crest had only a weak effect on application on the thigh. Thus, the coach has
height of flight but a similar effect on to anticipate the hand application and it will
angular momentum to early or longer hand always enhance both the height of flight and
application on iliac crest. Thus, a coach the angular momentum because the hand
might use this technique to rescue spot if a
application results in an eccentric force
gymnast needs a bit more angular
(McGinnis, 2013).
momentum and height to land on the feet
For the combined hand applications,
(Sands, 1996). The advantage would be that
our results show a small effect on height of
in comparison to early hand application on
flight when application of the hand to the
the iliac crest, the output in angular
momentum is similar, but the reaction time iliac crest was later than that to the thigh
for the coach is greater and thus this (condition 2c) compared to a simultaneous
technique should be easier to use based on activation (condition 2a), but the two
motor anticipation and control (Schmidt & conditions produced almost the same effect
Lee, 2011). In other words, it is not on angular momentum. Later activation on
necessary to support the gymnast with one the iliac crest led to lower increase in height
hand on the iliac crest immediately at the of flight than simultaneous activation. Thus,
takeoff point if the performance of the the timing of application may determine
backward salto is made automatic; the coach how height and angular momentum change
could “wait” 0.10 s and still be able to depending on the level of the gymnast. It
produce the same output in angular seems that the timing is a better control
momentum. But only in regard to rescuing parameter than angle or amount of force,
this planned movement because spotting is since it is a more ballistic movement for the
rarely effective to react on unplanned coach where he or she has to anticipate the
failures (Sands et al., 2011). forces and their directions (Schmidt & Lee,
Additionally, according to our results, 2011).
the coach can adjust the amount of height of There are some limitations of this study
flight by defining the timing of the isolated and one aspect should be highlighted:
hand support at the iliac crest. Given that the Possible and unpredictable interactions
applied force direction is approximately between coach and gymnast in the real
orthogonal to the gymnast’s longitudinal world—such as reflexive movements or
axis (about -15° – 0°, see Figure 3), the changes of the direction and amount of
earlier or longer the force is activated the added force during the whole movement—
stronger the gymnast can be supported in the were not part of the simulation model.
height of flight without changing the However, it might be interesting to explore
angular momentum. For that, the coach how differences in the gymnast’s position
needs to guide the gymnast in an appropriate and differences in the coach’s hand
way. Meaning, it is necessary to rotate the application during the flight phase are
pressure at the iliac crest with the gymnast’s related to differences in salto performance.
salto rotation and it is not sufficient just This would necessitate developments of the
pushing the hand of the coach upwards. This simulation model.
could become important when the gymnast
is at the end of the learning process and CONCLUSION
wants to fine-tune the performance (Magill
& Anderson, 2014). The results of our simulation lead us to
conclude that coaches have to decide in
advance what hand application they want to
use for the planned support—a securing Heinen, T., Vinken, P., & Ölsberg, P.
technique with one hand at the iliac crest (2010). Manual guidance in gymnastics: a
which still allows the gymnast to fine-tune case study. Science of Gymnastics Journal,
the performance or support during the 2(3), 43–56.
movement with one or two hands Hiley, M. J., & Yeadon, M. R. (2007).
immediately at the takeoff phase. Optimisation of backward giant circle
technique on the asymmetric bars. Journal
of Applied Biomechanics, 23, 300–308.
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ACKNOWLEDGE
Corresponding author:
Damian Jeraj
German Sport University Cologne
Institute of Psychology
Am Sportpark Muengersdorf 6,
50933 Cologne
Germany
Tel.: +49-221-4982-5690
Fax: +49-221-4982-8300.
E-mail: [email protected].
Original
article
Abstract
Various versions of the Yurchenko vault are contemporarily the most widely used vaults in
women’s gymnastics. Using a 3D kinematic analysis of the velocity characteristics, our aim
was to investigate basic variants of the Yurchenko vault, their mutual relations in chosen
phases and various influences on the technique of execution. 14 vaults performed by elite
artistic gymnasts both from the Czech Republic and abroad were assessed, among which it was
possible to observe an individual approach to handling the locomotor task displaying varying
degrees of fluctuation in both the overall velocity of the COG - vabs, and its horizontal
component vx as well as vertical component vz. Despite the variety, the obtained results were
used to determine the optimal course of these velocity parameters, which serves as a
precondition of the correct technical execution of the Yurchenko vault. Although our study
deals only with the selected characteristics of the whole series of variables affecting the quality
of the execution of the Yurchenko streched, we believe our new research findings may be used
by coaches and their athletes in their training practice.
.
Keywords: Biomechanics, Gymnastics, Vault, Optimization of Techniques.
INTRODUCTION
start learning this vault no later than at the
The appeal of the Yurchenko vault age of 10 years. Although the vault only
topic lies in its rapid development over the takes seconds to perform, it takes years to
last decade, unparalleled by any other achieve its mastery. Wrong motion routines
gymnastic event and leading to the steep can stop the work even in the beginnings of
improvement of performance on this type of practice, therefore, for trainers, it is
apparatus. To be able to perform the important to have a good understanding of
diagnostics of the technique execution and its mechanical principles influencing
to improve athlete’s motion performance, techniques. As with any other skill, the
the motion analysis has to be performed. development of the Yurchenko vault may be
We have chosen for the analysis the divided into three stages, which may be
basic execution of the Yurchenko vault trained simultaneously. These are a special
which is performed as early as the school- physical preparation, special technical
age category (at the age of 13-14 years) but training and performance simulation. At the
whose mastery is critical for further beginning, a gymnast should focus solely on
development of the vault. Gymnasts should the physical and technical training using
specific exercises and their repetition. Only
after sufficient technical preparation has timely execution of the take-off prior to the
been completed leading to a well- mastered gymnast performing a handstand.
practice of the Yurchenko vault, can the The second flight phase is the longest
gymnast begin to perform the whole jump and thus the most interesting phase of the
safely and effectively. vault. It includes another important action of
The Yurchenko vault can be devided in the gymnast, namely one and a half
following seven phases (Čuk & Karacsony, somersault with landing on a landing mat. A
2004; Atikovič & Smajlovič, 2011): run, gymnast pushes up from her hands off the
jump on springboard, springboard support vaulting table into a back layout. Following
phase, first flight phase, support on the the push-up from the hands the COG is
table, second flight phase and landing. supposed to reach its highest point. Once the
The technical basis for each Yurchenko gymnast leaves the table, the potential of the
vault phase is as follows. technical execution of the back layout is
Each vault begins with a run phase, the given and cannot be changed.
aim of which is to obtain the maximum Landing, through which the kinetic
amount of kinetic energy, which is then energy of the second flight phase is reduced,
converted to the corresponding vertical, is the final part of each vault. Its quality
horizontal and rotational velocity for the depends mainly on the activities performed
further course of the jump. The length of the by the gymnast in the previous phases of the
run phase depends primarily on the vault. The work of the arms is particularly
individual personality of a gymnast and important in this phase as the gymnast’s
mastery of technique. arms, which are initially down, are raised in
The main task of two next phases - front of him or her thereby stopping the
jump on the springboard and springboard body rotation.
support phase is to maintain the horizontal As is obvious, the technical basis of the
velocity required for the next phase of the motion is very complex. It is therefore
vault. With the Yurchenko vault the kinematically possible to observe a number
gymnast performs a round-off (a sideways of relations between time, space and
somersault with landing on both feet) with velocity characteristics. In this study, we
landing on the springboard with their back focus on the velocity parameters of the
to the vaulting table. Yurchenko vault.
The first flight phase includes the In a number of studies, the authors state
execution of a back handspring with landing that the correct technical performance of the
on hands on the vaulting table. The first run phase is crucial for the successful
flight phase will be mainly characterized by execution of the entire vault. Arkaev and
its duration. Its main task is to prepare the Suchilin (2004) reported that the last 5 m of
best possible conditions for both the touch the run phase prior to the landing on the
and take-off from the vaulting table. springboard should not contain any
The touch and take-off phase from the significant increase or decrease in the
vaulting table directs and extends a further velocity. This fact is, however, contradicted
movement of the centre of gravity (COG) to some extent by Bradshaw (2004), who
upward and forward. Following the touch on mentions a noticeable decrease in the
the vaulting table the gymnast’s body horizontal velocity prior to the landing on
should make as a rapid movement as the springboard. This is due to the required
possible around the axis passing through the visual inspection and the preparation for the
shoulder joints, with a simultaneous partial- jump on the springboard. The ability to
movement around the axis passing through minimize the velocity loss while landing on
the touch spot, while the body’s centre of the springboard may lead to a more
gravity (BCG) rises. The prerequisite for the successfully executed jump. Petković (2011)
vaulting table contact phase is a correct and focused on the difference between the run
start strategy of the best gymnasts,
who slow down half way through the run (Kwon, Fortney, & Shin, 1990) . The
start for a moment, and the average springboard take-off is a dynamic phase
gymnasts who keep raising their velocity lasting for a very short time. In their work,
throughout the run phase. In their work, Čuk & Karacsony (2004) deal with the take-
Bradshaw, Hume, Calton, & Aisbett (2009)
off force and the springboard contact time
also studied the acceleration rate in the run
for individual types of vaults. With the
phase. They compared the velocity of
Yurchenko vault, the springboard contact
different vaults performed by outstanding
time stood at 0.15 for women and 0.14 for
Australian gymnasts during their practice.
men. It is important to note that the key
Studies have shown that the slowest run
variable for the moment of take-off from the
phase velocity was measured with the very
Yurchenko vault carried out by women. springboard is the size of the horizontal
This is also stated by Farana & Vaverka speed.
(2011) in their article, where "the results of The ideal conditions of the following
the study revealed that with the vaults of the first flight phase are characterized by the
Yurchenko type, the run phase velocity is fastest possible performance of the back
lower than with the front handspring vault handspring onto the vaulting table. What is
group and the round-off vault group. The important is the correct body position
lowest run speed velocity was achieved by throughout the first flight phase and
especially prior to the landing on the
the Yurchenko vault group, 7.35 ms-1 for
vaulting table, thus ensuring a minimum
men and 6.98 ms-1 for women". It must be, speed loss.
however, emphasized that it was the The contact of the gymnast with the
introduction of the new vaulting table which vaulting table is an important and most
led to the increased need to maximize the examined phase of the Yurchenko vault.
velocity components in the run phase. The touch and take-off phase has been
Especially with the Yurchenko vault the affected primarily by the change of the
landing onto the springboard phase is vaulting tools in 2001. Uzunov (2011)
essential and very often critical for the focused in his article on possible changes in
execution of the vault. At this stage, the the technique Yurchenko stretched
gymnast performing a round-off with execution, which can emerge resulting from
landing on the spring board changes the the replacement for a new type of tool, and
direction of her body’s momentum. Hence, a how these changes are reflected in
great emphasis is placed on proper training biomechanical variables. Uzunov (2011)
of the technique to succesfully handle and states in his other article that the vertical
execute this phase of the vault. For the fast velocity of the COG upon completion of the
execution of the round-off, it is therefore take-off from the table is considered the
crucial to create sufficient momentum for most important variable. The optimal
the entire vault. horizontal velocity of a gymnast
In their kinematic analysis Penitente, upon leaving the table is 2.34 ms-1 and the
Merni, Fantozzi, & Perretta (2007) deal with vertical velocity is 2.27 ms-1.
the landing and the springboard take-off The quality of the second flight phase
phase. The results show that the gymnasts which largely contributes to the assessment
are able to effectively use the springboard of the actual vault is considered the most
without decreasing the horizontal velocity
important. Following the take-off from the
while increasing the vertical velocity. The
vaulting table the movement of the body
horizontal velocity while landing on the
springboard reached the average value of during this phase shows an upward trend,
which is dependent on the conditions
5.27 ms-1. Similar values can also be seen in created in the previous phases of the vault.
publications by other authors: 5.32 ms-1 Already Takei (1989) focused on the
(Nelson, Gross, & Street, 1985), 5.08 ms-1 comparison of vaults performed at major
(Ragheb & Fortney, 1988), 5.14 ms-1 international competitions, that received
either high or low marks. The results characterized by the possible increase or
showed that gymnasts that achieved higher decrease in the velocity of the BCG. We
horizontal and vertical velocity values upon believe that a comprehensive overview of
touching the apparatus, achieved higher velocity changes during various stages can
marks. "This resulted in a shorter duration point to the facts important for the
of contact with the apparatus. Higher optimization of the techniques of the
vertical and horizontal velocity affects the observed element.
duration of the second flight phase and also
the maximum height and distance when METHODS
landing." Koh, Jennings, Elliott, & Lloid
(2003) in their extensive research sought to The research sample consisted of 14
identify changes in the technology needed to artistic gymnasts of both Czech and foreign
execute the optimal Yurchenko vault. The nationality. They are all contemporary
results showed that the best recorded national representatives in artistic
attempt was not sufficient in comparison gymnastics who participate in international
with the optimal execution of the Yurchenko and other high-profile competitions. The
vault. The vault failed to acquire sufficient selected gymnasts fall within the age range
length and height in the second flight phase of 18-25 years. The girls have been engaged
due to the small vertical velocity when in artistic gymnastics approximately since
taking off from the table. Consequently, the their 4 years of age, they have daily two-
gymnast in the second flight phase was phase practices. In selection of the tested
slightly bent at the hips and due to this she sample the emphasis was put on the high
would not receive too high a score. performance level and the absolute technical
Landing is one of the basic motion execution of the basic form of the
activities practised with all tools in artistic Yurchenko vault. Following the consultation
gymnastics and it also is the final phase of with coaches of the selected gymnasts, a 3D
our analyzed vault. The correctly performed kinematic analysis of this vault was
landing is important for the successful performed. The measurement sessions took
execution of the vault. This final stage place in the competition season during
requires great stabilization and the work of which we were able to record already
eccentric forces of great magnitude stabilized level of the vault execution, i.e. a
decreasing the body velocity in order to high performance level of the selected
avoid injury to the lower extremities due to gymnasts. The data was collected during the
their large external load. Marinšek (2010) two measurement sessions. One was held at
states that the forces measured during the International Grand Prix competition in
landing may be in the 3.9 to 14.4 BW (body Brno, the other one during practice,
weight) range. nevertheless in the identical gym of the
As is shown by previous research, the Sokol Brno I, which is the best gymnastics
best achieved velocity of the BCG at the end gym in the Czech Republic equipped with
of the run phase is one of the key factors high-quality apparatuses. All of our tested
limiting the quality of the Yurchenko vault persons (TP) were in a good shape and good
execution. The aim of this work is to extend health.
the existing knowledge, especially in terms To carry out research, it was necessary
of velocity characteristics. The authors to employ a quantitative method of motion
usually indicate maximum velocity achieved analysis through which numerical values are
by gymnasts. We, however, aim not only to generated, which refer to the magnitude of
determine the maximum velocity values, but physical quantities. We therefore chose a 3D
to focus on the velocity development in the kinematic method to record the motion
course of the vault execution. We are where two synchronized SIMI Motion high-
interested in finding out what stages are frequency digital cameras with the frame
rate of 100 Hz were used. Individual
attempts were recorded from the moment of changes from the moment of landing on the
the hands touching the mat in a round-off springboard to leaving the table; the first
after reaching the maximum height in the vertical line indicating the moment of
second flight phase of the performed vault. leaving the springboard while the second
All these phases took place in the pre- one indicating the moment of landing on the
calibrated space. The tested persons were vaulting table.
provided with retroreflective markers which
allowed easier evaluation of the video
recording. The head as well as all the major
joints - wrists, elbows, shoulders, hips,
knees and ankles were marked. With each
gymnast three attempts were filmed where
the best one was chosen for the subsequent
analysis based on the assessment of an
international referee of artistic gymnastics.
In the next step the data was processed
using the SIMI Motion software produced
by the German company SIMI Reality
Motion Systeme GmbH. Due to suboptimal
ligting conditions during field
measurements in the gym, we decided to
track data mainly manually.
From the recorded data, we assessed Figure 1. Graph shows the overall velocity
the selected temporal, spatial and velocity curve vabs - solid black curve, horizontal
characteristics. For each of these variables velocity components vx - blue dotted curve
basic statistical data was calculated. Given and the vertical velocity components vz - red
the non-normal data distribution (vertical dashed curve.
velicities vz of the BCG at the moment of
landing on the springboard and take-off The take-off phase on the springboard:
from the vaulting table) the Spearman At the moment of landing on the
correlation at the significance level of springboard gymnasts had the average
p<0.05 was used for a closer statistical velocity vabs of 5.362 ± 0.204 ms-1. At the
analysis of the relations between velocity end of this stage, during which a significant
parametres. acceleration occurs, gymnasts reach their
maximum velocity within the vault, i.e.
RESULTS 5.912 ± 0.299 ms-1 on average. The average
velocity vabs increase was 0.550 ± 0.238 ms-
We have observed three phases of the 1
on average while the other phases
Yurchenko vault: take-off on the displayed velocity losses of limited amounts
springboard, the first flight phase and take- only. It was detected that at the moment of
off on the vaulting table. For each phase, we landing on the springboard the average vx
evaluated the speed of the COG - v abs , the value stood at 5.344 ± 0.203 ms-1 which is
horizontal velocity component vx and also almost identical to the vabs value. At the
vertical velocity component vz at the time of completion of the take-off phase the average
commencement and completion of each vx value is of 4.485 ± 0.424 ms-1 meaning
phase, as well as the size of their changes there occurs a loss of vx at the expense of vz
during the phases. Fig. 1 neatly shows the at this stage, as the gymnast is required to
course of the overall velocity and its obtain a certain vertical velocity to be able
components for one of the attempts, which to move her COG from the current height
is closest to the average performance of the over to the vaulting table. This means that
entire test set. The curves show the velocity the horizontal velocity vx fell on the
springboard by 0.859 ± 0.364 ms-1. The velocity component vz, which contributes to
vertical component of the velocity vz shows the maximum height of the COG in the
a negative value of - 0.133 ± 0.238 ms-1 at second flight phase, rose in accordance with
the moment of commencement of take-off our estimates, from the 2.182 ± 0.352 ms -1
on the springboard, which can be explained value at the commencement of the take-off
by the movement of the body in the second
to the 2.449 ± 0.307 ms-1 value upon its
round-off phase, which smoothly converts
to the landing on a flexible springboard completion. The increase amount was
plate. During the take-off there occurs a therefore of 0.267 ± 0.404 ms-1 on average.
significant vz increase of 3.935 ± 0.438 ms -1 The overall velocity characteristics:
on average. So gymnasts leave the We were interested in the amount of
springboard with a vertical speed of the total loss for the individual velocity
components. Regarding the overall velocity
COG of 3.803 ± 0.296 ms-1. of the COG - vabs, the average loss was that
The first flight phase: of 1.641 ± 0.253 ms-1 during the three
During the first flight phase, i.e. from observed phases, where the difference
the moment of take -off completion from the between the maximum and minimum
springboard till the commencement of take- velocity during the observed phases is equal
off on the vaulting table, all competitors
were losing the overall vabs velocity, by to the average of 2.304 ± 0.439 ms-1. With
1.116 ± 0.298 ms-1 on average. The velocity the vx velocity, the total losses averaged
loss occurred even in the vx component (- 2.585 ± 0.246 ms-1 . In contrast, the vz
0.231 ± 0.243 ms-1) and the vertical velocity component increased by 2.581 ± 0.463 ms-1
component vz (- 1.621 ± 0.435 ms-1). on average.
The take-off phases on the vaulting
DISCUSSION
table:
The competitors opened this phase with
Even at first glance, both the velocity
an average vabs velocity of 4.796 ± 0.285 ms-
1 and completed it with the lowest velocity of the COG and its components show
recorded during the observed phases; with differences among gymnasts. We were
the average vabs value of 3.721 ± 0.367 ms-1. therefore interested to find out about the
The decrease in the vabs velocity in the development of these velocity values during
gymnasts chosen for our observation each of the monitored microphases, and
therefore was of 1.074 ± 0.337 ms-1. The their mutual influence during the selected
horizontal velocity component vx was also stages of the Yurchenko vault. Table 1
reduced from 4.255 ± 0.368 ms-1 at the shows the correlation coefficients of vabs, vx
moment of touching the vaulting table to and vz relations for all observed phases of
2.760 ± 0.320 ms-1 at the time of leaving it, the movement. The bold red numbers are
commented in the text below.
i.e. by 1.495 ± 0.333 ms -1. The vertical
Table 1
Spearman correlation coefficients of vabs, vx and vz relations
vabs 1.00 0.969 -0.112 0.53 0.415 0.033 0.086 0.253 -0.04 0.78 0.648 0.365
Landing 1.000 -0.077 0.442 0.455 -0.134 0.17 0.31 0.015 0.736 0.613 0.349
springboard vx
vz 1.000 -0.068 -0.015 -0.398 -0.319 -0.226 -0.052 -0.437 -0.266 -0.361
vabs 1.000 0.758 0.231 0.248 0.547 -0.675 0.31 0.284 -0.108
Take-off 1.000 -0.336 0.477 0.754 -0.724 0.2 0.262 -0.262
springboard vx
vz 1.000 -0.152 -0.165 -0.614 0.24 0.077 0.389
vz 1.000
First, we are going to take a closer look necessary for the execution of the given
at the velocity values at the moment of rotations of the body. From the kinematic
landing on the springboard and at the characteristics of projectile motion it is clear
moment of take-off from the vaulting table that it is a vz value which determines the
in order to detect the relationship between second flight phase time as well as the
the velocity characteristics of this crucial height reached by the COG. We are
moment which determines the character of therefore interested in the impact of the
the second flight phase and the velocity initial vabs on the vx and vz values at the
obtained from a run phase. Due to the moment of leaving the table. The correlation
correlation coefficient r = 0.780, we were coefficient r = 0.648 shows a closer
able to find out a strong connection between relationship between the vabs value when
the vabs velocity, at which the gymnast lands landing on the springboard and the vx value
on the springboard, and the vabs velocity upon taking off from the table, where the
which is in operation upon leaving the correlation coefficient is as low as r = 0.365.
vaulting table. Given the fact that vabs upon We therefore conclude that the initial
landing on the springboard is nearly equal to velocity vabs remains substantially
vx , we may say that the horizontal velocity unchanged in the horizontal axis. The height
of the COG - vx obtained during the run which the COG is able to reach in the
phase and the subsequent round-off is one of second flight phase, is therefore not
the decisive factors affecting the velocity of proportionally related to the velocity which
the COG at the moment of leaving the table. the gymnast was able to obtain prior to
From the spatial- temporal structure of the landing on the springboard.
observed vault it is clear that after leaving If we look at the velocity values at the
the table the gymnast must be able to fly far moment of leaving the table, we are able to
enough beyond the vaulting table but most observe that on average the vx exceeds vz by
importantly to be first able to rise to the of 0.31 ms- 1. Here, however, we need to
height needed to obtain the time admit that a greater conversion of vx to vz,
i.e. a greater size of vz in comparison with vx values of the test group is due to those
was expected. However, when compared poorer attempts where larger vx than vz was
with the results of Uzunov (2011) the vx recorded. The examples include TP 13 and
(2.760 ms-1) and vz velocity values (2.449 TP 14, where the vz values reached were
ms-1) achieved by our competitors at the end only of 1.854 ms-1 and 1.846 ms-1
of the second take-off phase are above- respectively. On the basis of these results we
average. According to Uzunov it is would therefore argue that the correlation
sufficient, if the horizontal velocity of the coefficient between the vabs when landing on
gymnast’s COG is of 2.34 ms-1 and the the springboard and the vz upon taking-off
vertical velocity reaches the value of 2.27 from the table should, with the correct
ms-1 upon leaving the table. Despite these performance, be higher than the above-
optimal velocities according Uzunov (2011) mentioned r = 0.365, namely due to the
where vx exceeds vz, in the separate larger and proportional conversion of vabs to
assessment of these overall velocity vz.
components which was carried out for Let's look at how the individual
individual analyzed attempts we found out velocity components of the COG change
that upon leaving the table the vz value was between the beginning and the end of the
slightly higher than the vx value in those section of the Yurchenko vault chosen for
gymnasts within the observed group who observation, i.e. during its various phases.
demonstrate above-average performance as Table 2 shows the correlation coefficients of
assessed by international refererees. These relations among vabs , vx and vz changes for
vaults include the TP 2, TP 4, TP 8 or TP 12 all observed phases of the movement. The
attempts, where the vz values range between bold red numbers are commented in the text
2.568 ms -1 and 2798 ms-1. The reverse ratio below.
of these two components in the average
Table 2
Spearman correlation coefficiens - vabs, vx and vz changes
were able to maintain a higher vx. This contrast, the increase in the vz on the table is
result corresponds with the findings of minimum, although the vaults of those
Penitente, Merni, Fantozzi and Perretta gymnasts within the test set, who were able
(2007), who stated that gymnasts should be to perform an above-average conversion of
able to effectively use the springboard vx to vz on the table, may be considered
without decreasing the horizontal velocity more technically advanced. This
while increasing the vertical velocity. In the corresponds with their results at
springboad phase it is therefore necessary to international events compared to the
pay utmost attention to maintaining the remaining gymnasts of the test set.
horizontal velocity vx accompanied by the To better understand the velocity
optimal, not the maximum increase in the changes in the phase on the table, it is
vertical velocity vz. necessary to take into account not only the
In the first flight phase the COG rises values at the beginning and end of the table
for the gymnast to be able to reach the phase, but also to consider the development
vaulting table with her hands. The decrease of velocity curves during this phase. The TP
in the overall vabs velocity in flight correlates 2, TP 5 and TP 8 (Fig. 2) graphs show the
primarily with the vz (r = 0.785) decrease, to initial growth of the overall velocity v abs on
a lesser extent with the vx (r = 0. 659), the table and its subsequent decline starting
mainly because the issue in question is that approximately half way through the contact
of a significant change in the height of the time with the table. This vabs development is
COG which is related to the conversion of based on the ability of the gymnasts to
the kinetic energy to the potential energy. maintain the vx constant as long as possible
and to increase the vz immediately after the
We believe that the following second contact with the table. If we compare these
take-off phase should be characteristized by characteristics in less successful attempts,
the conversion of the horizontal velocity to
namely the TP 1, TP 3 and TP 13 vaults
the vertical velocity. We are able to observe
here a considerable decrease in the overall (Fig. 3), we are able to observe clear
velocity, correlating (r = 0.806) with the loss differences. These gymnasts are unable to
of horizontal velocity accompanied by an preserve the magnitude of vx even during
increase in the average vertical velocity of the first moments of contact with the table.
This velocity component tends to drop
0.267 ms-1. The correlation coefficient (r
sharply very early on. Regarding vz,
= 0.204) between the change in the
gymnasts are unable to start accelerating
horizontal velocity vx and the vertical
from the moment of touching the table, their
velocity vz during the second take-off phase
vertical velocity first significantly decreases
on the table is even much lower than
and only then it begins to rise, however, not
previously on the springboard. This
to such a degree as with gymnasts
indicates a highly individual execution, as
demonstrating advanced techniques.This
regards the velocity transfer from the x-axis
development of vx and vz is manifested in
to the z-axis. As is evident from the
the continuous decrease in the overall speed
magnitude of change in the vz, its largest
vabs almost from the beginning of the second
increase occurs in the springboard phase. In
take-off phase.
Figure 3. Curves showing velocity development in TP 1, TP 3, TP 13, overal velocity v abs - solid
black curve, horizontal velocity component vx - blue dotted curve and the vertical velocity
component vz - red dashed curve.
The purpose of the take-off phases table, we note the smallest decline in TP 5
should be the minimization of the velocity (1.251 ms-1) and almost the same drop in TP
loss. The graphs show gymnasts take a very 8 (1.267 ms-1). The velocity curves showed
individual approach to the work with the in graphs for both of these gymnasts are
centre of body’s velocity both on the characterized by rather discontinuous
springboard and on the table, as a result of changes, something which we believe shows
which we are able to observe significant the dynamics of the execution associated
differences in the timing of acceleration and with high explosive capabilities of the force.
deceleration moments. The aim of the This is particularly obvious in the take-off
gymnast should therefore be landing on the phases both on the springboard and on the
springboard with the optimal speed in order table, where both gymnasts display a
to achieve a convenient starting position and tendency to acceleration at a certain
subsequently to attempt to minimize moment. Frequent changes of the
velocity losses or even to increase velocity accelerated and decelarated movements are
during a microphase on the springboard and taking place here with a greater frequency,
the table. When comparing the velocity however, to a lesser extent than is the case
change in gymnasts that occurred between with most of the test subjects. The reverse
landing on the springboard and leaving the trend is observed, for example, with TP 3
and TP 13, where the continuity of velocity maturity of the research sample chosen for
changes is apparent, but where a greater observation as well as provides us with the
drop in velocity occurred between the platfom to formulate valid conclusions for
beginning of landing on the springboard and practice. Although it is vault, in our opinion,
the take-off from the table and where larger it is necessary to focus on work of upper
differences may be observed between the extremities used in Yurchenko vault in two
maximum and minimum recorded value of phases - round-off and the phase on the
velocity. table, in comparison with most other types
of vaults. Concerning work of upper
CONCLUSION
extremities in the round-off, their dynamic
take-off creates necessary conditions for
In individual phases of the Yurchenko
optimal movement execution on the
vault an individual approach to handling the
springboard. This phase should be,
locomotor task displaying varying degrees
according to results, characterized by a
of velocity variations may be observed. First
minimal loss of horizontal velocity and the
phase chosen for observation was the body
increase of vertical velocity which, in our
work on the springboard. The velocity
opinion, is impossible without perfectly
development for the individual gymnasts
mastered round-off. Moreover, a fact worth
tested varied widely, although almost all of
mentioning is that the greatest velocity loss
them demonstrated an acceleration in the
was found on the vaulting table. For this
phase of leaving the springboard, which
reason, we would recommend putting
signals the fulfilling of the take-off task and
emphasis on the technical aspects of this
proper preparation for the first flight phase.
phase execution and not neglecting fitness
In the first flight phase all tested persons
training focusing on the dynamic work of
were found to have lost velocity, although
upper extremities again. Specifically, in
an overall duration of the flight played an
round-off it is necessary to focus on
important part in this microphase. Next is
powerful arms take-off and then to keep
the support phase on the vaulting table,
rebound to prevent lower limbs from falling
which we consider crucial to the
down during jumping on the springboard.
performance and most significantly
To strengthen the upper extremities dynamic
contributing to the entire vault assessment.
work we recommend, for example, repeated
Individual competitors show different levels
take-offs in the handstand in different
of functional aptitudes. Through the analysis
variations, also using trampolines. We want
of these phases and as a result of comparing
to use our research results as a basis for
14 different vaults performed by elite
other measurements. Within the Yurchenko
gymnasts, we were able to establish the
vault it would be appropriate to focus
basic criteria necessary for the successful
further studies on a more detailed analysis
execution of the Yurchenko vault such as
of the vertical and horizontal velocity
obtaining optimal, if possible maximum,
components in each phase and their relation
velocity in the first take -off phase, which
with angle characteristics. Futhermore, we
the gymnast is able to use to her best
are interested in kinematical changes in
advantage in order to execute a technically
observed phases within the more complex
perfect vault. The other basic criteria
forms of the Yurchenko vault. These
include a minimum loss of horizontal
measurements would provide relevant
velocity in the first flight phase and
information for coaches on how to train this
obtaining the optimal vertical velocity
jump in beginners, as well as in jump
component in the take-off phase on the
improvement phase in advanced gymnasts.
vaulting table. Our results were compared
with those presented by other authors and a
high degree of agreement between the two
was detected, which shows a technical
REFERENCES
Arkaev, L., & Suchilin, G. (2004). Penitente, G., Merni, F., Fantozzi, S. &
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3(3), 91-105. differences in characteristics of the run-up
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Biomechanická analýza přeskoků ve Corresponding author:
sportovní gymnastice z pohledu kinematiky-
přehledová studie. Česká kinantropologie, Mgr. Petr Hedbávný,
15, 37-49. Ph.D. Masaryk University
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(1990). 3-D Analysis of yurchenko vaults Kamenice 5
performed by female gymnasts during the 625 00, Brno, Czech rep. Phone:
1988 Seoul Olympic Games. International +420 737 31 34 70 E-mail:
journal of sport biomechanics, 6, 157-176. [email protected]
Koh, M., Jennings, L., Elliott, B. &
Lloid, D. (2003). A Predicted Optimal
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in Women's Artistic Gymnastics. Journal of
applied biomechanics, 19, 187-204.
1
Department of Exercise Physiology, Faculty of Educational and Psychology, Shiraz
University, Shiraz, Iran
2
Assistant Professor in Exercise Physiology, Sport Medicine Department, Sport Science
Research Institute, Tehran, Iran
3
Department of Physical Education and Sport Sciences, Kermanshah Branch, Islamic Azad
University, Kermanshah, Iran
4
Department of Exercise Physiology, Faculty of Physical Education and Sport Sciences,
University of Guilan, Rasht, Iran
Original
article
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of six months specific aerobic gymnastic
training on motor abilities in 10-12 years old boys. Eighteen boys (aged 10-12 years old)
volunteered to participate in the 6 months aerobic gymnastic training. Some motor ability
parameters were measured weekly in addition to pre training. Data were analyzed using one-
way ANOVA with repeated measures. The mean values of Chin-Up in 30 Seconds, Legs Lift in
30 sec, Horizontal Jump and Press Handstand test records were significantly changed after 6
months training (p<0.05).The Rope Climbing Using Legs/Feet records were significantly
decreased (promoted) after 6 months specific training in aerobic gymnasts. Similarly, Tuck up
Trunk and Leg Flexion records were significantly increased in the first, 3 rd and last month
evaluations (p<0.05).The records of Single Leg Squats test were significantly increased in both
legs approximately similar to a higher value in pre training for right leg (p<0.05). Based on the
results of this study it can be concluded that specific training in aerobic gymnastic,
(independent of growth and maturation) causes positive changes in motor abilities in 10-12
years old boys.
INTRODUCTION
Gymnastics' subgroups are composed physical activity during the period of growth
of a series of moves that included several improves anaerobic strength and aerobic
movements in the form of simple, complex, capacity in adolescent (Bouchard, Thibault,
static and dynamic techniques that are & Jobin, 1981, Payne & Morrow, 1993).
marked with a precise definition. The use of
female aerobic gymnasts in 19-21 years old. decided to start specific aerobic gymnastic
This study show the model of the motor training. They had a appropriate style and
skills necessary for the performance of talent for aerobic gymnastic that selected by
aerobics gymnastics difficulty elements are: Iranian aerobic gymnastic national coach.
legs and hips flexibility, the strength of hip Before conducting the study, subjects
joint flexors, coordination, general strength completed consent forms and
and power. Based our search We didn't find questionnaires. Regarding medical
any more research in background of this information and physical exercise, none of
study. them had any motor problems. Individuals
One of the crucial period in the who have a bone or joint problems in the
beginning stages of training on aerobic year, before the study were barred from
gymnastics training is at the age of 10 to 12 participating in this study.
years. Because official aerobic gymnastic The total period of training in current
competition start at 12 years old (AG1) and study six months (5 sessions per week for
previous age is 10 to 12 years old (national three hours per session because they have
development) that is starter of age (FIG, professional aerobic gymnastic training)
2008) . So it is very important that we have lasted (Katić, Maleš, & Miletić , 2002).
given extraordinary attention to the training Training program generally were include:
requirements. In any educational program as learning routine and difficulty element,
well as its various stages, to achieve the artistic (specific of aerobic gymnastic and
main purpose we should have a specific different of Artistic filde), chorography, full
program, which it can introduction to routine and general physical preparation.
performing gymnastic exercises in the right Also Warm up and cool down was constant
way. Based on the principles outlined above in each session. Training period and
as well as the relationship between measurements were performed under the
gymnastics phases we assumed that our national coach and training conditions for
training program increased motor abilities to all subjects were the same. During the study
extents that are important for aerobic period, subjects had not another additional
gymnastics. non organized physical activity. All
On the other hand, there is a lack of gymnasts were in the same school and have
studies which investigate the effect of a long the same physical education class that we
period training course of aerobic gymnastic neglected it.
on motor abilities in 10-12 years -old Measurements on seven sessions during
aerobic gymnastic boys. Therefore, the aim the six- month training period held to
of this study was to assess the influence of calculate 9 functional standard tests of
programmed training on certain motor gymnasts. Tests were chosen so that the
abilities of aerobic gymnasts aged 10 to 12 cover filed strength ability of hands and
years, after 6 months participation in this shoulders, and legs and trunk as well as hip
training. flexibility. These tests include 2 tests to
measure hands and shoulders, 3 tests to
METHODS measure power of the trunk; 3 tests for
lower body and one test for the total body
The sample of subjects consisted of 18 (Table 1) (Marković, Čavar, & Sporiš,
boys (Age 11.7±0.5 years; Height, 2012). Before accomplishing the tests, each
142.2±1.7 cm; mass, 35.6±4.8 kg) that gymnast performed 5 minutes running and
volunteered to participate in this study. All 10 minutes of dynamic stretching warm up
subjects had a minimum of two years' to him.
experience in gymnastic training and
Table 1
Motor tests, measurement unit and motor ability
(Malina & Bouchard, 1991; Lopes, speed, muscular strength and endurance
Rodrigues, Maia, & Malina, 2011). The (Baláš & Bulc, 2007; Fjørtoft, Pedersen,
motor development and sports skills of Sigmundsson, & Vereijken, 2011; Haga et
children have been considered important in al., 2008) . Some exercise like gymnastics
the physical education program (Haga et al., are highly influenced on the development of
2008). The importance of different forms of these characteristics (Bučar Pajek, Čuk,
sports has been verified for good lifelong Kovač, & Jakše 2010; Werner, Williams, &
physical activity and for the versatile Hall, 2011). Horizontal Jump and Press
development of fitness and motor abilities Handstand records were significantly
(Fujinaga, et al., 2008; Gallahue, Ozmun, & increased by 3.7% and 146.3%,
Goodway, 2006; Pehkonen et al., 2011). respectively, after specific training period
Some of the motor tests typically (p<0.05) (Figure 4).
concentrate on balance, flexibility, agility,
Figure 1. Means and standard deviations of Legs Lift from Picked Position (top graph), Chin-Up
in 30 Seconds (middle graph), and Legs Lift in 30 sec (bottom graph) tests of aerobic gymnasts
during 6 months specific training. *, Significant differences from pre-training values; †,
Significant differences from 1 month ago values ‡, Significant differences from 2 months ago
values; #, Significant differences from 3 months ago values; ¥, Significant differences from 4
months ago values (p<0.05).
Figure 2. Means and standard deviations of Rope Climbing Using Legs/Feet (top graph), and
Tuck up Trunk and Leg Flexion (bottom graph) tests of aerobic gymnasts during 6 months
specific training. *, Significant differences from pre -training values; †, Significant differences
from 1 month ago values ‡, Significant differences from 2 months ago values; #, Significant
differences from 3 months ago values; ¥, Significant differences from 4 months ago values
(p<0.05).
Figure 3. Means and standard deviations of Single Leg Squats (left and right) tests of aerobic
gymnasts during 6 months specific training. *, Significant differences from pre-training values;
†, Significant differences from 1 month ago values ‡, Significant differences from 2 months ago
values; #, Significant differences from 3 months ago values; ¥, Significant differences from 4
months ago values (p<0.05).
Figure 4. Means and standard deviations of Horizontal Jump (top graph), and Press Handstand
(bottom graph) tests of aerobic gymnasts during 6 months specific training. *, Significant
differences from pre-training values; †, Significant differences from 1 month ago values ‡,
Significant differences from 2 months ago values; #, Significant differences from 3 months ago
values; ¥, Significant differences from 4 months ago values (p<0.05).
Gymnastics is one of the key sports as training in develop of motor ability in young
any physical exercise on the floor or children.
apparatus that offers a great deal of Aerobic gymnastics is a sport with
locomotive,stability and body control great technical demand and needs specific
movements that are highly critical for the characteristics in some ability: anaerobic
development of the children (Bučar Pajek endurance, relative strength, explosive
Čuk, Kovač, & Jakše, 2010) . Gymnastics power or strength and flexibility (López et
needs a great variety of movement; al., 2002; Abalo Núñez, Gutiérrez-Sánchez,
transitions from dynamic to static elements & Vernetta Santana, 2013). In addition,
and conversely, many changes of the body because of the current high level sports
situation in space (Bressel, Yonker, Kras, & cause continues difficulties to the gymnast
Heath, 2007; Čuljak, Ćavar, Crnjac, Marić, (Torrents et al., 2005).
& Ćorluka, 2011). Gymnastic has different Follows these results we can conclude
branches include artistic for men, artistic for that the specific aerobic gymnastic training
women, acrobatic, trampoline, gymnastic had a positive influence on explosive
for all, rhythmic and aerobic gymnastic. strength, dynamic and static muscular
Because of lake research in this context, we endurance, flexibility and frequency of
try to descriptive the results of this study movements in 10 to 12 years-old boys.
and highlight the effect of each motor ability Changes happened in aerobic gymnastic
roll in success of gymnast. Also we explain training are partially anticipated because
roll of specific aerobic gymnastic gymnastics is physically complicated and
has a key role in the development of motor
Science of Gymnastics 5 Science of Gymnastics
Mertashl M., Rohani H., Farzaneh E., Nasiri R THE EFFECT OF 6 MONTHS SPECIFIC AEROBIC … Vol. 7 Issue 1: 51 -
abilities (Côté, Salmela, & Russell, 1995). activities,however, the most experts would
According to the statically analysis, the agree that gymnastics and their branches is
boys' motor abilities in the final measuring, important activities for the healthy growth
compared with the initial measuring, had, in and development of children. Specially,
general, improved significantly. gymnastics may promote the development
The progress achieved in boys was in of coordination, strength, muscular
the test of explosive power, dynamic and endurance, flexibility and balance (Bencke,
static muscular strength. The results show Damsgaard, Sækmose, Jørgensen,
that applied aerobic gymnastic training Jørgensen, & Klausen, 2002; Bressel,
improved all motor abilities. Interesting fact Yonker, Kras, & Heath, 2007; Werner,
is that there was exceptional improvement Williams, & Hall, 2011). Jeleska (2007) and
of explosive strength that it has a more Males et al. (2006) found that children who
percentage of genetic. The reason may be are in the PE classes and are regularly active
partly prescribed and observed during the in the sport branches have superior
final measurement, where the children improvement in all motor abilities,
evidently improved technique of performing compared with a group of children who
the tests, which finally was more effective participated only PE classes.
(Čuljak, Ćavar, Crnjac, Marić, & Ćorluka, Based on the results of this study it can
2011). be concluded that specific training in
Poest et al (1990) reported that aerobic gymnastic, (independent of growth
providing young children with the intently and maturation) causes positive changes in
planned movement experiences will motor abilities in 10 to 12-year-old boys.
increase fundamental movement skills.
Their results show that the applied dance REFERENCES
program for preschool children differently
affects boys (Poest et al., 1990). Thus, use Abalo Núñez, R., Gutiérrez-Sánchez,
of music in aerobic gymnastic can be useful Á., & Vernetta Santana, M. (2013). Analysis
in improvingthe motor ability of the of incidence of injury in Spanish elite in
gymnasts. Katić, Maleš, & Miletić (2002) aerobic gymnastics. Revista Brasileira de
have proposed that the same Medicina do Esporte, 19(5), 355-358.
kinesiologictraining can differently affect 7-
year-old boys, and he identified the Alexander, M.J. (1991) Physiological
morphological – motor variables to be characteristics of elite and sub-elite
addressed by general and differentiated rhythmic gymnastics. Journal of Human
programs of kinesiologicprogram in order Movement Studies, 20, 99-127.
for them to be achieved during the Alpkaya, U. (2013). The effects of
development of the child's body. Obviously, basic gymnastics training integrated with
the morphological – motor development physical education courses on selected
should be observed through the interaction motor performance variables. Educational
of morphological and motor systems, Research and Reviews, 8(7), 317-321.
thereby employing target kinesiologic Baláš, J., & Bunc, V. (2007). Short-
treatments to bring the structures of these term influence of climbing activities on
systems into optimal interrelationships strength, endurance and balance within
(Katić, Maleš, & Miletić, 2002). school physical education. International
In Iran, PE classes (just second grade) Journal of Fitness, 3(2).
do not contain gymnastics skills performed Behm, D. G., & Kibele, A. (2007).
on the apparatus and gymnastic branches Effects of differing intensities of static
but only some simple floor exercises. stretching on jump performance. European
Generally, the PE curriculum focuses on journal of applied physiology, 101(5), 587-
ball games (such as volleyball, football, 594.
tennis, etc.), track and field
Corresponding author:
Ivan Čuk
Original
article
Abstract
The aim of research was to test the quality of spectator’s execution evaluation of gymnast’s
performance compared to official judges. For the purpose 91 participants (spectators)
evaluated 26 exercises on parallel bars on a scale from 0-10.0 points like it is used in diving (0-
Completely failed, 0.5- 2.0 – unsatisfactory, 2.5-4.5 – deficient, 5.0-6.5 – satisfactory, 7.0-8.0 –
good, 8.5-9.5 - very good, and 10 – excellent). Following analysis were performed: Kolmogorov
Smirnov test, Cronbach’s Alpha, Spearmans Rank correlation, cluster analyze (square distance
method), and Kruskal Wallis analyze of variance. Spectator’s reliability of judging is same as
for official judges; ranking is similar to the official judges and even better. Cluster analysis
extracted three groups of spectators – strict ones, medium ones and permissive ones. As an
average, they function well. The biggest challenge for spectators is bias towards their local
(national) heroes and champions. However, in the spectators is also a group of those who are
honest and strict without having biased opinion and they formed quite a big group (one
quarter).
INTRODUCTION
Since the first world championship in while in public spectator’s opinion Miroslav
gymnastics in 1903 judging have changed Cerar (Yugoslavia, later Slovenia) should
severely (Bučar 1998, Grossfeld 2014). In win (Satler, Šlamberger, 1966) . Whistling
the beginning two judges were evaluating and clapping was so noise and long term,
gymnasts, later number of judges raised to judges have changed their score and
three, four, six, nine, while in 2014 there are gymnasts tied for gold. Similar situation
5 judges for execution, two for difficulty happened at Olympic Games in Athens 2004
and 2 as a reference judges (Štukelj, 1989, when spectators did not accept Alexei
FIG, 2014). In the past there were some Nemov (Russia) score on high bar. Judges
extreme events, where judging was not in changed the score but in such way, it did not
line with spectators. Such most referred change the ranking of the gymnasts.
event was during World Championship in At the major competitions, usually
Praque in 1962, when Boris Schahklin spectators know the sport they attend and
(Soviet Union, later Ukraine) was on they award the value (exercise as a whole)
parallel bars awarded with the highest score,
of the gymnasts exercise with appropriate
Science of Gymnastics Journal 61 Science of Gymnastics Journal
Čuk I. CAN AUDIENCE REPLACE EXECUTION JUDGES IN MALE Vol. 7 Issue 1: 61 -
clapping; of course their heart beats with In the past many judges analysis were
their best local (national) gymnasts and they performed about their validity, reliability,
are slightly biased what can be noticed by bias, some of the ideas FIG accepted, some
lauder cheering and clapping at the end of are still waiting to be applied (as Real time
the exercise. Judging System, Bučar Pajek et.al. (2011).
Judging is difficulty task (Plessner, Bias is in gymnastics quite common,
1999). It divides into two areas of work at Plessner (1999) found that placing of
the competition. The first task is to define gymnast within the team competition have
content value (difficulty, special impact on its score. Similar found Ste-Marie
requirements and connections) and the (2003) that memory biases are evident
second task is to define execution value
according to previous knowledge of
(FIG, 2013). To evaluate content value it is
gymnasts. Another Ste- Marie (2000)
necessary to memorize a lot of information
analyses showed that novice judges, as
e.g. - how element is defined (starting
compared to expert judges, spent less time
position, movement, final position), how
looking at the gymnast perform, spent more
difficult it is; in which group it belongs;
time looking at the scoring paper, and were
what is the symbol of element (writing is
compulsory) and at the end judge have to less able to engage in the dual-task demands
decide which elements will be count for required in gymnastic judging. Yet Another
content value. Content value is as an Ste-Marie analysis showed expert judges
objective measure (Fink, 1986; Fink, Fetzer were significantly better at perceptually
1992) and can be controlled via video anticipating upcoming gymnastic elements
recording system IRCOS) in case of doubt from advance information; also, gymnastic
(FIG, 2011b). On other side, judging elements that were correctly anticipated
execution is much simpler, in sense of were judged more accurately than those that
amount of information needed to evaluate had been anticipated incorrectly; experts
exercise. There are only four main also exhibited significantly greater depth
deductions to apply – small one 0.1 point, and breadth in their declarative knowledge
medium one 0.3 point, large 0.5 point and base. In general we can conclude, judging in
fall 1.0 point (FIG, 2013) gymnastics is in general good (uniform
By FIG Men’s Code of Points (2013) judging education, FIG level of judges)
(which includes more than 800 elements according to reliability and validity of
with different difficulties, special judges (Dallas, Kirialanis, 2010; Bučar
requirements, connection bonus, what is Pajek et.al. 2012). Of course some problems
hard to memorize even for judges) it is persist, especially in area of execution
evident spectators do not have proper where decisions have to distinguish between
information (in sense of content) what small and medium error and between
gymnasts are performing. Spectators can medium and large error.
hardly define difficulty value; even experts Reliability is defined how measurement
without writing down whole exercise cannot results can be repeated with same results
always tell the exact score. Execution is (IBM, 2013). It is also calculated how
easier to define by spectators. At least they different results of same subject (from
can say the gymnasts succeeded or not. different evaluators, judges, spectators) are
During our school days, we are and we related. Cronbach’s Alpha coefficient is a
evaluate on at least five level scale – measure, which tells if there are reliably
unsatisfactory, satisfactory, good, very results. In general, Cronbach’s Alpha higher
good, and excellent. So also, spectators of 0.9 is a reliably measurement. Reliability
(with some school experience) can give can be raised with higher number of
remarks according to their own criteria, measurements of subject (what FIG already
what is e.g. excellent. done from two to 9 judges), but it would be
of special interest how few tens of
spectators are reliably. Up to now nobody
tested spectators how they evaluate 1- 26), the second column was for
gymnastics exercises. participants remarks and the third column
Some sports with similar approach as was for the participant score, they were not
gymnastics (difficulty and execution) have, instructed to work as judge but to watch
also simplified execution evaluation (Čuk, exercise from the beginning to the end,
Fink, Leskošek, 2012). The simplest is in make short notes and give result.
diving where execution is evaluated on the Gymnast’s exercises were from parallel
scale from 0 to 10 (FINA, 2011). Adults bars only. We choose whole competition
understand and could use 0-10 level scale of video recording and results from World Cup
diving in most of life situations. competition (FIG, 2011a). Participants had
to evaluate 26 exercises. After the first
Diving execution values:
gymnasts dismount, participants had 45
0 - completely failed second to give their score (at competitions -
0.5 - 2.0 - unsatisfactory 30 seconds for judges plus 15 seconds, as is
2.5 - 4.5 - deficient time of results show results on panel), than
5.0 - 6.5 - satisfactory next gymnasts, exercise was showed. Order
7.0 - 8.0 - good of the gymnasts was same as at competition
8.5 - 9.5 - very good judges evaluated (if exist to have same order
10 – excellent. bias with spectators).
Participants seated apart and
Before OG in Beijing there were conversation forbidden.
serious attempts to include audience to Sample of variables consisted of:
evaluate sport events and judge athletes official judge’s results (six judges scores
performance, even some technological (variables J1 to J6, final E score - EFINAL),
solutions were prepared, however the idea average score from all spectators -
did not live and we have no data on how VIEWER, scores from each spectator.
audience is evaluating athletes performance For data analysis, we used SPSS 22.0.
(Biggar et al., 2005). Following analysis were performed:
The aim of research is to find out how Kolmogorov Smirnov test, Cronbach’s
spectators can evaluate gymnasts Alpha, Spearmans Rank correlation,
performance comparing to judges in ranking hierarchical cluster analyze (between groups
gymnasts and in compare judges reliability linkage and interval of squared Euclidean
and spectators reliability. distance method), and Kruskal Wallis
analyze of variance. Results were significant
METHODS
at p<0.05.
For experiment, we choose 91 RESULTS AND DISCUSION
participants (62 males and 29 females) -
students of the first year at university, before Kolmogorov Smirnov test showed only
they took any sport course. Average age was 24 spectators succeeded to make normal
19.5 years. They were not involved with scores distribution. However, also only two
gymnastics otherwise as in primary or judges have normal distribution of scores as
secondary school during P.E: classes or as well. Despite the fact most of data have not
TV spectators. normal distribution, we calculated
Each participant received a paper with Cronbach’s Alpha as a measure of
written guidelines what scores from 0-10 reliability. Judges and spectators have
mean, and the table with three columns. In similar reliability (0.994 versus 0.997), and
the first column there was number of comparative to results in past (Bučar Pajek
gymnast presented on video (numbers from et al., 2012; Leskošek, et al., 2010).
Table 1
Spearman Rank Correlation matrix
VIEWER EFINAL J1 J2 J3 J4 J5 J6
VIEWER 1.000 .927** .759** .885** .933 **
.901 **
.892 **
.878 **
Rank correlations in Table 1 are all third group).. For further analysis, the
significant and very high. Average solution with five groups have been used, as
spectators score shares same ranking as the fourth group had only one spectator,
other judges comparing towards final statistics is not available, and the fifth group
execution score. Even more spectators were of two spectators was omitted in further
much better in ranking than judge number 1. statistics as number was too low. In Table 2
In addition, rank correlations between are averages from each, group, their
judges and average spectator are of the same standard deviations and standard errors for
level, while some are again much better than each evaluated gymnast. Unintentional
between judge one and other judges. perhaps it was good first gymnast scored by
From the statistics point of view, spectators opinion satisfactory value, what
spectators can even replace international put spectators in position to adjust their
judge, spectators reliability is adequate scores later on with upgrading or
(number of measurements (judges) is very downgrading their scores. As a rule, the first
high and reliability increases). Even ranking group have medium scores, the second
is adequate, as average rank correlation group the highest scores and the third group
between judges and final execution score is have the lowest scores. Some particular
0.921. results are interesting; the second group
Further, we were interested if gave in average 10 points to Petkovšek and
spectators are homogenous group. For a Fahrig, while in official results the highest
purpose we did cluster, analyze with groups score was for Wang. Petkovšek as a local
from two to hero (recognized by spectators) have higher
10. The Figure ranking than Wang for the first and second
1 shows dendrogram of hierarchical group, while the third group placed
cluster results. The best solution was with Petkovšek and Wang as judges placed them.
five groups where the first group had 59 Kruskal Walis test showed for all gymnasts
spectators, the second 7 the third 22, the that spectators groups have different
fourth 1 and the fifth 2. In next iteration opinion, while only for Wang it showed
with four groups the first group was there are all three groups of same opinion.
composed of 81 spectator (59 from previous
the first group and 22 from previous the
Table 2
Average Scores from different participants group groups (participants used 0-10 scale without
introducing into gymnastics judging principles)
It is important to note, each spectator results between novice and expert judges,
made his own criteria what goes with his we can not compare them in same sense;
scores. The scores were then going up or judges did have instructions and they have
down in accordance with gymnasts to evaluate according to the Code of Points
presentation. As spectators were not with small, medium, large and fall errors,
educated gymnasts or coaches or judges, we what is very different to evaluation of whole
can say they were consistent via their own exercise within simple 0-10 points. The
scores. High number of spectators content of score is different.
represented as items increased reliability
and validity. Despite Ste-Marie (2003)
CONCLUSIONS
Čuk, I., Fink, H., & Leskošek, B.
Experiment with spectators to serve as (2012). Modeling the Final Score in Artistic
a judge showed interesting results. Gymnastics by Different Weights of
Reliability of exercise presentation judging Difficulty and Execution. Science of
is same as for official judges; ranking is Gymnastics Journal, 4(1), 73-82.
similar to the official judges and even better. Dallas, G. & Kirialanis, P. (2010).
Cluster analysis extracted three groups of Judges' evaluation of routines in men's
spectators – strict ones, medium ones and artistic gymnastics. Science of Gymnastics
permissive ones. As an average, they Journal, 2(2), 49-58.
function well. The biggest challenge for Fink, H. (1986). Towards an
spectators is bias towards their local ’Alternative’ Code of Points for Men and
(national) heroes and champions, but in the Women. Rome: FIG Judges’ Symposium
spectators is also a group of those who are The Future of Gymnastics.
honest and strict without having biased Fink, H., & Fetzer, J. (1992). Code of
opinion. They form quite a big group (one Points for Men’s Artistic Gymnastics (draft
quarter). proposal for implementation after 1996).
With modern technology, e.g. smart Vancouver: FIG-MTC.
mobile phones FIG could perform some FIG. (2013). MAG Code of Points
experimental judging among spectators. 2013-2016. Lausanne: FIG.
With further data collection and data FIG. (2011a). Results from World Cup
analysis, perhaps some new horizon open as competition in Maribor. Lausanne: FIG.
there is not much sports events by now, FIG. (2014). Technical Regulations.
where spectators could have active role in Lausanne: FIG.
competition. FIG. (2011b). Use of IRCOS decision.
Lausanne: FIG.
REFERENCES FINA (2011). Fina Rules and
regulations. Retrived on 15.4.2011 from
Biggar D., Hoffman A. Jordan C., & http://www.fina.org/H2O/index.php?option
LasnikV. (2005). DiscAthon: A Rating =com_content&view=section&id=17&Itemi
Device for Olympic Events. Retrived from: d=184
www.uxgoodbadugly.com/papers/DiscATh Grossfeld A. (2014). Changes during
on_OlympicRatingDevice.doc. the 110 years of the World Artistic
Bučar Pajek, M. (1998) Primerjalna Gymnastics Championships. Science of
analiza tekmovalnih pravil v moški in ženski Gymnastics Journal, 6(2) 5-37.
športni gimnastiki [Comparative Analsis of IBM. SPSS 22.0, 2013.
Men and Women Code of Points in Leskošek, B., Čuk, I., Karacsony, I.,
Gymnastics]: diplomsko delo. Ljubljana: Pajek, J., & Bučar, M. (2010). Reliability
Fakulteta za šport. and validity of judging in men’s artistic
Bučar Pajek, M., Čuk, I., Karacsony, I., gymnastics at the 2009 university games.
Pajek, J., & Leskošek, B. (2012). Reliability Science of Gymnastics Journal, 2(2), 25-34.
and validity of judging in Women’ artistic Plessner, H. (1999). Expectation biases
gymnastics at the 2009 University games. in gymnastics judging. Journal of Sport &
European Journal of Sport Science, 3, 207- Exercise Psychology, 21(2), 131-144.
215. Satler M., Šlamberger V. (1966).
Bučar Pajek, M., Forbes, W., Pajek, J., Poslednji romantik na konju [Last romantic
Leskošek, B., & Čuk, I.(2011). Reliability of on horse]. Ljubljana: Nedeljski dnevnik.
real time judgeing system. Science of Štukelj, L. (1989). Mojih sedem
Gymnastics Journal, 3(2), 47 – 54. svetovnih tekmovanj [My Seven World
Competitions]. Novo mesto: Dolenjska
založba.
Corresponding author:
Ivan Čuk
Faculty of Sport
Gortanova 22
1000 Ljubljana
Slovenia
Tel.: +386 1 5707700
E-mail: [email protected]
1
University of Hildesheim, Institute of Sport Science, Germany
2
German Sport University Cologne, Institute of Psychology, Germany
Book review
Correspondence to:
Damian Jeraj,
CeLeB – Promotionskolleg
Unterrichtsforschung
University of Hildesheim
Marienburger Platz 22
31141 Hildesheim
E-mail: [email protected]
LARISA LATYNINA
Born on 27th December 1934 (Kherson, Soviet Union, today Ukraina), she just turned 80. We
wish to most decorated gymnast all the best in future and lot of healthy days. Her first
appearance at international competition started with gold medal as member of winning team at
World Championship in 1954. Afterwards she collected medals at Olympic Games, World
Championship and European Championship; she won 25 gold, 15 silvers and 6 bronze medals in
a sum 46 medals. Her career is impressive as she started to compete as 19 years old (World
Championship in Rome) and finished at World Championship in Dortmund in 1966 at age of 32;
still decorated with silver medal as team member. Today she is still the only women who won 9
gold medals at OG and it seems her record will still be valid in near future.
Olympic Games 1956 1.team, AA, FX, VT, 2.UB, 3.rhytmic apparatus
1966 2.team
It is worth to mention she won all possible disciplines at 1958 Moscow World Championship
and at 1957 Bucharest European Championship.
Larisa in action with her sign.
Part of Soviet Union (bold) team from 1958, best advertisement for long living of gymnasts.
From left Lydia Ivanova (born Kalinina), Larisa Latynina, Tamara Manina, Tamara
Ljuchina, Tamara Žalejeva present at Larisa's 80th birthday (L. Latynina archive)
VERA ČASLAVSKA
Born on 3rd May 1942 in Prague (Czechoslovakia, today Czech). She started her international
competitions at age of 16, when she earned her first medal at World Championship in Moscow,
and finished 10 years later after OG in New Mexico, due to political and family matters. It is
important to notice she scored two 10.0 in event finals at the 1967 European Championship. We
have to emphasize her seven gold medals at OG, which were all from individual rankings and
her perfect domination among European championships in 1965 and 1967 where she won all
disciplines (in that time European championship was equally qualitative as world championship
as quality women gymnastics was not spread on other continents).
1961 3.AA, FX
VIKTOR ČUKARIN
Born on 9th November 1921 in Mariupol (Soviet Union, today Ukraina), died in Lviv (Ukraina)
on 25th August 1984. With him Soviet Union gymnastics started to dominate on international
stage. Her career started at late ages according to WWII and he made his greatest achievements
in age of 31 and 35 years. Despite his international gymnasts career was short, he made open
road to the next generations of excellent soviet gymnasts. Despite his name is not among
original officially for Russian giants, he was one of the first men who performed it.
John H. Salmela, a native of Verdun, Québec, came from humble beginnings and had a successful
career as a national level gymnast and a member of university gymnastics teams that won national
titles. He also co--captained the Point St--Charles football team to the Canadian juvenile title in 1964.
As a student, he attended the University of British Columbia, where he won the R. Tait McKenzie
Award for the highest cumulative grade point average. After obtaining his Master’s degree at the
University of Western Ontario, he studied at the University of Alberta where he completed his Ph.D.
in human performance (sport psychology).
The scholar
John subsequently pursued a 34--year teaching and research career that included positions at
Université Laval, Université de Montréal, and the University of Ottawa, where he taught motor
development and sport psychology courses in both English and French. Over the years, John's
research interests spanned topics such as career development, mental skills assessment, talent
identification, the development of expert performance of coaches and athletes, and the role of
families in this process. After a world sabbatical tour in 1981, he wrote The World Sport Psychology
Sourcebook, which defined the field at that time and has been updated with two subsequent editions.
He has authored/edited 20 books and written 250 articles, both in academic journals and for
professional audiences.
After taking early retirement in Canada in 1999, he relocated to Belo Horizonte, Brazil where he
taught in Portolish (a combination of Portuguese and English) as an invited professor at the Federal
University of Minas Gerais. Always looking for opportunities to write and help other colleagues, he
also implemented a copy editing service in English for Brazilian scholars. John was still active and
collaborating with scholars, coaches and athletes from all corners of the globe up until his passing.
Professionally, John served on various international editorial boards of scientific and professional journals,
most prominently as Co--editor of the International Journal of Sport Psychology (1987--1995). From 1985--
1995, he was the sport psychology consultant for the Canadian men’s national gymnastics team where he
participated in three World Championships and one Olympic Games. He trained Iranian sport psychology
consultants and accompanied the Iranian delegation to the 2006 Asian Games in Doha, Quatar as the
team's consultant. He also served for 16 years on the Managing Council of the International Society of
curriculum for the International Gymnastics
Sport Psychology, including as Vice--President from 1989--1993. He wrote the three level sport psychology
The supervisor
John supervised 41 Master's and 12 Ph.D. students, crafting an invigorating and refreshing learning
environment with his unique and efficient teaching and coaching style. He has left a legacy for being
passionate about research, and his graduate students will always remember him for his ability to
“listen, challenge, and support” and for his famous inspirational phrase, “Poor is the student who
does not surpass his master.” While John was known for being a straight shooter and for calling a
spade a spade, he was also extremely caring, supportive, and generous with his time and effort to
provide students with the conditions they required to succeed. His students agreed that his passion
and provocative way to challenge the status quo fired them up and created the foundation they
needed to push the boundaries, advance knowledge, and innovate. John had a brilliant mind and
taught his students the fine art of critical thinking and global mindedness. He supervised several
international students and mentored scholars from developing countries, making them feel right at
home during their stay in Canada. John would say during the first day of class, “Look around, some of
these people will be your friends for life” and he was right. That was the magic of Salmela, he didn’t
only teach students about science, he taught them about life. And that is why for many students, he
was one of the best teachers they ever had.
Perhaps most will remember John as the person he was. John was a loving father, husband, brother,
son, friend, and colleague. His son Max and wife Luci Fuscaldi Teixeria were the loves of his life. With
pride, he beamed as he often shared Max and Luci's accomplishments with friends and colleagues.
John and Luci were an admirable couple, radiating affection and respect for one another. They
welcomed many people in their cherished home in Belo Horizonte, Brazil where they raised two
Labrador retrievers, Forrest and Felix.
Indeed, many have memories of John as an extraordinary bon vivant. He loved to have a good laugh
and life was never dull in his company. Everyone who has spent time with John has a great Salmela
story to tell -- from debating his idol Mag dog Vachon to swimming in Lac Gatineau at freezing point,
to crawling out of windows, these stories are sure to make your belly ache from laughter, and your
heart ache with nostalgia because in telling the story, you are inevitably reminded of how much you
miss him. You miss him because the greatest gift John gave those who were fortunate enough to
cross his path, was that of friendship. He had an enormous heart and he looked out for his people.
John loved us and we loved him back. That is why he will be so greatly missed.
Pia M Vinken
Cilj raziskave je bil ugotoviti ali obliži prilepljeni na noge zdravih telovadcev vplivajo na
njihovo sposobnost navpičnih skokov. 16 telovadcev je naključno izvajalo globinski skok, skok
iz čepa, skok iz stoje na stegnjenih nogah na pritiskovni plošči v štirih načinih: brez obliža, obliž
prilepljen na m. rectus femoris, obliž prilepljen na m. triceps surae in obliž prilepljen na
sprednjo strn stegna in zadnjo stran meč prečno. Spremljano je bilo pet pomembnih
spremenljivk skoka: trajanje odriva, največja sila odriva, trajanje leta, največja sila doskoka,
trajanje od trenutka doskoka do najvišje sile. Kadar je bil uporabljen obliž je bilo trajanje leta
krajše pri globinskem skoku, in skoku iz stoje na stegnjenih nogah. Pri globinskem skoku se je
zmanjšalo trajanje leta kadar je bil obliž prilepljen na m. triceps surae. Pri skoki iz stoje na
stegnjenih nogah se je trajanje leta zmanjšalo kadar je bil obliž prilepljen na m. rectus femoris.
Kadar je telovadec zdrav, obliži niso potrebno, oz. so celo zavirajoči dejavnik uspešne izvedbe
skoka.
Namen raziskave je bil spremljati pogostost poškodb kolena pri grških orodnih telovadcih glede
na čas nastanka poškodbe. 200 telovadcev v starosti 12,2 ± 2,8 let iz različnih društev severne in
južne Grčije je prostovoljno sodelovalo pri raziskavi v sezonah 2010 do 2012. Dvakrat tedensko
so bile beležene poškodbe in čas odsotnosti z vadbe. Telovadci so se največkrat poškodovali na
parterju (49,5% vseh poškodb) pri doskoku, največ je bilo poškodb ligamentov v pripravljalnem
obdobju, najbolj med vadbo. Pri odrivu je bilo 11,9% vseh poškodb, le-te so se najbolj pogosto
zgodile na preskokupri vrtenjih naprej na tekmovanjih. Kot pomoč pri preprečevanju poškodb
naj vaditelji bolj uporabljajo dodatne mehke blazine, da zmanjšajo sile pri doskoku.
Namen raziskave je bil ugotoviti vpliv različnih načinov varovanja telovadcev pri saltu nazaj
skrčeno. Narejen je bil računalniški model salta nazaj. Spremembe pri izvedbi salta nazaj so bile
izračunane kot rezultat varovanja z eno roko ali obema. Pripravljeno je bilo sedem načinov, ki
so spreminjali kot in dodano silo, oprijemališče sile, trajanje uporabe sile ter na ta način dobili
231 poskusov. Najbolj uspešno varovanje je bilo pogojeno s pravim trenutkom varovanja, ker je
povečevanje, ali zmanjševanje hitrosti vrtenja in dodajanjem višine so med seboj odvisne
spremenljivke. Za spremljanje vadečega v letu z eno roko je najuspešnejše varovanje za križ, za
več pomoči pa mora biti le-ta zagotovljena že pri odrivu. Kadar varujemo dvoročno, je trenutek
varovanja najpomembnejši dejavnik.
Ključne besede: šport, računalniški model, ročne spretnosti, uspešnost izvedbe
Namen raziskave je bil ugotoviti vpliv šest mesečne vadbe telovadnih plesov na gibalne
sposobnosti 10-12 letnih dečkov. Osemnajst dečkov je prostovoljno sodelovalo pri šest mesečni
vadbi. Nekatere gibalne sposobnosti so bile merjene tedensko pred samo vadbo. Podatki so bili
obdelani z metodo ANOVA. Povprečne vrednosti števila zgibov v 30 sekundah, dviganja nog v
30 sekundah, skok v daljino, plezanje po vrvi z nogami in rokami in povlek v stojo na rokah so
se značilno izboljšale. Prav tako so se izboljšali rezultati v testu »dviganje trupa« v prvem,
tretjem in zadnjem mesecu. Čepi in vzravnave v stoji na eni nogi so se izboljšali na obeh nogah.
S telovadnimi plesi lahko uspešno razvijamo gibalne sposobnosti.
Ključne besede: telovadni plesi, gibalne sposobnosti, eksplozivna moč, statična moč
Ivan Čuk
Namen raziskave je bil ugotoviti, kako gledalci ocenjujejo izvedbo telovadcev ter njihove ocene
primerjati z ocenami sodnikov. 91 gledalcev je ocenjevalo 26 sestav na bradlji na lestvici od 0
do 10 točk podobno kot pri skokih v vodo (0-popolnoma neuspešna sestava, 0,5-2,0- zanič
sestava, 2,5-4,5-neuspešna sestava, 5,0-6,5-pomanjkljiva sestava, 7,0-8,0-dobra sestava, 8,5-9,5-
zelo dobra sestava, 10-odlična sestava). Po vrsti statističnih obdelavah lahko zaključimo, da so
gledalci enako zanesljivi kot sodniki, ali tudi boljši. Gledalci so se razdelili v tri skupine: strogi,
srednje strogi in blagi, vsi skupaj pa so tvorili dobrega sodnika. Največji izziv gledalcem je bila
naklonjenost domačim telovadcem. Skupna strogih gledalcev (ki je predstavljala 25% vseh
gledalcev) je tudi domače telovadce razvrstila pravilno.
Prezydent
Miasta Sopotu
Jacek Karnowski
MEDIA PATRONAGE:
HONORARY COMMITTEE
prof. Waldemar Moska
Magnificence Rector of Gdansk University of Physical Education and Sport,
prof. Ivan Svetlik
Rector of University of Ljubljana,
prof. Karol Görner
Vice Rector for Science and Research, Matei Bel University in Banska Bystrica,
prof. László Csernoch
Vice Rector for Science, University of Debrecen,
prof. Sławomir Kaczmarek
Vice Rector for Science and International Relations , Kazimierz Wielki University in Bydgoszcz,
prof. Miroslav Dutchak
Vice Rector for Science and Research, National University of Physical Education and Sport of Ukraine in Kiev,
SCIENTIFIC COMMITTEE
Stanisław Sawczyn (POL) Chairman
Jędrzej Antosiewicz (POL) Władimir Ljach (POL)
Pavol Bartik (SVK) Anna Lubkowska (POL)
Elena Bendíková (SVK) Michel Marina Evrard
Finn Berggren (DNK) (ESP) Viktor Mishchenko
Wiktor Bołoban (UKR) (UKR)
Maja Bučar Pajek Celestyna Mila-Kierzenkowska (POL)
(SVN) Paweł Cięszczyk Radosław Muszkieta (POL)
(POL) László Csernoch Falk Naundorf (GER)
(HUN) Ivan Čuk (SVN) Elżbieta Piskorska, (POL)
Tomasz Frołowicz (POL) Wojciech Przybylski (POL)
Thomas Heinen (GER) Tomasz Tomiak (POL)
Władysław Jagiełło (POL) Alina Woźniak (POL)
Roman Maciej Kalina (POL) Mariusz Zasada (POL)
Artur Ziółkowski (POL)
Kazimierz Kochanowicz (POL) Wiesław Ziółkowski (POL)
Eva Kohlíková (CZE) Walery Żukow (POL)
Mariusz Lipowski (POL)
ORGANIZING COMMITTEE
Andrzej Kochanowicz – chairman,
Jan Mieszkowski – vice-chairman,
Bartłomiej Niespodziński –
secretary, Monika Żmudzka-
Brodnicka
Hanna Żukowska
Mirosława Szark-Eckardt
Aleksander Drobnik
Adam Szulc
INVITED SPEAKERS
Elena Bendíková (SVK) Department of Physical Education and Sports, Matei Bel University in Banská
Bystrica.
Finn Berggren (DNK) Gerlev Physical Education and Sports Academy, Denmark.
Maja Bučar Pajek (SVN) Gymnastics and Kinesiology Department, University of Ljubljana.
László Csernoch (HUN) Department of Physiology, Department of Otorhinolaryngology and Head and
Neck Surgery, Medical and Health Science Centre, University of Debrecen.
Ivan Čuk (SVN) Head of Gymnastics and Kinesiology Department, University of Ljubljana.
Roman Farana (CZE) Human Motion Diagnostics Centre, Department of Human Movement Studies,
University of Ostrava.
Thomas Heinen (GER) Institute of Sports Science, University of Hildesheim.
Eva Kohlíková CsC (CZE) Department of Physiology and Biochemistry, Charles University.
Juraj Kremnický (SVK) Department of Physical Education and Sports, Matei Bel University in Banská
Bystrica.
Falk Naundorf (GER) Institute for Applied Training Science, Department Strength-Technique, Leipzig.
Michel Marina Evrard (ESP) National Institute of Physical Education (INEFC), University of Barcelona.
Pia M Vinken (GER) Institute of Sport Sciences, Georg-August-Universität Göttingen.
Dear Sirs,
The aim of the conference is to present recent research results and views on the
deteriorating health and physical fitness of children, adolescents and adults as well as to
indicate the role of various sports activities, healthy lifestyle and education in efficacy to
overcome this phenomenon. The conference will also provide an excellent opportunity to
exchange views and knowledge from scientists, coaches, physical education teachers and
medical representatives of many European countries on the topics of directions of the
development and the importance of the complementary aspect of gymnastics in competitive
sports, health and physical education. Thematic workshops of "best practices" directed at each
profession will be provided. We hope that this conference will be a stimulus to establish a
number of international partnership agreements yielding innovative scientific research projects
and practical activities in the areas of sports, health and education.
The Chairman of the Scientific Committee The Chairman of the Organizing Committee
The conference is held within the International Visegrad Fund Standard Grants
OFFICIAL LANGUAGES
English
PLACE
Gdansk University of Physical Education and Sport
ul. Kazimierza Górskiego 1
80-336 Gdańsk, Poland
DATE
18-20th of June 2015
PRESENTATION FORM
invited lectures,
oral presentations,
KEY
DATES DEADLINE FOR REGISTRATION : 30.03.2015
DEADLINE FOR ABSTRACTS : 30.04.2015
DEADLINE FOR CONFERENCE FEE : 14.05.2015
CONFERENCE: 18-20.06.2015
REGISTRATION
75 Euro = 300 PLN – full participation
50 Euro = 200 PLN – students’ full participation
30 Euro = 120 PLN – Passive participation (with board and materials)
15 Euro = 50 PLN - Passive participations (only conference materials)
The full participation fee includes: conference materials, lunches, coffee breaks, certificate
of participation
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PUBLISHING
Articles (in English) that will be presented by authors after the positive reviews will be
published in Baltic Journal of Health and Physical Activity, (5.48 pkt IC i 6 pkt MNiSW) and in a
scientific monograph. Editorial Board reserves the right to amendment language, graphics and
text layout. For works published authors do not receive a fee. Articles published in monograph
will be published as a chapter of the monograph. By chapter in a monograph is understand a
scientific paper with minimum of 0,5 publishing sheet (20 000 characters including spaces).
After acceptance of the paper, authors will be asked to pay 25 EURO/100 PLN of the
publication fee.
PUBLISHING REQUIREMENTS
Consistent with the guidelines of editorial board of: Baltic Journal of Health and Physical Activity:
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RECOMMENDED ACCOMMODATION
Participants of the Conference can book their rooms in Sport and Leisure Centre, which is located at
the conference facilities
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