Industrial Lubrication and Maintenance Guide

Lubricants
Industrial Lubricants
Lubrication and Maintenance

(Updated – I&S/DPSAT – march 2012)
LUBRICANTS.........................................................................................................................13
1 THE PRINCIPLES OF LUBRICATION...........................................................................14
1.A LUBRICATION................................................................................................. 14
1.A.1 ROLE PLAYED BY LUBRICANTS ...................................................................................... 14
1.A.2 SYSTEM OF LUBRICATION ............................................................................................. 16
1.A.3 THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF LUBRICANTS ......................................................................... 17
1.B COMPOSITION OF LUBRICATING OILS .............................................................. 18

1.B.1 BASE OILS .................................................................................................................... 18
1.B.2 ADDITIVES ................................................................................................................... 27
1.B.3 MANUFACTURE ............................................................................................................ 34
2 CHARACTERISTICS OF LUBRICATING OILS.............................................................35

2.A CHARACTERISTICS OF IDENTIFICATION............................................................ 35
2.A.1 COLOUR :..................................................................................................................... 35
2.A.2 DENSITY ...................................................................................................................... 35
2.A.3 VISCOSITY.................................................................................................................... 35
2.A.4 VISCOSITY INDEX ......................................................................................................... 36
2.A.5 FLASH POINT – FIRE POINT ........................................................................................... 37
2.A.6 POUR POINT ................................................................................................................. 37
2.A.7 ANILINE POINT ............................................................................................................. 37
2 A 8 ACID NUMBER (TAN -TOTAL ACID NUMBER) ................................................................. 37
2.A.9 ALKALINITY RESERVE (TBN = TOTAL BASE NUMBER) ..................................................... 38
2.A.10 ASH CONTENT ............................................................................................................. 38
2.A.11 CARBON RESIDUE ......................................................................................................... 38
2.B PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS................................................................... 38

2.B.1 BEHAVIOUR IN RELATION TO AIR .................................................................................. 38
2.B.2 DEMULSIBILITY ............................................................................................................. 39
2.B.3 OXIDATION RESISTANCE .............................................................................................. 39
2.B.4 ANTIWEAR AND EXTREME-PRESSURE PROPERTIES ......................................................... 40
2.B.5 4-BALL MACHINE ......................................................................................................... 40
2.B.6 FZG (GEARED) MACHINE ............................................................................................... 40
3 GREASES.....................................................................................................................41
3.A COMPOSITION ............................................................................................... 41
3.A.1 SOAPS 41
3.A.2 ADDITIVES ................................................................................................................... 42
3.B MANUFACTURE .............................................................................................. 42
MELTING ..............................................................................................................................42
1.A SAPONIFICATION ........................................................................................... 42
DOPING ................................................................................................................................42
3.C CHARACTERISTICS ......................................................................................... 43
3.C.1 CONSISTENCY -WORKED PENETRATION: ........................................................................ 43
3.C.2 NLGI GREASES CLASSIFICATION (SEE ANNEX) .................................................................. 44
3.C.3 DROP POINT: ................................................................................................................. 44
3.C.4 ADHERENCE: .................................................................................................................. 44
3.C.5 PHYSICAL STABILITY: ...................................................................................................... 44
3.C.6 CHEMICAL STABILITY ..................................................................................................... 44
3.C.7 MECHANICAL STABILITY ................................................................................................. 45
3.C.8 LOAD RESISTANCE: ........................................................................................................ 45
3.C.9 LOAD RESISTANCE TO WATER: ....................................................................................... 45
3.C.10 PUMPABILITY................................................................................................................ 45
3.D USES ............................................................................................................. 46
4 LUBRICANTS: HYGIENE, SAFETY, HANDLING .........................................................47

4.A TOXICITY....................................................................................................... 47
4.B PRECAUTIONS GOVERNING USE ....................................................................... 47

4.B.1 SKIN CONTACT: ........................................................................................................... 47
4.B.2 INHALATION ................................................................................................................ 47
4.B.3 EYE CONTACT .............................................................................................................. 47
4.B.4 INGESTION ................................................................................................................... 47
INDUSTRIAL LUBRICANTS...................................................................................................49
GENERAL CLASSIFICATIONS ...............................................................................................51
1 CLASSIFICATION OF ISO VISCOSITES ................................................................ 53
2 CLASSIFICATION BY FAMILIES .......................................................................... 53
BEARINGS..............................................................................................................................54
1.A PLAIN BEARINGS............................................................................................. 55
1.B ROLLING BEARINGS ........................................................................................ 55

1.B.1 OIL LUBRICATION ......................................................................................................... 56
1.B.2 GREASE LUBRICATION .................................................................................................. 56
1.B.3 WEARING AND MALFUNCTIONING OF BEARINGS ........................................................... 57
HYDROSTATIC TRANSMISSIONS AND THEIR FLUIDS ......................................................58

1.A COMPOSITION OF A HYDRAULIC CIRCUIT......................................................... 59
1.A.1 THE PUMPS: ................................................................................................................. 59
1.A.2 COLLECTORS ............................................................................................................... 62
1.A.3 ADJUSTMENT MECHANISMS .......................................................................................... 63
1.A.4 DISTRIBUTION MECHANISMS: ....................................................................................... 63
1.A.5 PIPING AND ACCESSORIES: ........................................................................................... 64
1.A.6 TANKS: ........................................................................................................................ 64
1.A.7 FILTERS ........................................................................................................................ 64
1.B FLUIDS FOR HYDROSTATIC CIRCUITS ............................................................... 65

1.B.1 MINERAL OIL BASED FLUIDS.......................................................................................... 65
1.B.2 FIRE RESISTANT HYDRAULIC FLUIDS ............................................................................. 66
1.B.3 BIODEGRADABLE FLUIDS .............................................................................................. 66
1.B.4 APPLICATION AND MAINTENANCE FACTORS ................................................................ 66
1.B.5 MONITORING OF HYDRAULIC FLUIDS IN SERVICE .......................................................... 67
GEARS AND THEIR LUBRICANTS........................................................................................68

1.A GENERAL POINTS ........................................................................................... 69
1.A.1 SPUR TEETH ................................................................................................................... 69
1.A.2 HELICAL GEARING ........................................................................................................... 69
1.B CONDITIONS GOVERNING USE......................................................................... 70
1.C ROLES PLAYED BY GEAR LUBRICANTS .............................................................. 71
1.D GEAR LUBRICANTS: ........................................................................................ 71

1.D.1 OILS: 71
1.D.2 GEAR OILS CLASSIFICATION.......................................................................................... 72
1.D.3 GREASES ...................................................................................................................... 73
1.E METHOD OF LUBRICATION .............................................................................. 73

1.E.1 OIL LUBRICATION: ........................................................................................................ 73
1.E.2 GREASE LUBRICATION: ................................................................................................. 73
1.F WEAR AND MALFUNCTIONING......................................................................... 73

1.F.1 CYLINDRICAL GEARS .................................................................................................... 73
1.F.2 WORM WHEEL GEARS (DESTRUCTIVE PITTING). ............................................................. 73
1.G OPERATIONAL MONITORING ........................................................................... 74

1.G.1 GEARS.......................................................................................................................... 74
1.G.2 LUBRICANTS ................................................................................................................ 74
1.H RECOMMENDATION FOR GEAR LUBRICANTS ..................................................... 74
TURBINES AND THEIR LUBRICANTS...................................................................................75

1.A STEAM TURBINES ........................................................................................... 77
1.B HYDRAULIC (HYDRO-ELECTRIC) TURBINES ....................................................... 78

1.B.1 PELTON TURBINES USED IN VERY HIGH WATERFALLS ....................................................... 78
1.B.2 FRANCIS TURBINES USED IN AVERAGELY HIGH WATERFALLS ............................................ 78
1.B.3 KAPLAN TURBINES USED IN LOW WATERFALLS. ............................................................... 79
1.C GAS TURBINES ............................................................................................... 79
1.D ROLES OF TURBINE LUBRICANTS AND CLASSIFICATION ..................................... 80
1.E CHOICE OF OIL .............................................................................................. 81

1.E.1 LUBRICATION OF STEAM TURBINES ............................................................................... 81
1.E.2 LUBRICATION OF GAS TURBINES ................................................................................... 81
1.E.3 LUBRICATION OF HYDRAULIC TURBINES ....................................................................... 82
1.F MONITORING OF SERVICE FILL TURBINE OILS .................................................... 83
COMPRESSORS AND THEIR LUBRICANTS .........................................................................84

1.A TYPES OF COMPRESSORS ................................................................................ 86
1.A.1 AIR COMPRESSORS ....................................................................................................... 86
1.A.2 GAS COMPRESSORS ...................................................................................................... 89
1.A.3 VACUUM PUMPS ........................................................................................................... 90
1.A.4 REFRIGERATION COMPRESSORS .................................................................................... 90
1.B CHOICE OF LUBRICANTS FOR COMPRESSORS .................................................... 91
MACHINES TOOLS LUBRICANTS AND CUTTING FLUIDS.................................................93

1.A THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF MACHINE TOOLS ...................................................... 95
1.A.1 METAL CUTTING MACHINES ......................................................................................... 95
1.A.2 ABRASION MACHINES ................................................................................................... 95
1.A.3 DEFORMATION MACHINES............................................................................................ 95
1.B CUTTING TOOLS ............................................................................................ 96

1.B.1 LATHE TOOLS .............................................................................................................. 96
1.B.3 DRILLING TOOLS .......................................................................................................... 97
1.B.4 BORING TOOLS ............................................................................................................ 98
1.B.5 BROACHING TOOLS ...................................................................................................... 98
1.B.6 CHIP FORMATION......................................................................................................... 98
1.B.7 THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF CHIPS: .................................................................................. 98
1.C LUBRICANTS FOR MACHINE TOOLS .................................................................. 99
1.D CUTTING LUBRICANTS: ................................................................................... 99

1.D.1 THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF CUTTING FLUIDS .................................................................. 99
1.A.3 EP 100
EMULSIFIERS ......................................................................................................... 100
Additives.............................................................................................................................100
1.D.2 ROLES PLAYED BY CUTTING LUBRICANTS.................................................................... 101
1.E MONITORING OF SERVICE FILL CUTTING OILS ................................................. 102
TRANSFORMERS-CIRCUIT BREAKERS .............................................................................103

1.A INSULATING OILS ......................................................................................... 105
MAINTENANCE AND SERVICE FILL LUBRICANTS............................................................107

1 CARRYING OUT AN INDUSTRIAL MAINTENANCE POLICY..................................109
1.A INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................... 109
2 SETTING UP CONDITION MONITORING OF USED OILS.......................................110

2.A SAMPLING ................................................................................................... 110
2.B LABELLING THE SAMPLE ................................................................................ 110
2.C FREQUENCY OF SAMPLING ............................................................................ 110
2.D CHOICE OF ANALYSES TO BE CARRIED OUT .................................................... 111
2.E MONITORING OF THE EQUIPMENT ................................................................. 111
3 MAIN CHARACTERISTICS MEASURED ON USED OILS..........................................112

3.A APPEARANCE ............................................................................................... 112
3.B WATER CONTENT ......................................................................................... 112

3.B.1 PRINCIPLES OF MEASUREMENT ................................................................................... 113
3.B.2 DIAGNOSIS................................................................................................................. 113
3.B.3 CONSEQUENCES RESULTING FROM THE PRESENCE OF WATER ..................................... 113
3.C DEMULSIFICATON ........................................................................................ 114
3.D PARTICLES ................................................................................................... 114

3.D.1 SEDIMENTS ................................................................................................................ 114
3.D.2 PARTICLE INDEX ......................................................................................................... 114
3.D.3 FERROGRAPHY ........................................................................................................... 115
3.D.4 PARTICLE COUNT (HIAC) ............................................................................................ 115
3.D.5 ADVICE AS TO MAINTENANCE .................................................................................... 115
3.E EMISSION SPECTROMETRY: DETECTION OF WEAR METALS, OIL ADDITIVES,

CONTAMINANTS ................................................................................................... 116
3.E.1 PRINCIPLE OF THE METHOD ....................................................................................... 116
3.E.2 TESTED ELEMENTS ..................................................................................................... 116
3.E.3 CLOSED FLASH POINT ................................................................................................ 116
3.F VISCOSITY AND THE VISCOSITY INDEX ........................................................... 117

3.F.1 MEASUREMENT PRINCIPLES......................................................................................... 117
3.F.2 GUIDE TO INTERPRETATION ....................................................................................... 118
3.G ACID NUMBER .............................................................................................. 119

3.G.1 PRINCIPLE .................................................................................................................. 119
3.G.2 GUIDE TO INTERPRETATION ....................................................................................... 119
3.H INFRARED SPECTROMETRY ............................................................................ 120

3.H.1 PRINCIPLE .................................................................................................................. 120
3.H.2 NITRATION OF GAS MOTOR-COMPRESSOR OILS ......................................................... 121
3.I FOAMING .................................................................................................... 121

3.I.1 PRINCIPLE .................................................................................................................. 121
3.I.2 INTERPRETATION ....................................................................................................... 121
3.J AIR RELEASE ................................................................................................ 122

3.J.1 PRINCIPLE .................................................................................................................. 122
3.J.2 CONSEQUENCES AND REMEDIES ................................................................................. 122
3.K DIELECTRIC STRENGTH ................................................................................. 122
3.L DRASTICITY ................................................................................................. 123

3.L.1 MEASUREMENT PRINCIPLE .......................................................................................... 123
3.L.2 INTERPRETATION ....................................................................................................... 123
3.M RAMSBOTTOM RESIDUE ................................................................................ 123
3.N DETERGENCY TEST (ENGINE OILS) .................................................................. 124
3.O SPECIFIC TESTS FOR SOLUBLE OILS ................................................................ 124
ANNEXES ............................................................................................................................127
1 VISCOSITY ................................................................................................................128
1.A CLASSIFICATION OF ISO VISCOSITIES ............................................................. 128
1.B COMPARISON OF VISCOSITY CLASSES ............................................................ 129

2 GREASES...................................................................................................................130
2.A NLGI CLASSIFICATION .................................................................................. 130
2.B CRITERIA GOVERNING SOAP SELECTION ......................................................... 131
2.C ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF GREASE LUBRICATION ....................... 132

LUBRICATION ....................................................................................................................... 132
2.D COMPATIBILITY OF SOAPS............................................................................. 133
3 HYDRAULIC FLUIDS.................................................................................................134
3.A DIAGRAM OF A HYDRAULIC CIRCUIT ............................................................. 134
4 GEARS.......................................................................................................................135
4.A VISCOSITY SELECTION: PARALLEL REDUCING GEARS (BY SPLASHING)................ 135
4.B VISCOSITY SELECTION: PARALLEL REDUCING GEARS ....................................... 136
4.C VISCOSITY SELECTION: HYPOID ENDLESS SCREW REDUCING GEARS .................. 137
4.D VISCOSITY SELECTION: HYPOID ENDLESS SCREW REDUCING GEARS .................. 137
4.E GEAR LUBRICANTS SELECTION ...................................................................... 138
4.F LUBRICATION OF WORM WHEEL REDUCING GEARS .......................................... 139
5 METAL WORKING FLUIDS.......................................................................................140

5.A CLASSIFICATION OF METALWORKING FLUIDS ................................................. 140
6 BEARINGS .................................................................................................................141
6.A BEARINGS AND ROLLER THRUST BEARINGS – OIL LUBRICATION ....................... 141
6.B PLAIN BEARINGS – OIL LUBRICATION.............................................................. 142
7 COMPATIBILITY........................................................................................................143
7.A COMPATIBILITY OF BASE OILS ....................................................................... 143
7.B COMPATIBILITY WITH ELASTOMERS ............................................................... 144
7.C POSSIBLE CONSEQUENCES OF A REACTION BETWEEN LUBRICANT AND ELASTOMER145
8 LUBRICANTS PRODUCTION ...................................................................................147

LUBRICANTS
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1 THE PRINCIPLES OF LUBRICATION
1.A LUBRICATION
Lubrication problems have assumed ever-greater importance due to the advances in current technology
and the service stresses of machines.
1.A.1 ROLE PLAYED BY LUBRICANTS
In everyday language, to lubricate is synonymous with “reducing friction” between bodies in motion, by the
interaction of special substances known as “lubricants”. In practice, however, the true role of lubrication is
much more complex. It breaks down into the following different functions:
1.A.1.a Reducing friction:
The interaction of a lubricant between metal surfaces in motion results in a decrease in the coefficient of
friction. This translates into substantial energy savings and a very marked reduction in wear.
Irrespective of the type of friction, its cause involves two sorts of forces:
• Cohesive force which binds the molecules of a body together, Adhesive force that attaches liquids to
solids.
In general,
• Solid bodies possess great cohesive force and weak adhesive force,
• Liquids possess great adhesive force and weak cohesive force.
Friction is a universal phenomenon due to the structure of matter. In mechanisms, it manifests itself by
various effects:
• A dynamic effect: resistance to movement,

• A technical effect: heating of parts,
• A mechanical effect: wear.
When a body weighing «Q» rests on a horizontal plane, a horizontal force

«F» has to be applied to it in order to set it in motion. This force enables one
to characterise the coefficient of friction.
Cf = F/Q
For purposes of indication; below are some coefficient of friction values (mean values):
• Non-lubricated steel surfaces 0.60

• Steel surfaces lubricated by mineral oils 0.20
• Steel surfaces lubricated by mineral oils to which solid lubricants have been added 0.08
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1.A.1.b Reducing wear
There exist three types of wear:
Physical wear:
This relates to the composition of the metal and metal fatigue and in respect of which lubricants have a
limited role to play
Chemical wear essentially due to corrosion.
Lubricants containing anticorrosion additives are used to prevent or reduce chemical corrosion within the
lubrication system.
Mechanical wear:
• Wear due to metal-to-metal contact (micro-weld or adhesion). When two metal parts rub up
against one other, local micro-welds occur. Breakage of the latter due to movement releases
metal particles that are torn away from the softest part. By avoiding metal-on-metal contact the
interaction of, the lubricant considerably limits this type of wear.
• Abrasion wear, resulting from friction of the moving parts with of solid particles between these
parts. As far as this type of wear is concerned, the lubricant has an essential role to play by
restricting the action of the particles through coating and removal.
• Erosion wear caused by the collision of solid particles or fluid at high-speed or high-pressure
particles impacting on a stationary metal surface. In this case, the lubricant’s job is to coat the
solid particles’ surface so as to stop them wearing the surfaces away.
1.A.1.c Absorb and dissipate heat (calories):
The largest part of the frictional forces’ resistance is converted into heat. By its mere presence the lubricant
ensures cooling of the mechanical components:
• By reducing friction (the quantity of calories produced)

• By contributing to the dissipation of heat
1.A.1.d Provides a seal:
Internal (for example between the piston and cylinder liner in an engine)
External (stuffing boxes in marine engines).
1.A.1.e Disposing of contaminants:
These are formed as bye products of reaction from the combustion of fuel generating soot in Diesel
engines. Generally speaking, these contaminants are caught in the filters.
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1.A.2 SYSTEM OF LUBRICATION
A lubricant between two friction surfaces can produce different systems of lubrication:
1.A.2.a Hydrodynamic or viscous state
Lubrication is said to be hydrodynamic when the surfaces in motion are totally separated by a sufficiently
thick lubricating film. It consists then in substituting the friction of the oil film for the friction of the surfaces
themselves against one another. This is what occurs with plain bearing: The oil film raises the bearing axis
until it is centred with a permanent oil film that is a mechanical effect. The useful property of the lubricant is
VISCOSITY, hence the name viscous (full fluid film) lubrication also given to hydrodynamic lubrication.
Hydrodynamic State
1.A.2.b Elasto-hydrodynamic state
In other cases, like gears or rolling bearings, the combined effect of pressure on the lubricant and elastic
deformations of the surfaces generates the formation of a relatively thin film between the latter. We find
ourselves here in an elasto-hydrodynamic state governed by Hertz’s theories of deformations.
1.A.2.c Oily or marginal lubrication
When the pressures between surfaces are high and the traverse speeds slow., the surfaces in motion are
separated merely by a lubricant film only a few molecules thick The resulting lubrication is said to be oily or
marginal.
Oily Lubrication
In this case, viscosity plays a much less important part than in hydrodynamic lubrication. On the other hand,
the length of the molecules and their ability to cling to metal surfaces are preponderant. This introduces a
new concept, namely OILINESS.
When one finds oneself in oily state and pressures become extremely high, certain substantial asperities
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traverse the already thin film and metal-to-metal interfaces are formed.
In extreme circumstances, the final monomolecular films still existing may break. This means that the
increased number of metal interfaces results in boundary friction followed by seizing, or indeed welding.
Use is then made of ADDITIVES that have a chemical effect on the surface.
It results from what precedes that, to ensure proper lubrication, one seeks to create, when possible, the
necessary conditions for hydrodynamic lubrication. This however can only be achieved when a certain
sliding speed is reached. In order to avoid substantial start-up wear, recourse is had as regards certain
items of equipment to an external source of pressure that produces a complete lubricating film, in other
words hydrostatic lubrication.
CHARACTERISTICS
EXAMPLES OF
STATE SOUGHT FOR IN THE
APPLICATIONS
LUBRICANT
Bearings
Hydrodynamic Viscosity Pistons
Little-loaded cylindrical gear
pair
Elasto-hydrodynamic Viscosity / Antiwear Gears / Rolling bearings
Slideways
Oily or marginal Oiliness Worm drives
Antiwear Cam/Follower
Vane pump
Extreme-pressure Extreme-pressure Vehicle transmission

Metalworking
1.A.3 THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF LUBRICANTS
Different types of lubricants are used depending on the applications concerned:
• Gases: Air, Argon, Nitrogen, and Hydrogen used for lubrication of very high-speed bearings, or
vacuum gears.
• Oils of mineral origin obtained by distillation of petroleum followed by refining.
• Synthetic fluids
• Greases, visco-plastic products made up of a lubricant retained by a suitable thickener.
• Solid lubricants, in oil or grease.
In this publication, we shall concentrate mainly on describing aspects of oiling (mineral, synthetic) and
grease lubrication and certain cases of dry lubricants.
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1.B COMPOSITION OF LUBRICATING OILS
Current lubricants are complex products, which, aside from their basic constituents, contain additives with
very varied functions designed to adapt them more specifically to a given application.
1.B.1 BASE OILS
Two categories can be distinguished : mineral oils and synthetic fluids.
1.B.1.a Mineral oils
These are base oils obtained by distillation of petroleum followed by refining (see annex 1) which conform
to three major tendencies of a particular and specific nature:
Paraffinic tendency:
• Green-coloured bloom,
• Density less than 0.9 kg/dm3,
• Natural viscosity index generally close to 100,
• Aniline point of the order of 100 °C,
• Natural pour point of -10 °C approximately,
Mainly used for lubricating oils and hydraulic transmission oils.
Naphtenic tendency:
• Blue -coloured bloom,

• Density greater than 0.9 kg/dm3,
• Viscosity index of the order of 40 to 60,
• Aniline point of the order of 70 °C,
• Pour point of -30 °C approximately,
Mainly used in refrigerating machine compressors and as insulating oil.
Aromatic tendency
Their instability makes it impossible to use them as a lubricant. Thanks to their great solvent power they can
be used as an additive in the manufacture of rubber and printing inks
NORMAL ISOPARAFFINS NAPHTHENES AROMATICS ASPHALTENES

PARAFFINS
Description Straight-chain Branched- Cyclical Unsaturated Condensed
saturated chain saturated cyclical aromatic
hydrocarbons saturated hydrocarbons hydrocarbons hydrocarbons
hydrocarbons
Paraffinic bases 60 to 70 % 25 to 30 % 6 to 8 % Traces
Naphthenic bases 50 to 60% 28 to 36% 7 to 14% 1 to 2%
VI Good Good to Low Low
average
Oxidation Stable Stable Little-stable Very little- Very little-
stable stable
Elastomer Little Little- Aggressive Very aggressive
aggressive aggressive
Solvent power Very weak Weak Good Very good
Freezing point High (>0) Low Low Very low
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1.B.1.b Synthetic fluids
These are obtained by chemical synthesis taking as a basis simple products originating from
petrochemistry. They are of better-defined structure than mineral bases. This enables one to adjust certain
of their properties.
We can mainly distinguish:
POLYALPHAOLEFINS (PAO)
a) Manufacture –Structure
Polyalphaolefins are manufactured by polymerisation of alphaolefins into C6-C10. It is with these
alphaolefins (obtained by cracking of the paraffin or by polymerisation of ethylene) that one achieves the
best viscosity/pour point compromise.
After polymerisation, one eliminates the light (ones) and hydrogenates so as to saturate the double
terminal bond. They have an isoparaffin structure.
b) Advantages
Available over a large viscosity range:
4 to 40 mm2/s at l00°C
20 to 400 mm2/s at 40°C
Very good properties (pour point -50 to -70°C for routine viscosities).
Better volatility than mineral oils.
Good thermal stability. Low formation of deposits.
Oxidation stability lower than for mineral oils, but better response to oxidation inhibitors.
High VI (120 to 150)
Soluble in mineral oils (miscibility, semi-synthetic products) and esters
Non-corrosive
Non-toxic
Good foaming / air release / demulsification.
High chemical neutrality.
c) Disadvantages
Less good solvents than mineral oils, which has two consequences:
Risk of leaks in the seals (no swelling or indeed even retraction).
Necessary adaptation of additives. In particular anti-wear and extreme-pressure.
Poor lubricity in boundary regime.
Non-biodegradable.
d) Use
PAO’s are the most widely used synthetic bases due to the similarity between their chemical structure
and that of mineral oils. They are used chiefly in excellent temperature-resistant lubricants: engine oils,
compressors etc.
DIACID ESTERS OR DIESTERS
a) Manufacture -Structure
diacid + monohydric alcohol = diacid ester + water

HOOC-R1-COOH 2 R2-OH R2OOC -RI -COOR2
b) Advantages
Poor oxidation stability but good response to oxidation inhibitors.
Possibility of use at high temperatures.
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Low pour point thanks to the existence of the ester group (< -60°C).
Very high viscosity index (135 to 180).
Miscible with mineral oils and polyalphaolefins.
Greater lubricity than with mineral oils.
Low volatility
Detergent power and natural dispersant
Non-toxic
Often biodegradable.
c) Disadvantages
Poor viscosity range, low viscosities
10 to 90 mm2/s at 40°C
3 to 8 mm2/s at l00°C
Very good solvent power results in considerable swelling of seals and incompatibility with certain paints
and materials.
Sensitive to hydrolysis.
d) Use
Mainly aviation fluids.
POLYALCOHOLOLS ESTERS
a) Manufacture -Structure
monoacid + polyol = polyalcohol ester

n R1-COOH R2-(OH)n (R1-COO)n R2
The main polyalcohols used are pentaerythritol and trimethylopropane.

b) Advantages
Poor oxidation stability though better than for diesters but very good response to oxidation inhibitors
Good thermal stability => Possibility of use at high temperatures.
Low pour point (-40 to -60°C)
High viscosity index (130 to 150)
Miscible with mineral oils and polyalphaolefins.
Greater lubricity than with mineral oils.
Low volatility (better than diacids)
Detergent power and natural dispersant
Non-toxic
Frequently biodegradable.
Higher flash point than mineral oils.
e) Disadvantages
Limited viscosity range.
Very good solvent power resulting in:
- Considerable swelling of seals and
- Incompatibility with certain paints and materials.
Sensitive to hydrolysis (but less than diacids)
c) Use
As a complement to polyalphaolefins in high-temperature oils (engines, compressors etc).
Biodegradable oils
Oils for refrigerating machine compressors compatible with the R134a.
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COMPLEX ESTERS
Complex esters are obtained by the reaction of polyacids to polyglycols. They make it possible to achieve
high viscosities. Their price being very high, their use is restricted (turboprop engines).
POLYBUTENES
One starts from the C4 cut obtained during cracking. After extraction of the butadiene, the butene cut is
polymerised in the presence of a catalyst. The polybutenes used as base oils have molecular weights
ranging between 300 and 700.
b) Advantages
Available across a wide range of viscosities.
Molecular weight Viscosity at l00°C Pour point (°C)

(mm2/s)
300-350 5 -50
450-550 12 -30
600-650 60 -20
VI slightly higher than 100.

Conradson residue: none. The polybutenes depolymerise at high temperature (280- 300°C) without
leaving a solid deposit.
Miscible with mineral oils
Non-corrosive
Lubricity very similar to that of mineral oils
Very good electrical properties (high resistivity and high dielectric strength)
Non-toxic.
Classified for food contact by the FDA.
High volatility
c) Disadvantages
Little-oxidation-stable. Hydrogenisation of the double terminal bond increases their oxidation resistance.
Lower flash point than the mineral bases (approximately 150°C)
d) Use
Non-staining lubricants.
Lubricants suitable for food contact.
ALKYLAROMATICS
In general, alkylation of benzene by olefins.

The lubricating bases are generally polyalkylbenzenes (that is to say that several olefins - 2 or 3 - react
with the benzene ring).
One can on occasion alkylate toluene or another benzene derivatives.
Depending on the type of olefin, one obtains:
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Branched polyalkylbenzenes or straight-chain polyalkylbenzenes, which are of greater interest as a
lubricants base.
b) Advantages
Intermediate volatility between mineral oils and polyalphaolefins

Little carbon residue
Good thermal stability
Non-corrosive
Non-toxic
Intermediate viscosity index between mineral oils and polyalphaolefins (100-135) for straight-chain
polyalkylbenzenes
Pour point around –30/-40°C (branched-chain) or -60°C (straight-chain). However the latter can be
improved by addition of a pour point additive (this blocks crystallisation).
c) Disadvantages
Branched-chain polyalkylbenzenes have low viscosity indexes (< 100 and sometimes negative).
Low oxidation resistance
Strong lubricity that can lead to problems with elastomers
Limited lubricity.
d) Use
They are very widely used since their properties are intermediate between those of the mineral bases
and those of the polyalphaolefins.
Very good solvent base (for example for emulsions).
Refrigerating machine compressor oils.
POLYGLYCOLS
Polymerisation of ethylene oxide and/or propylene oxide on an alcohol terminal
b) Advantages
Wide viscosity range available, including high viscosities.

High viscosity index, in particular for ethylene oxides (> 180).
Very high lubricity. Anti-wear properties.
Low oxidation resistance, but very good response to oxidation inhibitors.
Pour point of the order of -40°C
Decompose from 330-350°C without forming a deposit
The glycols obtained from ethylene oxides are biodegradable.
c) Disadvantages
The polyglycols obtained from ethylene oxide are insoluble in hydrocarbons but miscible in water. The
polyglycols obtained from propylene oxide are partially miscible in hydrocarbons and water. Miscibility in
hydrocarbons is enhanced by the presence of a terminal hydrocarbon chain.
Poor solvency response with additives.
Viscosity-pressure behaviour poorer than with mineral oils.
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Compatible solely with epoxy resin or polyurea paints and certain elastomers.
Corrosive with regard to metals, in particular in vapour phase.
Toxic decomposition products.
d) Use
When pure: Brake fluids

Worm drive
Hydrocarbon compressors
When mixed with water: Hardly-inflammable hydraulic fluids (HFC)

Metalworking fluids.
PHOSPHORIC ESTERS OR PHOSPHATISED ESTERS
a) Manufacture
6ROH + P2 05 => (RO)3 P = 0

alcohol phosphorous pentoxide
b) Advantages
High flash point (240-270°C)

Very high self-ignition temperature (550-600°C)
Good oxidation resistance
Good pour point
Low volatility
Good lubricity - anti-wear power
c) Disadvantages
Very low VI.

Restricted viscosity range
Sensitive to hydrolysis
Compatiblity with elastomers very different from mineral oils: need specially adapted elastomers.
d) Use
Fire ressistant fluids (HFDR)

Piston compressors
Steam turbine control loops
SILICONES
a) Structure
CH3
I
Polymethylsiloxanes R -(Si -O)n H
I
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CH3
b) Advantages
Very extensive viscosity range. Can be very viscous while at the same time remaining liquid
Very good VI (> 200)
Very good thermal (320-360° C) and chemical stability and good oxidation resistance (up to 200-260°C)
Very low pour point (-40/-70°C)
Low volatility
High flash point
Very good electric properties
Water-repellent
Wetting
Combustible but non- flames spreading
Non-corrosive
Non-toxic
Under high pressure compress without solidifying.
c) Disadvantages
Low lubricity - Under boundary lubrication conditions, no lubrication.

To enhance this property one can graft chlorine or fluorine.
Limited-miscibility with mineral oils
Does not solubilise additives.
d) Use
Dielectric fluids
High-temperature greases or for aggressive environment
Aviation instruments
PERFLUOROALKYLETHERS = PERFLUOROETHERS
a) Suppliers
Dupont de Nemours = KRYTOX

Montedison = FOMBLIN Y
b) Advantages
Very good chemical stability

Excellent thermal and oxidation stability
Low pour point (-30/-60°C)
Very low volatility
Good compatibility with plastics (elastomers/metals)
Non-flammable
Resistant to radiation
Very good lubricity
Excellent resistance to hydrolysis
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c) Disadvantages
VI can vary from 50 to 140
Incompatible with mineral oils
Low wetting power
Does not dissolve additives.
Corrosive and toxic (280-350°C) products decomposition
Density 1.9.
d) Use
High temperature and aggressive applications
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1.B.1.c CRITERION FOR GOVERNING THE CHOICE OF BASE OILS
CONSISTENCY BEHAVIOUR at AGGRESSIVENES

OXIDATION AVERAG
LUBRICITY AT LOW HIGH VOLATILITY S TOWARDS
RESISTANCE E PRICE
TEMPERATURE TEMPERATURE STANDARD SEALS
Naphthenic Average to
Good Good Good Good Average to bad 1.2
bases bad
Paraffinic
Good Average to bad Good Good Good Good 1
bases
Excellent to Good to
Alkylates Average Average Good to average 2.5
good Good average
Poly alfa
Good Excellent Good Excellent Good Excellent 5 to 10
olefins
Esters &
Excellent Excellent Very good Excellent Average to bad Excellent 8 to 15
Di-esters
Polyglycols Excellent Excellent Average Bad Good 5
Very good
Silicones Bad Excellent Excellent Good Excellent 25 to 50
Excellent
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1.B.2 ADDITIVES
Base oils possess more or less developed natural properties. The refining or treatments they undergo are
designed to enhance them. However, all these natural properties are frequently insufficient or poorly
balanced as regards the development of finished lubricants.
Additives are added to the base oils with the aim of enhancing certain already existing properties or to
allocate new properties.
One uses:
• Chemical products, known as «dopes» or «additives».
• Fatty matter, of plant origin. These are high-polarity products, which in certain cases provide the
mineral oils with the necessary lubricity.
• Solid lubricants, especially graphite and molybdenum disulphide, which present the following
essential properties:
A crystal lamellar structure conducive to slip,
Low coefficients of friction,
Boundary stability temperatures much higher than those of hydrocarbons.
• Miscellaneous petroleum products:

Pitch,
Paraffins,
Waxes,
Solvents.
• The choice and concentration of the additives for incorporation with a view to making the finished
product depend on:
The properties to be obtained,
The susceptibility of the mixture of the bases with regard to the additive,
The reciprocal interaction of the different additives.
There exist a very great number of additives among which one can mention:
1.B.2.a Additives that enhance the viscosity index (VI Additives)
Viscosity is the main characteristic of oil in a hydrodynamic or elasto-hydrodynamic lubrication regime.

Depending on the equipment and operating conditions, there exists an optimal viscosity. Now the viscosity
of the oils varies with temperature. An attempt is made therefore to attenuate this variation. Those additives
that enhance the viscosity index, usually known as VI Improver additives, reduce the variation in viscosity at
low temperature and increase at high temperature. They increase the viscosity index ofn the base oil..
Chemical structure
The VI additives are polymers with a high molar (molecular) mass.
HYDROCARBON POLYMERS
Polyisobutylenes : little-used
Ethylene-propylene copolymers: being economically advantageous, they can be made into
dispersants,
Styrene-diene copolymers: economically advantageous, but difficult to apply
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POLYMETACRYLATES – THE MOST WIDELY USED
They also have an effect on the pour point and can be made into dispersants.
MIXED COPOLYMERS
Method of action
The VI additives thicken the oil (by increasing its viscosity). This is more the case at high than at low
temperature.
Broadly speaking they can be compared to balls of string.
When the temperature is low, the balls tighten and have little effect on how the oil films slide. When
the temperature is high, the balls loosen, the macromolecule stretches thereby preventing the oil
films from sliding, so increasing the viscosity.
Under hot conditions substantial

blocking:
– Resistance to creep
Under cold conditions slight blocking:
Additive – Low resistance to creep

Molécu
–
Temperatur molecule
Tempér Reduced thickening
Thickening power varies with:
The chemical structure
The molecular weight (thickening increases as the molecular weight increases)
The concentration (thickening increases with increase of the concentration)
The temperature (thickening increases with increase of the temperature).
Thermal and oxidation stability
When the temperature increases, two phenomenae can occur:
De-polymerisation => the viscosity decreases

Thermo-oxidation => the viscosity increases
No conclusion can therefore be drawn as to the state of the VI additive by simply measuring a
particular viscosity.
Rate of use
5 to 10 %
1.B.2.b Anti-wear and extreme pressure additives (AW and EP)
When the pressure is such that the thickness of the oil film is of the same order of magnitude as the surface
roughness, one seeks to form a protective film on the surface of the metal. This film is formed by chemical
reaction of additives on the metal surface.
A distinction can be made between anti-wear additives (for mixed lubrication regimes: alternation between
elasto-hydrodynamic/boundary lubrication) and extreme-pressure additives (boundary lubrication regime).
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Polar organic compounds
These compounds are physically or chemically adsorbed on the surface of the metal and create an
organic film.
They de-adsorb at low temperature:
ADDITIVE Desorption temperature (°C)

Alcohol 40-100
Acids/esters 70-130
Amines 100-150
Amides 140-170
These additives are often known as oiliness (lubricity) additives. They are used up to 15 or 20 %
(metalworking lubricants).
Phosphorous compounds
These are anti-wear. The most usual are:
Phosphates
Phosphoramidates
Amine phosphates
They are used at concentration rates of 0.05 to 0.5%
Dithiophosphates
These additives possess anti-wear / extreme-pressure and antioxidising properties. These

properties are conflicting.
The anti-wear power is maximum when the associated metal is zinc. Dithiophosphate of zinc is the
most widely used. It has an excellent quality/price ratio. It works by forming decomposition products
that react with the metal surface.
They are used at concentration rates of 0.05 to 1 %.
Sulphurous additives
Sulphurous monosulphides, disulphides, polysulphides of alkyl or aryl.

Olefins and sulphurous esters.
Phosphosulphurous additives (sulphur and phosphorus in the same molecule): thiophosphates,
dithiophosphates
Polysulphides achieve the best extreme-pressure / corrosiveness effect compromise (due to the
decomposition products).
The sulphurous esters possess extreme-pressure properties that are inferior to those of
polysulphides but better anti-wear properties.
The smell of olefins and sulphurous esters is often nauseating.
Sulphurous additives act at around 800°C and frequently beyond 1000°C.
Their concentration rate of use can reach as much as 30 % in metalworking oils.
Chlorinated additives
These are chiefly chlorinated esters or chlorinated paraffins. They act at around 300°C and
frequently around 600°C. They reduce friction better than sulphur and have synergy effects with the
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other additives. They are often sensitive to hydrolysis. Their use has been challenged for they are
difficult to dispose and suspected of forming toxic decomposition products. They are currently
restricted to metalworking oils.
Their rate of use can reach 60 %.
1.B.2.c Dissipating heat / anti-oxidising additives
One must beware of confusing OXIDATION STABILITY and THERMAL STABILITY.

Oxidation is the reaction between compounds (generally base oil) and oxygen (in the air, generally
speaking).
To dissipate the heat throughout its mass.
Once the temperature exceeds 50-60°C on a continuous basis in the presence of air, the oxidation
rate doubles every 10°C. The need for anti-oxidant additives is then essential.
In service, oxidation results in:

o Increased viscosity,
o The formation of corrosive compounds,
o The formation of insoluble deposits: carbon/varnish residues,
o A reddish-brown colour and a sharp smell.
When the temperature increases, certain compounds decompose under the effect of heat.
This is the case with certain additives and, from 300°C, with base oil (cracking).
In service, thermal decomposition of the additives results in:
o The formation of corrosive compounds,

o The formation of sludge and deposits.
In service, cracking of the base oil results in:

o Reduced viscosity.
o If the cracking is very considerable one may have a reduced flash point
o The formation of insoluble deposits,
o A black colour
No additive exists that will enhance the thermal stability of the base oils. Depending on the operating
temperatures, one adjusts the thermal stability of the additives.
Anti-oxidising additives
Oxidation is a radical-like an auto-catalytic phenomenon: once it has started, the reaction produces
compounds which themselves generate oxidation. The metals (iron and copper) act as a catalyst
and promotes oxidation.
The anti-oxidising additives can intervene in different ways:
o Deactivate the radicals (terminate the reaction),

o Decompose the intermediate products,
o Resist the catalytic action of the metals (passivators).
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Deactivating the radicals
An assignment entrusted generally to aromatic compounds:
"Blocked" phenols: The heavier they are, the less volatile they are. The most widely used is
DBPC (ditertiobutylparacresol) also known as BHT (butylhydroxytoluene). It is volatile
beyond 100°C. For oils needing to be used at higher temperatures heavier phenols are used
(several aromatic rings, slightly more numerous blocked chains).
Amines: One always uses derivatives comprising several aromatic rings. The most widely
found are phenylnaphtylamines and their alkylated derivatives and phenothiazine and its
alkylated derivatives.
Decomposition of intermediate products (hydro-peroxides)
These are mainly thionitrogenous (sulphur and nitrogen on the same molecule) and
thiophosphorous additives (sulphur and phosphorous on the same molecule). The most
widely used are dithiophosphates and dithiocarbamates of zinc, antimony, molybdenum,
copper.
Passivators
These act chemically on metal to prevent it from playing its role as a catalyst while
simultaneously protecting the metal from corrosion. One chiefly uses aromatic nitrogenous
products (benzotriazol and derivatives, thiadiazol, tolytriazol, mercaptobenzothiazol).
1.B.2.d Fighting corrosion: anti-corrosion additives
Chemical structures
These are polar compounds.
The main types of additives used are:
o Sodium, calcium, magnesium, zinc sulphonates.

o Calcium, magnesium phenates,
o Calcium salicylates.
These three families are also detergents
o Zinc naphthenates,
o Amine soaps,
o Amine phosphates.
The anti-rust additives may interfere with the anti-wear additive (competition for access to the
surface) and reduce the latter’s performance.
Method of action
Anti-corrosion additives act by adsorption on the metal with formation of "protective" multi-layers that protect
the metal against the action of water, air or the corrosive compounds formed by the oil.
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1.B.2.e Detergent and dispersant additives
Detergents and dispersants serve to keep the equipment clean so as to enable the various mechanical
components to work perfectly.
Detergents
a) Role
To limit formation of deposits in the hot parts. Where engines are concerned, they also combat acid
corrosion produced by combustion gases thanks to the supply of an alkaline reserve (TBN).
b) Chemical structures
Sulphonates, in general calcium or magnesium.

Calcium or magnesium phenates. .
Calcium salicylates.
The alkaline reserve (over-based additives) is obtained by incorporation of colloidal calcium or

magnesium carbonates.
c) Method of action
Chemical neutralisation of deposited acid compounds originating from oxidation of the oil in engines.
Adsorption on the floating particles to prevent their agglomeration (double electric layers).
"Solubilisation”: formation of micelles the central part of which is polar (attracts oxidised products
whereas the peripheral part, solubilises the hydrocarbon part of the product.
By their very method of action, detergent additives "solubilise" water drops as well. Oils containing
detergent additives generally possess poor demulsification properties.
Dispersants
a) Role
To maintain in fine suspension of the solid impurities, which contaminate the used oil (e.g. soot,
dust, wear metals), to prevent their localisation in stagnent parts of the system to ensure that they
can be kept in solution to be fitered out by the filter..
b) Chemical structures
These are ashless (metal-free) additives obtained by the reaction of polybutenes to cyclical amino-
units.
Alkylsuccinimides
Lactones
c) Method of action
Dispersants are adsorbed on the particles and prevent their agglomeration
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1.B.2.f Demulsification additives
These additives prevent the formation of an emulsion with the ingress of water into the oil. They are
conducive to agglomeration of the drops of water, which then settle more easily.
1.B.2.g Friction modifying additives
In general, friction is reduced by the viscosity of the oil. In certain cases (automatic transmissions,
slideways) one uses additives that modify the coefficient of static friction (at start).
These are:
Either additives of the same chemical family as the anti-wear / extreme-pressure (amino- phosphates, fatty
matter) or solid lubricants (also used in the event of collisions-shock loading): graphite, molybdenum
disulphide, and borates.
1.B.2.h Anti-foam additives
Most of the problems of foaming are due to a poor design of the circuit. Foaming leads to overflowing of the
tanks and to the risk of poor lubrication (supply of air coated oil, instead of oil). Anti-foaming additives
prevent the formation of foam. They act by bursting the foam bubbles thanks to their low surface tension.
Mainly concerned are silicones and organic copolymers, used in very small quantities (a few dozen ppm)
Silicones have a negative effect on the de-aeration of oil.
The quantities have to be adjusted as an overdose of additive can produce the reverse effect, that is to say
increased foaming.
1.B.2.i Pour point depressors (PPD’s)
a) Chemical structure
Polyesters, mainly polymetacrylates and terpolymers

Ethylene - propylene - acrylates
Wax - naphtalene condensates
b) Method of action
The additive does not prevent crystallisation of the n-paraffins but rather their agglomeration in
crystal lattices that imprisons the oil.
Several processes come into play:
Reduction in the size of the crystals,
Modification of the crystalline form (needles instead of tips)
Reduction in crystal-crystal adhesion.
1.B.2.j Other additives
Adhesive agents
An additive permitting adhesion of the oil film to the mechanism (Slideways, etc.).
These are polymers with a very high molecular weight.
Miscibility agents
Used in two-stroke engine oils to promote miscibility of the oil in the fuel: light solvents, long-chain
alcohols.
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Seal swellers
To ensure circuit tightness: phosphates, aromatic hydrocarbons, halogenated hydrocarbons are
used.
1.B.2.k SUMMARY TABLE OF ADDITIVES AS A FUNCTION OF THE PARTS TO BE LUBRICATED
PARTS Viscosity Pour Detergent Anti- Anti- Demulsification Anti - Anti- Extreme Solid
index point dispersant oxidant foaming corrosion wear Pressure Lubricants
Anti- rust
ENGINE X(1) X X X X X X X (2)
HYDRAULIC X(3) X X X X X X X
TURBINE X X X X
GEARS X X X X X X(2)
COMPRESSOR X X X X X
(4)
(1) For multigrade oils

(2) In certain types of oils
(3) For high-viscosity index hydraulic oils
(4) The compressors being very diverse technologically speaking, the characteristics of the lubricants can
also be very different
1.B.3 MANUFACTURE
In principle, lubricant manufacture is relatively simple. One mixes, one or more heated base oils so as to
obtain the desired viscosity.
One incorporates the specific additives for the types of lubricants one wishes to obtain. Their characteristics
are then checked in the laboratory.
Certain special lubricants like greases require insitu chemical reactions to make soaps, which require
sophisticated supervision. Theses soaps are then diluted with base oil and additives to the desired
consistency.
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2 CHARACTERISTICS OF LUBRICATING OILS
2.A CHARACTERISTICS OF IDENTIFICATION

2.A.1 COLOUR :
A distinction can be made between colour by reflection and colour by transparency. Reflection signifies that
the naphthenic and aromatic oils possess a blue bloom and paraffinic oils a green bloom.
One measures the colour of an oil by means of its transparency. It is compared to standard glasses whose
colour ranges from colourless to red brown, the glasses being numbered from 0 to 8, by half- units.
Colour is an indication of the degree of refining and purity of a pure mineral oil.
In service, a change in the colour of oil can provide certain indications as to an alteration of its properties or
its degree of pollution.
Standards:
ISO 2049 - ASTM D 1500
2.A.2 DENSITY
Density is the quotient of mass by volume. It is expressed in kg/m3. Generally speaking, it is measured at
15°C. Specific gravity is the quotient of the fluid under consideration by the density of the water at 4 °C
(1000 kg/m3). This is an abstract value.
Example: MV15 = 895 kg/m3 => d15 = 0.895
The density of the mineral bases varies between 850 and 920 kg/m3 approximately. It increases with the
molecular weight (hence with the viscosity) and with the aromatics content (the naphthenic bases therefore
have a higher specific gravity than the paraffinic bases).
It varies with the temperature according to the formula:
MVt = MV15 – 0.65 (t -15) (t in °C)
This is a characteristic of identification. It is totally unrelated to the quality of the product.
As an initial approximation, one can say :

- Paraffinic oils have a density of less than 0.9 kg/dm3
- Naphthenic oils have a density greater than 0.9 kg/dm3.
-The aromatic bases have a density equal to approximately 1 kg/dm3.
Standards:
ISO 3675 - ASTM D 1298
2.A.3 VISCOSITY
Viscosity characterises the resistance of a liquid to flow.

More precisely, viscosity results from the resistance
opposed by the molecules of the fluid to relative slippage
displacements.
Viscosity increases with the distillation cut (from refining).
High viscosity Low viscosity
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2.A.3.a Absolute viscosity units
SI SYSTEM
Dynamic viscosity: Pascal-second (Pa.s)
Kinematic viscosity: square metre per second.
In practice, one uses above all mm2/s.
CGS SYSTEM
Dynamic viscosity : the Poise (Po ). One uses above all the centipoise (cPo)
Kinematic viscosity: the stokes (St). One uses above all centistokes (cSt)
1 Po = 10-1 Pa.S
1 St = 10-4 m2/s
1 cSt = 1 mm2/s
To concentrate minds, the viscosity of water is approximately 1 mm2/s at 20° C.
2.A.3.b Measurement of kinematic viscosity
For this measurement, one generally uses capillary viscometers. Kinematic viscosity is calculated on the
basis of the run-out time of a set volume of oil in a calibrated capillary under precisely monitored loading
and temperature conditions.
Standards:
ASTM D 445 - ISO 3104 viscosity
2.A.3.c Variation in viscosity with temperature

The viscosity of mineral oils varies considerably with
temperature.
Using suitable logarithmic coordinates, this relationship can be
represented graphically by a straight line.
It is therefore necessary to always associate a temperature with
a viscosity. Same oil
Example:
A conventional paraffinic oil (viscosity index 100, see below) from
46 mm2/s to 40° C will have a viscosity of 6.76 mm2/ s at 100° C
and 550 mm2/s at 0°C.
2.A.4 VISCOSITY INDEX
The extent of the variation in viscosity with temperature is

expressed by a conventional number, known as the
viscosity index that is calculated taking two reference oils
as a basis, one with an index 0, the other with a index100.
Oils whose viscosity index is high are those whose

viscosity varies little with temperature.
Standards:
ASTM D 2270 – ISO 2909
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2.A.5 FLASH POINT – FIRE POINT
Flammability is the property by which oil, essentially composed of combustible hydrocarbons, can easily
burst into flame or burn when a naked flame or source of ignition is in contact with it.
Whether this flammability is likely or not to become prolonged can be assessed using laboratory equipment
that enables one to determine:
2.A.5.a Flash point:
Two methods can be used, the open cup or closed cup. A standard volume of oil is heated at a standard
heating rate and a naked flame is periodically passed over or into the cup and the point of combustion is the
flash point. The closed cup usually gives the lower flash point which synthesises what could happen in an
enclosed oil system when heated with a flame.
2.A.5.b Fire point:
From the above flash point in an open cup, if the oil in the cup was allowed to be continually heated passed
its flash point, there will be a time when the oil continues to burn without passing the naked flame over it.
This is called the flash point. Generally it is situated 30°C above the flash point.
The measurements are expressed in degrees Celsius.
Standards:
ASTM D 92 - ISO 2592 (open cup) – ISO 2719 (closed cup)
2.A.6 POUR POINT

Oil being a complex mixture of hydrocarbons, the temperature at which it congeals depends on a number of
parameters, including:
The volume of oil
The form of the packaging
The rate of cooling and the thermal record.
The pour point is the lowest temperature at which the oil can still flow when it has been cooled without
agitation under standardised conditions. The measurement is expressed in degrees Celsius.
The pour point can be enhanced by the supply of suitable additives.
NB: The freezing point (pour point temperature) is only 3°C cooler than the pour point!
Standards:
ASTM D 97- ISO 3016:1994
2.A.7 ANILINE POINT

This is the lowest temperature at which, in a homogeneous form, a mixture in equal parts of the aniline and
oil under study may be observed. The aniline point is a determining characteristic in the behaviour of a
lubricant in relation to certain seals.
Standards:
ASTM D 611- ISO 2977:1997
2A8 ACID NUMBER (TAN -Total Acid Number)

This is by definition the number of milligrams of potassium hydroxide needed for neutralisation of the
organic or mineral acids contained in a gram of oil. Chemically speaking, it is possible to dose these two
sorts of acidity.
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A none additive, unused, solvent neutral mineral base oil has no acidity present. An additive treated unused
oil could l have an acid number (This is due to the additives and offers no danger to the oil).
The acid number is an important characteristic, for it enables one to monitor the life of the oil and to
determine its degree of oxidation.
Interpretation of a variation in the value of a lubricant’s acid number is however a relatively delicate matter
which requires a great deal of experience.
Standards:
ASTM D 974 - ISO 6618 :1997
2.A.9 ALKALINITY RESERVE (TBN = Total Base Number)
To neutralise the acids resulting from combustion of the sulphur contained in the fuels for diesel enginesl,
one incorporates alkaline salts of weak acids into the oil. These alkaline salts react with the strong
combustion acids which are thus neutralised.This alkalinity reserve is expressed by the TBN. This test can
be used to determine the remaining alkalinity reserve left in a used oil.
In summary, the TBN represents the capacity for substitution (neutralisation) of the strong acid.
Standard
ISO 6618
2.A.10 ASH CONTENT
The ash content of oil is the weight of the residue collected after complete combustion of the product under
pre-determined conditions.
Pure mineral oils do not produce ash.
Certain additives, composed of organic metallic salts, will combust to form an ash. This is made up, for
example, of zinc, calcium and magnesium.
Standards:
ASTM D 874 – ISO 3987
2.A.11 CARBON RESIDUE
A mineral oil remaining in a confined atmosphere, at high temperature, for a relatively long period of time,
undergoes thermal decomposition that leaves behind a crumbly coke residue.
The percentage of carbon converted into coke, known, as “Carbon Residue test” is a characteristic which
mainly concerns compressor oils and heat transfer fluids. This gives an indication of the remaining life of
the oil.
Standards:
ISO 6615 (Conradson residue)
2.B PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS
2.B.1 BEHAVIOUR IN RELATION TO AIR
The presence of air in a hydraulic or lubrication circuit always results in serious disturbances:
• Compressibility of the air-oil mixture

• Accelerated oxidation
• Lubrication defect
38/142
One has therefore to design and maintain the circuits so as to prevent as far as possible introduction of air.
It is necessary to give oils two different properties:
2.B.1.a Antifoaming properties
The aim is to prevent surface foam in an oil. Foaming can create the possibility of the oil tank overflowing or
re-aspiration of air. These properties are measured using a test that consists of blowing dry air at a constant
flow rate into the oil (at a determined temperature) using a porous stone globe and measuring the foam
volume generated after a certain time and the volume of foam that persists after the air has stopped over a
certain time..
Standards:
ASTM D 892 - ISO 6247
2.B.1.b Air release properties
If, despite everything, air gets into the circuit for some reason or another, it is important that it should be
able to escape from the oil as quickly as possible. This air release rate is assessed by a test consisting of
saturating the sample with air (by blowing air through a nozzle into the oil). This is followed by monitoring
the evolution of the air content as a function of time. This is achieved through measurement of the specific
gravity with the aid of a hydrostatic balance.
Standards:
ISO 9120
2.B.2 DEMULSIBILITY
Oil and water are not miscible. If one agitates both of them, one of the liquids will break up, in the form of
water droplets, and become part of the mass of the other. There will be the formation of an emulsion; when
the agitation is removed, the oil will be released and float up onto the surface of the water when it can then
be separated. It may therefore be useful to know the speed at which this separation occurs
(demulsification).
One of the methods used - known as the blade method - consists in agitating equal volumes (40 ml) of oil
and water with a blade revolving at 1500 rev/mn at a specified temperature and time. After the specified
time, the agitation is stopped, the blade removed and one observes the emulsion formed and measures the
separation time of the oil and water interface. This test is useful for turbine oils
Standards:
ISO 6614
2.B.3 OXIDATION RESISTANCE

Lubrication oils are the source of oxidation promoted by:
The presence of air,
The temperature,
The presence of metals, like iron and copper which act as catalysts.
The consequences of oxidation are many:

Increased viscosity,
Formation of acids that will attack the surfaces,
Formation of insoluble products.
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Oxidation inhibitors introduced into the oil make it possible to delay oxidation.
Among the numerous possible alternative tests, routine use is made, as regards turbine and hydraulic oils,
of the following method. This consists of subjecting the oil to oxygen in the presence of water with iron and
copper as catalysts at 95° C. At the end of the test that generally lasts 2000 hours, one measures the acid
number of the oil and the quantity of deposits formed.
Standards:
ISO 4263-1 for mineral oils – ISO 4263-2 for HFC – ISO 4263-4 for gear oils
2.B.4 ANTIWEAR AND EXTREME-PRESSURE PROPERTIES
One of the chief roles of a lubricant is to prevent wear on the surfaces in contact. The high pressures being
exerted on the latter represent an aggravating factor of the risks of wear and their consequences.
Numerous additives, whether organic or organo-metallic, enable one to give the oil with antiwear and
extreme-pressure properties. These act by formation, at microscopic scale, of a protective film on the metal
surface which prevents micro seizing.
The antiwear or extreme-pressure power of a lubricant is assessed on different laboratory machines
including the:
2.B.5 4-BALL MACHINE
Three balls packed into a tank containing the lubricant for testing are maintained in a fixed position by a
forcing nut. The latter is supported with a variable load on a fourth ball that is itself interdependent on a
chuck mounted on the shaft of an electric motor.
The lubricants are classified as a function of various characteristics measured or calculated on the basis of
continuous recording of the coefficient of friction and the determination of the indentation diameters.
Chuck Variable load
Product for
testing Rotating balls
Balls
Receptacle
Load
Standard: ISO 20623
2.B.6 FZG (GEARED) MACHINE
A particular spur gear, lubricated with the oil for testing and
subjected to a given torque, operates for a certain time with a
certain applied load after which the gear in question is weighed to
determine such wear as has occurred during running. The gear is
successively subjected to increasing torques and the wear curve is
established as a function of the work endured. Note is also taken of
the load as a result of which the gear presents significant
deterioration.
Standards:
ISO 14635-1 and 2
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3 GREASES
3.A COMPOSITION
Greases are solid or semi-fluids products obtained by dispersion of a gelling agent in a liquid.
Conventional grease is a dispersion of soap in a mineral oil; in other words, grease is a sponge made up of
an oil-impregnated soap. The sponge constitutes a lubricant reserve and maintains the lubricant on the
point to be lubricated.
3.A.1 SOAPS
The gelling agent is generally a metallic soap obtained by the reaction of a fatty acid
or fatty matter on a base. The nature of the soap has a vital influence on the
fundamental properties of the grease. The main soaps are:
Calcium soaps:
the calcium greases are butterly in structure, insoluble in water and have a relatively
low drop point.
Sodium soaps: sodium greases have a fibrous structure that have a higher drop point (compared to
calcium greases); on the other hand, they are soluble in the water and become emulsified.
Aluminium soaps: the corresponding greases are translucent, thick flowing, very adhesive and insoluble in
water.
Lithium soaps:
Currently the most widely-used due to its interesting properties: insolubility in

water, high drop point, and good polyvalent behaviour.
Greases are often made up of soaps of a different nature that makes it possible to
combine the properties of each one
These are then mixed or complex greases .
Lithium soap seen in the electron
microscope
Complex soap greases:
this is soap containing at least two acids of different chain length.
By way of example:
• Complex calcium soap: stearic acid + acetic acid,
• Complex aluminium soap: stearic acid + benzoic acid,
• Complex lithium soap: hydroxystearic acid + azelaic acid.
• Calcium sulfonate complex soap
The complex soap thus formed has a very high drop point (greater than 250 °C).
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3.A.2 ADDITIVES
As with oils, different additives can be incorporated into grease:

- Antiwear and extreme-pressure additives,
- Oxidation inhibitors,
- Antirust, anticorrosion additives,
- Bonding agents,
- Solid lubricants: graphite and molybdenum disulfide, but also metals: copper, aluminium.
3.B MANUFACTURE
Temperature (°C)
HOMOGENSING
ADJUSTMENT
CONSISTENCY
1A SAPONIFIC
DE-AERATION
DILUTION
MELTING COOKING FILTRATION
Cooling
PACKAGING
DOPING
DEHYDRATATION
CRUSHING
Hours
The most generally used process is the following:

Part of the oil and the entire fatty matter are introduced into the cooker and then brought to a temperature of
70-80°C under agitation. The aqueous parent solution (lithium hydroxide or lime, etc.) is then added:
neutralisation occurs. Heating is maintained and dehydration takes place at 100-110°C. Subsequently
cooking is carried out: the cooking temperature can vary from 100 °C for calcium greases, to approximately
200°C for lithium-base greases. The “soap” obtained is transferred to the cooler: at 80°C, the additives are
added together with the complementary base oil necessary to adjust the consistency. The grease is then
homogenised, de-aerated and packaged.
Observation: Fatty matter is still occasionally used instead of fatty acids. The action of the alkaline solution
on fatty matter is much slower than on a fatty acid. To speed up saponification one raises the temperature
and pressure. To do this one has to use an autoclave.
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A typical batch manufacturing
Cooking Cooling Packaging
3.C CHARACTERISTICS
3.C.1 CONSISTENCY -WORKED PENETRATION:
Consistency can be defined as the resistance of grease to deform. This characteristic is assessed by
measuring the “Penetration”; this test consists of packing the grease at 25 °C into a specified dimension
cup with a plunger assembly and it is subjected to 60 double stokes. The plunger is then removed and the
level of the grease in the cup is levelled using a spatular then a cone with a shaft weighing 150 gms is
placed in the centre of the cup ontop of the grease and allowed to free fall into the grease for 5 seconds.
The depth of penetration is then measured and compared to the NLGI standard ranges.
This method is used because the duration of storage or the handling undergone by the grease does have
an effect on the consistency.
Standards:
ASTM D 217- ISO 2137 – IP 50
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3.C.2 NLGI GREASES CLASSIFICATION (see annex)
3.C.3 DROP POINT:
The drop point of grease is the temperature at which it

begins to flow, in drop form, under the effect of its weight
and temperature.
This characteristic gives no precise indication as to
maximum temperature of use. The latter is always
markedly lower (from 50 to 60°C).
Standards:
ISO 2176 – ISO 6299
3.C.4 ADHERENCE:
To achieve proper lubrication, the grease needs to adhere to the surfaces in motion, be it at very great
speeds. However, this adherence must not be such that it leads to overheating and destruction of the
lubricant.
3.C.5 PHYSICAL STABILITY:
When inoperative, the grease must not allow too great a quantity of oil to bleed, as this would impoverish
and harden the grease.
Sweating of grease is measured according to different methods.
Standards:
ASTM D 1742 or IP 121
3.C.6 CHEMICAL STABILITY
On occasions, the grease has to lubricate for an extended period. It is then necessary that it should retain
its service qualities (Oxidation test in the presence of oxygen under pressure at 100°C) - Norma-Hofmann
test.
Standard:
ASTM D 942
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3.C.7 MECHANICAL STABILITY
Under the effect of mechanical work, the

grease has to retain its structure and
consistency. There must be no separation
between the oil and the soap.
In general, this property is verified by
measuring the penetration of the “worked”
grease after mechanical mixing
(WORKER device: 100,000 strokes test)
Standards:
ASTM 217 / ISO 2137 / IP 50
3.C.8 LOAD RESISTANCE:
Even under heavy pressure, the greases must form an elastic and lubricating cushion that prevents metal-
on-metal contact, to achieve this, it is necessary to add extreme-pressure, lubricity additives and solid
lubricants. The antiwear or extreme-pressure properties of grease are measured on machines of the same
type as those used for oils.
Standards:
ASTM D 2266 et D 2596
3.C.9 LOAD RESISTANCE TO WATER:
One of the requirements of grease is to protect the parts it lubricates against corrosion due to the presence
of humidity or water. The antirust properties are verified by different methods, in particular the SKF EMCOR
test.
Standards:
IP 220 / ISO 11007 / ASTM D 6138
3.C.10 PUMPABILITY
This depends on several factors:
• The characteristics of the grease:

o Texture,
o Consistency,
o Viscosity and the type of the base oil.
• Operating conditions:
o Temperature,
o Flow.
• Characteristics of the system:
o System supply pressure, length of pipe work,
o Diameter of the supply pipes.
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3.D USES
Greases are chiefly used in:
 Rolling bearings:
The grease remaining in the rolling bearing does not tend to escape
like oil but contributes to tightness; protection is guaranteed even in
the case of prolonged stoppages.
 Plain bearings:
Grease
Greases are preferred to oil when the bearings have to operate in the presence of vibrations, high
temperatures, excessive loads and very low speeds.
 Gears:
Small gears can be splash-lubricated; one uses fluid or semi-fluid

greases for this type of operation. In small lifetime-lubricated
reducing gear, a synthetic grease.is normally used
Further applications: each time a lack of tightness prevents use of oil. For example, oil-spray lubrication of
gears for crusher drive and cement works kilns.
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4 LUBRICANTS: HYGIENE, SAFETY, HANDLING
Under normal conditions of use, lubricants do not offer any particular risks to health.
However, in the event of negligent handling or accidents, health hazards can arise.
4.A TOXICITY
Most lubricants have a low level of toxicity, but the exposure to which handlers may be subjected is very
varied. The main contact surfaces with oils and greases are the eyes and hands. Some processes may also
generate oil mists of such fineness as to enable them to penetrate the respiratory tracts.
4.B PRECAUTIONS GOVERNING USE
So as to minimise and prevent accidents, the following precautions have to be taken:
4.B.1 SKIN CONTACT:
Observe strict rules of personal and industrial hygiene. To avoid body contact:
• Use oil proof gloves,
• Wear clothes that offer good protection, - do not wear oil-stained clothes,
• Solvents such as petroleum or gasoline must not be used to eliminate oil from the skin,
• Use a barrier cream.
4.B.2 INHALATION
Avoid inhaling oil mist and fumes. Proper ventilation of working premises must be installed. The acceptable
limit for oil mist is 1 mg/cm3 as advised by the I.N.R.S. (the french National Safety Research Institute).
4.B.3 EYE CONTACT
The wearing of glasses is recommended when there is a possibility of the eyes being splashed with oil.
In the event of accidental contact, one must wash one’s eyes in water for at least 15 minutes and see a
doctor if irritation persists.
4.B.4 INGESTION
Lubricants offer a low level of oral toxicity.

In the event of ingestion, do not provoke vomiting but see a doctor right away.
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INDUSTRIAL LUBRICANTS
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GENERAL CLASSIFICATIONS
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I ndustrial lubricants represent a set of products which meet all the lubrication requirements met within
industry. They also serve to ensure transmission of energy, physical or chemical protection, heat transfer,
cooling of metalworking tools or insulation in electrical transformers. All these applications render industrial
lubricants products of a very diverse nature.
1 CLASSIFICATION OF ISO VISCOSITES
To enable equipment manufacturers, suppliers and users of lubricants to select the correct viscosity of the
lubricant at the desired operating temperature, the International Standardisation Organisation (I.S.O.) has
drawn up a classification of oils based on their kinematics viscosity as measured at 40°C.
This classification defines 18 classes of viscosity ranging between 2 and 1500 mm2/s at 40°C. Each class is
designated by the whole number closest to the median kinematic viscosity in that class at 40°C. The ISO
3448 classification concerns only the viscosity of the industrial lubricants. Under no circumstances does it
permit one to prejudge their performance.
(See annexes)
2 CLASSIFICATION BY FAMILIES
ISO has also drawn up a general classification system for industrial oils and related products, designated by
the letter «L». The ISO 6743/0 standard includes several parts which detail 15 families of products,
according to the individual area of application.
Part of ISO standard Letter symbol Application

Part 1 A Total loss-oil lubrication
B Stripping
Part 6 C Gears
Part 3 D Compressors, including refrigerating machines
and vacuum pumps
Part 15 E Internal combustion engines
Part 2 F Spindle bearings, associated bearings and
clutches
Part 13 G Slideways
Part 4 H Hydraulic systems
Part 7 M Metalworking
N Electric insulation
Part 11 P Pneumatic tools
Part 12 Q Heat transfer
Part 8 R Temporary anti corrosion protection
Part 5 T Turbines
Part 14 U Heat treatment
Part 9 X Application requiring grease
Part 10 Y Other applications
Z Cylinder for steam engines
BEARINGS
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B earings are the name given to any part that supports, guides or limits rotation, slippage or oscillation of
a mechanism. Bearings fall into two categories:
• Plain bearings,
• Rolling bearings.
1.A PLAIN BEARINGS

Plain bearings are divided into three categories:
 Load or axial bearings,

 Slideways,
 Thrust bearings.
The clearance between the bearings and the shaft is designed to permit expansion and free circulation of
the lubricant in the bearings.
The surface must be sufficient to bear the load.
The surface state has to be very advanced as the thickness of the lubricating film is extremely reduced.
1.A.1 THEORY OF THE OIL WEDGE
As a general rule, in a mechanical unit a single type of lubricant is used to lubricate all the components. The
characteristics of the lubricant must correspond to all the requirements of the various components.
1.A.2 GREASE LUBRICATION
Greases are routinely used in bearings operating under conditions where oil would not give satisfaction:
tightness, vibrations, high temperatures, excessive loads, and very slow speeds.
1.B ROLLING BEARINGS
A rolling bearing comprises of the following parts:
 An inner ring fixed to the shaft with a raceway on its outer surface,
 An outer ring introduced into a turned-out housing of the desired size with a raceway on its inner
surface,
 Rolling bearing parts that roll between the two raceways of the inner and outer rings.
55/142
The form of these parts varies with the type of rolling bearing:
 Balls, cylindrical or conical rollers, barrels, and needles are used.
 A cage that keeps the rolling bearing parts at an equal distance, thereby preventing slippage of the
rolling elements over each other.
Ball Bearing
Rolling bearing with Rolling bearing with
conical rollers cylindrical rollers
Rolling bearings, depending on the type, must be able to withstand:
• Considerable radial loads, low axial loads: ball bearings,

• Considerable radial loads, shocks, (no axial loads): rolling bearings with cylindrical rollers,
• Combined axial and radial loads: rolling bearing with conical rollers,
• Multidirectional loads: swivel-joint, ball or roller bearing rolling elements,
• High rotational speeds: needle bearings,
• Axial loads: thrust ball bearings.
In a rolling bearing the role of the lubricant is to:

. Reduce friction between rolling bearing parts: cage, raceways, balls and rollers,
. Dissipate the heat generated due to operation - slippage in particular -, protect the supporting surfaces
against corrosion as they need to retain a polished surface state, to seal the rolling bearing to prevent the
introduction of impurities.
1.B.1 OIL LUBRICATION

This type of lubricant will be used for:
High temperatures, heavily loaded rolling bearings, conical rolling bearings and swivel-joint roller bearings
revolving at high speed. For very high speeds: needle bearings, all lubrication systems that do not pose
clearance problems.
1.B.2 GREASE LUBRICATION

Grease lubrication permits very reduced maintenance; the grease remaining in the
rolling bearings contributes to seal the bearing. The corrosion protection provided
by the grease is generally greater than that provided by oil; the rolling bearings
which withstand shocks are partially protected by the relatively thick film of grease.
Grease
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1.B.3 WEARING AND MALFUNCTIONING OF BEARINGS
The deterioration undergone by plain bearings and rolling bearings may present itself in the form of
exaggerated wear, pitting, indentations, corrosion, scaling, seizing and rupture of rolling bearing parts.
These problems may stem from:
 A load greater than the capacity of the bearing,
 An unsuitable type of bearing,
 Abrasive dust,
 Water,
 Shocks,
 Excessively high speeds, temperatures, vibrations,
 An excess or lack of lubricant,
 Poor selection of the lubricant:
o Viscosity for oil,
o Consistency for grease,
o Incorrect additive or concentration not sufficient.
PLAIN BEARINGS - OIL LUBRICATION: recommendation (see annex)
BEARINGS AND THRUST BEARINGS – OIL LUBRICATION (see annex)
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HYDROSTATIC TRANSMISSIONS AND THEIR FLUIDS
58/142
T he systems commonly known as “hydraulic” makes it possible to transmit energy from one point to
another. Now very widespread in industry and public works, these systems are becoming more
sophisticated by the day and are preferred to mechanical transmissions whenever precision of movement
and flexibility of installation is required.
1.A COMPOSITION OF A HYDRAULIC CIRCUIT
Energy is supplied in virtually all instances by an electric motor or thermal engine (unless manually
operated). Connected to this motor we shall therefore find a pump that will drive the sucked-in fluid from a
tank through one or more filters, a regulating device and distribution equipment. The latter represents a sort
of switching mechanism designed to direct the fluid wherever one wishes it to go before returning to the
tank.
If the acceptance units have to be driven by linear movements, we will be dealing with jacks. If they are
required to revolve, we shall be dealing with what is known as «hydraulic motors». To these can be added
pipes between all the components. These pipes, which are capable of withstanding heavy pressures, will be
rigid, made of metal or flexible.
This enumeration lacks an important component : the hydraulic fluid whose principal role is to transmit
energy.
If we look at a diagram of a hydraulic transmission, what are its advantageous characteristics compared
with a mechanical transmission?
It permits variation of speed. It is positive and reversible,
It permits braking to recover energy,
It enables one to monitor with precision the stresses transmitted and is proof against the ambient medium,
It offers a high specific power,
It lends itself well to automatic operation and adjustments,
It is very flexible in terms of installation.
Let us look again in detail at the various components of a circuit.

Diagram (see annex)
1.A.1 THE PUMPS:

These are the generators.
1.A.1.a Gear pumps:
These are the most widespread pumps used in industry and mechanically speaking the simplest. The fluid
is driven by the teeth displacement as the gears mesh together. The pumps in question comprise of a drive
pinion that actuates an identical pinion, both being enclosed in a casing. The principle of peripheral transfer
and central tightness make it possible, using the direction of rotation, to determine suction and discharge.
The tightness between suction and discharge, hence the level of internal leaks, depends on the play
between pump cases and teeth (peripheral transfer) and the teeth themselves (central tightness).
Technical difficulty: lateral sealing.
Excessive lateral tightening => losses through friction.
Inadequate lateral tightening => losses through internal leaks.
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To remedy this one creates gear pumps counterbalanced by assembling and creating internal channels to
permit maintenance of the constant radial and axial play.
Pinions
Suction Discharge
Pump case
Gear pump
There also exist internal gear pumps. They are mostly found on heavy oil burners.
BPI, BOSCH, MANNESMAN-REXROTH are the leading European manufacturers of compensated gear
pumps.
1.A.1.b Vane pumps

Designed according to the following principle: an off-centred rotor driven by a motor revolves within a vane
ring. The rotor comprises of grooves that house flat palettes. Centrifugal force causes the palettes to slide
within their housing and applies them to the inner face of the vane ring. The variation in volume of the cells
creates suction and discharge.
Disadvantage: the feed pressure exerts a force on the shaft and bearings.
Suction >
Fixed
ring
Rotor
Vanes
Discharge>
60/142
If the stator ring becomes oval, two diametrically opposed pumping zones are set up. The loads applied
radially to the shaft become equal and opposed, therefore cancelling one another out. A further advantage
emerges, namely that one pumps two times less per rev.
Lastly, certain pumps have vanes made up of two parts. Thanks to channels fitted to the rotor, this makes it
possible to supply the re-circulation pressure in order to perfect vane/rotor tightness. This represents
“compensation”, as in the case of gear pumps.
Vane pumps, like gear pumps, can be coupled end-to-end and thus deliver independent flows. One
encounters this system on jet moulding machines for plastics and machine tools.
Main manufacturers: VICKERS, HAGGLUNDS-DENISON, REXROTH...
1.A.1.c Piston pumps
These are fitted with radial pistons. This assumes that these latter are arranged in accordance with the radii
of a circle perpendicular to the axis of rotation. They are known as axial piston pumps if the pistons are
arranged parallel to the axis of rotation.
Radial piston pumps: the operating principle is based on the presence of a cam that will actuate
displacement of the pistons. This cam can be external, but it requires a power supply and discharge
through the shaft. Hence machining problems resulting in a high price (leading manufacturer: BOSCH). If
the cam is internal, suction and discharge will be external (leading manufacturers: POCLAIN, REXROTH).
Limit of these pumps: 1800 rev/min for the first and 700-1000 rev/min for the second {centrifugal force).
Axial piston pumps: the pistons are parallel to the axis of rotation. The pumping movement is alternating,
with the pistons being engaged in a reciprocating movement between their top dead centre and their bottom
dead centre during their rotation around their drive shaft.
Suction Pad Axial piston Piston

cylinder
Rolling
Spring
Seal
Drive axle Discharge
Delivery valve
Inclined
Pump case rotating plate Fixed barrel
Piston pump and rotating plate
These are of the following types:

Oblique plate, straight axis, and fixed barrel: to vary the cubic capacity, one has to vary the inclination of
the retaining plate of the pistons in relation to the shaft.
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Fixed plate, revolving barrel axis: the variation in the cubic capacity is achieved by varying the drive axis /
barrel axis angle.
Advantages of these pumps:

Plane distribution: better sealing
No springs, hence no inertia
Favourable weight/power ratio
Simplicity of construction => competitiveness
And above all:
o Variation of flow
o Reversibility of flow
o Nil flow: neutral position
o Easy motor operation
A few manufacturers: VOLVO, SAUER, REXROTH...
Lastly, we should mention that for the very high pressures, accompanied by a strong flow, there exist piston
pumps equipped with connecting rods and crankshafts. This type of pump is encountered in particleboard
press installations.
1.A.2 COLLECTORS
These are parts designed for the conversion of hydraulic energy into mechanical energy. The fluid
discharged from the pump actuates them. They utilise the pressure that emerges as a consequence of the
resistance or the torque of the mechanical unit they are about to set in motion. They fall into two types:
They provide a linear motion jacks.
They provide rotations these are “hydraulic motors”.
1.A.2.a Jacks
These enable one in a simple way to transform the motion of rotation of the power source into linear
movement at controlled speed and under heavy stress. They can reach very great lengths or very large
diameters (high power).
Piston Seal
Seal
“cup” seals Cylinder Rod
They can be single acting:

power is ensured in a single direction, with return being ensured by a return spring or by gravity.
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Or else double-acting:
the power is exerted in both directions. In the single-rod version, they
are used above all for traction not thrust. In the double-rod version,
they are used for reciprocating movement. Double-acting jacks are
very widespread as regards machine tools for the movements of
grinding and milling tables and above all broaching machines.
1.A.2.b Hydraulic motors:
The principle of these motors is strictly the reverse of that relating to

pumps. They can be used indiscriminately with gears, vanes and radial
or axial pistons.
One finds rapid ones: 1000 to 3500 rev/min of cubic capacity from 10 to
200 cm3/T
Semi-rapid: from 50 to 1500 rev/min of cubic capacity 50 cm3 to 2
litres/T
Slow ones: 5 to 10 rev/min of cubic capacity from 1 to 6 litres/T.
The latter acts as hydraulic reducers capable of transmitting very high torques (Up to 30000 N.m).
Stator
Rotor
Supply
Distribution
device
Piston
Roller
Leak return
1.A.3 ADJUSTMENT MECHANISMS

The various adjustment systems: safety valves, pressure reducing valves, compensation valves, etc. can
be classified into two main types:
• Pressure regulators
• Flow regulators.
1.A.4 DISTRIBUTION MECHANISMS:

These are all the valves that enable us to direct the fluid to the receivers or back
to the tank.
The servo valve is a progressive action distributor enabling remote adjustment of
speed, acceleration or the pressure of a hydraulic collector with great precision. It
is electrically controlled. By virtue of its design, it requires absolutely clean fluid and
hence protection by a special filter, upstream from the servo valve.
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1.A.5 PIPING AND ACCESSORIES:
Piping can be rigid (relatively rigid metal tubes with the least possible sudden curves). They can be flexible
in which case they are known as flexible hoses.
The more flexible hoses there are, the greater the risk of leaks.
1.A.6 TANKS:
They are, and must be, designed to store the circulating fluid. They also have to:
 Retain the fluid at a normal temperature.

 Decant the fluid
 Limit foaming to a maximum due to the return.
 Permit the installation of the pump.
 Protect the liquid from external pollution.
1.A.7 FILTERS
They serve to rid the fluid of solid contamination by passing it through a filtering medium
Contaminants originate from:
 New fluid at the time of filling,

 Building materials or during maintenance,
 From the outside through the tank breather or the seals (dust),
 Operation of the circuit (wear of parts in contact in the pumps, distributors, jacks, etc,
 Degradation of the fluid.
These can provoke erosion wear of dynamic

seals (jacks) at distribution, pump and motor
levels. They plug the small regulating
nozzles and clog up the slide valves, which
leads to operating problems.
Filtration is by screening (metal cloth, paper,
membrane, felt...) by magnetic filtration and
decantation.
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1.B FLUIDS FOR HYDROSTATIC CIRCUITS
In a hydraulic circuit, the fluid serves mainly to transmit power under the effect of pressure. However, it
must also lubricate the mechanical parts (pumps, motors, jacks). The principal properties of hydraulic fluids
are therefore the following:
 Lubricating and antiwear properties

 Insubstantial variations in viscosity depending on temperature
 Oxidation resistance
 Good behaviour in relation to seals
 Antirust power
 Anticorrosive properties
 Antifoaming properties
According to hydraulic circuits and the functions they have to fulfil, different types of fluids can be used:
mineral oils, fire resistant fluids, and biodegradable products.
1.B.1 MINERAL OIL BASED FLUIDS
As with all petroleum lubricants, the choice will be made as a function of the application factor:
 Continuous and intense working temperature,
 Start-up temperature,
 Presence of water,
 Corrosion-sensitive metals,
 Danger of fire.
1.B.1.a Viscosity
Viscosity is chosen in accordance with the indications provided by the manufacturer and the conditions of
use of the hydraulic circuit: outside temperature, working temperature, sensitivity of the circuit to variations
in viscosity. (See pages 32 and 33 - viscosity and viscosity index).
1.B.1.b Performances
The ISO 6743-4 standards define a classification of mineral oils for hydraulic transmissions.
THE MAIN CATEGORIES OF THESE OILS ARE:
Categories Definition
HH Pure mineral oils
HL Mineral oils possessing special antioxidising and
anticorrosion properties
HM Fluids in the HL category possessing special antiwear
properties
HR Fluids in the HL category possessing enhanced
viscosity/temperature properties
HV Fluids of the HM type possessing enhanced
viscosity/temperature properties
HS Synthetic fluids possessing no particular fire resistance
property
HG Intended for hydraulic systems and machine tool
slideways, these are HM-type fluids possessing stick-
slip properties
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There exist categories of oils that do not yet form part of the standard:
HLP-D’s according to DIN standard : these are HM-type oils containing detergent additives that enhance
temperature resistance and ensure better compatibility with water. Consequently, the demulsification
property of these oils is not sought.
1.B.2 FIRE RESISTANT HYDRAULIC FLUIDS
Raised to very high temperatures and pressures, hydraulic mineral oils can autoignite, in the event of the
hose pipe ruputuring. The use of fire resistant fluids is imperative in this case. These fluids have been
chiefly developed in Europe by the European Coal and Steel Commission (E.C.S.C.).
THE MAIN CATEGORIES OF FIRE RESISTANT FLUIDS

Category Definition
HFAE Oil emulsions in water with characteristically over 80% of water
HFAS Aqueous chemical solutions with characteristically over 80% of
water
HFB Water emulsions in oil
HFC Aqueous solutions of polymers with characteristically less than
80% of water
HFDR Waterless synthetic fluids made up of phosphate esters
HFDS Waterless synthetic fluids made up of chlorinated hydrocarbons
HFDT Waterless synthetic fluids made up of mixtures of
HFDR and HFDS fluids
HFDU Waterless synthetic fluids made up of other constituents
1.B.3 BIODEGRADABLE FLUIDS
Increasingly, hydraulic fluids are required to be biodegradable. To avoid the oxidation problems, synthetic
esters are normally used for this application. To change from a mineral oil it is best to drain down the
system, refill with the biodegradable fluid and take particular care with the compatibility of the seals used in
the system.
1.B.4 APPLICATION AND MAINTENANCE FACTORS
Hydraulic circuits require very attentive maintenance. The best oil will have a reduced life in a badly
designed or badly maintained system. We shall now look more particularly at: filtration, cleanness and
pollution.
Pollution of the fluid by abrasive particles is the worst enemy of hydraulic circuits:
• Dust from outside
• Metallic wear particles
• Rust particles
• Remains of paint
One has to pay attention to the choice of filtration, as well as to maintenance of the filters (oil and air).
1.B.4.a Working temperature

The oil deteriorates (oxidises) all the more quickly because its temperature is higher. The ideal would be not
to exceed 50 °C. The most common accidental causes of overheating of the circuits are:
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 Unsuitable viscosity,
 Oil level too low
 Excessive head losses,
 Wear on the pump,
 Introduction of air,
 Poorly adjusted pressure relief valves
1.B.4.b Cavitation
Cavitation is due to faulty suction tightness (air entrainment) or too great a viscosity of the fluid at start-up.
This introduces the emergence of air bubbles in the hydraulic fluid and implosion of these bubbles when
compression occurs. These implosions provoke rapid deterioration of the pumps and is characterised by a
noisy operation.
1.B.4.c Seal behaviour
The oil and the seals have to be chosen in such a way as to be compatible. For mineral oils, one has to
compare the aniline point with the figure provided by the seal manufacturer. Operating malfunctions with
regard to seals must not all be attributed to poor adaptation of the oil to the seal. A high working
temperature, poor mounting, a poor surface state as regards the shaft and the boring on which the seal is
mounted can be the source of the deterioration of the seals. For fire resisrant fluids most particular attention
must be given to the choice of seals.
1.B.5 MONITORING OF HYDRAULIC FLUIDS IN SERVICE
Substantial oil charges have to be periodically monitored by analyses. This makes it possible to:
• Estimate the degree of deterioration in the oil and thus to determine the most economic oil-change
interval
• Detect pollution harmful to the circuit,
• Prevent dysfunctions.
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GEARS AND THEIR LUBRICANTS
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1.A GENERAL POINTS
Gears are mechanical parts made up of toothed wheels that serve to transmit stresses from one shaft to
another, at equal speed, whether higher or lower. These are speed and torque transformers.
The materials most commonly used for gear manufacture are:
• Steel, cast iron, bronze.
They can be:
• Rough casting,
• As-milled (these are the most widely used),
• Ground, superfinished.
The last few years have seen the emergence of gears made from moulded plastic; initially used for small
sizes, they are tending to develop.
1.A.1 SPUR TEETH
Inner Outer Rack and pinion drive
1.A.2 HELICAL GEARING
Thrust
Thrust
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Intersecting axles
Intersecting axles Conical straight teeth
Helical conical teeth
Endless worm wheel
1.B CONDITIONS GOVERNING USE
Duration is very variable ranging from a thousand hours for vehicle gears to several dozen years for large
industrial reducing gears.
The load is also very variable
• Lower than 15 daN/mm2 for lightly loaded gear teeth.

• From 15 to 40 daN/mm2 for moderately loaded gear teeth.
• From 40 to 100 daN/mm2 for highly loaded industrial gear teeth.
• Greater than 100 daN/mm2 for certain vehicle transmission teeth.
Speed
• Slow: less than 12 m/s of tangential speed,
• Rapid: between 12 and 30 m/s of tangential speed,
• Very rapid: over 30 m/s of tangential speed.
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The working temperature is a function of the amount of friction, load and speed.
For an outside temperature of 15 to 20 °C, the temperature of the teeth can reach 60 to 70 °C for cylindrical
and conical gears, 90 to 110 °C for hypoid gear pairs and worm wheel torques.
1.C ROLES PLAYED BY GEAR LUBRICANTS

A lubricant has several roles to play in relation to reducing or step-up gears:
• Form a resistant film on the flanks of activated gears, whatever the pressures exerted, and thus to
be capable of preventing excessive wear.
• Reduce as much as possible energy losses due to friction.
• Dissipate the heat
• Protect the surfaces against corrosion.
• Lubricate rolling bearings.
1.D GEAR LUBRICANTS:

1.D.1 OILS:
Since operating conditions vary a great deal according to the types of gears, the choice of oil will depend
above all on the following parameters:
. Peripheral speed of the gear (choice of viscosity),
. Teeth load (choice of performance).
1.D.1.a Pure mineral oils

Oxidation inhibitors can be used in the case of lightly-loaded cylindrical gears. The choice will be made
solely on a viscosity basis.
1.D.1.b Antiwear mineral oils
These are suited for medium-loaded gears possessing high-speed factors.
1.D.1.c “Extreme-pressure” oils
These are especially suited to hypoid gears in which contact pressures are very considerable. This enables
the additives to act thanks to localised raising of the temperature.
1.D.1.d Thiophosphorous extreme-pressure oils

These possess good thermal resistance that means they can be used in reduction gears operating at high
temperature (up to approximately 110 °C).
Certain types of oil possess, in addition, solid lubricants that enhance friction properties.
1.D.1.e Synthetic fluids

These are of diverse chemical composition and they offer a set of similar properties:
 High viscosity index, capable of use over a broad temperature range,
 Good temperature resistance,
 Good oxidation resistance,
 Low coefficient of friction hence greater efficiency
These are recommended in difficult lubrication cases.
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1.D.2 GEAR OILS CLASSIFICATION
ISO SPECIFIC PRODUCT TYPE EXAMPLES OF

Classification APPLICATIONS APPLICATION
Refined mineral oils with anti-oxidation,

Gears operating under moderate
protection against the corrosion (ferrous load.
C KB
metals and non-ferrous) and anti-foaming
properties.
Oils type CKB with extreme Engrenages dont la température d’huile

C KC pressure and anti-wear properties. stabilisée reste normale ou moyenne et qui
peuvent fonctionner sous charge élevée.
Huiles du type CKC possédant en plus une

Engrenages dont la température d’huile
résistance à l’oxydation et une stabilité
C KD stabilisée est élevée et qui peuvent
thermique renforcées qui autorisent une
fonctionner sous charge élevée.
utilisation à température plus élevée.
Engrenages fonctionnant sous frottement

Continuous lubrication of Huiles du type CKB assurant un coefficient
C KE élevé (par exemple engrenages à roue et
gearings under crankcase. de frottement réduit.
vis sans fin).
Lubrifiants possédant des propriétés de

stabilité à l’oxydation, de frottement et de
Engrenages dont la température d’huile
protection contre la corrosion (métaux
C KS stabilisée est très basse, basse ou très
ferreux et non ferreux), utilisables dans des
élevée et dont la charge est modérée.
conditions extrêmes de température
(basses et hautes).
Lubrifiants du type CKS, utilisables dans Engrenages dont la température d’huile

C KT des conditions extrêmes de température fluide stabilisée est très basse, basse ou
(basses et hautes) et sous charge élevée. très élevée et dont la charge est élevée.
Graisses possédant des propriétés Engrenages fonctionnant sous charge

C KG
extrême-pression et anti-usure. modérée.
Produits habituellement à caractère

Engrenages cylindriques ou coniques
C KH bitumineux possédant des propriétés de
fonctionnant à température ambiante
protection contre la corrosion.
moyenne et en général sous charge
Produits du type CKH avec en plus des
C KJ modérée.
propriétés extême-pression et anti-usure.
Discontinuous greasing of Graisses possédant des propriétés Engrenages cylindriques ou coniques

naked gearings or extrême-pression, anti-usure, de protection fonctionnant à température ambiante
C KL gearings with protective contre la corrosion et une stabilité élevée ou très élevée et sous charge
devices. thermique renforcée. élevée.
Produits possédant des propriétés anti-

grippage renforcées, qui autorisent une Engrenages fonctionnant de manière
C KM utilisation dans des conditions de charge occasionnelle sous des charges
extrêmes, et des propriétés de protection exceptionnellement élevées.
contre la corrosion.
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1.D.3 GREASES
These are used to meet special lubrication constraints:

Small reduction gears operating in any position or presenting sealing problems: NLGI 00 or 0 grade, in
general «E.P» fluid or semi-fluid greases will be used; one can use mineral oil or synthetic fluid-base
grease.
Open exposed gears, such as cement works or chemical industry furnace vaults:
These are very adhesive, extreme-pressure greases that generally contain solid lubricants.
Classification of gear lubricants is contained in the ISO 6743/6 standard.
1.E METHOD OF LUBRICATION

To lubricate gears, different methods of lubrication are used:
1.E.1 OIL LUBRICATION:
Splash lubrication of the pinions in the casing,

Circulation, (method adopted for large reducers).
Oil spray, is very important. Such a system makes it possible to filter and cool the oil continuously.
1.E.2 GREASE LUBRICATION:
Splashing
Spraying
1.F WEAR AND MALFUNCTIONING

1.F.1 CYLINDRICAL GEARS
The most common types of malfunctioning are:

• Pitting due to the constraints undergone by the metal. This occurs very frequently in gears. Use of
too fluid oil is conducive to its development.
• Seizing, the causes of which are numerous:
o Overload,
o Unsuitable material,
o Lubricant in insufficient quantity,
o Lubricant of unsuitable quality:
 Too low a viscosity,
 Absence of the extreme-pressure additive.
1.F.2 WORM WHEEL GEARS (Destructive Pitting).
• Scaling is the consequence of defective surface treatment.

• Abrasion is caused by metallic impurities contained in the oil.
• Cavitation is characterised by pitting on the bronze wheel.
• Scaling of the steel screw is caused by too hard a surface treatment of the metal.
• Unsuitable oil leads to overheating; wear on the bronze wheel is rapid.
• Noise: poor alignment of the shafts, faulty cutting, pronounced wear and other mechanical defects
are often the cause of noisy operation. Use of a more viscous oil enables one to momentarily reduce
shock and noise.
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1.G OPERATIONAL MONITORING
1.G.1 GEARS
One monitors the evolution of the wear on gear teeth by different methods:
• Print measurement and periodic monitoring of the evolution,
• Test in low-angled light.
1.G.2 LUBRICANTS
• A certain number of tests:

• Water content,
• Particle content:
• Gravimetry,
• Spectrometry
• Ferrography
• Optical densitometry.
• Extreme-pressure additives content (chemically or physically),
• Acid number (see Part 3 : MAINTENANCE AND SERVICE FILL LUBRICANTS ).
1.H RECOMMENDATION FOR GEAR LUBRICANTS

(See annexes)
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TURBINES AND THEIR LUBRICANTS
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1.A STEAM TURBINES
These machines are mainly used in electricity generating plants.
They are made up of:
• A high-pressure turbine,
• A low-pressure turbine,
• An alternator,
• Principal and auxiliary lubrication systems,
• Control and safety devices
Reducer
Principal pump for the
lubrication circuit
Entry valve
Auxiliary pump for the control

circuit
Control circuit
Stator
Rotor
Control pump Power plug for the control pump
Lubrication:
In a steam turbine, the parts needing to be lubricated are:
• Bearings revolving at very high speed,
• The thrust bearings,
• The control system
• Possibly the reducer.
Lubrication is by circulation
Prescription:
The oil used has to be of excellent quality and possess very good air release and demulsification qualities.
These characteristics are so important that turbine oils are subjected to specific treatments so as to
enhance them. They have to contain, in addition to oxidation inhibitors, antirust, antifoaming and
anticorrosion additives.
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1.B HYDRAULIC (HYDRO-ELECTRIC) TURBINES
Hydraulic turbines generate electricity by making use of the energy of a stream or a waterfall.
Broadly speaking, there are three categories of hydraulic turbines:
1.B.1 PELTON TURBINES used in very high waterfalls
1.B.2 FRANCIS TURBINES used in averagely high waterfalls
Francis Turbine:
Description of functioning
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1.B.3 KAPLAN TURBINES used in low waterfalls.
Lubrication:
The parts needing to be lubricated in hydraulic turbines are:
• The bearings,
• The thrust bearings. These are tricky to lubricate in
vertical turbines operating at pressures of 35 bars at high
speeds
• The speed governor
Recommendation:
The oils used have to be of a high quality and possess very
good demulsibility. For horizontal turbine bearings,
manufacturers often recommend oil in the steam turbine
class.
1.C GAS TURBINES

These make use of the energy developed by the combustion of a gas. They make it possible to drive
various pieces of equipment: compressors, pumps, and alternators.
The “gas turbine” sets are made up of the following components:

• A combustion chamber,
• A combustion air compressor,
• A gas turbine with several housings, from high to low pressure.
The machine being driven is coupled to the turbine output shaft:

• Gas compressor,
• Pump
• Alternator etc..
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Lubrication of the gas turbines is by circulation, either by mineral oils or by synthetic “aviation” oils.
Depending on the instance, the machine being driven has a common lubrication circuit with the gas turbine
or else a separate circuit.
1.D ROLES OF TURBINE LUBRICANTS AND CLASSIFICATION
The main roles of a lubricant in a turbine are:

• Lubrication of bearings and thrust bearings and incidentally speed governors,
• Protection against corrosion,
• Dissipation of heat.
ISO 6743/5 CLASSIFICATION (extract)
ISO SYMBOL COMPOSITION, PROPERTIES TYPICAL APPLICATION

TSA-TGA Highly refined Steam or gas power turbines,.
antirust, anti-oxidising mineral oil driven parts and monitoring system.
TGB As above, but with increase antioxidising Gas turbines when high temperature
properties resistance is necessary.
TSC/TGC A synthetic oil with no particular Steam and gas turbines when oxidation
stability for fire resistance. resistance and low temperature
properties are required
TSD/TGD Ester-phosphates-base lubricants. Control circuits in a very warm

High resistance to combustion environment
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1.E CHOICE OF OIL
1.E.1 LUBRICATION OF STEAM TURBINES
TYPE OF TURBINE RECOMMENDED OILS

PROPERTIES VISCOSITY mm²/s at
40°C
Direct-coupling turbines Oxidation resistance 22 to 46
Turbines with normal reducer Air release Demulsibility
Antiwear 32 to 100
Antifoaming power
Antirust and anticorrosion
properties
Ring bearing turbines approx. 68
Marine turbines Ditto
Possible antiwear or even 68 to 100
extreme-pressure properties
1.E.2 LUBRICATION OF GAS TURBINES
Viscosity:
The recommended oils are ISO VG 32 or 46 or 68 grades
Types of oils:
Several manufacturers, including Hispano-Suiza and Solar, recommend oils similar to TSA oils for ISO:
TGA symbol steam turbines
However, as the temperatures of the gas turbines bearings are generally higher, certain manufacturers (see
General-Electric GEK 32568F specification) require oils possessing higher thermal resistance. ISO: TGB
symbol.
Lastly, it is possible that an aviation turbine oil is required, even for use on land (rolling bearings, reduced
capacity of circuit) ISO: TGC symbol.
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1.E.3 LUBRICATION OF HYDRAULIC TURBINES
RECOMMENDED LUBRICANTS
PARTS FOR LUBRICATION
PROPERTIES mm2/ s at 40°C
Plain horizontal bearings
Small turbines operating at a speed > 22 to 32
500rev/mm
46 to 68
General case
100 to 150
Very heavily loaded bearings
Antioxidising
Vertical guide bearings
Antirust oils 22 to 32
Small turbines operating at a speed >
500rev/mm
anticorrosion approx. 68
General case
Horizontal race bearings
46 to 68
Speed less than 500 rev/mm
Bearings and thrust bearings
22 to 32
Speed greater than 500 rev/mm
Grease-lubricated bearings Greases of
Underwater bearings average consistency
Ball bearings insoluble in water
Normal plain bearings
Greases of
average consistency
Heavily loaded plain bearings
insoluble in water,
pressure-resistant
Hydraulic valve controls Antioxidising
antirust
22 to 46
anticorrosion oils
low pour point
Horizontal thrust pad Ant oxidising oils
46 to 68
Antirust,
anticorrosion
Pivots Antioxidising
46 to 68
Very light or very rapid small turbines and anticorrosion oils
General case: pressure 20 bars Antioxidising
100 to 150
or speed 100 rev/mm and anticorrosion oils
with EP properties
Heavily loaded pivots: pressure 20 bars (case of a starting
100 to 220
and speed 100 rev/mm circuit)
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1.E.3 LUBRICATION OF HYDRAULIC TURBINES (continued)
PARTS FOR LUBRICATION RECOMMENDED LUBRICANTS

PROPERTIES mm2/ s at 40 °C
Multipliers in casing Antioxidising
General case anticorrosion and antifoaming oils 100 to 150
with EP properties
Heavily loaded devices 150 to 220
Open gears
Permanently operating turbines Plastic nondrip lubricant, Approx.. 100 (at 100 °C)
Discontinuously operating turbines Plastic nondrip and diluted 150 to 220
lubricant
Viscous
Kaplan hubs antioxidising
General case anticorrosion and antiwear oils 320 to 460
Special cases (depending on Either more fluid approx. 220
manufacturers’ or more viscous oils approx. 1000
recommendations)
Antioxidising
Control 46 to 68
anticorrosion and antifoaming oils
Guide blade bearing necks and
joints
General case Water-resistant greases
Case of oil lubrication Viscous oils approx. 1000
1.F MONITORING OF SERVICE FILL TURBINE OILS

The service fill load capacity can be several thousand litres and the life expectancy of the used oil is quite
considerable. To ensure that the maximum life is achieved the turbine oil is conditioned monitored. This
gives an early warning if the oil is being over stressed and excessive wear is taking place in the bearings,
which may be due to an outside contaminant getting into the oil..
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COMPRESSORS AND THEIR LUBRICANTS
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1.A TYPES of COMPRESSORS
They can be distinguished according to:
Their function:
• Air compressors,
• Gas compressors, vacuum pumps,
• Refrigeration compressors.
Their mechanical systems
• Alternating compressors,
• Rotary compressors: blade-type, screw-type,
• Turbo rotary compressors
1.A.1 AIR COMPRESSORS
1.A.1.a Alternating compressors:

These are small compressors and can be:
One-or two-stage: the discharge pressures are less than 7
bars, and the power less than 100 HP
Vertical: generally lubricated by a common circulation
lubrication system,
Horizontal: mechanical sight-feed oilers and the
movements always lubricate the cylinders by splashing or
circulation.
Single-acting pistons:
Single lubrication circuit for Double-acting pistons: Separate
lubrication of connecting rod and
pistons and cam shaft piston heads
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Medium- and high-powered compressors are:
Always multistage with pressures up to 200 bars and sometimes 400 bars; the cylinders are lost-oil
lubricated, the movements are lubricated by oil splash or circulation systems.
In the case of alternating compressors, recommendation of lubricants depends on discharge temperatures:

For discharge temperatures lower than 220 °C, oxidation-resistant oils will be used so as to prevent the
formation of deposits in high-pressure zones. These are mineral oils with oxidation inhibitors that meet the
DIN 51506 VC.L and VD.L standard. One can also use MIL-L46152 B SAE 30 or 40 engine oils.
For discharge temperatures greater than 220 °C and discharge pressures up to 350 bars, additive-
containing alkylbenzene-type synthetic fluids or ester based oils will be used.
1.A.1.b Rotary compressors:
Rotating piston compressors:

In this type of compressor, compression is achieved using a rotor equipped with moving vanes and off-
centred in a fixed cylinder.
Cooling, lubrication and tightness between the

vanes and pump case are achieved by injection
of oil into the air on the suction side.
Recommendations vary greatly with
manufacturers :
• Turbine-type antioxidising, antifoam

mineral oil.
• Antiwear hydraulic oil,
• Engine oil, MIL-L-2104 B SAE 30 or 40
• Specific oil for performance-enhancing oil-

injection rotary compressors.
Screw-type air compressors:
In this type of compressor, compression is achieved between two screws revolving in opposite directions.
Rotation of the secondary rotor is obtained directly by the main rotor screw. Cooling and lubrication are
achieved by oil injection during suction,
Rotation of these screws can be synchronised by a train of gears. In this case there is no oil injection.
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Synchronised screws
Compression principle
Two-stage screw
88/142
The lubricants used differ greatly with the individual manufacturer. The qualities required are the following:
• Good oxidation resistance,

• Good anticoalescent power regarding oxidation products on the separator,
• Very good antiwear properties,
• Good air release and demulsification,
• Good antifoaming properties.
For lubrication of synchronised screw-type compressors, turbine-type oils will be used.
For lubrication of non-synchronised screw-type compressors turbine-type, the following will be used:
• Hydraulic, antiwear and highly ant oxidising-type oils,

• Specific mineral or synthetic oils in the DIN 51352, 51506 VCL and VDL class,
• SAE 10W - API CC or CD engine oils.
As a matter of preference, use will be made of specific oils for oil-injection rotary compressors Their
performance makes it possible to obtain operating conditions better than those corresponding to use of a
turbine-, hydraulic- or engine-type lubricant.
For certain cases of severity, two-stage compressors with discharge temperatures greater than 100 °C,
manufacturers recommend synthetic oils. For information purposes, the DIN 51506 specification is a
reference specification more particularly adapted to alternating air compressors.
The classification of air compressor oils is specified in the ISO 6743/3 standard
ISO 6743/3 standard (extract)

D Family (air compressors)
SPECIAL APPLICATION MORE SPECIFIC ISO - L CODE TYPE of

APPLICATION SERVICE
alternating (crosshead or DAA Light
air compressors single-acting piston)
rotary with drop lubrication DAB
displacement compressor Moderate
(rotating piston)
with DAC Severe
rotary with oil injection DAG Light
lubricated compression
(rotating piston and screw- DAH Moderate
chamber type compressors
DAJ Severe
1.A.2 GAS COMPRESSORS
Similar in their technologies to air compressors, gas compressors pose nevertheless quite different
lubrication problems that will depend on the types of gas:
"Inert" gases with no action on the oil: .in the case of hydrogen, helium and nitrogen compression, the
lubricants used are of the same type as for air compressors.
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As regards hyper-compressors whose discharge pressure is greater than 600 bars, lubrication of the
cylinders and the movements is separate: use will be made of high-viscosity mineral oils compatible with
the process.
Active gases with high solubility in mineral oils leading to possible dissolution of the oil film:
For compressors and hyper-compressors, use will be made of:
• Insoluble polyglycol-type synthetic oils in hydrocarbons.

• Mineral oils of the type used with air compressors but of higher viscosity and compounded.
In the case of automotive compressors, the problems of lubrication are different:

The working cylinders are positive-ignition and in general supercharged. These are powerful engines
(around 150 HP per cylinder). The compressor cylinders are single- or double-acting and comprise several
stages. The automotive compressors operating on natural gas use, as regards the engine part, the gases
they are designed to compress. Lubrication of the engine part is carried out with engine-type oils,
possessing a low ash content and resistant to nitro-oxidation. The compressor part may not be lubricated,
but if so, lost-oil procedure is used. The viiscosity of the oil is adapted to the discharge pressure
1.A.3 VACUUM PUMPS

Vacuum pumps are compressors whose suction is linked to a chamber in which it is desired to create a
vacuum.
They are generally rotary with slide vanes. Air compressor-type oils are used if the vacuum is not too high.
For high vacuum, oils with low steam pressure are used.
1.A.4 REFRIGERATION COMPRESSORS

Production of cold is based on the principle of the evaporation of liquefied gases. Such evaporation takes
place together with great absorption of heat. A refrigerating circuit comprises:
• A compressor to compress the gas; the latter heats up under the effect of compression.
• A condenser in which the hot compressed gas is cooled by circulation of water and is changed into
the liquid state.
• A pressure reducing valve which controls the flow of the liquefied gas.
• The evaporator in which the liquefied gas evaporates by absorbing the heat of the ambient
environment that cools.
General diagram of a basic installation Liquid + LP

HP liquid
Q Pressure relief
valve
HP Liquid
Evaporator HP gas
Compressor
LP gas
Q
Condenser
90/142
Lubrication of a refrigeration compressor offers the same characteristics as lubrication of air compressors.
However, it is essential to use oil that will not freeze in the evaporator and the other cold parts of the circuit.
The oils used must possess good oxidation resistance and not form deposits and sludges that could result
in wear and reduce the compressor’s efficiency. Use is made of relatively fluid mineral oils, with a low pour
point. Their miscibility with the refrigerants permits return of the lubricant to the compressor with no
accumulation of residual oil in the evaporator which would result in poor heat exchanges.
The type of refrigerant determines the chemical nature of the lubricant. In cases of very low temperatures or
miscibility gaps in the mineral oils with the refrigerants, synthetic oils are recommended.
1.B CHOICE OF LUBRICANTS FOR COMPRESSORS
The tables below summarise the lubrication recommendations to be respected. These tables represent a
guide to simplified recommendations. However it is desirable to select the viscosity on the basis of the
manufacturers’ recommendations detailed in the equipment maintenance manuals.
LUBRICATION OF DISPLACEMENT AIR COMPRESSORS

Use: Throughout industry
TYPES OF COMPRESSORS PARTS FOR LUBRICATION Generally recommended

viscosity
Alternating (piston) Cylinders
Connecting rods 100 or 150
Bearings
Screw- or blade-type Screws or vanes 32 or 46
Gears 150 for vanes
Rolling bearings
Lobe rotary Gears 220
Liquid ring rotary Bearings / Rolling bearings 32 to 68
Diaphragm-type Connecting rod and hydraulic 32 or 46
circuit
DYNAMIC COMPRESSORS
Use: Chemical industry requiring large volumes of air
TYPES OF COMPRESSORS PARTS FOR LUBRICATION RECOMMENDED LUBRICANT

Radial or turbo Bearings ISO VG 32 to 68-type turbine
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MACHINES TOOLS LUBRICANTS AND CUTTING FLUIDS
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1.A THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF MACHINE TOOLS
Machines tools are of very different types. They can be divided into three main categories depending on the
type of machining:
• Metal cutting machines,

• Abrasion machines,
• Deformation machines.
Though very different, they operate on the same basic principles. We shall only mention here a few of the
most common machine tools.
1.A.1 METAL CUTTING MACHINES
These are the most numerous and the most “ancient”.
Lathes:
In this type of machine, the part revolves and the tool moves along two
perpendicular axes.
Milling machines:
In this type of machine, the tool revolves and the part moves along three axes.
Drilling machines: Chipping

The tool revolves and moves from top to bottom; the part is fixed.
Boring machines:
These make use of the same principle as drilling machines but possess
precise mechanisms to position the part in relation to the tool.
Planing machines:
These are very large machines: the tool has a descending movement, the part
a descending movement and a movement of translation.
1.A.2 ABRASION MACHINES
These are finishing machines that improve the surface state.
Plane grinders:
The wheel revolves and moves from top to bottom; the part moves along two perpendicular axes.
Cylindrical grinders:
There exist several models; the part revolves, the wheel also revolves and moves sideways.
1.A.3 DEFORMATION MACHINES

Presses:
Two types of presses exist: mechanical presses and hydraulic presses which both serve to provide the
metal with well-determined heat- or cold deformation.
Rolling mills:
These are very large machines that, by means of progressive crushing between rollers, convert metal
blocks into plates of varying thickness.
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1.B CUTTING TOOLS
Specific tools have been developed for each machine. The basic tool is the lathe tool from which many
other tools are derived. Thus the mill and the broach are made up of basic tools combined on the same
shank. We shall present here the main types of tools.
1.B.1 LATHE TOOLS
EXTERNAL MACHINING
TOOLS
1 – straight turning
2 – bent turning
3 – angle trimming
4 - slicing
5 – working over
6 - groove
7 - threading
8 - knurling
1.B.2 MILLING TOOLS
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1.B.3 DRILLING TOOLS
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1.B.4 BORING TOOLS
1.B.5 BROACHING TOOLS
A broach is composed of a bar whose section and form differ depending on

the machining for which it has been designed. This bar comprises a large
number of basic tools arranged in such a way that each of them carries out a
machining phase; the initial tools commence the blank while the final ones
achieve finishing.
1.B.6 CHIP FORMATION
A chip is formed by a shearing and plastic flow process within a very restricted zone of marked evenness,
linking the cutting edge with the surface of the machined part, and thereby forming an acute angle with the
tool path.
Below the shearing force plane the microstructure is in no way deformed; above this plane, on the other
hand, the microstructure is more disturbed as a result of chip formation.
1.B.7 THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF CHIPS:
1.B.7.a Short chips (swarf)
Machining of non-ductile and brittle metals gives rise to short chips unalloyed cast iron, bronze and brass
form part of this group. In this case, the cutting power is not continuous but undulatory and varies according
to the ductility of the metal being worked and its greater or lesser homogeneity.
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1.B.7.b Long chips (swarf)
Ductile metals, like aluminium, copper and steel, produce long chips that form similarly long strips if nothing
is done to break them. A certain number of factors play an important role in chip formation and flow:
• Mechanical factors relating to the material worked on
• The mechanical machining factors: advance, cutting speed, depth of cut, characteristic tool angles.
• The nature of the lubricant and the method of lubrication.
1.C LUBRICANTS FOR MACHINE TOOLS
AREA OF APPLICATION SYMBOL

Lost-oil lubrication
1.B.5.a.1 AN 68, AN 220
Gears in medium-loaded casings CKB from ISO 32 to ISO 150
Gears in very heavily loaded casings CKC from ISO 100 to ISO 460
Broaches and bearings FD from ISO 2 to ISO 22
Broaches, bearings and associated clutches FC from ISO 2 to ISO 22
Slideways G from ISO 68 to ISO 220
Hydraulic transmissions HL from ISO 32 to ISO 68
Hydraulic transmissions HM from ISO 15 to ISO 68
Hydraulic transmissions HV ISO 32 and 46
Hydraulic transmissions - slideways HG ISO 32 and 68
Multifunction lubrication XBCEA NLGI 00, O, 1, 2, 3
1.D CUTTING LUBRICANTS:
1.D.1 THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF CUTTING FLUIDS
Cutting oils, products containing water are generally known as "soluble" oils or “soluble” cutting fluids;
aqueous fluids not containing any mineral oil at all are known as "synthetic" fluids.
1.D.1.a "Neat" cutting oils

These are pure mineral oils or oils containing additives. Their additive content will depend on the type of
machining and the material for machining. In general, they are ISO-grade fluid oils ranging between 15 and
46 so as to permit proper dissipation of heat.
Copper metalworking:
Use is made of oils containing no chemically active additives liable to attack these metals (free sulphur);
these frequently contain oiliness additives (fatty matter) and “anti-mist”, enabling one to expect a four-ball
machine welding load of approximately 200 kg.
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Ferrous metalworking:
Supply of additives to these oils depends on metalworking and the nature of the metal for machining. The
following may be found: chlorine, sulphur, phosphorus, zinc, fatty matter, adherents and antimist, antirust
and antifoam additives. The four-ball machine-welding load generally ranges between 400 and 800 kg.
1.D.1.b Soluble" oils and cutting fluids
Soluble oils are made up of a non-homogeneous mixture of mineral oil and water; the quantity of water and
the size of the oil particles determine the nature of the emulsion:
- Macro-emulsion
Average Composition of an Emulsion Concentrate
anionic Emulsifier
anti-rust
Non-ionic ues
20 to 30%
Oil
60 to 80 %
EP
oiliness Mineral
biocides Additives Paraffinic or
anti-foam 5 to 15 % Naphthenic
passivators oil
Microemulsion
Average Composition of a Microemulsion Concentrate
anionic Oil Mineral

Emulsifiers
anti-rust 20 to 40%
non ionic 30%
paraffinic or
naphthenic
oil
1.A.3
oiliness
Additives
biocides
anti-foam 5 to 15% Water
passivators 20 to 30%
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These types of water-base lubricants offer a certain number of advantages but some operating problems as
well :
• Their running costs are lower than those of neat oils,
• Their cooling power is greater,
• On the other hand, their behaviour over time is more problematic, depending as it does on the
monitoring of the service load and the cleanliness of the circuits. These fluids containing a lot of
water can promote considerable bacterial development. This can clog the circuits, producing
disagreeable smells (H2S) and problems of dermatitus for operatives.
The emulsifier incorporated in the product enables one to maintain the stability of the oil/water mixture,
which is a complex mixture of surfactants.
1.D.1.c Synthetic oils
Synthetic cutting fluids are mixtures of additives and good water-soluble corrosion inhibitors, which form a
genuine solution that can only be broken up with very great difficulty.
Average Composition of a Synthetic Fluid Concentrate
Anti-corrosion
Anionic
30 to 40%
Water 50%
EP
oiliness
Additives biocides
10 at 20% anti-foam,
passivators
The classification of metalworking fluids is reproduced in the IS0 6743/7 standard.

(See annex)
1.D.2 ROLES PLAYED BY CUTTING LUBRICANTS
Cooling of the tool:
Dissipation of heat by the cutting fluid results in reduction of the temperature of the tool-chipping interface; it
enables the tool to retain its hardness and solidity.
Cooling the part:

Lowering the temperature of the machined part reduces the risks of expansion and permits better
observance of the machining tolerances.
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Diminishing the coefficient of friction:
By lowering the coefficient of friction at the tool-chip interface, one can limit the formation of roughness on
the surfaces; the thickness of the chip decreases and, consequently, the cutting force is less considerable.
Removing the chips:
Under the mechanical effect of the cutting fluid the chips are distanced from the cutting zone thus
preventing deterioration of the machined surface.
Improving the surface state:
With low cutting speeds and considerable advances a built-up edge may form at the tip of the tool. This will
result in a poor surface finish. A good cutting fluid will prevent formation of a built-up edge
Protecting the surfaces:
The cutting fluid must protect the machine and the machined surfaces against corrosion.
1.E MONITORING OF SERVICE FILL CUTTING OILS
a) Neat oils:
One monitors mainly:

• The appearance,
• The smell,
• The viscosity so as to verify that there has been no accidental contamination of another type of oil,
o Additives to monitor possible pollution by lubricating oils
o The water content,
o The acid number,
o The contaminants, by gravimetry, to verify that the filtration systems are still effective,
o The welding load (4-ball machine) so as to be familiar with the reserves of “Extreme –
Pressure” additives.
b) Soluble and synthetic oils
• The appearance,
• The smell,
• The pH in the water
• The concentration using a refractometer,
• The level of microorganisms.
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TRANSFORMERS-CIRCUIT BREAKERS
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1.A INSULATING OILS
T ransportation of electrical energy is in the form of high-voltage alternating current. This requires raising
the voltage at the line input and reducing it at the output. Such is the role assigned to transformers. The
lines are fitted with circuit breakers so as to ensure disconnection of the electric power supply in the event
of untimely excess current and over voltage.
The majority of high-and medium voltage transformers are filled with oil, as are certain types of circuit
breakers.
The role of the oil used is to:
• Cool the coils,

• Provide insulation.
It has to possess various properties including:
• Fluidity, to ensure the most effective cooling possible,

• A high insulating power (dielectric strength),
• Very high oxidation resistance,
• Compatibility with the materials making up the equipment.
The most widely used insulating oils are mineral oil-base, with or without additives. Synthetic oils are also
used in the case of an explosive atmosphere or when a fire risk exists.
Mineral oils, for their part, have to meet international and national specifications:
Standard:
CEI 60296,
In the course of their use, one needs to check the state of the service fill oils. During oil analysis, one has to
check most particularly:
• The presence of water (Karl Fisher method), IEC 60814

• The acid number (IEC 62021),
• Viscosity (ISO 3104 and IEC 61868 for low temperatures),
• Dielectric strength (IEC 60247).
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MAINTENANCE AND SERVICE FILL LUBRICANTS
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1 CARRYING OUT AN INDUSTRIAL MAINTENANCE POLICY
BY MONITORING SERVICE FILL LUBRICANTS
1.A INTRODUCTION
M onitoring of industrial lubricants consisted for many years in measuring the state of degradation and
contamination of the lubricants in order to ascertain their ability to properly ensure their machine lubrication
function. Today, thanks to advances in analytical lubrication techniques, monitoring of service fill lubricants
has become a genuine maintenance tool as regards industrial equipment.
We should not forget the factors responsible for the evolution of a service fill lubricant, as these can
sometimes lead to replacement by a new fluid so as to protect the lubricated mechanisms:
Pollution: a water-loaded lubricant, or one loaded with liquid contaminants such as solvents, miscellaneous
particles (dust, plastics, fibres, etc.) is the reflection of the industrial process under which it is managed: the
evolution of these contaminants depends in practice on the activity of the plant and the attention given to
operating the machines, and not on the intrinsic qualities of the lubricant.
Particles of metal: due to wear or corrosion, these particles originate from elements of the circuit traversed
by the lubricant within the machine. If, after a period of running-in of the equipment, the quantity of particles
suddenly increases whereas the lubricant remains unchanged, then this marks a malfunctioning of the
machine parts. The cause has then to be determined so that remedial action can be made , this can be the
presence of corrosive products, leaks, etc.
Oxidation: the presence of air, metal particles and rise in temperature leads to oxidation of the oil. Beyond
normal ageing of a lubricant, too rapid degradation is a sign of abnormal lubricant operating conditions. A
search is necessary to determine if there are any temperature surges within the oil circuit.
Once the cause of lubricant degradation is determined then the maintenance managers can diagnose how
well the machines are operating. He is then able to eliminate the problems before actual breakdowns result
in costly shutdowns of the industrial installations. Monitoring of service fill lubricants makes it possible
therefore to anticipate and obviate the need for unscheduled maintenance.
Since such monitoring can be carried out while the plant is in operation and given that it is so reliable that
action on the part of the maintenance crews is only triggered in the event of necessity, it may be said that
monitoring of service fill oils is a more efficient and economical maintenance technique than the systematic,
preventive variety. It is indeed a truly predictive maintenance, or a conditional maintenance tool.
In the case of equipment vital for the operation of the plant, monitoring of service fill oils can be combined
with other techniques: measurements of vibration and endoscopic techniques. At all events, it offers the
advantage of ease of application, low cost and adaptability to all types of equipment. These techniques are
becoming more widely practised.
To carry out a successful conditional maintenance policy by monitoring of service fill oils, it is necessary to
be consistent and rigorously follow sampling methods as well as recording the various events liable to occur
between sampling: toppings-up, oil drains. This shall be looked at, after which we shall examine the various
characteristics measured on service fill oils, together with the methods of interpreting the results. Lastly, we
shall draw up service fill oils diagnosis tables for the families most frequently encountered oils used in
industry.
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2 SETTING UP CONDITION MONITORING OF USED OILS
T o draw up the most accurate possible diagnosis of a used oil and the equipment lubricated by it, one
has regularly to monitor trends or changes in the characteristics of the oil and compare it with the results
obtained with each analysis over a period of time and compared to the unused oi characteristics. It is only if
a sudden change in the characteristics is observed, or if the values reach a predetermined condemning limit
that intervention becomes essential, either at equipment level or else by changing the oil. The result of an
analysis taken in isolation possesses no value of particular relevance with regard to the conditional
maintenance objectives.
In order to compare results correctly, it is necessary to ensure the representative nature of the samples by
use of a suitable sampling method, define the periodicity and nature of the analyses and to accurately
record all the information concerning the equipment and the samples.
2.A SAMPLING
The quantity of oil for sampling ranges between 150 and 500 ml, depending on the measurements to be
carried out (150 ml for viscosity, traces of wear and acid number; 500 ml for other measurements such as
the particle number, the HIAC enumeration, drasticity and dielectric strength).
The sample is taken at a representative point in the circuit, preferably while the machine is in operation - or
else just after shutdown.
A significant sample is obtained by proceeding as follows:

• Sample taken during circulation of the fluid,
• Use a standardised sampling method installed in accordance with NF E 48-650,
• Sample on a line of resultant pressure downstream from the filter (in accordance with the
standard),
• Take the sample, when possible, dynamically, just before the most fragile and most expensive
component,
• Carry out sampling with the customary precautions as to cleanness,
• Entrust sampling to the same person at all times
• In the event of sampling designed to permit determination of the pollution level, it is absolutely
essential to use a bottle cleaned in accordance with the NF E 48-654 standard
Regarding the method of sampling and the type of bottle to be used, refer respectively to the NF E 8-650
and NF E 48-653 and 4 standards (sampling for pollution measurements).
2.B LABELLING THE SAMPLE

The following must necessarily be specified
• Identification of the plant, machine shop, equipment, part;
• Identification of the lubricant;
• The operating characteristics of the equipment: hours, or kms;
• The characteristics of the oil charge: how many hours since last oil drain, amount of toppings-up.
2.C FREQUENCY OF SAMPLING

This depends on the type of machine, the lubricant, the operating conditions of the equipment and the
relative economic cost in terms of analysis and gain achieved during maintenance.
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In the absence of any recommendation, the following advice will prove useful:
• Analysis on the occasion of each oil change in the circuit

• Analyses between oil changes:
o Air compressors: every 500 hours, then space out to every 1000 hours if everything seems
in order,
o Gas compressors (chemical industries): as above
o Hydraulic circuits: 1000 hours (heat transfer circuits)
o Refrigerating machine compressors: from 1000 to 2000 hours
o Turbines: every 2000 hours
o Oils for reducers, gears: 2,000 hours
o Machine oils: 2,000 hours
o Quenching oil vats: 2,000 hours
o Insulating fluids: every 5000 hours
o Engine oils: every 15 000 kms or 250 hours
o Cutting fluids:
 Aqueous, depending on installation: 1 to 4 weeks
 Neat, depending on installation: 2 to 4 months
2.D CHOICE OF ANALYSES TO BE CARRIED OUT

The analyses vary with the types of lubricants and the types of equipment being lubricated. A number of
determinations are carried out on a fluid as is necessary to ensure that the diagnosis is meaningful.
2.E MONITORING OF THE EQUIPMENT

To obtain a complete diagnosis of the operation of the equipment, one has to compare the results of
analysis of the events that occurred in the equipment prior to sampling. For this reason, it is essential to
collect a certain amount of data. Aside from the elements already indicated on the label of the sample, one
must note:
The operating conditions of the equipment:
The work atmosphere (pollution, dust), severity of the operating conditions (temperature, pressure), actual
hours of operation.
The stresses to which the lubricant is subjected:

Volume of the tank, quality of the filtration, temperature.
The components of the circuit:

Nature of the metals of the elements subjected to wear.
Any alteration in the customary conditions of use will be noted: Change of filter, unwanted conditions (hose
breakage, increases in pressure or temperature).
We should note that the gathering of this information, together with that of the results of analysis will be
made easier by using a computer file and software adapted to the specific problems of lubrication. This will
enable one to organise the work scheduled, while at the same time retaining the memory and know-how of
the maintenance crews.
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3 MAIN CHARACTERISTICS MEASURED ON USED OILS
3.A APPEARANCE
A mere visual examination coupled with an assessment of the smell sometimes makes it possible to detect
very simply certain anomalies concerning both pollution and changes specific to the lubricant. As a guide to
a continuation of the diagnosis, some highly useful rules of interpretation will be found below. These can be
applied on the industrial site itself:
If the lubricant has a cloudy appearance

• One examines the hypothesis of a mixture with non-miscible products: mixture of a mineral lubricant
and a synthetic lubricant, mixture of the lubricant with a solvent. For confirmation of one or other of
these hypotheses, one pursues the analysis by measuring other characteristics: viscosity, flash
point (see below).
• One should also consider the possibility of an abnormal presence of water: this has to be confirmed
by the water determination (see below).
If the lubricant has a milky appearance, two hypotheses can be made:

• If the milky appearance is constant, one can well imagine the presence of water. This will need to be
confirmed by water determination.
• If the milky appearance proves temporary, the air release properties of the oil will be measured in
order to see if this is indeed a temporary phenomenon of oil airing.
If the lubricant has a brown/reddish appearance and gives off a «burnt» smell, one has to envisage
the possibility of thermal degradation of the lubricant: this needs to be confirmed by measurement of the
acid number and the viscosity index (see below).
Table in summary
Characteristic Hypothesis Advice as to maintenance

Cloudy appearance Mixture Verify possibilities of introduction
water of water or other fluids
Milky appearance water. Verify possibilities of error

air release regarding fluids
Brown/reddish appearance oxidation Examine hot spots in the circuit
3.B WATER CONTENT

Water is a poor lubricant and can therefore provoke machine malfunctions. Moreover, it is conducive to
ageing of the oil and metal corrosion.
The possibilities ingress of water into a lubricating system are numerous: coolant leakage, passage of
steam through turbine oil, passage of aqueous cutting fluid into machine-tool lubrication oil, etc. The
presence of water may result quite simply from breathing damp air into the oil circuit.
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3.B.1 PRINCIPLES OF MEASUREMENT
Water content can be measured according to various methods. To mention only the main ones:
Determination by evolution of hydrogen:

The method is based on measurement of the volume of hydrogen resulting from the effect of the water
contained in the test oil on an excess of calcium hydride
Coulometric measurement (Karl Fisher) is carried out by coulometry.
This method is based on a quantity measurement of electric power proportional to the amount of water
contained in the sample. It is sensitive to 5 ppm of water. (Some additives can affect the result so care is
needed in using this method)
Measurement by solvent flooding :
The sample, mixed with a solvent (xylene) is brought to reflux; the water is distilled over by the solvent into
a graduated tube and the water content is read off directly after the water has settled out.
Standard:
ISO 3733
3.B.2 DIAGNOSIS
If the water content is abnormally high, an investigation needs to be made to determine the source: water
condensation, introduction of water or aqueous products or accumulation of water (low points of the
installations).
The maximal water content varies from one lubricant to another; for example:
• Mineral hydraulic fluid, turbine oil: 0.2%

• Machine oils, reducers: 0.5%
• Oils for refrigerating machine compressors: 100 ppm
• Insulating oils: 30 ppm
• Quenching oils: 0.02%
3.B.3 CONSEQUENCES RESULTING FROM THE PRESENCE OF WATER
It is essential, in all cases in which the water content is excessive, to eradicate the problem, for the
disadvantages are as follows:
Insulating oils: the decrease in dielectric strength is highly sensitive to the presence of water; this property
has to be monitored.
Quenching: water leads to a drop in the cooling value / convection and modifies the quenching properties;
the cooling curve of the oil must be measured. The presence of water can also result in splashing of hot oil
just as the parts are being immersed.
All applications: corrosion is to be feared once there has been introduction of water into an oil circuit
where water is not expected, together with scaling of rolling bearings once the «free» water is present.
All lubricants: hydrolysis can lead to degradation of the additives; the following will then become apparent:
• A reduction in the zinc content (hydraulic...)

• A reduction in the acid number, particularly as regards hydraulic oils and reducers. The antiwear
properties of the lubricants risk being reduced by the prolonged presence of water.
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3.C DEMULSIFICATON
One of the important characteristics to monitor in the case of ingress of water is the capacity of the lubricant
to separate easily from the water and fails to form a stable emulsion. This runs the risk of causing damage
of a mechanical nature as well as very extensive corrosion (except of course for so-called «soluble» oils
and hydraulic detergent oils).
Measurement of demulsification is carried out in accordance with the ISO 6614 standard, known as «blade»
demulsification or water separation test. The measurement principle is as follows: 40 ml of distilled water
and 40 ml of test oil contained in a 100 ml glass gauge are agitated using a rectangular blade. This blade is
attached to the shaft of an electric motor, which causes it to revolve at 1500 revs/minute around its
longitudinal axis. The agitation is halted after 5 minutes. The blade is withdrawn, and every 5 minutes an
observation is made of the volume of emulsion continuing to exist between two layers of oil and water.
Demulsification is the time as measured in minutes needed for the volume of emulsion to become less than
or equal to 3 ml.
The measurement is commonly carried out at 55°C.
For oils with a viscosity greater than 90 centistokes at 40°C, a higher the temperature is used (82°C).
Expression of the results:

1st example: 40 -40- 0 in minutes means that complete separation is achieved within 20 minutes.
2nd example: 39 -35 -6 in 60 minutes means that after 60 minutes one observes 39 ml of oil, 35 ml of water
and 6 ml of emulsion.
In summary:
Abnormal presence of water
 Proceed immediately with elimination of the water
 Verify capacity of the lubricant to separate from the water
 Demulsibility
3.D PARTICLES
As part of a predictive maintenance policy, it is of very great importance to detect the particles present in
the oil, and to know their nature, as these particles are the sign of pollution or degradation of the equipment
(dust, sand, oil carbon, metal wear or rust particles, paint scales, broken seals, fibres, etc); furthermore, one
must seek to eliminate them for they can accelerate the wear rate of the equipment.
We now propose to review the various methods for detecting these particles, some of which are better
suited to certain fluids than others.
3.D.1 SEDIMENTS
Measurement of the quantity of sediments is determined by filtration on nylon cloth with a porosity of 1
micron or 51 microns. The nylon cloth is weighed before testing. Immediately after filtration, it is rinsed in
hexane then reweighed to obtain the percentage of sediments in the oil. An examination of the deposit can
also be carried out under a microscope.
3.D.2 PARTICLE INDEX

The measurement of the particle index also brings into play a filtration procedure: the floating wear and
pollution particles are retained on a white filtration diaphragm (5 microns). A light source positioned on the
periphery of the diaphragm is reflected then condensed on a photosensitive element. The amount of light
measured by the photosensitive element is directly linked to the number and size of the particles present on
the diaphragm. The measurement consists in carrying out calibration taking as a basis a new diaphragm,
then subjecting the diaphragm for monitoring to optical enumeration. Overall pollution can then be read off
directly. This amounts to measurement of the particle index shown on the results of analysis.
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The filtrating diaphragm is then observed under a microscope. The size, form and number of particles
enable one to gauge their origins and detect the causes of unwanted conditions. The taking of photographs
makes it possible to display and retain the information concerning the samples analysed.
3.D.3 FERROGRAPHY
Ferrography is the study of the particles present in oil, which it classifies by size and magnetic susceptibility.
The magnetic separation to which it resorts permits classification by size for very strongly magnetic
particles and supplies the quantity of these particles. In this way indications can be obtained concerning:
• The part undergoing wear,

• The type and extent of the wear,
• And possibly the cause.
Ferrography is highly specific to magnetic particles and provides no information on non-magnetic particles ,
especially external pollution.
3.D.4 PARTICLE COUNT (HIAC)
Hydraulic oils call for special attention because of the sensitivity of the control valves to abrasive particles
(servo valves).
Two methods of particle counting are used:
«Manual» counting: this consists in filtrating a known volume of oil onto a gridded filtrating diaphragm,
then in carrying out statistical counting by observation of certain zones of the grid, under a microscope. This
is a very laborious and hardly repeatable method; it is generally applied to fluids with a high contamination.
(ISO 4407)
«Automatic» counting on an HIAC meter: the oil circulates at a set speed in a tube positioned
perpendicularly to a luminous beam. A photosensitive cell records the variation in luminous intensity as
each particle passes through. The sensor therefore detects the number and size of the particles.
This information is transmitted to a meter that classifies the particles by size.
• 5 to 15 microns
• 15 to 25 microns
• Over 100 microns
Taking these counts as a basis, one immediately obtains the grade of pollution as defined by the NAS 1638
American Aeronautical Specification that comprises 12 grades.
Table of NAS grades (see annex)
3.D.5 ADVICE AS TO MAINTENANCE
When the sediment or particle content is abnormally high, it is necessary to eradicate this situation so as to
prevent any abnormal wear in the equipment.
The following points will be examined:
• Pollution can originate from poor cleaning during an oil drain; one must therefore monitor this
operation when the next oil drain is carried out.
• Pollution may also occur when topping-up is carried out using polluted containers or without
precautions being taken.
• Also to be checked: the tightness of the installation, plug, inspection plate, and shifting valve.
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3.E EMISSION SPECTROMETRY: DETECTION OF WEAR METALS, OIL
ADDITIVES, CONTAMINANTS
Emission spectrometry using an argon plasma torch (giving very high temperatures) and measures the
characteristic wavelength and intensity of the elements present in the oil: metal traces, alkaline-earth
elements, and silicon, i.e. elements representative of wear or oil additives, or contaminating elements.
3.E.1 PRINCIPLE OF THE METHOD
The principle of emission spectrometry using a plasma torch is as follows:

Argon current circulates in a quartz tube where it is raised to a very high temperature – of the order of
10000 degrees Kelvin- by electromagnetic discharge. At this high temperature, the violent collisions
between atoms cause the separation of electrons with the result that one obtains a mixture of atoms, free
electrons, positive ions and excited particles.
This argon plasma emits light and takes on the appearance of a torch. A solution of known concentration of
the test oil is sprayed in another argon current and fed regularly into this plasma that will raise it to a
temperature of the same order. The atoms of the elements to be tested are excited, that is to say that one
or more of their electrons are raised to a higher energy level. On its return to the normal state, the electron
returns the energy in the form of radiation whose wavelength is specific to the element to be tested.
The polychromator isolates each of these radiations and directs it towards a photoelectron multiplier that
converts the light received into electric current. From the intensity of this current one can deduce the
element content.
The plasma torch is increasingly replacing the other methods of emission spectrometry -flame, spark, arc –
which are less sensitive and often less repeatable. It also replaces atomic absorption spectrometry, which
has the disadvantage of being a sequential, and therefore too slow a method. The very high temperature of
the plasma torch increases the sensitivity since the excitation increases.
3.E.2 TESTED ELEMENTS
The six main metals commonly seen as representative of wear are: tin (Sn), lead (Pb), iron (Fe), chromium
(Cr), aluminium (Al), and copper (Cu).
Correct interpretation of the contents of wear metals requires a good knowledge of the components in
contact with the oil. It is also highly desirable to be able to make a comparison with the previous analyses of
the same oil circuit as well as with the reference values established on the basis of a large number of
results obtained with identical or similar equipment used under closely related conditions.
The plasma torch also makes it possible to detect certain addition elements in the oil: phosphorus (P),
calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), zinc (Zn). These results provide indications as to consumption of certain
additives and, in certain cases, contamination with another oil. Progressive consumption of oxidation, wear
and corrosion inhibitors that react chemically in order to perform their function is quite normal.
Silicon (Si) is also always detected. It is usually representative of dust pollution but the result needs to be
interpreted by comparison with new oil for the latter can contain such silicones as antifoaming agents.
Silicon can also come from the wear of the steel parts.
3.E.3 CLOSED FLASH POINT
The flash point of oil is the minimum temperature to which it must be raised for the vapours emitted to ignite
spontaneously in the presence of a flame.
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The essential advantage of the flash point is that it provides information about a possible fire risk and the
presence of (abnormally) high overheating in the oil circuit.
To measure the flash point, the oil contained in a cup is gradually heated at a well-defined rate. The NF T
60-103 standard describes a method for determining the closed flash point, that is to say the cup is fitted
with a top with a port that can be opened or closed where a permanent pilot flame is present. The flash
point is the temperature of the oil at the moment when a naked flame is inserted into the closed cup and a
flash occurs caused by the flammable oil vapours.
The automatic device strictly observes the NF T 60-103 standard. The speed at which the temperature rises
is controlled by a microprocessor. The flash point is detected and the result is displayed, in the absence of
any intervention by an operative. For fine-scale interpretation of the measurement of the flash point, it is
necessary to correlate it with the measurements of viscosity (see following paragraph « Viscosities”).
Overall it can be said that:
• A decrease in the flash point can signify pollution caused by a gas or a liquid more volatile than oil.
• It can also signify the start of cracking, for example in the case of heat transfer or quenching.
3.F VISCOSITY AND THE VISCOSITY INDEX

The viscosity of a lubricant is a very important characteristic when it comes to recommending a lubricant for
service fill lubricants.
3.F.1 MEASUREMENT PRINCIPLES
Viscosity represents the resistance opposed by the lubricant to displacement of its molecules in relation to
one another.
Kinematic viscosity is obtained by comparing the flow time of the test oil with that of a calibration oil, in the
same capillary, under identical conditions e.g at the same temperature (ISO 3104). Viscosities are
measured using Houillon semi-automated, laser detection capillary viscometers. These viscometers are
coupled to a calculator that provides the viscosities at the chosen temperatures on the basis of the flow
times.
The viscosity index is a number that characterises the variation in viscosity as a function of the temperature.
The smaller the variation the higher the viscosity index. To this effect, kinematic viscosity is measured at
40°C and 100°C. (ISO 2909).
Viscosity may be influenced in one direction or another by various factors:

• It can be increased by oxidation or by the addition more viscous oil.
• It can be decreased by soluble gases in the oil or by the addition of more fluid oil. The cracking of a
heat transfer fluid caused by excessive heating, also results in a fall in viscosity.
Viscosity and the viscosity index of a HV hydraulic oil can be lowered by partial shearing of the polymer.
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3.F.2 GUIDE TO INTERPRETATION
Viscosity
If the viscosity at 40 °C is abnormally high (> + 15% of the viscosity of the new oil) : One completes the
diagnosis by measurement of the acid number (see below) :
If the acid number is normal, one may suppose a mixture of oil with another grade of the same quality.
If the acid number has increased (+ 0.5), one may suppose that the lubricant has undergone oxidation.
To extend the diagnosis further, one measures the zinc and phosphorus content:
A decrease in the zinc content and normal phosphorus content make it possible to confirm the
hypothesis of oxidation. One then proceeds to drain the lubricant; if the lifetime of the oil seems too short
compared with the normal lifetime, a search will be made for the hot points in the oil circuit.
If the zinc and phosphorus content is normal, one may conclude that there has been a mixing of the
lubricant with an acid product the origin of which will be sought (low content).
Viscosity at 40°C (too high: + 15%) Check for possibilities of:
Normal acid number mixture of grades

High acid number (oxidation) acid pollution, overheating
If the viscosity at 40 °C is abnormally low (< -15% of the viscosity of new oil), one measures the flash
point:
• If the flash point is abnormally low (discrepancy of -20 °C compared with new oil), two
hypotheses need to be examined:
o The oil may possibly have been mixed with a solvent; in this case, the viscosity at 100 °C
and the viscosity index have also dropped; the nature of the solvent may be revealed by an
infrared spectrum.
o The oil may also have undergone cracking: this hypothesis may be accepted in the case of
oil circuits raised to a very high temperature; for a heat transfer fluid, this is an important
characteristic (fire risks ).
• If the flash point is normal, one can accept:
o The hypothesis of a mixture with a different grade and the possibility of shearing of the oil:
this naturally only concerns oils with a high viscosity index (> 110) and can be confirmed by
measurement of the VIE (viscosity at 40 °C and 100 °C and calculation of the VIE).
Viscosity at 40°C too low (-15%) Check for:

Low flash point ( possible cracking) the temperature levels
VIE too low (eventual shearing) the number of hours of the oil charge
Other possibilities ( mixtures) Possibilities of pollution/ mixtures
 If the viscosity at 100°C is abnormally low (-15% compared with the viscosity of new oil):
 For oils with a VIE < 100, one accepts the hypotheses of a mixture with:
o A solvent (measure the flash point)
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o Another grade, to be given added weight by measurement of viscosity at 40°C, and the additives
content (Zn, P) for doped oils
 For oils with a high VIE, one should refer to the conclusions seen previously: hypotheses of mixture,
hypothesis of shearing of the VIE additives (see viscosity at 40°C); for polyglycol-type synthetic oils, one
can only accept the hypothesis of a mixture.
In summary: viscosity index too low: interpret at the same time viscosities at 40 and 100 °C to confirm the
different hypotheses of shearing and mixtures with other products.
3.G ACID NUMBER
Measurement of the acid number has already been mentioned several times as a very important
characteristic of service fill oils.
3.G.1 PRINCIPLE
The acid number is the number of milligram of potassium hydroxide needed to neutralise one gram of oil.
Many additive oils present when new have an apparent acid number, which originates from the reaction of
the potassium hydroxide with the additives.
It is usually measured by titration in accordance with the ISO 6618 standard: the end of the reaction can be
detected by the change in colour of a coloured indicator.
The acid number is sometimes measured using the ASTM D 664 method: this is a potentiometric method
that calls for use of a pH-metre. This acid number is commonly called T.A.N. (Total Acid Number).
These measurements are carried out automatically on a titrator fitted with a sample changer.
Oxidation of a lubricant leads to formation of acid products and therefore to an increase in the acid number.
The acid number can consequently be a useful item of information in assessing oxidation but it must be
used with caution for a good new oil can also have a high acid number due to the presence of certain
additives. What one has to look at then is the variation in the acid number. However what complicates
interpretation still further is that one may observe a decrease in the number resulting from partial and quite
normal consumption of additives.
For this reason one couples interpretation of the acid number with other determinations (viscosity, closed
flash point) and with measurements of the additive content of the oil (emission spectrometry, infrared, etc.).
One then proceeds to the following analytical schema.
3.G.2 GUIDE TO INTERPRETATION
 If the acid number or the TAN is abnormally low, one can formulate the following hypotheses:
- Mixture with differently additive oil: to be confirmed by measurements of additives (parallel reduction in
the zinc and phosphorus content, for example, for a hydraulic oil).
- Possibility of hydrolysis of the additives to be correlated with the presence of water and to be confirmed
by a drop in the zinc content (for a phosphorus content identical in the hydraulic case).
- Possibility of consumption of the additives: to be correlated with the number of hours of service of the
lubricant.
 If the acid number or the TAN is abnormally high, one has to accept two main hypotheses:
- Mixture with a differently additive oil (to be confirmed by measurement of Zn and P).
- Oxidation of the lubricant; this hypothesis can be confirmed by the following measurements:
. Increased absorption au the level of the infrared spectrum bands,
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. Increased viscosity at 40 °C,
. Consumption of the additives (Zn) and stability of the phosphorus content.
3.H INFRARED SPECTROMETRY

Infrared spectrometry is not a measurement carried out systematically; its main purpose is to detect
contamination or to reveal oxidation of the lubricant.
In practice, the ageing of a lubricant results in part from fixation of oxygen on the hydrocarbon molecules of
which it is composed. Oxidation results in the formation of acid products that can be measured as the acid
number:
- By colorimetry (ISO 6618 method)
- By potentiometry (ASTM D 664 method): measurement of the T.A.N. (Total Acid Number).
The oxidation of oil can also be measured by infrared absorption spectrometry. This technique offers the
advantage of also permitting measurement of nitration, another factor of ageing in the case of engine oils.
3.H.1 PRINCIPLE
The absorption spectrum of a substance is obtained by passing infrared radiation onto a cell containing a
thin film of the lubricant.
An infrared absorption spectrum use is made of continuous radiation over a range of wavelengths
stretching from 2.5 to 30 micrometers approximately. In this area, each chemical bond, i.e. each bond
between atoms or groupings of atoms within the molecule absorbs one or more wavelengths and begins to
vibrate. The radiation thus absorbed by each functional group (acid, alcohol, amine or nitrate, etc.) will be
missing from the light spectrum after scanning the lubricant sample . The spectrum will present absorption
bands. The wavelength of the band is characteristic of a chemical function.
The intensity absorbed depends on the concentration.
The wavelength is often expressed as a wave number (cm-1): this is the reverse of the wavelength
expressed in cm.
The intensity absorbed is expressed in absorbance by centimetre of sample thickness:

Absorbance/cm = (log (lo/l)) / e
lo = incident intensity of light
l = intensity of light transmitted
e = sample thickness in cm
Functioning of an infrared absorption spectrograph
A source (1) emitting a continuous spectrum in the 2.5 to 30 micrometers range is at the origin of two
optical paths one of which traverses a «reference» cell and the other a «sample» cell. An assembly with a
rotating semi-mirror (2) makes it possible to run now the «reference» signal, now the «sample> signal
alternatively in the direction of the monochromator (3) then of the detector (4). An electronic automatic
control device, coupled to the thermoelectric detector, compares at each instant the difference in absorption
that may exist for each wavelength on the two optical path lengths. It compensates for any possible energy
unbalance by inserting a «comb» into the «reference» beam. The recorder jewel describes the comb’s
displacements curve as a function of the wavelength (or wave number). This curve is an I.R absorption
spectrum.
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Aside from detection of polluting products, interpretation of the infrared spectrum enables one to refine the
diagnosis after completion of the acid number and TAN measurements. We shall now look at one case in
particular, namely the interpretation of the nitration of gas motor- compressor oils:
3.H.2 NITRATION OF GAS MOTOR-COMPRESSOR OILS
All internal combustion engines, whether spark ignition or not, produce nitrogen oxides (NOx) from the
nitrogen and oxygen in the air under the effect of high pressures and temperatures. The NOx content of the
combustion gases depends to an enormous extent on the tuning of the engine (advanced ignition and fuel
content in the case of gas motor-compressors). Since the segmentation tightness cannot be absolute,
combustion gases (blow-by gases) migrate into the crankcase and the nitrogen oxides contained in these
gases may react with the oil molecules. These nitration products increase the viscosity of the oil. Moreover,
laboratory tests have shown that the presence of nitrogen oxides catalyses the oxidation.
The need to change engine oil is dictated by:

- Its ageing (oxidation, nitration, consumption of a large proportion of the additives, etc.)
- Its contamination (carbonaceous material, lead salts, motor fuel, water, etc.)
Very often, it is the contamination that makes an oil change obligatory.
But in the case of gas motor-compressors, it is usually ageing that decides the issue for these engines burn
a very clean fuel, and contamination is low, which also makes for oil change intervals of several thousands
of hours with good oils.
3.I FOAMING
3.I.1 PRINCIPLE
The foaming of oil is characterised by the volume of foam and its persistence.
The measurement is carried out in accordance with the ISO 6247 standard: a 190 ml sample, contained in
a 1000 ml graduated glass gauge, is subjected to blowing air amounting to 95 ml per minute through a
porous sphere. The blowing of air lasts 5 minutes, after which the oil is left to rest.
The volume of foam measured after the 5 minutes of air blowing is the foaming tendency.
The volume of foam remaining after 10 minutes of rest is the stability or persistence of the foam.
Foaming can be carried out according to 3 different sequences:
• Sequence I: test at 24°C,

• Sequence II: test at 93°C,
• Sequence III: test at 24°C on the sample that has just undergone the test at 93°C.
3.I.2 INTERPRETATION
When air is introduced into oil by mechanical agitation or blowing, etc., foam can form on the surface.
Foaming can result in oil losses caused by overflowing of a crankcase or tank. This promotes oxidation by
an increase in the air-oil contact surface. Very powerful foaming can lead to draining of the oil pump.
Foaming oil passing through a bearing results in a very thin oil film, which may result in bearing seizure.
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Foaming can be due to pollution. It can also result from intake of air into the oil circuit. The reasons for
excessive foaming are as follows:
• Return to the tank above the oil level,

• Very low volume of the oil charge given the flow and the oil pressure,
• Contamination, e.g. calcium from lagging
• The need to add antifoaming agents.
3.J AIR RELEASE

Under the effect of powerful mechanical agitation or strong blowing of air, numerous air bubbles are
dispersed in the oil mass (contrary to the foam which forms above the oil).
3.J.1 PRINCIPLE
The air release time characterises the capacity of the oil to release the previously dispersed air when the oil
is returned to the tank.
The measurement is carried out in accordance with the ISO 9120 standard. Air under pressure (200 mbar)
is blown into a test intake containing 180 ml of oil through a 2 mm diameter nozzle for 7 minutes.
Immediately after blowing ceases, the plunger of a hydrostatic balance enables one to read off every
minute the density of oil in the process of air release. One deduces from the density the percentage in
volume terms of dispersed air.
By definition, the air release time is the number of minutes needed for the percentage in volume terms of
dispersed air not to exceed 0.2 %.
The measurement is usually carried out at 50 °C.
3.J.2 CONSEQUENCES AND REMEDIES
This air release can offer drawbacks:
• Reduction in the lift of the oil film,

• Acceleration of the oxidation rate due to an increase in the oil-air contact surface,
• Increased compressibility of the oil and thus a rise in the temperature and worsening of oxidation
and disturbed functioning of a hydraulic drive,
• Risk of cavitation.
The anomalies affecting air release of the oil system originated from:
• Either from contamination (silicones gaskets and sealing compounds),

• Or ageing of the oil.
3.K DIELECTRIC STRENGTH

The Dielectric Strength or breakdown voltage is the property possessed by insulating oils that prevents the
formation of an arc under the effect of an intense electric field.
The method of measurement is the EN 60156 standard. The test consists in applying between 2 electrodes,
2.5 mm apart and immersed in the test oil, and increasingly alternating voltage is applied, at a frequency of
50 Hz until breakdown of a dielectric occurs. This important characteristic depends essentially on the
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cleanness of the oil. The latter is reduced by the presence of water and suspended matter. It enables one to
decide on the opportune moment for treatment by drying and filtration.
In certain cases as well, one has to change the oil in which oxidation of the product exceeds a certain level
(acid number > 0.2).
3.L DRASTICITY
The drasticity of quenching oil represents its ability to cool a metal mass that has been previously raised to
a high temperature. Drasticity is representative of the quenching power of oil.
3.L.1 MEASUREMENT PRINCIPLE
The Technical Heat Treatment Association (T.H.T.A) developed the drasticity test. It consists in heating a
silver measuring cylinder fitted with a thermal converter to 800°C then immersing it in a test oil sample. The
thermal converter is linked to 2 recording devices that simultaneously plot the 2 “time function temperature”
and “cooling rate function temperature” curves.
Drasticity is defined essentially by taking as a basis two characteristic temperatures read off from these two
curves:
Θ1, Magnetic transition temperature between then heating and ebullition phases
Θ2, Magnetic transition temperature between the ebullition and convection phases
Monitoring of the drasticity of service fill oil enables one to ensure that its action as regards the mechanical
properties of the parts has not changed.
3.L.2 INTERPRETATION
Regarding interpretation of the measurements, the following cases need to be distinguished: Excluding any
suggestion of mixture or pollution, the following may be taken into account:
 The decrease of Θ1 may be due to consumption of the quenching accelerator additive. In this
case, one can proceed with an addition
 The increase in Θ1 may originate from oxidation of the oil; in this case, one also retains the
increase in the acid number. Beyond a certain limit, one has to drain the bath to preserve the
quenching qualities.
 The decrease of Θ2 may be due to abnormal presence of water, which can be confirmed by a
water content.
3.M RAMSBOTTOM RESIDUE

When oil is raised to high temperature in a confined atmosphere, above 320/350°C initial cracking takes
place. That is to say that, on the one hand there is the formation of smaller and more volatile molecules that
distil, and on the other, more carbon-rich, more or less polymerised and less oil-soluble molecules.
Pursuing this pyrolysis, one ends up with a very carbon-rich solid residue known as coke.
A heat transfer fluid can undergo initial cracking in the event of overheating. The formation of volatile
fractions tends to cause its flash point to drop. The formation of carbon-rich and more or less polymerised
molecules causes its Ramsbottom residue to rise. These relatively little-soluble molecules can, in part,
agglomerate on the walls of the installation in the form of insulating deposits and reduce the heat exchange
qualities of the circuit. In practice, the Ramsbottom residue can be measured once measurement of the
flash point has revealed the phenomenon of degradation of the oil. In this way, it is possible to determine,
aside from the fire risks, the proper time for draining the circuit .
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The ISO 4262 «Determination of the Ramsbottom residue» method makes it possible to quantify this coke-
forming tendency. A known weight of oil sample is injected into a glass bomb and inserted into a furnace at
550 °C for 20 minutes. The coke that forms in the glass bomb tube is the Ramsbottom residue and this is
cooled and weighed. This result is expressed as a percentage of the sample of oil taken.
3.N DETERGENCY TEST (ENGINE OILS)

This test is very specific as regards engine oils given that it aims to qualify the following properties:
• Carbonisation of service fill oil by un burnt particles (low-temperature carbonisation),

• Residual dispersing power of the oil and ability to maintain these particles in suspension.
It can also reveal a certain oxidation of the oil and the presence of un burnt fuel in the oil.
This is a very simple test, consists of depositing a drop of the oil sample on a filter paper and in examining
the stain after diffusion over the paper, more often than not at ambient temperature and sometimes also at
high temperature (200 °C, so as to ascertain among others the dispersing power of the oil in the hottest
parts of the engine).
Examination of the stain reveals :
• A more or less black central stain depending on carbonisation of the oil,

• A grey, more or less broad circular stain depending whether dispersion is still effective or not.
Note: by way of a complementary analysis for engine oils, there will be measurement of «dilution», that is to
say the dosage of fuel oils present in the oil (ASTM D 32, ASTM D 3524, ASTM D 3535 methods). These
methods of measurement are based on distillation or water drive methods, followed by measurements of
volumes on the one hand and chromatography on the other.
Dilution can also be verified by measurement of the closed flash point after calibration.
3.O SPECIFIC TESTS FOR SOLUBLE OILS

So-called «soluble oils- oil / water emulsions) are subjected to very particular degradation phenomena due
to the presence of water: namely bacterial contamination. Among the characteristics easily monitored in
service, we have chosen two:
• Measurement of the pH «<hydrogen potential”) enables one to detect the formation of acidity (pH = -
log [H + ]); this acidity corresponds to the multiplication of the micro organisms which, finding as
they do within a soluble oil a medium conducive to their development (water and hydro carbonated
substances) produce acid substances.
• To verify whether the acidification of the medium does indeed correspond to this proliferation, one
determines the number of bacteria, mould fungi or fungi with the aid of specific test. This involves
taking a sample of the emulsion and dropping it onto a dip slide which is coated with a nutritive
mixture specific to one of these families of micro organisms: If bacteria are present, they will develop
rapidly and (24h) form colonies on the surface of the dip slide. These colonies will be enumerated
visually and a scale of correspondence will then make it possible to link the number obtained to the
number of micro organisms actually present within the fluid in service.
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Even if these microorganisms are not harmful to man, it is important to limit their growth so as to prevent:
• The forming of unpleasant smells,

• The breaking of the emulsion and loss of the properties of the fluid,
• The corrosion that can be caused by too great a drop in the pH,
• The formation of deposits, sealing of the spraying and recycling circuits.
To eliminate bacterial proliferation, various preventive maintenance measures are essential:
• Clean a machine with a disinfectant product prior to any use of a new fluid,
• Avoid polluting fluids with other products,
• Eliminate leakage of lubrication oil from machine-tools and neat oil / soluble oil mixtures,
• Monitor the pH level and the microorganisms level so as to carry out in good time appropriate
treatment of the emulsion by addition of a bactericide or fungicide.
Note: other characteristics are measured in service, notably:
• Determination of concentration of the emulsion by using a refractrometer, corrections can be made

for increasing or reducing the emulsion strength accordingly.
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ANNEXES
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1 VISCOSITY
1.A CLASSIFICATION OF ISO VISCOSITIES
Limit of
ISO viscosity class Median cSt Kinematic cSt viscosity at 40°C
Kinematic
Viscosity Minimum Maximum
at 40 °C
ISO VG 2 2.2 1.90 2.42
ISO VG 3 3.2 2.88 3.52
ISO VG 5 4.6 4.14, 5.06
ISO VG 7 6.8 6.12 7.48
ISO VG 10 10 9.00 11.00
ISO VG 15 15 13.50 16.50
ISO VG 22 22 19.00 24.20
ISO VG 32 32 28.80 35.20
ISO VG 46 46 41.40 50.60
ISO VG 68 68 61.20 74.80
ISO VG 100 100 90.00 110.00
ISO VG 150 150 135.00 165.00
ISO VG 220 220 198.00 242.00
ISO VG 320 320 288.00 352.00
ISO VG 460 460 414.00 506.00
ISO VG 680 680 612.00 748.00
ISO VG 1000 1000 900.00 1100.00
ISO VG1500 1500 1350.00 1650.00
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1.B Comparison of Viscosity Classes
Comparison of the various viscosity classes

1000 50
1000
950 48
900 250 46
850 44
800 42
750 40
700 680 190 38
Viscosity at 100°C
Viscosity at 40°C
625 36
550 34
mm2/s
500 32
mm2/s
450 460 30
400 140 28
365 26
315 320 60 24
280 110 22
240 20
205 220 50 18
175 90 16
140 150 40 14
115 85W 12
100 30
85 10
68 80W
60 8
46 20 / 15W
40 32 6
75W
20 22 10W 4
15
10 10 2
SAE SAE
ISO LUBRICANTS LUBRICANTS
for TRANSMISSIONS for ENGINES
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2 GREASES
2.A NLGI CLASSIFICATION
(NLGI: National Lubricating Grease Institute)
In the same way as one classifies oils on the basis of their viscosity
(ISO grade), one classifies greases on the basis of their consistency
PENETRATION NLGI
Consistency (P60 at 25°C - 10-1 mm)
GRADES
(ISO 2137)
445 – 475 000

Fluid greases 400 – 430 00
355 – 385 0
Semi -fluid greases
310 – 340 1
265 – 295 2
Medium greases 220 – 250 3
175 – 205 4
130 – 160 5
Hard greases
85 -115 6
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2.B CRITERIA GOVERNING SOAP SELECTION
DROP RESISTANCE ADHESIVEN SHEAR

GELLANT
POINT TO WATER ESS RESISTANCE
Stearate Ca 80 –105 Excellent Good Excellent
Stearate Al 95 –140 Excellent Excellent Bad
Stearate Na 150 – 200 Nil Good Average

Ca 12 hydroxy
150 Excellent Good Good
Stearate
Li 12 hydroxy
185 – 210 Good Good Excellent
Stearate
Al 220 – 250 Excellent Excellent Good

Complex
soaps Ca > 280 Excellent Very Good Good
Li > 240 Good Very Good Excellent
Polyurea 250 – 280 Good Good Good
Silica Gel No drop Average Average Average
Bentone point Average Poor Average
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2.C ADVANTAGES and DISADVANTAGES of GREASE LUBRICATION
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
SEALING AND LUBRICATION SYSTEM
• Less cumbersome • Limited pumpability (low
• Simpler and more effective temperature, circuit range)
• Less expensive (particularly in
vertical wiring)
COOLING OF PARTS
• No dissipation of heat
LUBRICATION
• Can bear heavy loads and • Often considerable wear due to

shocks impurities
• Compatible with prolonged • Possible ejection of lubricant under
periods of shutdown heavy load
MAINTENANCE OF EQUIPMENT
• Reduction in maintenance
- Ease of lubrication • Difficulties with comprehensive
revamping
- Low frequency
• No elimination of wear particles
- Sealing function
and pollutants
• Lifetime lubrication possible
• Greases occasionally incompatible
for parts with difficult access
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2.D COMPATIBILITY OF SOAPS
Calcium
Lithium Lithium Calcium Aluminium
Lithium Calcium Complex Polyurea Bentone Sodium
Calcium Complex Complex Complex
Sulfonate
Lithium OK OK OK OK OK
Calcium OK OK OK OK OK
Lithium
Calcium
OK OK OK OK OK
Lithium
Complex OK OK OK OK OK OK
Calcium
Complex OK OK OK
Calcium
Complex OK OK OK OK OK
Sulfonate
Aluminium
Complex
OK
Polyurea OK OK
Bentone OK
Sodium OK
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3 HYDRAULIC FLUIDS
3.A DIAGRAM of a HYDRAULIC CIRCUIT
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4 GEARS
4.A VISCOSITY SELECTION: PARALLEL REDUCING GEARS (by splashing)
Speed reducing ratio < 10 Speed reducing ratio > 10

SPEED
(rev/min) POWER AMBIENT TEMPERATURE
of the IN HP
pinion < 5°C 5 to 30 °C > 30 °C < 5 °C 5 to 30 °C > 30 °C
at high
speed ISO viscosity in centistokes at 40 °C
< 30 32-46 150-220 220-320- 68 220 450
30 to 100 68 220 460 100-150 320 1000
< 300 100 to 1000 100-150 320 460-680- 150 460 1000-1500
> 1000 460 100 1000 1000-1500
100-1500
100-1500
< 30 32 150 220-320 32-46 220 220-320-
300 30 to 100 32-46 220 220-320- 68 220 460
to 100 to 1000 68 200 460 100-150 320 460
1000 > 1000 100-150 320 460-680- 150 460 460-680-
1000 1000
1000-1500 1000-1500
< 10 22-32 46-68 150-220 32 100-150 220-320
1000 10 to 50 32 100-150 220-320 32-46 150-220 220-320-
to > 50 32-46 150-220 220-320- 46-68- 200 460
2500 460 100 460-680-
1000
< 10 10-15- 32-46-68 68-100-150
> 2500 10 to 50 22-32 68-100 150-220 Same recommendation as for
> 50 32 100-150- 220-320- the speed reducing ratio of less
32-46-68 220 460 than 10
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4.B VISCOSITY SELECTION: PARALLEL REDUCING GEARS
(by circulation)

SPEED
(REV/mm) POWER AMBIENT TEMPERATURE
of the IN HP
pinion at < 5°C 5 to 30 °C > 30 °C < 5 °C 5 to 30 °C > 30 °C
high speed
ISO Viscosity in centistokes at 40 °C
< 30 32 100-150 150-220 32-46-68 150-220 220
30 to 100 32-46-68 150-220 220 68-100 220 320
< 300 100 to 1000 68-100 220 460 100-150 320 460
> 1000 100-150 320 460 150 460 460
< 30 15-22-32 46-68 100-150 22 100-150 150-220

300 30 to 100 32 100-150 150-220 32-46-68 150-220 220
to 100 to 1000 32-68 150- 220 68-100 220 320
1000 > 500 68 220220 320 100-150 320 460
< 10 10-15-22 22-32 46-68 22-32 68 100-150

1000 10 to 50 22-32 46-68 100-150 32 100-150 150-220
to 50 to 500 32 100-150 150-220 32-46 150-220 220
2500 > 500 32-46-68 150-220 220 46-68 220 320
< 10 10-15-22 22-32 32-46

> 2500 10 to 50 22-32 32-46 68-100-150 Same recommendation as for
> 50 32 46-68- 150-220 the speed reducing ratio of less
100 than 10
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4.C VISCOSITY SELECTION: HYPOID ENDLESS SCREW REDUCING GEARS
(by splash lubrication)

SPEED
(rev/mm) POWER AMBIENT TEMPERATURE
of the IN HP
pinion at < 5°C 5 to 30 °C > 30 °C < 5 °C 5 to 30 °C > 30 °C
high speed
ISO viscosity in centistokes at 40 °C
< 50 All powers 320 460 680-1000 320 460 680-1000
< 50 100-150 220 320 220 320 460

50 to 100
> or = 50 220 320 460 320 460 680-1000
< 10 100-150 100-150 220 100-150 220 320

500 to 10 to 50 100-150 220 320 220 320 460
2500 > 50 220 320 460 320 460 680-1000
<3 46-68 68 100-150 100-150 100-150 220

> 2500 3 to 20 68 100-150 220 150 220 320
> 20 100-150 220 320 220 320 460
4.D VISCOSITY SELECTION: HYPOID ENDLESS SCREW REDUCING GEARS

(by circulation)
TEMPERATURE
Speed (rev/mn) POWER < 5 °C From 5 to 30 °C > 30 °C
of the screw IN HP ISO Viscosity
In Centistokes at 40 °C
< 50 All powers 220 320 460
< 50 100-150 220 200-320

50 to 100 > or = 50 220 320 320-460
< 10 100-150 150 220

500 to 2500 10 to 50 150 220 220-320
> 50 220 320 320-460
<3 46-68 68 100-150

> 2500 3 to 20 68 100-150 220
> 20 100-150 220 220-320
137/142
The preceding recommendation tables have been established for uniform loads.
To take account of the influence of the load factor on the choice of viscosity, one has to multiply the power
of the motor by the coefficient listed in the following table :
Nature of the control Uniform Slight shocks Violent shocks

movements charge
Rotating (electric motors, 1 1.25 1.75

turbines, etc…
Alternating 1.25 1.50 2
4.E GEAR LUBRICANTS SELECTION
TYPE OF GEAR TYPE OF LUBRICANTS
Medium-loaded industrial Inhibited antirust, antioxidant oils

gears Extreme-pressure oils
Heavily loaded industrial E.P. oils

gears E.P. oils + solid lubricants
Worm wheel reducing gear Synthetic oils (polyglycols)

E.P. oils
Hypoid gears API GL5 oils
Grease-lined reducing gear E.P.greases

Synthetic greases
Exposed gears Plastics

Greases with solid lubricants
138/142
4.F LUBRICATION of WORM WHEEL REDUCING GEARS
TEMPERATURE AMBIANTE
RUNNING SPLASH LUBRICATION CIRCULATING LUBRICATION SYSTEM

SPEED (m/s)
+ 5°C to + + 30°C to + + 5°C to + + 30°C to +
≤ + 5°C ≤ + 5°C
30°C 50°C 30°C 50°C
Vg > 10 220 320 320

150 150 220
3.5<Vg<10 320 680 460
1.5<Vg<3.5 220 460 220

1000 320 680
Vg<1.5 320 680
139/142
5 METAL WORKING FLUIDS
5.A CLASSIFICATION of METALWORKING FLUIDS
Machining by
Machining by
metalworking
Wire drawing
flowturning
Forging,
swaging
grinding
Electro-
Ironing,
erosion
Rolling
cutting
ISO Operations
Foil
Categories
L-MHA   
L-MHB     
L-MHC     
L-MHD  
L-MHE    
L-MHF   
L-MHG  
L-MHH 
L-MAA   
L-MAB     
L-MAC   
L-MAD   
L-MAE  
L-MAF  
L-MAG    
L-MAH   
L-MAI  
140/142
6 BEARINGS
6.A BEARINGS AND ROLLER THRUST BEARINGS – OIL LUBRICATION
Speed TEMPERATURE AND ROLLER THRUST BEARINGS –OIL LUBRICATION

(environment + overheating) in °C
of
Rotation 30 60 90 120
Rev/mn Boring in mm Boring in mm Boring in mm Boring in mm
or=5 75 100 200 400 or=5 75 100 200 400 or=5 75 100 200 400 or=5 75 100 200 400
10/150 46 32/46 32 22/32 15/22 220/ 150 150 100 68 1000/ 1000 680/ 460 320 Approximately 1500 1000/
320 1500 1000 1500
300 22/32 22 15/22 15 10/15 100 100 68 46 32/46 460 460 320 320 150 1000/ 1000 460/
1500 680
500 15/22 15 15 10 10 68 46/68 46 32 22/32 220/ 220 150 100/ 68 1000 680/ 680/ 460 320
320 150 /100 1000 1000
750 15 10/15 10 10 7 46 32/46 32 22/32 22 150 150 100 68/ 68 680/ 460 460 320 220
/150 100 1000 /680
1000 10/15 10 10 7 7 32/46 32 22/32 22 15 150 100 100 68 46 460 460 320 220 150
1500 10 7/10 7 7 5/7 22/32 22 15/22 15 10/15 100 68/ 68 46 32/46 320 220 220 150 100
100 /320
3000 7 7 5/7 5/7 5 15/22 15 15 10 10 46 46 32/46 32 22 150 150 100 68/ 68

/150 1000
5000 5/7 5/7 5 5 10/15 10/15 10 10 32/46 32 22/32 22 100 100 68/ 68
100
10000 Approximately 3 7 7 7 5/7 22 15/22 15 10/15 46/68 46 46 32
141/142
6.B PLAIN BEARINGS – OIL LUBRICATION
Load Working Speed of rotation rev/mm

temperature
(C°)
600 600/1200 1200/1300 3000
< or = 50 (1) 68 (1) 46 (1) 32 (1) 15 to 32

Low and
medium
> or = 50 approx. 15 to 20mm2/s at the temperature of use
< or = 50 (1) 100/150 (1) 68 (1) 46 (1) 32

High
> or = 50 approx. 15 to 20mm2/s at the temperature of use
< or = 50 (1) 220

Very high
> or = 50 (1)320/1000
142/142
7 COMPATIBILITY
7.A COMPATIBILITY of BASE OILS
Mineral Synthetic Polyglycol Ester Silicone

Base oil hydrocarbon
Mineral
    
Synthetic
hydrocarbon     
Polyglycol
    
Ester
    
Silicone
    
COMPATIBLE
LIMIT
UNCOMPATIBLE
143/142
7.B COMPATIBILITY with ELASTOMERS
144/142
7.C Possible consequences of a reaction between lubricant and elastomer
Elastomer
+ Oil Before contact of the
Plasticizing + rubber seal with the
Additive Additives
lubricant
Elastomer
Oil Not or limited effect on the
+ No Migration
1st Case Plasticizing
+ physical properties
Additives
additive of rubber seal
Oil
Elastomer + Drying-up of the joint with:
+ Additifs Migration of
2nd Case Plasticizing Limited effects on the rubber seal
+ plasticizing additives
additive Plasticizing Important effects on the rubber seal
95 % additive in oil
5%
Elastomer + Inflation of the joint with :

Plastifiant + Oil Migration of oil and
Oil Additives + Limited effects on the rubber seal
3rd Case additives in elatomer
5% Additives Important effects on the rubber seal
+ 95 %
Oil
Elastomer Oil
+ + No informations :
Plasticizing Additives Migration of additives
4th Case additive + Necessity of detail test
+ Plasticizing
Additives additive
Elastomer Oil
Migration of additives
+ +
Plasticizing Additives
Incompatibility of
5th Case Additive +
With important effects on the
rubber seal Elastomer and lubricant
+ Plasticizing
Oil Additives additive
145/142
146/142
8 LUBRICANTS PRODUCTION GAS (methane,ethane)
C1 , C2
ATMOSPHERIC DISTILLATION GAS (butane,propane)

C3 , C4
<180° GASOLINES
C5 à C11
SOLVENTS
180 - 200°C
LAMP OIL (kerosene...)

200-250°C C11 à C14
GAS OIL – HOME HEATING OIL

C13 to C21
250-365°C
CRUDE OIL NARROW CUT DISTILLATE 0
ATMOSPHERIC DISTILLATE
(heavy fuel oil...) C19 to C25
365-380°C
FURNACE 380°C
> 380°C
ATMOSPHERIC RESIDUE
> C 20
147/142
VISCOSITY
GAS OIL
DISTILLATE 1
DISTILLATE 2
DISTILLATE 3
DISTILLATE
UNDER VACUUM
ATMOSPHERIC DISTILLATE 4
RESIDUE
OIL 5
FURNACE 400°C
ASPHALTS
PROPANE BITUMENS
DEASPHALTING
VACUUM
RESIDUE
148/142
VISCOSITY POUR POINT COLOUR
INDEX STABILITY
DISTILLATE 1
85 N
COMPOUNDS USING FURFURAL

EXTRACTION OF AROMATIC
DISTILLATE 0
M.E.K. / TOLUENE
100 N
HYDROFINISH
DEWAXING
DISTILLATE 2
150 N
DISTILLATE 3
330 N
DISTILLATE 4
600 N
OIL 5
BSS
PARAFFINS
WAXES
Photo credit :
Turbines Françis page 81

Turbines Kaplan page 82
Turbines Pelton page 81
General Electric page 83

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Lubricants

Lubrication and Maintenance

1.B COMPOSITION OF LUBRICATING OILS .............................................................. 18

2 CHARACTERISTICS OF LUBRICATING OILS.............................................................35

2.B PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS................................................................... 38

3.D USES ............................................................................................................. 46

4 LUBRICANTS: HYGIENE, SAFETY, HANDLING .........................................................47

4.B PRECAUTIONS GOVERNING USE ....................................................................... 47

2 CLASSIFICATION BY FAMILIES .......................................................................... 53

1.B ROLLING BEARINGS ........................................................................................ 55

HYDROSTATIC TRANSMISSIONS AND THEIR FLUIDS ......................................................58

1.B FLUIDS FOR HYDROSTATIC CIRCUITS ............................................................... 65

GEARS AND THEIR LUBRICANTS........................................................................................68

1.B CONDITIONS GOVERNING USE......................................................................... 70

1.C ROLES PLAYED BY GEAR LUBRICANTS .............................................................. 71

1.D GEAR LUBRICANTS: ........................................................................................ 71

1.E METHOD OF LUBRICATION .............................................................................. 73

1.F WEAR AND MALFUNCTIONING......................................................................... 73

1.G OPERATIONAL MONITORING ........................................................................... 74

TURBINES AND THEIR LUBRICANTS...................................................................................75

1.B HYDRAULIC (HYDRO-ELECTRIC) TURBINES ....................................................... 78

1.C GAS TURBINES ............................................................................................... 79

1.D ROLES OF TURBINE LUBRICANTS AND CLASSIFICATION ..................................... 80

1.E CHOICE OF OIL .............................................................................................. 81

1.F MONITORING OF SERVICE FILL TURBINE OILS .................................................... 83

COMPRESSORS AND THEIR LUBRICANTS .........................................................................84

1.B CHOICE OF LUBRICANTS FOR COMPRESSORS .................................................... 91

MACHINES TOOLS LUBRICANTS AND CUTTING FLUIDS.................................................93

1.B CUTTING TOOLS ............................................................................................ 96

1.D CUTTING LUBRICANTS: ................................................................................... 99

EMULSIFIERS ......................................................................................................... 100

1.E MONITORING OF SERVICE FILL CUTTING OILS ................................................. 102

TRANSFORMERS-CIRCUIT BREAKERS .............................................................................103

MAINTENANCE AND SERVICE FILL LUBRICANTS............................................................107

2 SETTING UP CONDITION MONITORING OF USED OILS.......................................110

2.B LABELLING THE SAMPLE ................................................................................ 110

2.C FREQUENCY OF SAMPLING ............................................................................ 110

2.D CHOICE OF ANALYSES TO BE CARRIED OUT .................................................... 111

2.E MONITORING OF THE EQUIPMENT ................................................................. 111

3 MAIN CHARACTERISTICS MEASURED ON USED OILS..........................................112

3.B WATER CONTENT ......................................................................................... 112

3.C DEMULSIFICATON ........................................................................................ 114

3.D PARTICLES ................................................................................................... 114

3.E EMISSION SPECTROMETRY: DETECTION OF WEAR METALS, OIL ADDITIVES,

3.F VISCOSITY AND THE VISCOSITY INDEX ........................................................... 117

3.G ACID NUMBER .............................................................................................. 119

3.H INFRARED SPECTROMETRY ............................................................................ 120

3.I FOAMING .................................................................................................... 121

3.J AIR RELEASE ................................................................................................ 122

3.K DIELECTRIC STRENGTH ................................................................................. 122

3.L DRASTICITY ................................................................................................. 123

3.M RAMSBOTTOM RESIDUE ................................................................................ 123

3.N DETERGENCY TEST (ENGINE OILS) .................................................................. 124

3.O SPECIFIC TESTS FOR SOLUBLE OILS ................................................................ 124

1.B COMPARISON OF VISCOSITY CLASSES ............................................................ 129

2.B CRITERIA GOVERNING SOAP SELECTION ......................................................... 131

2.C ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF GREASE LUBRICATION ....................... 132

2.D COMPATIBILITY OF SOAPS............................................................................. 133