“In order to succeed, your desire for success

should be greater than your fear of failure.”

1
….Bill Cosby
CHAPTER

1 Numbers and Algebra

Numbers and Algebra are some of the most favourite topics of the examiners in any exam. Not only
there is a large variety of questions that can be framed here, but also it provides the opportunity to
test the problem solving skills of the students. We have segregated numbers into various subtopics
which we’ll be looking at one by one.

Numbers

Introduction

Natural Numbers: All positive integers are natural numbers.

Ex: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,......

There are infinite natural numbers and ‘1’ is the least natural number. Based on divisibility there
would be two types of natural numbers. They are Prime and Composite.

Prime Number: A natural number larger than unity is a prime number if it does not have other
divisors except for itself and unity.
Note:-Unity (i.e 1) is not a prime number.

Procedure to Check a Number is Prime or Not

1. Take the square root of the number.
2. Round off the square root to the next highest integer and call this number as z.
3. Check for divisibility of the number N by all prime numbers below z. If there is no prime
number below the value of z which divides N then the number N will be prime.

Example: IS 241 is prime or not?

√241 lies between 15 and 16.Hence take the value of Z=16.
Prime numbers less than 16 are 2, 3, 5, 7, 11 and 13.
241 is not divisible by any of these. Hence we can conclude that 241 is a prime number.

Composite Numbers: The numbers which are not prime are known as composite numbers.
Note: 1 is neither prime nor composite

Co-Primes: Two numbers ‘a’ and ‘b’ are said to be co-primes, if their H.C.F is 1.
Example (2,3),(4,5),(7,9),(8,11).....

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 Numbers and Algebra

Tests for Divisibility

1. A number is divisible by 2, when its unit digit is even or 0.
2. A number is divisible by 3, when the sum of its digits is divisible by 3.
3. A number is divisible by 4 when the number formed by the last two digits on right hand side is
divisible by 4, or if the last two digits are zeros.
4. A number is divisible by 5, when its unit digit is 5 or 0.
5. A number is divisible by 6, when it is divisible by 2 and 3 both.
6. Divisibility test of 7
Method 1:
If the digits a, b, c, d of a four-digit number abcd are such that 2b + 3c + d – a is divisible by 7,
then the original number is divisible by 7
e.g., 1981 = 2 × 9 + 3 × 8 + 1 – 1 = 42 which is divisible by 7.
Hence, 1981 is divisible by 7.

Method 2:
A number is divisible by 7 if the sum of the product of the digits of the number from left to right
with 1, −2, −3, −1, 2, 3, … successively is divisible by 7 or is 0.
e.g., 392
The required sum
= 3 × 1 – 9 × 2 – 3 × 2 = − 21 which is divisible by 7. Hence, 392 is divisible by 7.

Method 3:
An integer I is divisible by 7, if the difference of the number of its thousands and the remainder
of its division by thousand is divisible by 7.
e.g., 439187
Difference = 439 – 187 = 252 which is divisible by 7. Hence, 439187 is divisible by 7.

Method 4:
Any number is divisible by 7, if the number of tens added to five times the number of units is
divisible by 7.
e.g., 308
Number of tens = 30
The required sum = 30 + 5 × 8 = 70 which is divisible by 7. Hence, 308 is divisible by 7.

Method 5:
Any number is divisible by 7, if the number of tens added to (−2) times the number of units is
divisible by 7.
e.g., 6727
Number of tens = 672
(−2) times the number of units = − 14
672 – 14 = 658
Number of tens = 65
(−2) times the number of units = − 16
65 – 16 = 49 which is divisible by 7. Hence, 6727 is divisible by 7.

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 Numbers and Algebra

7. A number is divisible by 8 when the number formed by the last three right hand digits is
divisible by 8, or when the last three digits are zeros.
8. A number is divisible by 9, when the sum of its digits is divisible by 9.
9. A number is divisible by 10, when its unit’s digit is 0.
10. A number is divisible by 11, when the absolute difference between the sum of the digits in the
odd places and the sum of the digits in the even places is 0 or a multiple of 11.
Note: When any number with an even number of digits is added to its reverse, the sum is always
a multiple of 11.
11. A number is divisible by 12, when it is divisible by 3 and 4 both.
12. Divisibility test of 13

Method 1:
Any four digit number abcd is divisible by 13 if a + 4b + 3c – d is divisible by 13.
e.g., 9373
9 + 4 × 3 + 3 × 7 – 3 = 39 which is divisible by 13.
Hence, 9373 is divisible by 13.

Method 2:
A number is divisible by 13 if the sum of the product of the digits of the number from left to
right with 1, 4, 3, −1, −4, −3, 1, 4, 3, … successively is divisible by 13 or is 0.
e.g., 195
The sum 1 × 1 + 9 × 4 + 5 × 3 = 52 which is divisible by 13.
Hence, the number 195 is divisible by 13.

Method 3:
An integer I is divisible by 13, if the difference of the number of its thousands and the
remainder of its division by thousand is divisible by 13.
e.g., 160485
Number of its thousands = 160
Remainder of its division by 1000 = 485
160 – 485 = −325
which is divisible by 13.
Hence, 160485 is divisible by 13.

Method 4:
Any number is divisible by 13, if the number of tens added to four times the number of units is
divisible by 13.
e.g., 6058
Number of tens = 605
4 times number of units = 32
605 + 32 = 637
which is divisible by 13.
Hence, 6058 is divisible by 13.

13. A number is divisible by 15, when it is divisible by 3 and 5 both.

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 Numbers and Algebra

14. Divisibility test of 17

Method 1
A number is divisible by 17, if the number of tens added to 12 times the number of units is
divisible by 17.
e.g., 153
Number of tens = 15
The required sum = 15 + 12 × 3 = 51 which is divisible by 17
Hence, 153 is divisible by 17.

Method 2
A number is divisible by 17, if the number of tens added to (−5) times the number of units is
divisible by 17.
In the same case as above, the required sum = 15 + (−5) × 3 = 0 is divisible by 17.
Hence, 153 is divisible by 17.

15. A number is divisible by 19, if the number of tens is added to twice the number of units is
divisible by 19.
e.g., 228
Number of tens = 22
The required sum = 22 + 2 × 8 = 38 which is divisible by 19
Hence, 228 is divisible by 19.

16. A number is divisible by 25, when the number formed by the last two right hand digits is ‘00’ or
is divisible by 25.

17. A number is divisible by 29, if the number of tens added to thrice the number of units is
divisible by 29.
e.g., 348
Number of tens = 34
The required sum = 34 + 3 × 8 = 58 which is divisible by 29
Hence, 348 is divisible by 29.

18. A number is divisible by 125, when the number formed by the last three right hand digits is
‘000’ or is divisible by 125.

Example: To find whether 467 is prime or not.

Solution: We find by trial that 467 is not divisible by any of the primes 2, 3, 5, 7, …… 19, 23. But on
dividing by 23 we get a quotient less than 23, and we need not go further. For example, if
467 contained a prime factor beyond 23, the quotient obtained on dividing 467 by that
prime factor would be less than 23, and must have been revealed as a factor by the
former trials. Hence, 467 has no prime factor greater or less than 23; that is, it is a prime
number.
In general, to find whether a number is prime or not, we need to check whether it is
divisible by any of the primes up to the square root of that number.

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 Numbers and Algebra

The square of a composite number must contain the square of every factor of that
number.
e.g., 6 = 2 × 3 : 62 = 2 × 3 × 2 × 3 = 22 × 32
56 = 23 × 7 ∶ 562 = 23 × 7 × 23 × 7 = 26 × 72
It will be noticed that each prime factor of the number is repeated an even number of
times in the square of the number. Conversely, when a square of a number has been
expressed in prime factors, its square root can be written down at once by simply the
index of the power of each prime factor.

Even and Odd Numbers

Even Numbers: Numbers which are divisible by 2 are called even numbers. General notation is 2n,
where n is an integer. Example: 2, 4, 6, 8,……….etc.
Odd Numbers: Numbers which are not divisible by 2 are called odd numbers. General notation is
2n+ 1 (or) 2n – 1, where n is an integer. Example: 3, 5, 7, 9……… etc.
Note: Let e and o represent even and odd numbers respectively,
(a) e + e = e
(b) o + o = e
(c) e + o = o
(d) e  e = e
(e) o  o = o
(f) e  o = e
(g) ex = e, where x is even or odd
(h) ox = o, where x is even or odd

Example: If x is an even number and y is an odd number, then which of the following statements is
false?
(i) (x + x x ) (y + y y ) is even.
(ii) (x + y) + (xy + y x ) + (x y + x x ) is odd.
(iii) x + y x is odd.
(iv) (x + y) + (xy + y) + x y + y x is odd.
Solution:
(i) x + x x = even + even = even; y + y y = odd + odd = even.
(x + x x ) (y + y y ) is even. Hence, true.
(ii) (x + y) + (xy + y x ) + (x y + x x ) = odd + (even + odd) + (even + even)
= odd + odd + even = even. Hence, false
(iii) x + y x = even + odd = odd. Hence true.
(iv) (x + y) + (xy + y) + x y + y x = odd + (even + odd) + even + odd
= odd + odd + even + odd
= even + odd = odd. Hence, true.

Example: A number P4571203R is divisible by 18. Which of the following values can P and R take?
(i) 1, 2 (iii) 6, 8
(ii) 2, 3 (iv) 3, 3

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 Numbers and Algebra

Solution: The number is divisible by 18. i.e., It has to be divisible by 2 and 9.

[∵ 2 and 9 are relatively prime.]
∴ R can take on any value 0, 2, 4, 6, 8
Now, P + 4 + 5 + 7 + 1 + 2 + 0 + 3 + R = P + R + 22
i.e., P + R could be 5, 14. [As the sum can’t exceed 18 since P and R are each less than 10].
So, from the choices, P and R can take the values 6, 8.

Example: When a number is divided by 84, the remainder is 40. What will be the remainder if this
number is divided by 12?
Solution: Let the number be n.
∴ n = 84k + 40; where k is the quotient.
n 84k 40 4
Now, dividing n by 12, we have 12 = 12
+ 12 = 7k + 3 12
∴ The remainder = 4.

Recurring Decimals: So far, we have considered divisions with a limited number of decimal places in
the quotient (i.e. answer).
1 1 4 5
E. g. = 0.25, = 0.2, = 0.8, = 1.25
4 5 5 4
These are examples of terminating decimals. Sometimes when dividing, the division will never stop
as there is always a remainder.
8
E.g. = 2.6666 (By long division)
3
It is clear that if 8 is divided by 3, then the sixes in the answer never stop. This is an example of
a recurring decimal.
This is written as:
8
E.g. = 2. 6
3

Converting recurring decimals to fractions:

Step 1: To obtain numerator subtract the number formed by non-repeating digits from the complete
number after decimal. (Consider repeated digits only once)

Step 2: To obtain denominator take number of 9’s

= No. of repeating digits and after that put no. of 0’s = no. of non repeating digits.
45 − 0 45 5
̅̅̅̅ =
Ex. (i) 0. 45 = =
99 99 11
46573−46 46527
̅̅̅̅̅
(ii) 0.46573 = = 99900
99900

Example: Express 0.003245 as a fraction.

32.45 32 0.45
Solution: 0.003245 = 10000 = 10000
+ 10000
Now, let 0. 45 = x 100x = 45. 45
45
 100x = 45 + x  99x = 45  x = 99
45
32 + 3213
99
∴ 0.003245 = =
10000 990000
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 Numbers and Algebra

HCF and LCM

Greatest Common Divisor: Greatest common divisor (GCD) is the greatest divisor common to two or
more given numbers. It is also known as HCF (Highest Common Factor).

Least Common Multiple: Least common multiple (LCM) of two or more given numbers is the least
number which is exactly divisible by each of the given numbers.

Method to find the HCF of the given numbers

1) By method of factorisation:
Express each given number as the product of primes. Now take the product of common factors,
which is the HCF.
E.g., Find HCF of 136, 144, 168
136 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 17 = 23 × 17
144 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 3 × 3 = 24 × 32
168 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 3 × 7 = 23 × 3 × 7
HCF = 23 = 8

2) By division method:
Suppose two numbers are given.
Divide the greater number by the smaller one; divide the smaller number by the remainder;
divide the first remainder by the new remainder, and so on till there is no remainder. The last
divisor is the required H.C.F.
e.g., Find the H.C.F. of 12 and 15.
12) 15 (1
− 12
3 ) 12 (4
− 12
00
∴ HCF = 3

In case more than two numbers are given then choose any two of them and find their HCF. The
HCF of these two and the third gives the HCF of three numbers and so on.
Note: If ‘Z’ is HCF of ‘X’ and ‘Y’, then Z is also a factor of aX + bY where a, b are integers.

Methods to find LCM of the given numbers

1) By method of factorisation:
Resolve each one of the given numbers into prime factors, then their LCM is the product of
highest powers of all factors, that occur in these numbers.
E.g., Find LCM of 136, 144, 168
136 = 23 × 17
144 = 24 × 32
168 = 23 × 3 × 7
LCM = 24 × 32 × 17 × 7 = 17136

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 Numbers and Algebra

2) Using the formula:

Product of numbers = HCF × LCM
If two numbers and their HCF is given. Then (1) their LCM is given as
Product of two numbers
LCM =
HCF
E.g., Find LCM of 136, 144.
136 × 144
LCM = = 2448
8
If more than two numbers are given, find LCM of any two of them. Then LCM of the two
numbers and the third number gives the LCM of these three numbers and so on.

3) Short cut method to find factorisation:

Find LCM of 18, 28, 108, 105
2 18, 28, 108, 105
2 9, 14, 54, 105
3 9, 7, 27, 105
3 3, 7, 9, 35
3 1, 7, 3, 35
5 1, 7, 1, 35
7 1, 7, 1, 7
1, 1, 1, 1
LCM = 2 × 2 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 5 × 7 = 3780
Alternatively,
We can strike out 18 at once, since any multiple of 108 must contain 18 as a factor.
2 28, 108, 105
2 14, 54, 105
3 7, 27, 105
7 7, 9, 35
1, 9, 5
LCM = 2 × 2 × 3 × 7 × 9 × 5 = 3780
Note: For any given numbers HCF is necessarily a factor of their L.C.M.

HCF and LCM of fractions

HCF of Numerators
1. HCF of Fractions = LCM of Denominators
LCM of Numerators
2. LCM of Fractions = HCF of Denominators
4 8 2 6
E.g., Find HCF and LCM of 5 , 35 , 15 and 25
HCF of 4,8,2,6 2 2
∴ HCF = = =
LCM of 5,35,15,25 5 ×7 ×3 ×5 525
LCM of 2,8,4,6 24
LCM = =
HCF of 5,35,15,25 5

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 Numbers and Algebra

Example: Find the H.C.F. of 55224 and 122012.

Solution: 55224 ) 122012 ( 2
110448
11564 ) 55224 ( 4
46256
8968 ) 11564 ( 1
8968
2596 ) 8968 ( 3
7788
1180 ) 2596 ( 2
2360
236 ) 1180 ( 5
1180
0
H.C.F = 236
If the two given numbers are large (as above) then the above method can be tedious and time-
consuming. In such cases we can find the HCF as follows.
55224 = 4 × 2 × 9 × 767
122012 = 4 × 11 × 2773
Note that the common factor above is ‘4’ ------ (i)
Now, find the H.C.F. of 767 and 2773 as follows:
767 ) 2773 ( 3
2301
472 ) 767 ( 1
472
295 ) 472 ( 1
295
177 ) 295 (1
177
118 ) 177 ( 1
118
59 ) 118 ( 2
118
0
Thus, the H.C.F. of 767 and 2773 = 59
Therefore, H.C.F. of 552244 and 122012 = 4 × 59 = 236 (from i)
When there are more than 2 numbers, not easily put into factors, we find the H.C.F. of two; then the
H.C.F. of the result and a third number, and so on. The final H.C.F. is the required one.

Example: What is the greatest length which can be used to measure exactly the following lengths:
20 ft., 13 ft. 9 inches, 17 ft. 6 inches, 21 ft. 3 inches?
Solution: We must express these lengths in the same denomination and find their greatest common
divisor. Expressed in inches we have 240 inches, 165 inches, 210 inches, 255 inches, and
G.C.D. of these is 15 inches, or 1 ft. 3 inches.

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 Numbers and Algebra

3 5
Example: Express the fractions 10 and 14 with denominator 70 and find which one of them is greater.
Solution: The multipliers 7 and 5 are found by dividing the denominator 70 by the denominators 10
and 14 in turn. As the fractions now have the same denominator, the greater of the two is
that with the greater numerator.
3 3 ×7 21 5 5 ×5 25
= = ; = =
10 10 × 7 70 14 14 × 5 70
5 3
Thus 14 is greater than 10

2 3 5
Example: Arrange the fractions , , in the ascending order of their respective magnitudes.
15 10 21
Solution:
5 15, 10, 21
3 3, 2, 21
1, 2, 7
L.C.M. of 15, 10, 21 = 5 × 3 × 2 × 7 = 210
2 2 ×14 28
15
= 15 ×14
= 210
------- (1)

3 3 ×21 63
= = ------- (2)
10 10 ×21 210

5 5 ×10 50
= = ------ (3)
21 21 ×10 210
The factors 14, 21, and 10 are obtained by dividing 210 by the denominators of the given
28 63
fractions in turn. By comparing the numerators we see that 210 is the least and 210 is the
greatest of the given fractions.
2 5 3
Thus 15 , 21 , 10 are the original fractions when arranged in an ascending order.

Example: Which of the following statement/s is/are definitely false?

I. LCM of a set of numbers is necessarily greater than the largest number in that set.
II. HCF of a set of numbers can be equal to the smallest number in that set.
III. The HCF of a, b and c is H. a, b and c are therefore multiples of H.
IV. The LCM of a, b and c is L. a, b and c are therefore factors of L.
Solution: I.
a) Take 4, 6 and 12 as the given set of numbers
LCM = 12 (the largest number)
b) Take 2, 4 and 7 as the given set of numbers
LCM = 28 (greater than the largest number)
∴ LCM of a set of numbers would be greater than or equal to the largest number in
that set.
It would be equal to the largest number when the largest number is a multiple of
all the other numbers in that set.
E.g. In the first case,
12 = 4 × 3 and 12 = 6 × 2
12 is a multiple of 4 and 6
∴ 12 is the LCM.

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 Numbers and Algebra

II.
a) Take 2, 6 and 12 as the given set of numbers.
HCF = 2 (the smallest number)
b) Take 4, 6 and 12 as the given set of numbers.
HCF = 2 (smaller than the smallest number)
∴ HCF of a given set of numbers would be smaller than or equal to the smallest
number in that set.
HCF would be equal to the smallest number when the smallest number is a factor
of all the other numbers in that set.
E.g. In the first case i.e. 2, 6 and 12 (6 = 2 × 3 and 12 = 2 × 6)
2 is a factor of both 6 and 12.
∴ HCF = 2
III and IV are both true as explained in detail for I and II above.
∴ I is false, rest are true.

Progressions

Arithmetic Progression (A.P.)

An arithmetic progression is a sequence of numbers in which any number (other than the first) is
more (or less) than the immediately preceding number by a constant value. This constant value is
called the common difference. In other words, any term of an arithmetic progression can be
obtained by adding the common difference to the preceding term.
Let ‘a’ be the first term of an arithmetic progression; ‘d’ the common difference and ‘n’ the number
of terms in the progression. Then the progression can be represented as
a, a + d, a + 2d, …….., [a + (n – 1) d].
Here, quantity d is to be added to any chosen term to get the next term of the progression.
The nth term is normally represented by Tn and the sum to ‘n’ terms of an arithmetic progression is
denoted by Sn
Tn = nth term = a + (n – 1)d
n
Sn = Sum of n terms = 2 × [2a + (n − 1)d],
n
Sum of first n terms = 2 × [a + {a + (n − 1)d}]
n
Hence, Sn = × [First Term + Last Term] (Assuming nth term is last term)
2

Example: Find the 10th term of an arithmetic progression whose first term is 2 and the common
difference is 3.
Solution: The nth term of an arithmetic progression is given by a + (n – 1) d, where ‘a’ and ‘d’ are the
first term and the common difference of the arithmetic progression respectively.
As n = 10, a = 2 and d = 3, the 10th term = 2 + (10 – 1) 3 = 29.

Example: Find the sum of the first 24 terms of the A.P. Given that the first term is 3 and the common
difference is 5.
n
Solution: The sum of the first n terms of an arithmetic progression is given by 2 [2a + (n − 1)d]

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 Numbers and Algebra

∴ Sum of the first 24 terms

24
= [(2 × 3) + (23 × 5)]
2
=1452.

Geometric Progression (G.P)

Numbers taken in a certain order, are said to be in Geometrical Progression, if the ratio of any
number (other than the first number) to the preceding one is the same. This ratio is called the
Common Ratio. In other words, any term of a geometric progression can be obtained by multiplying
the preceding number by the common ratio.

The common ratio is normally represented by ‘r’. The first term of a geometric progression is
denoted by ‘a’.
A geometric progression can be represented as
a, ar, ar2, ….
Where ‘a’ is the first term and ‘r’ is the common ratio of the geometric progression.
nth term of the geometric progression is Tn = ar n−1.
a (1− rn ) a (rn − 1)
Sum to n terms: Sn = ,if (r < 1) or Sn = ,if (r > 1)
1−r r −1
a (rn − 1) r × Last term –First term
This can also be written as ⟹ =
r−1 r −1
r × Last term−First term
∴Sn =
r −1

Infinite Geometric Progression

If – 1 < r < + 1 or | r | < 1, then the sum of a geometric progression does not increase infinitely; it
“converges” to a particular value. Such a G.P. is referred to as an infinite geometric progression. The
sum of an infinite geometric progression is represented by S∞ and is given by the formula
a
S∞ = 1−r

Some Important Results

The results of the sums to n terms of the following series are quite useful and hence should be
remembered by students.
n(n+1)
 Sum of the first n natural numbers = ∑ n = 2
n(n+1)(2n+1)
 Sum of squares of the first n natural numbers = ∑ n2 = 6
n(n+1) 2 n2 (n+1)2
 Sum of cubes of first n natural numbers = ∑ n3 = [ 2
] = 4
= [∑ n]2

Example: The sum of the first five terms of a G.P. is 363. If the common ratio is 1⁄3. Find the first
term.
a(1− rn )
Solution: Sum of the first n terms of a G.P.= 1−r
where ‘a’ is the first term, ‘r’ is the common ratio
and n is number of terms.

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 Numbers and Algebra

1 5
a (1 − (3) )
363 = 1
1− 3
1
363 × (1 − 3)
a = = 243.
1 5
1− (3)

Example: The sum to infinity of a G.P. is 27 and the sum of the squares of the terms is 243. Find the
common ratio.
Solution: Let the first term be ‘a’ and the common ratio be ‘r’.
Given that,
a
1−r
= 27 -------- (1) and
a2
1− r2
= 243 ------ (2)
Dividing (2) by (1),
a
1+r
= 9 --------- (3)
Dividing (3) by (1),
1−r 1
=
1+r 3
 3 – 3r = 1 + r
1
 4r = 2  r = 2

Example: If (23 − t1 ) + (43 − t 2 ) + (63 − t 3 ) + (83 − t 4 ) + (103 − t 5 ) + …… {(2n)3 − t n )}

n2 (n+1)2
= 4
, find the general expression for t n .
Solution: 2 + 4 + 6 + ……. (2n)3
3 3 3

= 8 (13 + 23 + 33 + … … . + n3 )
n(n+1) 2 8n2 (n+1)2
=8( 2
) = 4
2 (n 2
= 2n + 1) ------- (1)
Substituting (1) in the given equation and transposing the terms, the equation becomes:
t1 + t 2 + t 3 + t 4 + … … . + t n
n2 (n+1)2
= 2n2 (n + 1)2 − 4
7
= 4 n2 (n + 1)2 --------- (2)
If this sum is denoted by Sn , then
7
Sn−1 = (n − 1)2 (n)2 ------- (3)
4
But, t n = Sn − Sn−1
7 7
= 4 n2 (n + 1)2 − 4
(n − 1)2 n2
7
= 4 n2 ((n + 1)2 − (n − 1)2 )
7
= 4 n2 (4n)
= 7 n3

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 Numbers and Algebra

Averages

Averages: A central value around which a group of values show a tendency to concentrate is called
an average. Thus an average is a single value that is in some way indicative of a group of values.
The five measures of central tendency are:
(i) Mode
(ii) Median
(iii) Arithmetic Mean (A.M.)
(iv) Geometric Mean (G.M)
(v) Harmonic Mean (H. M.)
The most commonly used average is the arithmetic mean (A.M.) or simply the average.

Mode
Mode is the number that occurs most frequently in a given set of numbers.
E.g., Find the mode of the set of numbers 2, 4, 6, 6, 5, 4, 3, 6, 2, 6, 4, 1, 4, 5, 4.
The number 4 occurs maximum number of times, hence the mode is 4.

In a given set of data, if two or more values occur the same number of times and that is the
maximum number of time then a unique mode does not exist.

Median
Median is the middle value of a group of numbers arranged in an ascending or descending order.
n+1 th
If the number of values (n) in a given set of data is odd, then the Median is the ( 2
) value.
E.g., Find the median of the numbers 40, 41, 33, 48, 41, 39 and 38.
On arranging the values in ascending order 33, 38, 39, 40, 41, 41, 48.
7+1 th
Median is the ( 2
) value, the 4th value i.e., 40

If the number of values (n) in a given set of data is even, then there will be two middle values say ‘a’
a+b
and ‘b’, the median is taken as 2
.
E.g., Find the median of the numbers 16, 15, 13, 14, 23, 44.
On arranging the values in descending order 44, 23, 16, 15, 14, 13. The two middle values are 16 and
15.
16 +15 31
∴ Median = 2
= 2
= 15.5

Arithmetic mean: The most commonly used average is the arithmetic mean (AM) or simply the
average. The arithmetic mean of ‘n’ numbers x1 , x2 , x3 ……… xn is denoted by x and calculated as
x1 + x2 + ….+ xn ∑ni=1 xi
x̅ =
n
 x̅ = n
where the Greek letter  (sigma) indicates “Sum of the terms of the type”. It takes value from 1 to n.
a+ b
The arithmetic mean of ‘a’ and ‘b’ is .
2
E.g., Find the arithmetic mean of 10, 15, 17, 20.
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 Numbers and Algebra

10 +15 + 17 + 20
x̅ = = 15.5
4
When large numbers are involved, an Arithmetic Mean is generally assumed to facilitate calculation.
If a is the assumed Arithmetic mean, then the true Arithmetic mean x of the group of ‘n’ numbers
∑n
i=1 di
x1 , x2 , x3 ……. xn is x = a + where di = xi − a is the deviation from the assumed mean.
n

E.g., Find the Arithmetic mean of 42, 46, 48, 50, 55, 60, 70
Let the assumed mean be 50
xi di
42 42 – 50 = − 8
46 46 – 50 = − 4
48 48 – 50 = − 2
50 50 – 50 = 0
55 55 – 50 = 5
60 60 – 50 = 10
70 70 – 50 = 20
Total 21
7
∑i=1 di 21
∴ x = 50 + = 50 +
7 7
= 50 + 3 = 53.

Weighted Arithmetic Mean: It the values x1 , x2 , … … xn are assigned weights w1 , w2 , … … … . . wn

∑n
i=1 wi xi
respectively, then the weighted arithmetic mean denoted by xw is calculated as, xw = ∑n
i=1 wi
The term ‘weight’ stands for the relative importance that is attached to the different values. ‘w’ can
also be replaced by ‘f’ in a frequency distribution where ‘f’ denotes the frequency or simply the
number of times a particular observation occurs.
E.g.,
xi wi wi xi
20 3 60
30 1 30
40 5 200
50 1 50
∑ wi = 10 ∑ xi wi = 340
4
∑i=1 wi xi 340
∴ xw = 4 = = 34
∑i=1 wi 10

When two or more groups are combined, the combined average of the groups is given by,
x̅1 n1 + x̅2 n2 + x̅3 n3 + … . + x̅k nk
x̅c =
n1 + n2 + n3 + … . + nk
Where x̅1, x̅2, ̅x2, … . . x̅k are the individual averages of the groups and n1 , n2 … … . nk are the number
of observations or values in each of the groups.

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 Numbers and Algebra

E.g. The mean marks scored by 50 boys are 70 and those scored by 100 girls are 55. Find the
average marks scored by this group.
n1 x̅1 + n2 x̅2 70 × 50 + 100 × 55 9000
x̅c = = = = 60
n1 + n2 150 150

Geometric Mean
The geometric mean (G.M) of ‘n’ numbers x1 , x2 , … . . xn is the nth root of their products
i.e., G.M. = n√x1 × x2 × x3 × … … × xn
3 3
E.g., Geometric mean of 2, 3 and 4 is √2 × 3 × 4 = √24 = 2.88
The geometric mean of ‘a’ and ‘b’ is √ab.
E.g., Find the Geometric mean of 9 and 4.
G.M. = √9 × 4 = 6

Use of Geometric Mean

Geometric mean is generally used to calculate rate of growth.
If the geometric mean of one group of ‘a’ numbers is ‘x’ and that of another group of ‘b’ numbers is
1
‘y’ then the geometric mean of the combined groups is (x a + y b ) a+b

Harmonic mean
n
The harmonic mean (H. M.) of ‘n’ numbers x1 , x2 , … … . . . , xn is calculated as 1
∑n
i=1 xi
2ab
The harmonic mean of ‘a’ and ‘b’ is a + b.
E.g., Find the Harmonic mean of 1, 0.5, 10.
xi 1
xi
1 1
0.5 2
10 0.1
1
∑ = 3.1
xi
3 30
HM = 3.1 = 31

This is an important result and is generally used to find the average speed when equal distances are
covered at different speeds. (When different distances are covered in the same time, arithmetic
mean is used to determine the average speed).
E.g., A person travels from A to B at 6 kmph and returns at 4 kmph, find his average speed.
Average Speed = Harmonic Mean of 6 and 4
2 ×6 ×4 48
= = = 4.8 kmph
6+4 10
The Weighted Harmonic Mean of 3 numbers x1 , x2 and x3 with weights w1 , w2 and w3 respectively is
∑3𝑖=1 𝑤𝑖
𝑤𝑖
∑3𝑖=1
𝑥𝑖

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 Numbers and Algebra

This is used to calculate the average speed when different distances are covered at different speeds.
E.g., A cyclist covers his first 5 km at an average speed of 10 kmph, another 3 km at 8 kmph and the
last 2 km at 5 kmph. Find his average speed during the journey.
Average Speed = Weighted HM
5 + 3 + 2
= 5 3 2
+ +
10 8 5
10 400
= 1 3 2 = 51 = 7.84 kmph
2
+ 8
+
5

Relation between the three means

a+ b
(i) The Arithmetic Mean of two numbers ‘a’ and ‘b’, is 2
, their
2ab
Geometric mean is √ab and their Harmonic mean is a + b
(GM)2 = AM × HM
E.g., If the Arithmetic mean of two numbers is 6.5 and their Geometric mean is 6, what is their
Harmonic Mean?
AM × HM = (GM)2
6 ×6
∴ HM = 6.5
= 5.54

(ii) Arithmetic Mean > Geometric Mean > Harmonic Mean

E.g., Arithmetic Mean of 2 and 4 is 3.
Geometric Mean of 2 and 4 is 2.82.
Harmonic Mean of 2 and 4 is 2.66
3 > 2.82 > 2.66

Example: Find the Geometric Mean of 17, 10, 28, 35 and 3.

Solution: Geometric Mean of 17, 10, 28, 35 and 3 is
5 5
√17 × 10 × 28 × 35 × 3 = √499800 = 13.796.

Example: The average weight of 8 Oarsman in a boat is increased by 1 kg, when one of the crew, who
weighs 60 kg is replaced by a new man. What is the weight of the new man?
Solution: The average weight of 8 men is increased by 1 kg. Therefore, the total weight is increased
by 8 × 1 = 8 kg. Hence, the weight of the new man is 60 + 8 = 68 kg.

Example: The following are the weekly incomes of 10 workers. Calculate the arithmetic mean
income
(Rs): 115, 114, 123, 152, 105, 112, 150, 125, 120, 127.
Solution: Let 120 be the assumed Arithmetic Mean.
di = xi − 120 = −5, −6, 3, 32, −15, −8, 30, 5, 0, 7
∑10
i=1 di
Since, arithmetic Mean = 120 +
10
43
∴ Arithmetic Mean = 120 + 10 = 120 + 4.3 = 124.3

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 Numbers and Algebra

Example: A plane flies along the four sides of a square ground at speeds of 100, 200, 300 and 400
kmph. Find the average speed.
4 4 ×1200
Solution: Average speed = 1 1 1 1 = = 192 kmph
+ + + 12 + 6 + 4 + 3
100 200 300 400

Algebraic formulae and their application

An equation is a statement that two algebraic expressions are equal. If an equation is satisfied by
any value of the variable, then the equation is said to be an identity. These identities are used as
expansion formulae and ought to be carefully noted and committed to memory.
1) (a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2 = (a − b)2 + 4ab
2) (a − b)2 = a2 − 2ab + b2 = (a + b)2 − 4ab
3) (a + b)2 + (a − b)2 = 2(a2 + b2 )
4) (a + b)2 − (a − b)2 = 4ab
5) (a + b + c)2 = a2 + b2 + c 2 + 2(ab + bc + ca)
6) (a + b + c + d)2 = a2 + b2 + c 2 + d2 + 2a(b + c + d) + 2b(c + d) + 2cd
7) (a + b) (a – b) = a2 − b2
8) (x + a) (x + b) = x 2 + (a + b)x + ab
9) (x + a) (x + b) (x + c) = x 3 + (a + b + c)x 2 + (ab + bc + ca)x + abc
10) (a + b)3 = a3 + 3ab (a + b) + b3
11) (a − b)3 = a3 − 3ab (a − b) − b3
12) a3 + b3 = (a + b)3 − 3ab (a + b) = (a + b)(a2 − ab + b2 )
13) a3 − b3 = (a − b)3 + 3ab (a − b) = (a − b)(a2 + ab + b2 )
14) a3 + b3 + c 3 − 3abc = (a + b + c)(a2 + b2 + c 2 − ab − ac − bc)
If a + b + c = 0, then a3 + b3 + c 3 = 3abc
15) an − bn = (a − b)(an−1 + an−2 b + an−3 b2 + … + bn−1 ), for all n.
16) an − bn = (a + b)(an−1 − an−2 b + an−3 b2 − … − bn−1 ) if n is even
17) an + bn = (a + b)(an−1 − an−2 b + an−3 b2 + … + bn−1 ) if n is odd.
18) a4 + a2 b2 + b4 = (a2 + ab + b2 )(a2 − ab + b2 )

Factors of polynomials: An expression is said to be resolved into factors (i) one of two or more
polynomial whose product is the given polynomial. When the expressions of which it is the product
are found. (or)
A factor (of a polynomial) is a polynomial that, when multiplied by another polynomial, results in
the original polynomial.

HCF of polynomials: When two or more polynomials are factorised, the product of all the common
factors is the HCF of the polynomials.

LCM of polynomials: When two or more polynomials are factorised, the product of all the factors
with highest power is the LCM of the polynomials.

Example: Find the square root of 4x 4 + 9y 4 + 16z 4 + 12x 2 y 2 − 16x 2 z 2 − 24y 2 z 2 .

Solution: The given expression is 4x 4 + 4x 2 (3y2 − 4z 2 ) + 9y 4 − 24y 2 z 2 + 16z 4,
i.e. (2x 2 )2 + 2(2x 2 )(3y 2 − 4z 2 ) + (3y 2 − 4z 2 )2 .
Hence, the required square root is 2x 2 + 3y 2 − 4𝑧 2 .

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 Numbers and Algebra

Example: Find the square root of x 6 − 2x 5 + 3x 4 + 2x 3 (y − 1) + x 2 (1 − 2y) + 2xy + y 2 .

Solution: The expression only contains y 2 and y, we therefore arrange it according to powers of y,
and have y 2 + 2y(x 3 − x 2 + x) + (x 6 − 2x 5 + 3x 4 − 2x 3 + x 2 ).
Now, if the expression is a complete square, then the last term must be the square of half
the coefficient of y; and it is easy to verify that
(x 3 − x 2 + x)2 = x 6 − 2x 5 + 3x 4 − 2x 3 + x 2 .
Hence, the required square root is y + x 3 − x 2 + x.

8.73 ×8.73 × 8.73 + 4.27 × 4.27 × 4.27

Example: Find the value of 8.73 × 8.73−8.73 × 4.27+4.27 × 4.27
8.733 + 4.273
Solution:
8.732 − 8.73 × 4.27+ 4.272
(8.73 + 4.27) (8.732 − 8.73 × 4.27 + 4.272 )
= = 8.73 + 4.27 = 13
8.732 – 8.73 × 4.27 + 4.272

Example: Find the HCF and LCM of 25c 2 − 16d2 and 25c 2 d − 20cd2 .
Solution: 25c 2 − 16d2 = (5c)2 − (4d)2 = (5c − 4d)(5c + 4d)
25c 2 d − 20cd2 = 5cd (5c − 4d)
HCF = 5c – 4d
LCM = 5cd (5c – 4d) (5c + 4d)

Inequations
Inequation: An equation having signs >, <, ≤ or ≥ at the place of sign of equality (=) is known as
inequality or inequation.

Symbols of inequality
x ≠ y for x is not equal to y.
x > y for x is greater than y.
x < y for x is less than y.
x ≥ y for x is greater than or equal to y.
x ≤ y for x is less than or equal to y.
Any quantity x is said to be greater than another quantity y when x – y is positive. Thus −2 is greater
than –3 as −2 − (−3) = 1 is positive.
Any quantity x is said to be less than another quantity y when x – y is negative. Thus,
−5 is less than −2 as −5 − (−2) = −3 is negative.

Unconditional Inequality: An unconditional inequality is one that holds good/true for all values of
the variables.
E.g., 3x 2 + 2 > x − 2 which is true for all values of x.

Conditional Inequality: A conditional inequality is true only for certain values of the variable.
E.g., 3x + 2 > 8
∴ 3x > 6 ∴ x > 2
Thus, the inequation 3x + 2 > 8 is true only for values of x which are greater than 2.

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 Numbers and Algebra

Solution set or Truth set: The set of values, which satisfies the given statement is called the solution
set or truth set.
E.g., Solution set of −2 < x < 7 where x ∈ Z is (−1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6)

Some important properties

1. An inequality will still holds good/true, after each side has been increased, diminished,
multiplied or divided by the same positive quantity.
i.e., if a > b and c > 0
a+c>b+c
a–c>b–c
ac > bc
a b
>
c c

2. In an inequality, any term may be transposed from one side to the other if its sign is changed.
i.e., if a – c > b, then a > b + c or –c > b – a

3. If the sides of an inequality be multiplied by the same negative quantity, the sign of the
inequality must be reversed. i.e., if a > b and c < 0, then ac < bc

1 1
4. If a > b; a, b ≥ 0 then an > bn , and an < bn
, or a−n < b−n ; if n is a positive quantity.

5. The square of every real quantity is positive and therefore must be greater than zero
i.e., for a ≠ b, (a − b)2 > 0; a2 + b2 > 2ab;
x+y
Similarly, if x > 0, y > 0 then, ≥ √xy
2
Hence, the arithmetic mean of two positive quantities is greater than or equal to their geometric
mean.

6. If the sum of two positive quantities is given, their product is greatest when they are equal; and
if the product of two positive quantities is given, their sum is least when they are equal.

a+ b+ c+…+ k n
7. If a, b, c…. k are ‘n’ unequal quantities, then, ( ) > a × b × c × d…× k
n
a+ b+ c+ …+ k
i.e., n
> (a × b × c × … k)1/n
Note: The arithmetic mean of any number of positive quantities is greater than their geometric
mean.

am + bm a+ b m
8. If a and b are positive and unequal, 2
> ( 2
) except when m is a positive proper
fraction.
am + bm a+ b m
If m is a positive integer or any negative quantity > ( )
2 2
am + bm a+ b m
If m is a positive and less than 1, 2
< ( 2 )
If there are n positive quantities a, b, c … k, then:

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 Numbers and Algebra

am + bm + cm + …+ km a + b +c +⋯+k m
( ) > ( ) Unless ‘m’ is a positive proper fraction.
n n

9. If a, b, c are positive and not all equal, then, (a + b + c) (ab + bc + ca) > 9abc and,
(b + c) (c + a) (a + b) > 8abc.

a+ x a
10. If x is positive and a < b, then b + x > b
a+ x a
If x is positive and a > b, then <
b+ x b

a− x a
11. If x is positive and a > b > x, then, b− x > b
a− x a
If x is positive and x < a < b, then, b − x < b

a +c + e +⋯ a c e
12. b+ d + f + …
is less than the greatest and greater than the least of the fractions b , d , f , …

13. For positive numbers, if a > x, b > y, c > z then a + b + c + … > x + y + z + … and abc … > xyz …

14. a2 + b2 + c 2 ≥ bc + ca + ab

15. (n!)2 > nn , for n > 2.

1 n
16. For any positive integer n, 2 ≤ (1 + n) ≤ 3

17. a2 b + b2 c + c 2 a ≥ 3abc

a b c d
18. b + c
+ d + a
≥4

19. a4 + b4 + c 4 + d4 ≥ 4abcd

20. Quadratic Equation with Application to Inequalities

In a quadratic equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0, if b2 − 4ac > 0, then
ax 2 + bx + c = a(x − α)(x − β), where α and β are the two roots of the equation with α < β.
(x – α)(x − β) is always positive when x < α or x > β i.e., x does not lie between α and β.
(x – α) (x – β) is always negative when α < x or x > β i.e., x lies between α and β.

Example: Which of the two numbers 10001000 and 1001999 is greater?

Solution:
1001999 1001 1000 1 1 1000 1
= ( ) . = (1 + ) .
10001000 1000 1001 1000 1001
1000
1
2 ≤ (1 + ) ≤3
1000
1 1000 1
∴ (1 + ) × <1
1000 1001
1001999
∴ < 1 ⇒ 10001000 > 1001999
10001000

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 Numbers and Algebra

Example: Solve (x – 3) (x + 4) > 0

Solution: (x – 3) (x + 4) > 0
(x – 3) [x – (−4)] > 0
∴ x does not lie between −4 and 3. i.e., x < −4 and x > 3.

Example: If w satisfies both the following inequalities and w is an integer, what values can we have?
(i) 5(w + 10) – 4w > 0
(ii) 8 + 7w < 3(2w + 1)
Solution: From (i): 5(w + 10) −4w > 0
w + 50 > 0 ∴ w > −50
From (ii): 8 + 7w < 6w + 3
w < −5
∴ From (i) and (ii), w lies between −50 and −5. i.e., −50 < w < −5.

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