APTITUDES

APTITUD COMUNICATIVA - INGLÉS

1
INDICATORS OF ACHIEVEMENT
Identify the conjugations of the verb be and subject pronouns-
THE VERB TO BE (PRESENT)

With an adjetive:
· We are happy.
· He isn’t sad.
· Are you tired?
object pronouns- possessive adjectives - possessive pronouns

B. "To be", like many other verbs, can be used with a

1. TO "BE" prepositional phrase.
The verb "to be" is the most important verb in the English
language. It is used as both a principal verb and an auxiliary
verb and is irregular in both the present and past tenses. 2.. "PRONOUNS"
A. SUBJECT PRONOUNS:
Grammatical Rules We use subject pronouns to replace a person or
people or thing (s) in a sentence
Affirmative
Personal
Subject Present Simple Short Form Pronouns
I am I’m Example
(Subject
you are you’re Pronouns)
he is he’s I I am ill.
she is she’s you You are tall.
it is it’s he He is handsome.
we are we’re she She is pretty.
they are they’re it It is cold today.
we We are tired.
Negative you You are hungry.
Present They are at the
Subject Short Form they
Simple cinema.
I am not I’m not
Examples:
you’re not/you · I am ill.
you are not
aren’t · Subject = I
he is not he’s not/he isn’t · You are tall.
she is not she’s not/she isn’t · Subject = You
it is not it’s not/it isn’t · He is handsome.
we are we’re not/we aren’t · Subject = He
they’re not/they
they are not
aren’t B. OBJECT PRONOUNS
Object pronouns as the object of a verb are located after
Interrogative the verb that they complement or after prepositions such
Note: In questions with the verb “to be”, the as «for», «to», «with» and «at».
subject and verb change position.
Personal Pronouns
Present Example
(Object Pronouns)
Simple Can you
me
help me?
Am I? you I can help you.
Are you? Can you
Is he? him
see him?
Is she? her Give it to her.
Is it? it Give it a kick.
Are we? us Can you see us?
Are they? you I see you.
He can
them
help them.
Uses
A . We use "to be" as a principal verb to show the status or Examples:
characteristics of somebody or something (as a stative · I can help you.
verb). It can also be used with prepositions of place to · Subject = I, Object = you
indicate where something is located. · Can you see him?
· Subject = you, Object = him
Examples: · He is going to the party with us.
With a noun: · Subject = he, Object = us
· I am a teacher. · It [the letter] is for you.
· Subject = it, Object = you
· You aren’t a student.
3. POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES
· Is he a doctor? These pronouns function as the determinative article of the noun
With a preposition of place + a location: that they accompany and therefore precede the object.
· She is in New York. They don't change if the noun is plural
Examples:
· They aren’t at home. · My car is blue.
· Is the book on the table? · His house is big.

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Possessive
Example A. WRITE IN THE CORRECT VERB TO BE (AM – IS - ARE)
Determiners
my This is my house. 1. Donna ______ my best friend.
your This is your book. 2. Ron and Dave______ brother and sister.
his This is his bicycle. 3. My grandmother _______ 90 year old.
her This is her dress. 4. You _______ a good student.
This is its [the cat’s]
its 5. My house _______ very pretty.
home.
These 6. I _______ not at home.
our 7. Dan and I _______ in school right now.
are our suitcases.
your These are your seats. 8. My book _______ 300 pages long.
their These are their books. 9. My friends _______ funny.
10. The children _______ at a summer camp.
C. POSSESIVE PRONOUNS.
In this case, the possessive pronoun acts as a direct
complement. B. REWRITE THE SENTENCES IN THE NEGATIVE FORM.
1. Lilly and Sean are on vacation.
Possessive
Example __________________________________.
Pronouns
mine This book is mine.
yours Is this book yours? 2. Ben is hungry right now.
his This bicycle is his.
__________________________________.
hers The dress is hers.
The house
its
is its [the cat’s]. 3. My mother is a teacher.
The suitcases __________________________________.
ours
are ours.
These seats
yours 4. I am at the cinema.
are yours.
This pencil __________________________________.
theirs
is theirs.
5. It is about to rain today.
Examples:
· The blue car is mine. __________________________________.
· The big house is his.
SOME VERBS 6. The books are heavy.
INF. INF. INF. INF. INF. __________________________________.
Accept Create Greet Move Repeat
Act Cross Guess Name Resist
Achieve Curse Hail Need Rest 7. They are poor.
Admire Change Handle Note Return __________________________________.
Advise Chase Happen Notice Review
Affect Chat Hate Number Sail
Agree Check Help Offer Save 8. The kitchen is clean.
Amaze Damage Hope Open Scan __________________________________.
Amuse Dance Hunt Order Scare
Answer Date Identify Organize Share
Appear Decide Ignore Pack Shop C. ANSWER THE QUESTIONS ACCORDING TO THE PICTURES:
Arrange Deliver Imagine Paint Shout
Arrive Depend Impress Pamper Skate
Ask Describe Improve Pardon Ski
Attack Design Include Park Slow
Bake Destroy Increase Participate Sneeze
Behave Dicrease Interview Pass Snow
Believe Die Introduce Perform Solve
Belong Disagree Invite Persuade Spell
Blame Discover Jog Pick Start
Borrow Discuss Join Plan Step
Bother Disturb Jump Play Stop
Call Dress Knock Please Stress
Cancel Dry Label Practice Study
Carry Eliminate Land Predict Substitute
Cause End Last Prefer Suggest
Celebrate Enjoy Learn Present Surprise
1. Is it a sunny day? Yes, it is.
Clean Entertain Like Program Talk 2. Is the bag heavy? _____________.
Clear Excuse Link Protect Taste
Climb Exercise List Provide Terrorize 3. Are the trees short? _______________.
Compare Exhibit Listen Purchase Thank
Compete Expect Live Push Touch 4. Is the car purple? ________________.
Complete Express Locate Rain Travel
Contain Film Look Receive Try 5. Are they at a restaurant? _____________.
Continue Fill Love Recommend Tune
6. Are the glasses empty? ______________.
Cook Fish Manage Relate Turn
Correct Fix Mark Relax Underline 7. Is the coffee hot? ____________.
Cough Follow Match Release Use
Count Freeze Measure Remember Vary 8. Is the snake long? _____________.
Crash Fry Miss Repair Wait
Witness Welcome Watch Warn Walk 9. Are the puppies cute? ____________.
Work Wish Water Wash Want

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544 The Verb To Be (Present)

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I. NOUNS
2
Nouns are used to refer to people, animals, objects, events,
SINGULAR AND PLURAL NOUNS

3. For words that end in "s", "ss", "sh", "ch", "x" or "o", we add
"es".

places and abstract ideas. Examples:

· bus = buses
teacher, dog, ball, table, party, house, · glass = glasses
happiness · brush = brushes
· watch = watches
Plural Nouns · box = boxes
In the majority of cases, to form the plural in English, we add "- · tomato = tomatoes
s" to the end of the word.
4. Words that end in "f" or "fe", we change to "ves".
Examples:
· camera = cameras Examples:
· pen = pens · leaf = leaves
· house = houses · wife = wives
· car = cars

Exceptions: IRREGULAR PLURAL NOUNS

Many plural nouns are irregular. There are two types of irregular
1. With words that end in a consonant + "y", the "y" changes to an nouns:
"i" and we add "es".
1. When the noun doesn’t change.
Examples: Examples:
· party = parties
· city = cities · fish = fish
fishes
2. With words that end in a vowel + "y", we simply add "s". · sheep = sheep
sheeps
Examples:
· boy = boys 2. When the plural changes in an irregular manner. In this
· toy = toys case, there is no rule to follow and therefore is necessary to

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learn the irregular forms of each of these plural nouns. Examples:
· The days of the week…
Singular Plural · I am going to the garden.
man men
woman women IV. THE INDEFINITE ARTICLE
child children Both the indefinite articles, "a" and "an", mean the same thing
person people and are used to indicate something or someone in singular. We
tooth teeth can never use these articles when we are referencing more than
foot feet one thing.
mouse mice
Grammatical Rules
II. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS 1. "A" is used with nouns that begin with a consonant.
We use demonstrative pronouns to describe how far or close Examples:
we are from the objects (distance) · a book
· a pen
Singular and "here": (THIS) · a chair
· I like this car. · a girl

Singular and "there": (THAT) 2. We add "-n" to the article for nouns that begin with a
· I like that car. vowel.
Examples:
Plural and "here": (THESE) · an animal
· I like these cars. · an ice cream
· an example
Plural and "there": (THOSE) · an orange
· I like those cars. · an umbrella

Demonstrative pronouns can be accompanied by a noun, as Exceptions:

in the examples above, or they may be found alone, as in the We use "a" before words that begin with either "u" or "eu" when
following examples. these are pronounced as "yu".
Examples:
Examples: · a university
· This is a good book. · a euro
· What is that?
"An" is used with words that begin with "h", but only when it is
OTHER USES OF DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS not pronounced.
1. We can use demonstrative pronouns when we present Examples:
ourselves to someone on the telephone. · an hour
Example: · a hospital
· Hello. This is Alicia.
USES OF THE INDEFINITE ARTICLE
2. We can also use these pronouns when we are not sure with 1. We use the indefinite article when we are speaking of
whom we are speaking. something in general.
Example: Examples:
· Peter, is that you? · He has a computer.
· We work in a school.
3. We use "this" when we are introducing people. · I want an orange.
Example:
· Lucy, this is my friend Jill. 2. We can also use "a" or "an" in place of "one" (singular).
Examples:
4. "That" can be used to refer to something in the past. · I want an apple and two oranges.
Example: · There are a hundred students in the school.
· That pizza was delicious 3. We use "a" or "an" when we make reference to something
for the first time; the next reference we make, we use
III. THE DEFINITE ARTICLE the definite article.
Articles define nouns and are always located before the noun Example:
that they define. In English, as opposed to Latin languages, the · I live in an apartment. The apartment is big.
articles are not gendered, nor are there plural forms.
4. With professions, offices and political affiliations, we use
Examples: the indefinite article.
· the boy, the boys Examples:
· the book, the books · Maria is a doctor.
· the girl, the girls · Juan is an architect.
· the table, the tables
· I am a democrat.

"The" can be proceeded by the prepositions "of" or "to", but in

English there does not exist a contraction of the article with V. PREPOSITIONS
these prepositions, as in some other languages. We have already seen the various uses of the three most common

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prepositions ("in", "at", "on")
IN
Use (time): "In" Use in for parts of the day months seasons
and years
· the morning. · the evening
· December · the summer
· 1998

ON
Use (time): "On" Use on for days and dates
· Monday · the 12th of July
· my birthday

AT
Use (time): "AT" Use at for times of day, night, and festivals
· two o'clock · midnight
· lunchtime · Christmas
· New Year

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1. THERE BE
3
We use «there + be» to talk about the existence of something.
COUNT AND NON COUNT NOUNS

3. COUNTABLEAND UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS

Nouns in English can be either countable or uncountable.

«There + be» can be used in all verb tenses, but is conjugated
in order to distinguish between singular or plural and countable
Countable Nouns
or uncountable.
Countable nouns are those nouns that can be counted.
· Examples:
There is
· one [a] pencil
«There is» is used with countable nouns in singular and
· two cats
uncountable nouns. The short form is «there’s».
· three houses

Examples:
Uncountable Nouns
Countable Nouns
Uncountable nouns are those nouns which cannot be counted
· There is a pencil.
because they cannot be defined individually, but rather are part
· There’s one car.
of a whole. As such, they are treated as singular (you can not
· There is not an apple.
make them plural by adding «-s»).
· Is there a pen?

Uncountable Nouns
salt, wood, tea, wine, sugar, bread, furniture,
· There is milk.
hair, information, money, weather, time, rice…
· There is not time.
· Is there sugar?
However, once we delimit these nouns by placing a countable
expression in front of the noun, they become countable.
There are
«There are» can only be used with countable nouns in plural.
Examples:
There is no short form.
· a gram of salt
· a piece of wood
Examples:
· two cups of tea
· There are five pencils.
· three glasses of wine
· There are not two cars.
· Are there many people?
Grammatical Rules
1. Countable nouns have a plural form (regular or irre-
There v. It
gular):
We use «there» when we speak of something for the first time,
Examples:
to indicate that it exists. On the other hand, we use «it» to speak
· egg = eggs
of something specific.
· bicycle = bicycles
· dress = dresses
Examples:
· There is a pen on the table. It is my pen.
Uncountable nouns do not have a plural form:
· There is a car in the garage. It is blue.
· rice
· There is milk. It is in the refrigerator.
· rices
· milk
2. QUANTIFIERS
· milks
2. You can use «a» or «an» with countable nouns in sin-
Quantifiers indicate the quantity of a noun. They respond to
gular:
the questions, «How much?» or «How many?». As with
Examples:
the articles in English, quantifiers define nouns and are always
· an apple
located in front of the noun they define. Some quantifiers can
· a house
be used only with countable nouns, others only with uncountable
nouns and others with both. We cannot use «a» or «an» with uncountable
nouns:
Quantifier Countable Uncountable · a milk
many X –
much – X
some X X 3. Numbers can be used in front of countable nouns:
any X X Examples:
no, none X X · three apples
a lot of/lots of X X
little/a little – X
· five houses
few/a few X – Numbers cannot be used in front of uncountable
nouns:
· two rices

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1. SIMPLE PRESENT
4
When we speak of the various verb tenses, we must talk about
SIMPLE PRESENT

Note: As with negative sentences, it is the auxiliary verb «to

do» that is conjugated, depending on the subject. The prin-
cipal verb remains in the infinitive.
both how to form the tense, as well as when we use it. Therefore,
in this lesson, as with all the other verb tense lessons, we will USES
look at both structure and use.
1. We use the present simple when speaking about things
Grammatical Rules that happen regularly. It is never used to speak about
Form something that is happening at the moment in which we are
When conjugating the verb in the present simple, we use the speaking.
infinitive with the following subjects: «I», «you», «we», and
«they». For the third person («he», «she» and «it»), we add We tend to use adverbs of time with the present simple:
an «-s» to the end of the verb.
always, every day, usually, often, sometimes,
Subject Conjugation rarely, hardly ever, never…
talk, eat, learn, do,
I, you, we, they
go… Examples:
talks, eats, learns, · I always talk to my mother on Sunday.
he, she, it
does, goes… · He never eats vegetables.
· They learn something new in class. They usually learn
Note: There are spelling exceptions in the third person, depending
something new in class.
on the last letter(s) of the verb. The rules are the same as those
Exception:
for forming the plural. For more information, see the lesson on
Adverbs of time are generally located before the verb, except
nouns.
when they are used with the verb «to be». When using «to
be», the adverb is found after the verb.
Note: There are spelling exceptions in the third person, depending
on the last letter(s) of the verb. The rules are the same as those
Ejemplos:
for forming the plural. For more information, see the lesson on
· I am always happy.
nouns.
· He is often sick.
· They are rarely late.
STRUCTURE
1. Affirmative Sentences
2. The present simple is used to speak about generalities or
Subject + verb+ complement (optional)
scientific facts.
Examples:
Examples:
· He does not [doesn’t] eat vegetables.
· I talk.
· She works in a hospital.
· He eats.
· Elephants live in Africa.
· They learn.
· Bogota is in Colombia.
· Do children like animals?
2. Negative Sentences
· Adults do not [don’t] know everything.
Subject + do/does + not + verb+ complement
(optional)
3. We also use the present simple for events scheduled in
the near future.
Examples:
· I do not [don’t] talk.
Examples:
· He does not [doesn’t] eat.
· The train leaves at 10:00.
· They do not [don’t] learn.
· The party is tonight.
· Does the festival start tomorrow?
Note: Don’t forget that in negative sentences with the auxiliary
· The plane does not [doesn’t] arrive today.
«to do», it is the auxiliary verb that is conjugated in the third
person, not the principal verb.
4. We use the present simple for giving instructions (the
3. Interrogative Sentences
imperative).
Auxiliary verb (to do) + subject + verb + complement
(optional)?
Examples:
Examples:
· Open the window.
· Do you talk?
· Eat the vegetables.
· Does he eat?
· Don’t cry.
· Do they learn?
· Do your homework.
· Call your mother.
Note: As with negative sentences, it is the auxiliary verb «to
do» that is conjugated, depending on the subject. The prin-
cipal verb remains in the infinitive.

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552 Simple Present

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Simple Present 553

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1. PRESENT CONTINUOUS
5 PRESENT CONTINUOUS

we are speaking. Time expressions such as «now», «right

now» or «at the moment» are indicators of the present
continuous.
Grammatical Rules
Form
Examples:
To form the present continuous, we must use the auxiliary
· I’m studying now.
verb «to be», as well as the gerund form of the principal verb
· He’s eating at the moment.
(infinitive + «-ing»).
· Is it raining?

Auxiliary 2. We can also use the present continuous to talk about

Subject Gerund
(to be) something that is happening now, but not necessarily
talking , eating, at the moment when we are speaking. In this case, time
I am learning, doing,
expressions such as «currently», «lately» or «these days»
going}…
might be used.
talking, eating,
he, she,
is learning, doing,
it Examples:
going…
talking , eating, · They’re learning English.
you, we, · She’s currently looking for a job.
are learning, doing,
they · Are you working much lately?
going…

Structure 3. The present continuous may also be used to talk about

1. Affirmative Sentences something already decided in the near future. The use
Subject + auxiliary verb (to be) + gerund (-ing). of the present continuous indicates that the future event is
quite certain to happen.
Examples:
· I’m talking. Examples:
· He’s eating. · I’m going to the party tonight.
· They’re learning. · He’s not [He isn’t] coming to class tomorrow.
· Are you working next week?
2. Negative Sentences Note: There are some verbs which may not be used in the
Subject + auxiliary verb (to be) + negative auxiliary (not) + continuous tenses. Further explanation, as well as a list of such
gerund (-ing). verbs that cannot be used in the continuous tenses.

Examples: be, want, need, know, prefer, remember,

· I’m not talking. understand, care, see, hear, smell, believe,
· He’s not eating. belong, cost, seem, exist, own, like, dislike,
· They’re not learning. love, hate, fear, envy, mind…

USES Examples:
1. The present continuous is used to speak about · David needs a new car.
something that is happening at the moment in which David is needing a car

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6 SIMPLE PRESENT AND PRESENT CONTINUOUS

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1. PAST SIMPLE
7
There are several tenses for speaking about the past in English,
SIMPLE PAST

Examples:
· stop = stopped
· commit = committed
but the past simple is the most commonly used. It is used for
actions completed in the past. In the past tense there are
both regular verbs and irregular verbs. 3. When the verb ends in a consonant and «y», the «y»
becomes an «i»:
Grammatical Rules
Form Examples:
To form the past simple of regular verbs we add the ending «- · study = studied
ed» to the verb. The form is the same for all persons (I, you, he, · try = tried
she, it, we, they). Note: There are many irregular verbs in English and
unfortunately there are no fixed rules for forming them.
Examples: Verb Past simple
· want = wanted
· learn = learned
was (I, he, she, it)
be
· stay = stayed were (you, we, they)
· walk = walked do did
· show = showed have had
Structure
Exceptions:
1. Affirmative Sentences
1. For verbs that end in «e», we only need to add «-d»:
Subject + principal verb…
Examples:
· change = changed
Examples:
· believe = believed
· She was a doctor.
· The keys were in the drawer.
2. If the verb ends in a short vowel plus a consonant (except
· I wanted to dance.
«y» o «w»), we double the final consonant:

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· They learned English. Note: As with negative sentences, the auxiliary verb is
· We believed him. conjugated («did») and the principal verb remains in the
· I bought a blue car. infinitive.

2. Negative Sentences Uses

To be: 1. The past simple is used to talk about a specific action
Subject + «to be» + «not»… or event that began and ended in the past. It is generally
used with adverbs of time such as «last year», «yesterday»,
Examples: «last night»…
· She wasn’t a doctor. Examples:
· The keys weren’t in the drawer. · Tom stayed at home last night.
· Kate worked last Saturday.
All other verbs: · I didn’t go to the party yesterday.
Subject + auxiliary verb (to do) + «not» + principal · Did they walk to school this morning?
verb (in infinitive)…
2. The past simple is used to talk about a series of actions
Examples: that occurred in the past.
· I didn’t want to dance.
· They didn’t learn English. Examples:
· We didn’t believe him. · I received the good news and immediately called my
· I didn’t buy a blue car. husband.
· He studied for an hour in the morning, worked all afternoon
Note: As in the present simple, in negative sentences in the and didn’t return home until 10 at night.
past simple the auxiliary verb is conjugated («did») and the
principal verb remains in the infinitive. 3. We also use the past simple for repeated actions or
habits in the past.
3. Interrogative Sentences Examples:
To be: · We always traveled to Cancun for vacation when we
«To be» + subject…? were young.
· He walked 5 kilometers every day to work.
Examples:
· Was she a doctor? 4. The past simple is also used for narrations or actions
· Were the keys in the drawer? that occurred over a long period of time in the past.
Examples:
All other verbs: · I worked for many years in a museum.
Auxiliary verb (to do) + subject + principal verb…? · She didn’t eat meat for years.
Examples:
· Did you want to dance? 5. We use the past simple to speak about facts or things
· Did they learn English? in the past in general.
· Did you believe him? Examples:
· Did you buy a blue car? · The Aztec lived in Mexico.
· I played the guitar when I was a child.

IRREGULAR VERBS
SPANISH PRESENT PAST SPANISH PRESENT PAST SPANISH PRESENT PAST
Be Was,were Become Became Say Said
Read Read Build Built Swim Swam
Write Wrote Can Could Send Sent
Get Got Catch Caught Find Found
Get up Got up Cost Cost Bring Brought
Run Ran Cut Cut Give Gave
Sleep Slept drive Drove Tell Told
Speak Spoke Fight Fought Feel Felt
Come Came Forget Forgot Grow Grew
Go Went Hear Heard Break Broke
Think Thought Pay Paid Meet met
Understand understood Ride Rode lose Lost
Do / Does Did See Saw Leave Left
make Made Sell Sold Choose Chose
Know Knew lend lent Fall Fell
Eat Ate Sing Sang Win Won
Drink Drank Sit Sat Draw Drew
Take Took Stand Stood Wear Wore
Have Had Steal Stole Buy Bought
Begin Began Wake up Woke up fly flew

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8
The past continuous tense is used for actions that occurred at a
specific time in the past. Like the present continuous, it is formed
PAST CONTINUOUS

Examples:
using the verb «to be» as well as the gerund. - Jose called while I was watching the news.
- He was walking to work when he fell.
Grammatical Rules - Was it raining when you left?
Form
To form the past continuous we use the auxiliary verb «to be» as
well as the gerund (infinitive + «-ing») of the verb. The auxiliary 2. We use the past continuous to talk about actions or events
verb «to be» is in the past simple tense, but keep in mind that «to that happened at a specific time in the past.
be» is an irregular verb.
Examples:
- Paula wasn’t living in Spain in 2005.
Auxiliary
Subject Gerund - We were still working at 10 o’clock last night.
(to be)
3. The past continuous is used for two actions that were occurring
talking, eating, simultaneously in the past.
I, he,
was learning, doing,
she, it
going… Examples:
- My son was reading while I was cooking.
talking, eating,
you, we, - They were talking very loudly while we were trying to
were learning, doing,
they watch the movie.
going…
Note: As we have seen, there are some verbs which may not be
1. AFFIRMATIVE SENTENCES used in the continuous tenses.
Subject + auxiliary verb (to be) + gerund.
Examples:
- I was talking.
- He was eating.
- They were learning.

2. NEGATIVE SENTENCES
Subject + auxiliary verb (to be) + «not» + gerund.

Examples:
- I was not [wasn’t] talking.
- He was not [wasn’t] eating.
- They were not [weren’t] learning.

3. INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES
Auxiliary verb (to be) + subject + gerund?

Examples:
- Were you talking?
- Was he eating?
- Were they learning?

Uses
1. The past continuous is used for an action or event that
occurred over a long period of time in the past and that
was interrupted. The action or event that was interrupted
is in the past continuous while the action that caused the
interruption is in the past simple.

«When» and «while» signal the use of the past simple and
past continuous. In general, we use the past simple directly
after «when» and the past continuous after «while».

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9
As we have seen, adjectives describe qualities of nouns. Some of
COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE

these qualities can vary in degree or intensity (gradable adjectives).

When we want to make comparisons contrasting qualities or attributes
Examples:
- Juan is the fastest.
- Angela’s room is the cleanest.
of a noun, we do so by means of an adjective in one of three grades. - I am the tallest.
Gradable adjectives can vary in degree or intensity and therefore - New York is the biggest city in the United States.
can have comparative and superlative forms. See below for rules on
how to form the comparative and superlative forms. Note: If the adjective is possessive, we don’t use «the». In
addition, we don’t use «the» when comparing something with
The positive grade itself.

The positive grade, which we saw previously, is the quality in the Examples:
simplest grade. - His smartest student is Lisa.
fast, hard, smart, pretty, clean, large, small, old, easy… - New York is coldest in January.
Examples:
Form
- Juan runs fast. Below are the rules for forming the comparative and superlative
- Angela’s room is clean. forms of gradable adjectives.
- I am tall.
- New York is big. 1. For one syllable adjectives:

The Comparative Grade Comparative Superlative

add: “-er” add: “-est”
When making comparisons, we can highlight the superiority, inferiority
or equality of one quality or another. The structure of each of these faster fastest
grades of comparison is different.
2. For one syllable adjectives that end in «-e»:
1. Comparisons of superiority. In comparisons of superiority,
the adjective, which is in the comparative form (see below), is Comparative Superlative
followed by «than».
add: “-r” add: “-st”
Examples: nicer nicest
- Juan runs faster than Mark. 3. For one syllable adjectives that end in «consonant + vowel +
- Angela’s room is cleaner than Sue’s. consonant»:
- I am taller than Beth.
- New York is bigger than Los Angeles. Comparative Superlative
2. Comparisons of inferiority. To form this type of comparison
add: consonant + add: consonant +
we can use the conjunctions «not as…as» or «less…than». In “-er” “-est”
both cases, the adjective is in the positive grade. hotter hottest
Examples:
4. For two syllable adjectives that end in «-y»:
- Mark is not as fast as Juan.
- Sue’s room is less clean than Angela’s.
- Beth is notas tall as me. Comparative Superlative
- Los Angeles is not as big as New York.
substitute “y” for:“- substitute “y” for:
3. Comparisons of equality. With the adjective in the positive ier” “-iest”
grade, we use the conjunction «as…as» to form comparisons funnier funniest
of equality.

Examples: 5. For adjectives of two syllables or more:

- Mark is as fast as Juan.
- Sue’s room is as clean as Angela’s. Comparative Superlative
- Beth is as tall as I am.
- Los Angeles is as big as New York.
add: “more”/ add: “the most”/ “the
“less” least”:
Note: We can modify a comparison using a quantifier such as more beautiful the most beautiful
«much», «a lot», «a little», etc.
less beautiful the least beautiful
Examples:
- Juan is a lot faster than Mark.
6. Irregular adjectives:
- I am a little taller than Beth.

The Superlative Grade Adjetive Comparative Superlative

The superlative grade denotes a quality at its highest degree and good better best
is formed using the article «the» in front of the superlative form of bad worse worst
the adjective (see below).
far further furthest

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Future Simple
10
There are two main ways to express the future in English. They are
sometimes interchangeable, but they often have different meanings.
FUTURE TIME "WILL" AND "BE GOING TO"

2. Negative Sentences
Subject + auxiliary verb (to be) + «not» + «going to» +
principal verb…

Future: "Will" Examples:

- I’m not going to call you tonight.
Structure - She isn’t going to arrive late.
- They aren’t going to be happy to see you.
Note: There is a short form for the modal verb «will» in both the
affirmative and negative. Uses
Both «will» and «to be going to» are used for expressing the
future, but the use of one over the other implies something about the
Short probability of the action occurring in the future. The aspect that
Affirm Negative Short Form
Form differentiates «to be going to» with «will» is in the sense of
I won’t «planning». In general, «to be going to» is used for concrete
I will I’ll I will not
I’ll not plans, when we are quite certain that something is going to happen.
you you will You won’t
you’ll
will not you’ll not 1. We use «will» with voluntary actions.
he he won’t
he’ll he will not
will he’ll not Examples:
she I she will she won’t
she’ll
will not she’ll not - Will you help me move?
it won’t - They will clean their rooms.
it will it’ll it will not
it’ll not - She won’t work with Paul.
we we will we won’t
we’ll
will not we’ll not 2. «Will» is used to express a promise.
they they will they won’t
they’ll
will not they’ll not Examples:

- When I am president, I will lower taxes.

1. Affirmative Sentences - He promises he will call when he arrives.
Subject + «will» + principal verb…
3. "To be going to" is used for plans; it indicates the intention to
do something.
Examples:
- I will [I’ll] call you tonight.
- She will [She’ll] arrive late. Examples:
- They will [They’ll] be happy to see you.
- We are going to have a party tonight.
2. Negative Sentences - Richard is going to take an English class.
- Are Peter and David going to play football later?
Subject + «will» + «not» + principal verb…
4. Either «will» or «to be going to» can be used for
Examples: predictions because the speaker has no control over the future.
- I will not [won’t] call you tonight.
- She will not [won’t] arrive late. Examples:
- They will not [won’t] be happy to see you.
- It will be a great party. / It is going to be a great party.
3. Interrogative Sentences - It won’t rain. / It isn’t going to rain.

«Will» + subject + principal verb…

Note: There are some situations in which we use the present
continuous or the present simple to express actions in the future.
Examples:
- Will you call me tonight?
- Will she arrive late? 1. The present continuous can be used for actions in the near
- Will they be happy to see you? future or actions that are certain.

Future: "Going to" Examples:

Structure - Sarah is arriving tonight.

- I am going to the doctor this afternoon.
1. Affirmative Sentences
Subject + auxiliary verb (to be) + «going to» + principal 2. We use the present simple for events scheduled in the
verb… future.

Examples: Examples:
- I am going to call you tonight.
- She is going to arrive late. - The party starts at 9pm.
- They are going to be happy to see you. - The train leaves at 10am.

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1. MODAL VERBS
11 "MODAL VERBS"

Note: «Could» is used in conditional sentences.

Modal verbs are auxiliary verbs that, unlike the auxiliary verbs May
«be», «do» y «have», cannot function as principal verbs. Meaning: used to indicate possibilities in the future
Modal verbs express modality. They can express ability, possibility,
necessity, probability, obligation or other conditions. They are Examples:
auxiliary verbs used for forming the future and conditional. · I would bring an umbrella, it may rain later.
Unlike some other languages, there are no verb tenses in English · It may be better to finish this now, rather than wait until
that express possibility or uncertainty and therefore we use tomorrow.
modal verbs to express these ideas.
As complementary verbs, modal verbs cannot function without "May" is also used to give permission or instructions.
other verbs. The principal verb is always found after the modal
verb and in the base form. Modal verbs are not conjugated and Examples:
have no tenses. · You may leave if you like.
· You may use your cell phones now.
The modal verbs are:
· can In interrogative sentences, «may» is the most polite way to ask
· could permission (as opposed to «can» or «could»).
· may
· might Examples:
· will · May I have a glass of water?
· shall · May I leave now?
· should
· ought to Might
· must/have to Meaning: synonym of «may», indicates possibilities in the
· would present or future

USES Examples:
Can · I would bring an umbrella, it might rain later.
Meaning: to be able to; indicates ability or possibility · It might be better to finish this now, rather than wait until
tomorrow.
Examples:
· I can speak five languages. "Might" can also be used like «may» to ask permission, but this
· We can work late tonight if you need us. is much more common in British English than in American English.
· Bill and Tom can’t help you.
· The restaurant can be expensive if you drink a lot of wine. Will
· It can be dangerous to drive if you are tired. Meaning: used to express willingness or consent
As we will see in later lessons, «will» is used to form the future
In interrogative sentences, we use «can» to ask permission tense.
(informally) or to ask about possibilities. As we will see in later lessons, «will» is used to form the future
tense.
Examples:
· Can I have a glass of water? Examples:
· Can you help me? · I will help you.
· Can they work late tonight? · We will learn English.

Could «Will» is used in interrogative sentence to ask for information,

Meaning: past tense of «can», indicates ability or possibility in a favor or opinion.
the past
Examples:
Examples: · Will they find a cure for cancer?
· Joe could speak Spanish when he was young. · Will you help me move?
· I couldn’t sleep last night. · Will he go to Paris by car or train?
· It could have been worse.
· Could you play an instrument when you were a child? Shall
Meaning: used, like «will», to express the future
"Could" is also used for possibilities in the future. The use of «shall» is much more common in British English and
is generally considered more polite.
Examples:
· You could pass the test if you studied. Examples:
· I think it could rain later. · Chris shall be happy to see you.
· I’ll take the 3 o’clock train.
As with «can», in interrogative sentences «could» is used to
ask permission or to ask about possibilities, but in a more formal Note: The short forms of «will» y «shall» are the same.
sense. Therefore, «I’ll» in the above example can mean either «I will»
or «I shall».
Examples: We also use «shall» for offers or to make suggestions or to ask
· Could you help me? about opinions or preferences.
· Could I be wrong?

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Examples: Examples:
· Shall l we meet at 10pm? · You must [have to] read this book, it’s fantastic.
· Shall we go to the movies or a museum? · You must [have to] brush your teeth two times a day.
Should · We must [have to] leave now or we will be late.
Meaning: indicates a recommendation or obligation or reflects · You must not drink and drive.
an opinion about what is right or correct · When must we meet you?

Examples:
We also use «must» for probability or assumptions.
· I should call my parents more often.
· You shouldn’t work so hard.
· They should practice more if they want to win the Examples:
championship. · John’s not here. He must be sick because he never misses
class.
"Should" is used in interrogative sentences to ask if there is an · It must be difficult to learn a new language as an adult.
obligation or to ask for a recommendation.
"Must" can also be used in rhetorical questions.
Examples:
· Should we leave a tip? Examples:
· Should I have the steak or the chicken? · Must you always be late?
· Where should they meet you? · Must she talk so much?

Ought to
Would
Meaning: synonym of "should"
Meaning: past tense of «will»; indicates preference, desire, or
Examples: intention
· She ought to quit smoking.
· I ought to call my parents more often. Examples:
· They ought to work less. · She would like to go to New York someday.
· I would like a beer and my wife would like a glass of wine
Must please.
«Must» indicates an obligation, prohibition (when in the · Would you like some coffee?
negative) or necessity; it is a synonym of "have to"

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GRAMMATICALRULES
12
PRESENT PERFECT 2.
PRESENT PERFECT

We use the present perfect to express change over time.

Examples:
- I have become more timid in my old age.
FORM - Their English has improved a lot this year.
Short Past - He has learned to be more patient.
Subject Auxiliary
Form Participle
I, you,
I’ve,
talked, 3. The present perfect is used for accomplishments.
you’ve,
we, have learned,
we’ve,
they traveled… Examples:
they’ve
he’s, talked, - Our football team has won the championship three times.
he, she,
has she’s, learned,
it - Dan has finished writing his first novel.
it’s traveled…
- Scientists have succeeded in curing many illnesses.

Verb Past Simple Past Participle

4. We use the present perfect for actions or events that
be was/were been
have not yet happened. The use of the present perfect in these
do did done cases indicates that we are still expecting the event or action to
go went gone occur. Therefore, we frequently use the adverbs »yet» y «still»
make made made with the present perfect.
see saw seen
Examples:
STRUCTURE - The plane hasn’t arrived yet.
1. Affirmative Sentences - Our team still hasn’t won a championship.
Subject + auxiliary verb (to have) + past participle… - You haven’t finished your homework yet?
Examples:
- I have [I’ve] talked to Peter.
- She has [She’s] gone to work. 5. The present perfect is used to discuss actions or events
- We have [We’ve] been to London. that occurred at various times in the past. The use of the
- They have [They’ve] learned English. present perfect in these cases indicates that further actions or
events are possible in the future.
2. Negative Sentences
Subject + auxiliary verb (to have) + «not» + past participle… Examples:
Examples: - We have spoken several times, but we still can’t reach an
- I haven’t talked to Peter. agreement.
- She hasn’t gone to work. - Our team has played 4 games so far this year.
- We haven’t been to London. - I love New York! I have been there 5 times already and I
- They haven’t learned English. can’t wait to go back.

3. Interrogative Sentences 6. As we will see, in general we use the present perfect

Auxiliary verb (to have) + subject + past participle…? continuous for situations that began in the past and
Examples: continue into the present. However, as we have learned, there
- Have you talked to Peter? are some verbs which we cannot use in the continuous tenses.
- Has she gone to work? In these cases, we use the present perfect simple.
- Have you been to London?
- Have they learned English? Examples:
Uses - How long has Michael been in Barcelona?
The present perfect is used for actions or events that occurred at an - I have loved you since the day I met you.
unspecified time before the present. The specific time is not important
and therefore we generally do not use specific time expressions
(«this morning», «yesterday», «last year»…) with the present
perfect. On the other hand, we can use non specific time
expressions with the present perfect («never», «ever», «many
times», «for», «since», «already», «yet»…). This concept of
nonspecific time is quite difficult to understand and so below you will
find further explanation of the particular uses of the present perfect.

1. The present perfect is used to describe an experience. It

is not used for specific actions.
Examples:
- I have never flown in a plane.
- He has worked in many different museums.
- We have been to Rio de Janeiro.

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13
PAST PERFECT 3.
PAST PERFECT

Interrogative Sentences
The past perfect is used for actions or events that happened in the «Had» + subject + past participle…?
past before another action or event in the past.
Examples:
GRAMMATICALRULES - How did you know where the Mona Lisa was? Had you
FORM visited the Louvre before?
Like the present perfect, the past perfect is formed using the auxiliary - Had they studied English before they went to London?
verb «to have» (in the past simple form) as well as the past participle. - Had Henry worked as an accountant for long before he
changed careers?
Subject Auxiliar Short Form
Past USES
Participle 1. We use the past perfect to refer to an event that began in
I’d, you’d, the past and before another action or event in the past.
I, you, he, studied,
he’d, she’d, The action or event that that happened first is in the past perfect
she, it, we, had visited,
it’d, we’d, and the one that follows in the past simple.
they worked…
they’d
Examples:
STRUCTURE - I’d read the book before I saw the movie.
1. Affirmative Sentences - Donna had just left when you called.
Subject + «had» + past participle… - Had you ever flown before the trip to France?
Examples:
- I had [I’d] visited the Louvre before, so I knew where the 2. The past perfect is used for actions or events that
Mona Lisa was.
happened before a specific time in the past.
- They had [They’d] studied English before they went to
Examples:
London.
- I had already woken up when the alarm clock rang at 7am.
- Henry changed careers because he had [he’d] worked as an
accountant for many years and was bored. - He hadn’t been to France before the trip in 2008.

2. Negative Sentences 3. As with the present perfect, we also use the past perfect
Subject + «had» + past participle… simple for situations that began in the past and continued
to a specific point in time in the past, as we cannot use the
Examples: continuous tenses with certain verbs.
- I had not [hadn’t] visited the Louvre before so I didn’t know Examples:
where the Mona Lisa was. - She had only owned one car before she bought her new
- They had not [hadn’t] studied English before they went to BMW.
London. - I’d been depressed for a long time before I changed jobs.
- Henry changed careers even though he had not [hadn’t]
worked as an accountant for long.

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14
CONDITIONAL SENTENCES
CONDITIONALS

speaker here recognizes that they can go to the beach, but they
are not sure if they will.)
The use of the conditional implies that one action in a sentence - If it doesn’t rain, we should go to the beach. (Meaning: In this
depends on the other. The conditionals are used to speak about both case, the use of «should» expresses the opinion of the speaker.)
real and imaginary situations. Conditional sentences are also known - If it doesn’t rain, we can go to the beach. (Meaning: «Can»
as «if clauses». here indicates that it is possible to go to the beach, but says
Keep in mind that there is no conditional verb tense in English as nothing of the probability.)
there is in other languages. Instead, we use the auxiliary verb «would»
to form the conditional. SECOND CONDITIONAL
There are four types of conditional sentences and the use of one
type over the other reflects the probability of the dependent action The second conditional is used to express an unreal possibility in the
happening. present, such as a wish or dream, or for an action in the future that
is not very probable.
CONDITIONAL TYPES
IF Condition Result
ZERO CONDITIONAL

The zero conditional is used when the condition and the results are If past simple “would” + infinitive
always true, such as with scientific facts.
Examples:
IF Condition Result
- If I won the lottery, I would travel around the world. / I
present present would travel around the world if I won the lottery.
if - If Rachel had more time, she would learn to play the guitar.
simple simple / Rachel would learn to play the guitar if she had more time.
- Would you be happy if you were to get married? / If you
Examples: were to get married,would you be happy?
- If you heat water to 100° C, it boils. / Water boils if you heat
it to 100° C.
THIRDCONDITIONAL
- If I don’t practice the piano everyday I play poorly. / I play
the piano poorly if Idon’t practice everyday. As opposed to the first and second conditionals, the third conditional
- Does your mom get mad if you don’t call her? / If you don’t is used to speak about a condition in the past that has not occurred.
call your mom,does she get mad?
IF Condition Result
FIRST CONDITIONAL
past “would have” +
We use the first conditional for expressing the future and in cases If
perfect past participle
when the condition is very likely to occur.

IF Condition Result Examples:

future - If I had known then what I know now, I would have done
present things differently. / I would have done things differently if
if simple
simple I had known then what I know now.
(“will”) - Suzanne wouldn’t have had the heart attack if she had
gone on a diet as her doctor recommended. / If Suzanne
Examples: had gone on a diet as her doctor recommended she wouldn’t
- If Bill studies, he will pass the exam. / Bill will pass the have had the heart attack.
exam if he studies. - Would you have liked to go to university if you had been
able to afford it? / If you had been able to afford it, would
- If it doesn’t rain, we will go to the beach. / We will go to
you have liked to go to university?
the beach if it doesn’t rain.
- Will you take the train if you miss the bus? / If you miss the
bus, will you takethe train?

Note: We can use certain modal verbs instead of «will» to change

the probability of the condition or to express an opinion. For more
information, see the lesson on modal verbs.

Examples:
- If it doesn’t rain, we may go to the beach. (Meaning: With the
use of «may», the meaning of this sentence changes. The

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576 Conditionals