Python W3schools List To Array

Python Lists
mylist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
List
-Lists are used to store multiple items in a single variable.
-Lists are one of 4 built-in data types in Python used to store collections of data, the other 3 are Tuple,
Set, and Dictionary, all with different qualities and usage.
-Lists are created using square brackets:
Example
create a list:
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
print(thislist)
List Items
-List items are ordered, changeable, and allow duplicate values.
-List items are indexed, the first item has index [0], the second item has index [1] etc.
Ordered
-When we say that lists are ordered, it means that the items have a defined order, and that order will not
change.
-If you add new items to a list, the new items will be placed at the end of the list.
Note: There are some list methods that will change the order, but in general: the order of the items will
not change.
Changeable
-The list is changeable, meaning that we can change, add, and remove items in a list after it has been
created.
Allow Duplicates
-Since lists are indexed, lists can have items with the same value:
Example
Lists allow duplicate values:
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry", "apple", "cherry"]
print(thislist)
List Length
-To determine how many items a list has, use the len() function:
Example
Print the number of items in the list:
print(len(thislist))
List Items - Data Types
List items can be of any data type:
Example
String, int and boolean data types:
list1 = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
list2 = [1, 5, 7, 9, 3]
list3 = [True, False, False]
A list can contain different data types:
Example
A list with strings, integers and boolean values:
list1 = ["abc", 34, True, 40, "male"]
type ()
From Python's perspective, lists are defined as objects with the data type 'list':
<class 'list'>
Example
What is the data type of a list?
mylist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
print(type(mylist))
The list () Constructor

It is also possible to use the list () constructor when creating a new list.
Example
Using the list () constructor to make a List:
thislist = list(("apple", "banana", "cherry")) # note the double round-brackets
print(thislist)
Python Collections (Arrays)

There are four collection data types in the Python programming language:
-List is a collection which is ordered and changeable. Allows duplicate members.
-Tuple is a collection which is ordered and unchangeable. Allows duplicate members.
-Set is a collection which is unordered, unchangeable*, and unindexed. No duplicate members.
-Dictionary is a collection which is ordered** and changeable. No duplicate members.
*Set items are unchangeable, but you can remove and/or add items whenever you like.
**As of Python version 3.7, dictionaries are ordered. In Python 3.6 and earlier, dictionaries are unordered.
When choosing a collection type, it is useful to understand the properties of that type. Choosing the right type
for a particular data set could mean retention of meaning, and, it could mean an increase in efficiency or
security.
Python - Access List Items
Access Items
List items are indexed and you can access them by referring to the index number:
Example
Print the second item of the list:
print(thislist[1])
Note: The first item has index 0.
Negative Indexing
Negative indexing means start from the end
-1 refers to the last item, -2 refers to the second last item etc.
Example
Print the last item of the list:
print(thislist[-1])
Range of Indexes
You can specify a range of indexes by specifying where to start and where to end the range.
When specifying a range, the return value will be a new list with the specified items.
Example
Return the third, fourth, and fifth item:
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi", "melon", "mango"]
print(thislist[2:5])
Note: The search will start at index 2 (included) and end at index 5 (not included).
Remember that the first item has index 0.
By leaving out the start value, the range will start at the first item:
Example
This example returns the items from the beginning to, but NOT including, "kiwi":
print(thislist[:4])
By leaving out the end value, the range will go on to the end of the list:
Example
This example returns the items from "cherry" to the end:
print(thislist[2:])
Range of Negative Indexes
Specify negative indexes if you want to start the search from the end of the list:
Example
This example returns the items from "orange" (-4) to, but NOT including "mango" (-1):
print(thislist[-4:-1])
Check if Item Exists

To determine if a specified item is present in a list use the in keyword:
Example
Check if "apple" is present in the list:
if "apple" in thislist:
print("Yes, 'apple' is in the fruits list")
Python - Change List Items
Change Item Value

To change the value of a specific item, refer to the index number:
Example
Change the second item:
thislist[1] = "blackcurrant"
print(thislist)
Change a Range of Item Values

To change the value of items within a specific range, define a list with the new values, and refer to the
range of index numbers where you want to insert the new values:
Example
Change the values "banana" and "cherry" with the values "blackcurrant" and "watermelon":
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi", "mango"]
thislist[1:3] = ["blackcurrant", "watermelon"]
print(thislist)
If you insert more items than you replace, the new items will be inserted where you specified, and the remaining
items will move accordingly:
Example
Change the second value by replacing it with two new values:
thislist[1:2] = ["blackcurrant", "watermelon"]
print(thislist)
Note: The length of the list will change when the number of items inserted does not match the number of items
replaced.
If you insert less items than you replace, the new items will be inserted where you specified, and the remaining
items will move accordingly:
Example
Change the second and third value by replacing it with one value:
thislist[1:3] = ["watermelon"]
print(thislist)
Insert Items
To insert a new list item, without replacing any of the existing values, we can use the insert() method.
The insert() method inserts an item at the specified index:
Example
Insert "watermelon" as the third item:
thislist.insert(2, "watermelon")
print(thislist)
Note: As a result of the example above, the list will now contain 4 items.
Python - Add List Items

Append Items
To add an item to the end of the list, use the append() method:
Example
Using the append() method to append an item:
thislist.append("orange")
print(thislist)
Insert Items
To insert a list item at a specified index, use the insert() method.
The insert() method inserts an item at the specified index:
Example
Insert an item as the second position:
thislist.insert(1, "orange")
print(thislist)
Note: As a result of the examples above, the lists will now contain 4 items.
Extend List
To append elements from another list to the current list, use the extend() method.
Example
Add the elements of tropical to thislist:
tropical = ["mango", "pineapple", "papaya"]
thislist.extend(tropical)
print(thislist)
The elements will be added to the end of the list.
Add Any Iterable

The extend() method does not have to append lists, you can add any iterable object (tuples, sets,
dictionaries etc.).
Example
Add elements of a tuple to a list:
thistuple = ("kiwi", "orange")
thislist.extend(thistuple)
print(thislist)
Python - Remove List Items

Remove Specified Item
The remove() method removes the specified item.
Example
Remove "banana":
thislist.remove("banana")
print(thislist)
Remove Specified Index

The pop () method removes the specified index.
Example
Remove the second item:
thislist.pop(1)
print(thislist)
If you do not specify the index, the pop() method removes the last item.
Example
Remove the last item:
thislist.pop()
print(thislist)
The del keyword also removes the specified index:
Example
Remove the first item:
del thislist[0]
print(thislist)
The del keyword can also delete the list completely.
Example
Delete the entire list:
del thislist
Clear the List

The clear() method empties the list.
The list still remains, but it has no content.
Example
Clear the list content:
thislist.clear()
print(thislist)
Python - Loop Lists
Loop Through a List
You can loop through the list items by using a for loop:
Example
Print all items in the list, one by one:
for x in thislist:
print(x)
Learn more about for loops in our Python For Loops Chapter.
Loop Through the Index Numbers

You can also loop through the list items by referring to their index number.
Use the range() and len() functions to create a suitable iterable.
Example
Print all items by referring to their index number:
for i in range(len(thislist)):
print(thislist[i])
The iterable created in the example above is [0, 1, 2].
Using a While Loop

You can loop through the list items by using a while loop.
Use the len() function to determine the length of the list, then start at 0 and loop your way through the
list items by referring to their indexes.
Remember to increase the index by 1 after each iteration.
Example
Print all items, using a while loop to go through all the index numbers
i=0
while i < len(thislist):
print(thislist[i])
i=i+1
Learn more about while loops in our Python While Loops Chapter.
Looping Using List Comprehension

List Comprehension offers the shortest syntax for looping through lists:
Example
A short hand for loop that will print all items in a list:
[print(x) for x in thislist]
Python - List Comprehension
List Comprehension
List comprehension offers a shorter syntax when you want to create a new list based on the values of an
existing list.
Example:
Based on a list of fruits, you want a new list, containing only the fruits with the letter "a" in the name.
Without list comprehension you will have to write a for statement with a conditional test inside:
Example
fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry", "kiwi", "mango"]
newlist = []
for x in fruits:
if "a" in x:
newlist.append(x)
print(newlist)
With list comprehension you can do all that with only one line of code:
Example
fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry", "kiwi", "mango"]
newlist = [x for x in fruits if "a" in x]
rint(newlist)
The Syntax
newlist = [expression for item in iterable if condition == True]
The return value is a new list, leaving the old list unchanged.
Condition
The condition is like a filter that only accepts the items that valuate to True.
Example
Only accept items that are not "apple":
newlist = [x for x in fruits if x != "apple"]
The condition if x != "apple" will return True for all elements other than "apple", making the new list contain
all fruits except "apple".
The condition is optional and can be omitted:
Example
With no if statement:
newlist = [x for x in fruits]
Iterable
The iterable can be any iterable object, like a list, tuple, set etc.
Example
You can use the range() function to create an iterable:
newlist = [x for x in range(10)]
Same example, but with a condition:
Example
Accept only numbers lower than 5:
newlist = [x for x in range(10) if x < 5]
Expression
The expression is the current item in the iteration, but it is also the outcome, which you can manipulate
before it ends up like a list item in the new list:
Example
Set the values in the new list to upper case:
newlist = [x.upper() for x in fruits]
You can set the outcome to whatever you like:
Example
Set all values in the new list to 'hello':
newlist = ['hello' for x in fruits]
The expression can also contain conditions, not like a filter, but as a way to manipulate the outcome:
Example
Return "orange" instead of "banana":
newlist = [x if x != "banana" else "orange" for x in fruits]
The expression in the example above says:

"Return the item if it is not banana, if it is banana return orange".
Python - Sort Lists

Sort List Alphanumerically
List objects have a sort() method that will sort the list alphanumerically, ascending, by default:
Example
Sort the list alphabetically:
thislist = ["orange", "mango", "kiwi", "pineapple", "banana"]
thislist.sort()
print(thislist)
Example
Sort the list numerically:
thislist = [100, 50, 65, 82, 23]
thislist.sort()
print(thislist)
Sort Descending
To sort descending, use the keyword argument reverse = True:
Example
Sort the list descending:
thislist = ["orange", "mango", "kiwi", "pineapple", "banana"]
thislist.sort(reverse = True)
print(thislist)
Example
Sort the list descending:
thislist = [100, 50, 65, 82, 23]
thislist.sort(reverse = True)
print(thislist)
Customize Sort Function

You can also customize your own function by using the keyword argument key = function.
The function will return a number that will be used to sort the list (the lowest number first):
Example
Sort the list based on how close the number is to 50:
def myfunc(n):
return abs(n - 50)
thislist = [100, 50, 65, 82, 23]

thislist.sort(key = myfunc)
print(thislist)
Case Insensitive Sort

By default the sort() method is case sensitive, resulting in all capital letters being sorted before lower
case letters:
Example
Case sensitive sorting can give an unexpected result:
thislist = ["banana", "Orange", "Kiwi", "cherry"]
thislist.sort()
print(thislist)
Luckily we can use built-in functions as key functions when sorting a list.
So if you want a case-insensitive sort function, use str.lower as a key function:
Example
Perform a case-insensitive sort of the list:
thislist.sort(key = str.lower)
print(thislist)
Reverse Order
What if you want to reverse the order of a list, regardless of the alphabet?
The reverse() method reverses the current sorting order of the elements.
Example
Reverse the order of the list items:
thislist.reverse()
print(thislist)
Python - Copy Lists
Copy a List
You cannot copy a list simply by typing list2 = list1, because: list2 will only be a reference to list1, and
changes made in list1 will automatically also be made in list2.
There are ways to make a copy, one way is to use the built-in List method copy().
Example
Make a copy of a list with the copy() method:
mylist = thislist.copy()
print(mylist)
Another way to make a copy is to use the built-in method list().
Example
Make a copy of a list with the list() method:
mylist = list(thislist)
print(mylist)
Python - Join Lists

Join Two Lists
There are several ways to join, or concatenate, two or more lists in Python.
One of the easiest ways are by using the + operator.
Example
Join two list:
list1 = ["a", "b", "c"]
list2 = [1, 2, 3]
list3 = list1 + list2

print(list3)
Another way to join two lists is by appending all the items from list2 into list1, one by one:
Example
Append list2 into list1:
list1 = ["a", "b" , "c"]
list2 = [1, 2, 3]
for x in list2:
list1.append(x)
print(list1)
Or you can use the extend() method, which purpose is to add elements from one list to another list:
Example
Use the extend() method to add list2 at the end of list1:
list1 = ["a", "b" , "c"]
list2 = [1, 2, 3]
list1.extend(list2)
print(list1)
Python - List Methods

List Methods
Python has a set of built-in methods that you can use on lists.
Method Description
append() Adds an element at the end of the list

clear() Removes all the elements from the list
copy() Returns a copy of the list
count() Returns the number of elements with the specified value
extend() Add the elements of a list (or any iterable), to the end of the current list
index() Returns the index of the first element with the specified value
insert() Adds an element at the specified position
pop() Removes the element at the specified position
remove() Removes the item with the specified value
reverse() Reverses the order of the list
sort() Sorts the list
Python Tuples
mytuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")
Tuple
Tuples are used to store multiple items in a single variable.
Tuple is one of 4 built-in data types in Python used to store collections of data, the other 3 are List, Set,
and Dictionary, all with different qualities and usage.
A tuple is a collection which is ordered and unchangeable.
Tuples are written with round brackets.
Example
Create a Tuple:
thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")
print(thistuple)
Tuple Items
Tuple items are ordered, unchangeable, and allow duplicate values.
Tuple items are indexed, the first item has index [0], the second item has index [1] etc.
Ordered
When we say that tuples are ordered, it means that the items have a defined order, and that order will not
change.
Unchangeable
Tuples are unchangeable, meaning that we cannot change, add or remove items after the tuple has been
created.
Allow Duplicates
Since tuples are indexed, they can have items with the same value:
Example
Tuples allow duplicate values:
thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry", "apple", "cherry")
print(thistuple)
Tuple Length
To determine how many items a tuple has, use the len() function:
Example
Print the number of items in the tuple:
print(len(thistuple))
Create Tuple With One Item

To create a tuple with only one item, you have to add a comma after the item, otherwise Python will not
recognize it as a tuple.
Example
One item tuple, remember the comma:
thistuple = ("apple",)
print(type(thistuple))
#NOT a tuple
thistuple = ("apple")
print(type(thistuple))
Tuple Items - Data Types
Tuple items can be of any data type:
Example
tuple1 = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")
tuple2 = (1, 5, 7, 9, 3)
tuple3 = (True, False, False)
A tuple can contain different data types:
Example
A tuple with strings, integers and boolean values:
tuple1 = ("abc", 34, True, 40, "male")
type()
From Python's perspective, tuples are defined as objects with the data type 'tuple':
<class 'tuple'>
Example
What is the data type of a tuple?
mytuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")
print(type(mytuple))
The tuple() Constructor

It is also possible to use the tuple() constructor to make a tuple.
Example
Using the tuple() method to make a tuple:
thistuple = tuple(("apple", "banana", "cherry")) # note the double round-brackets
print(thistuple)

List is a collection which is ordered and changeable. Allows duplicate members.
Tuple is a collection which is ordered and unchangeable. Allows duplicate members.
Set is a collection which is unordered, unchangeable*, and unindexed. No duplicate members.
Dictionary is a collection which is ordered** and changeable. No duplicate members.
**As of Python version 3.7, dictionaries are ordered. In Python 3.6 and earlier, dictionaries are unordered.
When choosing a collection type, it is useful to understand the properties of that type. Choosing the right type
for a particular data set could mean retention of meaning, and, it could mean an increase in efficiency or
security.
Python - Access Tuple Items
Access Tuple Items
You can access tuple items by referring to the index number, inside square brackets:
Example
Print the second item in the tuple:
print(thistuple[1])
Note: The first item has index 0.
Negative Indexing
Negative indexing means start from the end.
-1 refers to the last item, -2 refers to the second last item etc.
Example
Print the last item of the tuple:
print(thistuple[-1])
Range of Indexes
You can specify a range of indexes by specifying where to start and where to end the range.
When specifying a range, the return value will be a new tuple with the specified items.
Example
Return the third, fourth, and fifth item:
thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi", "melon", "mango")
print(thistuple[2:5])
Note: The search will start at index 2 (included) and end at index 5 (not included).
Remember that the first item has index 0.
By leaving out the start value, the range will start at the first item:
Example
This example returns the items from the beginning to, but NOT included, "kiwi":
print(thistuple[:4])
By leaving out the end value, the range will go on to the end of the list:
Example
This example returns the items from "cherry" and to the end:
print(thistuple[2:])
Range of Negative Indexes
Specify negative indexes if you want to start the search from the end of the tuple:
Example
This example returns the items from index -4 (included) to index -1 (excluded)
print(thistuple[-4:-1])
Check if Item Exists

To determine if a specified item is present in a tuple use the in keyword:
Example
Check if "apple" is present in the tuple:
if "apple" in thistuple:
print("Yes, 'apple' is in the fruits tuple")
Python - Update Tuples

Tuples are unchangeable, meaning that you cannot change, add, or remove items once the tuple is
created.
But there are some workarounds.
Change Tuple Values

Once a tuple is created, you cannot change its values. Tuples are unchangeable, or immutable as it also
is called.
But there is a workaround. You can convert the tuple into a list, change the list, and convert the list back
into a tuple.
Example
Convert the tuple into a list to be able to change it:
x = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")
y = list(x)
y[1] = "kiwi"
x = tuple(y)
print(x)
Add Items
Since tuples are immutable, they do not have a build-in append() method, but there are other ways to add
items to a tuple.
1. Convert into a list: Just like the workaround for changing a tuple, you can convert it into a list,
add your item(s), and convert it back into a tuple.
Example
Convert the tuple into a list, add "orange", and convert it back into a tuple:
y = list(thistuple)
y.append("orange")
thistuple = tuple(y)
2. Add tuple to a tuple. You are allowed to add tuples to tuples, so if you want to add one item,
(or many), create a new tuple with the item(s), and add it to the existing tuple:
Example
Create a new tuple with the value "orange", and add that tuple:
y = ("orange",)
thistuple += y
print(thistuple)
Note: When creating a tuple with only one item, remember to include a comma after the item, otherwise it will
not be identified as a tuple.
Remove Items
Note: You cannot remove items in a tuple.
Tuples are unchangeable, so you cannot remove items from it, but you can use the same workaround as
we used for changing and adding tuple items:
Example
Convert the tuple into a list, remove "apple", and convert it back into a tuple:
y = list(thistuple)
y.remove("apple")
thistuple = tuple(y)
Or you can delete the tuple completely:
Example
The del keyword can delete the tuple completely:
del thistuple
print(thistuple) #this will raise an error because the tuple no longer exists
Python - Unpack Tuples

Unpacking a Tuple
When we create a tuple, we normally assign values to it. This is called "packing" a tuple:
Example
Packing a tuple:
fruits = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")
But, in Python, we are also allowed to extract the values back into variables. This is called "unpacking":
Example
Unpacking a tuple:
(green, yellow, red) = fruits
print(green)
print(yellow)
print(red)
Note: The number of variables must match the number of values in the tuple, if not, you must use an asterisk to
collect the remaining values as a list.
Using Asterisk*
If the number of variables is less than the number of values, you can add an * to the variable name and
the values will be assigned to the variable as a list:
Example
Assign the rest of the values as a list called "red":
fruits = ("apple", "banana", "cherry", "strawberry", "raspberry")
(green, yellow, *red) = fruits
print(green)
print(yellow)
print(red)
If the asterisk is added to another variable name than the last, Python will assign values to the variable
until the number of values left matches the number of variables left.
Example
Add a list of values the "tropic" variable:
fruits = ("apple", "mango", "papaya", "pineapple", "cherry")
(green, *tropic, red) = fruits
print(green)
print(tropic)
print(red)
Python - Loop Tuples

Loop Through a Tuple
You can loop through the tuple items by using a for loop.
Example
Iterate through the items and print the values:
for x in thistuple:
print(x)
Loop Through the Index Numbers

You can also loop through the tuple items by referring to their index number.
Use the range() and len() functions to create a suitable iterable.
Example
Print all items by referring to their index number:
for i in range(len(thistuple)):
print(thistuple[i])
Using a While Loop

You can loop through the list items by using a while loop.
Use the len() function to determine the length of the tuple, then start at 0 and loop your way through the
tuple items by referring to their indexes.
Remember to increase the index by 1 after each iteration.
Example
Print all items, using a while loop to go through all the index numbers:
i=0
while i < len(thistuple):
print(thistuple[i])
i=i+1
Python - Join Tuple
Join Two Tuples
To join two or more tuples, you can use the + operator:
Example
Join two tuples:
tuple1 = ("a", "b" , "c")
tuple2 = (1, 2, 3)
tuple3 = tuple1 + tuple2

print(tuple3)
Multiply Tuples
If you want to multiply the content of a tuple a given number of times, you can use
the * operator:
Example
Multiply the fruits tuple by 2:
mytuple = fruits * 2
print(mytuple)
Python - Tuple Methods

Tuple Methods
Python has two built-in methods that you can use on tuples.
Method Description
count() Returns the number of times a specified value occurs in a tuple
index() Searches the tuple for a specified value and returns the position of
where it was found
Python Set
myset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}
Set
Sets are used to store multiple items in a single variable.
Set is one of 4 built-in data types in Python used to store collections of data, the other 3
are List, Tuple, and Dictionary, all with different qualities and usage.
A set is a collection which is unordered, unchangeable*, and unindexed.
* Note: Set items are unchangeable, but you can remove items and add new items.
Sets are written with curly brackets.
Example
Create a Set:
thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}
print(thisset)
Note: Sets are unordered, so you cannot be sure in which order the items will appear.
Set Items
Set items are unordered, unchangeable, and do not allow duplicate values.
Unordered
Unordered means that the items in a set do not have a defined order.
Set items can appear in a different order every time you use them, and cannot be referred
to by index or key.
Unchangeable
Set items are unchangeable, meaning that we cannot change the items after the set has
been created.
Once a set is created, you cannot change its items, but you can remove items and add new
items.
Duplicates Not Allowed
Sets cannot have two items with the same value.
Example
Duplicate values will be ignored:
thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry", "apple"}
print(thisset)
Get the Length of a Set

To determine how many items a set has, use the len() function.
Example
Get the number of items in a set:
print(len(thisset)
Set Items - Data Types

Set items can be of any data type:
Example
set1 = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}
set2 = {1, 5, 7, 9, 3}
set3 = {True, False, False}
A set can contain different data types:
Example
A set with strings, integers and boolean values:
set1 = {"abc", 34, True, 40, "male"}
type()
From Python's perspective, sets are defined as objects with the data type 'set':
<class 'set'>
Example
What is the data type of a set?
myset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}
print(type(myset))
The set() Constructor

It is also possible to use the set() constructor to make a set.
Example
Using the set() constructor to make a set:
thisset = set(("apple", "banana", "cherry")) # note the double round-brackets

 List is a collection which is ordered and changeable. Allows duplicate members.

 Tuple is a collection which is ordered and unchangeable. Allows duplicate members.
 Set is a collection which is unordered, unchangeable*, and unindexed. No duplicate
members.
 Dictionary is a collection which is ordered** and changeable. No duplicate members.
*Set items are unchangeable, but you can remove items and add new items.
**As of Python version 3.7, dictionaries are ordered. In Python 3.6 and earlier, dictionaries
are unordered.
When choosing a collection type, it is useful to understand the properties of that type.
Choosing the right type for a particular data set could mean retention of meaning, and, it
could mean an increase in efficiency or security.
Python - Access Set Items
Access Items
You cannot access items in a set by referring to an index or a key.
But you can loop through the set items using a for loop, or ask if a specified value is present
in a set, by using the in keyword.
Example
Loop through the set, and print the values:
for x in thisset:
print(x)
Example
Check if "banana" is present in the set:
print("banana" in thisset)
Change Items
Once a set is created, you cannot change its items, but you can add new items.
Python - Add Set Items
Add Items
Once a set is created, you cannot change its items, but you can add new items.
To add one item to a set use the add() method.
Example
Add an item to a set, using the add() method:
thisset.add("orange")
print(thisset)
Add Sets
To add items from another set into the current set, use the update() method.
Example
Add elements from tropical into thisset:
tropical = {"pineapple", "mango", "papaya"}
thisset.update(tropical)
print(thisset)
Add Any Iterable

The object in the update() method does not have to be a set, it can be any iterable object
(tuples, lists, dictionaries etc.).
Example
Add elements of a list to at set:
mylist = ["kiwi", "orange"]
thisset.update(mylist)
print(thisset)
Python - Remove Set Items
Remove Item
To remove an item in a set, use the remove(), or the discard() method.
Example
Remove "banana" by using the remove() method:
thisset.remove("banana")
print(thisset)
Note: If the item to remove does not exist, remove() will raise an error.
Example
Remove "banana" by using the discard() method:
thisset.discard("banana")
print(thisset)
Note: If the item to remove does not exist, discard() will NOT raise an error.
You can also use the pop() method to remove an item, but this method will remove
the last item. Remember that sets are unordered, so you will not know what item that gets
removed.
The return value of the pop() method is the removed item.

Example
Remove the last item by using the pop() method:
x = thisset.pop()
print(x)
print(thisset)
Note: Sets are unordered, so when using the pop() method, you do not know which item
that gets removed.
Example
The clear() method empties the set:
thisset.clear()
print(thisset)
Example
The del keyword will delete the set completely:
del thisset
print(thisset)
Python - Loop Sets
Loop Items
You can loop through the set items by using a for loop:
Example
Loop through the set, and print the values:
for x in thisset:
print(x)
Python - Join Set

Join Two Sets
There are several ways to join two or more sets in Python.
You can use the union() method that returns a new set containing all items from both sets,
or the update() method that inserts all the items from one set into another:
Example
The union() method returns a new set with all items from both sets:
set1 = {"a", "b" , "c"}
set2 = {1, 2, 3}
set3 = set1.union(set2)
print(set3)
Example
The update() method inserts the items in set2 into set1:
set1 = {"a", "b" , "c"}
set2 = {1, 2, 3}
set1.update(set2)
print(set1)
Note: Both union() and update() will exclude any duplicate items.
Keep ONLY the Duplicates
The intersection_update() method will keep only the items that are present in both sets.
Example
Keep the items that exist in both set x, and set y:
x = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}
y = {"google", "microsoft", "apple"}
x.intersection_update(y)
print(x)
The intersection() method will return a new set, that only contains the items that are
present in both sets.
Example
Return a set that contains the items that exist in both set x, and set y:
z = x.intersection(y)
print(z)
Keep All, But NOT the Duplicates

The symmetric_difference_update() method will keep only the elements that are NOT
present in both sets.
Example
Keep the items that are not present in both sets:
x.symmetric_difference_update(y)
print(x)
The symmetric_difference() method will return a new set, that contains only the elements
that are NOT present in both sets.
Example
Return a set that contains all items from both sets, except items that are present in both:
z = x.symmetric_difference(y)
print(z)
Python - Set Method

Set Methods
Python has a set of built-in methods that you can use on sets.
Method Description
add() Adds an element to the set
clear() Removes all the elements from the set
copy() Returns a copy of the set
difference() Returns a set containing the difference between two or

more sets
difference_update() Removes the items in this set that are also included in
another, specified set
discard() Remove the specified item
intersection() Returns a set, that is the intersection of two other sets
intersection_update() Removes the items in this set that are not present in
other, specified set(s)
isdisjoint() Returns whether two sets have a intersection or not
issubset() Returns whether another set contains this set or not
issuperset() Returns whether this set contains another set or not
pop() Removes an element from the set
remove() Removes the specified element
symmetric_difference() Returns a set with the symmetric differences of two sets
symmetric_difference_update( inserts the symmetric differences from this set and

) another
union() Return a set containing the union of sets
update() Update the set with the union of this set and others
Python Dictionaries
thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
Dictionary
Dictionaries are used to store data values in key:value pairs.
A dictionary is a collection which is ordered*, changeable and do not allow duplicates.

As of Python version 3.7, dictionaries are ordered. In Python 3.6 and earlier, dictionaries
are unordered.
Dictionaries are written with curly brackets, and have keys and values:
Example
Create and print a dictionary:
thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
print(thisdict)
Dictionary Items
Dictionary items are ordered, changeable, and does not allow duplicates.
Dictionary items are presented in key:value pairs, and can be referred to by using the key
name.
Example
Print the "brand" value of the dictionary:
thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
print(thisdict["brand"])
Ordered or Unordered?
As of Python version 3.7, dictionaries are ordered. In Python 3.6 and earlier, dictionaries
are unordered.
When we say that dictionaries are ordered, it means that the items have a defined order,
and that order will not change.
Unordered means that the items does not have a defined order, you cannot refer to an item
by using an index.
Changeable
Dictionaries are changeable, meaning that we can change, add or remove items after the
dictionary has been created.
Duplicates Not Allowed

Dictionaries cannot have two items with the same key:
Example
Duplicate values will overwrite existing values:
thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964,
"year": 2020
}
print(thisdict)
Dictionary Length
To determine how many items a dictionary has, use the len() function:
Example
Print the number of items in the dictionary:
print(len(thisdict))
Dictionary Items - Data Types
The values in dictionary items can be of any data type:
Example
String, int, boolean, and list data types:
thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"electric": False,
"year": 1964,
"colors": ["red", "white", "blue"]
}
type()
From Python's perspective, dictionaries are defined as objects with the data type 'dict':
<class 'dict'>
Example
Print the data type of a dictionary:
thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
print(type(thisdict))

 List is a collection which is ordered and changeable. Allows duplicate members.
 Tuple is a collection which is ordered and unchangeable. Allows duplicate members.
 Set is a collection which is unordered, unchangeable*, and unindexed. No duplicate
members.
 Dictionary is a collection which is ordered** and changeable. No duplicate members.
**As of Python version 3.7, dictionaries are ordered. In Python 3.6 and earlier, dictionaries
are unordered.
When choosing a collection type, it is useful to understand the properties of that type.
Choosing the right type for a particular data set could mean retention of meaning, and, it
could mean an increase in efficiency or security.
Python - Access Dictionary Items
Accessing Items
You can access the items of a dictionary by referring to its key name, inside square
brackets:
Example
Get the value of the "model" key:
thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
x = thisdict["model"]
There is also a method called get() that will give you the same result:
Example
Get the value of the "model" key:
x = thisdict.get("model")
Get Keys
The keys() method will return a list of all the keys in the dictionary.
Example
Get a list of the keys:
x = thisdict.keys()
The list of the keys is a view of the dictionary, meaning that any changes done to the
dictionary will be reflected in the keys list.
Example
Add a new item to the original dictionary, and see that the keys list gets updated as well:
car = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
x = car.keys()
print(x) #before the change
car["color"] = "white"
print(x) #after the change

Get Values
The values() method will return a list of all the values in the dictionary.
Example
Get a list of the values:
x = thisdict.values()
The list of the values is a view of the dictionary, meaning that any changes done to the
dictionary will be reflected in the values list.
Example
Make a change in the original dictionary, and see that the values list gets updated as well:
car = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
x = car.values()
car["year"] = 2020

Example
Add a new item to the original dictionary, and see that the values list gets updated as well:
car = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
x = car.values()
car["color"] = "red"

Get Items
The items() method will return each item in a dictionary, as tuples in a list.
Example
Get a list of the key:value pairs
x = thisdict.items()
The returned list is a view of the items of the dictionary, meaning that any changes done to
the dictionary will be reflected in the items list.
Example
Make a change in the original dictionary, and see that the items list gets updated as well:
car = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
x = car.items()
car["year"] = 2020

Example
Add a new item to the original dictionary, and see that the items list gets updated as well:
car = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
x = car.items()
car["color"] = "red"

Check if Key Exists
To determine if a specified key is present in a dictionary use the in keyword:
Example
Check if "model" is present in the dictionary:
thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
if "model" in thisdict:
print("Yes, 'model' is one of the keys in the thisdict dictionary")
Python - Change Dictionary Items

Change Values
You can change the value of a specific item by referring to its key name:
Example
Change the "year" to 2018:
thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
thisdict["year"] = 2018
Update Dictionary
The update() method will update the dictionary with the items from the given argument.
The argument must be a dictionary, or an iterable object with key:value pairs.
Example
Update the "year" of the car by using the update() method:
thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
thisdict.update({"year": 2020})
Python - Add Dictionary Items
Adding Items
Adding an item to the dictionary is done by using a new index key and assigning a value to
it:
Example
thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
thisdict["color"] = "red"
print(thisdict)
Update Dictionary
The update() method will update the dictionary with the items from a given argument. If the
item does not exist, the item will be added.
The argument must be a dictionary, or an iterable object with key:value pairs.
Example
Add a color item to the dictionary by using the update() method:
thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
thisdict.update({"color": "red"})
Python - Remove Dictionary Items

Removing Items
There are several methods to remove items from a dictionary:
Example
The pop() method removes the item with the specified key name:
thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
thisdict.pop("model")
print(thisdict)
Example
The popitem() method removes the last inserted item (in versions before 3.7, a random item
is removed instead):
thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
thisdict.popitem()
print(thisdict)
Example
The del keyword removes the item with the specified key name:
thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
del thisdict["model"]
print(thisdict)
Example
The del keyword can also delete the dictionary completely:
thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
del thisdict
print(thisdict) #this will cause an error because "thisdict" no longer exists.
Example
The clear() method empties the dictionary:
thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
thisdict.clear()
print(thisdict)
Python - Loop Dictionaries
Loop Through a Dictionary
You can loop through a dictionary by using a for loop.
When looping through a dictionary, the return value are the keys of the dictionary, but there
are methods to return the values as well.
Example
Print all key names in the dictionary, one by one:
for x in thisdict:
print(x)
Example
Print all values in the dictionary, one by one:
for x in thisdict:
print(thisdict[x])
Example
You can also use the values() method to return values of a dictionary:
for x in thisdict.values():
print(x)
Example
You can use the keys() method to return the keys of a dictionary:
for x in thisdict.keys():
print(x)
Example
Loop through both keys and values, by using the items() method:
for x, y in thisdict.items():
print(x, y)
Python - Copy Dictionaries

Copy a Dictionary
You cannot copy a dictionary simply by typing dict2 = dict1, because: dict2 will only be
a reference to dict1, and changes made in dict1 will automatically also be made in dict2.
There are ways to make a copy, one way is to use the built-in Dictionary method copy().
Example
Make a copy of a dictionary with the copy() method:
thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
mydict = thisdict.copy()
print(mydict)
Another way to make a copy is to use the built-in function dict().
Example
Make a copy of a dictionary with the dict() function:
thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
mydict = dict(thisdict)
print(mydict)
Python - Nested Dictionaries

Nested Dictionaries
A dictionary can contain dictionaries, this is called nested dictionaries.
Example
Create a dictionary that contain three dictionaries:
myfamily = {
"child1" : {
"name" : "Emil",
"year" : 2004
},
"child2" : {
"name" : "Tobias",
"year" : 2007
},
"child3" : {
"name" : "Linus",
"year" : 2011
}
}
Or, if you want to add three dictionaries into a new dictionary:
Example
Create three dictionaries, then create one dictionary that will contain the other three
dictionaries:
child1 = {
"name" : "Emil",
"year" : 2004
}
child2 = {
"name" : "Tobias",
"year" : 2007
}
child3 = {
"name" : "Linus",
"year" : 2011
}
myfamily = {
"child1" : child1,
"child2" : child2,
"child3" : child3
}
Python Dictionary Methods
Dictionary Methods
Python has a set of built-in methods that you can use on dictionaries.
Method Description
clear() Removes all the elements from the dictionary
copy() Returns a copy of the dictionary
fromkeys() Returns a dictionary with the specified keys and value
get() Returns the value of the specified key
items() Returns a list containing a tuple for each key value pair
keys() Returns a list containing the dictionary's keys
pop() Removes the element with the specified key

popitem() Removes the last inserted key-value pair
setdefault( Returns the value of the specified key. If the key does not exist: insert the
) key, with the specified value
update() Updates the dictionary with the specified key-value pairs
values() Returns a list of all the values in the dictionary
Python If ... Else

Python Conditions and If statements
Python supports the usual logical conditions from mathematics:
 Equals: a == b
 Not Equals: a != b
 Less than: a < b
 Less than or equal to: a <= b
 Greater than: a > b
 Greater than or equal to: a >= b
These conditions can be used in several ways, most commonly in "if statements" and loops.
An "if statement" is written by using the if keyword.
Example
If statement:
a = 33
b = 200
if b > a:
print("b is greater than a")
In this example we use two variables, a and b, which are used as part of the if statement to
test whether b is greater than a. As a is 33, and b is 200, we know that 200 is greater than
33, and so we print to screen that "b is greater than a".
Indentation
Python relies on indentation (whitespace at the beginning of a line) to define scope in the
code. Other programming languages often use curly-brackets for this purpose.
Example
If statement, without indentation (will raise an error):
a = 33
b = 200
if b > a:
print("b is greater than a") # you will get an error
Elif
The elif keyword is pythons way of saying "if the previous conditions were not true, then
try this condition".
Example
a = 33
b = 33
if b > a:
elif a == b:
print("a and b are equal")
In this example a is equal to b, so the first condition is not true, but the elif condition is
true, so we print to screen that "a and b are equal".
Else
The else keyword catches anything which isn't caught by the preceding conditions.
Example
a = 200
b = 33
if b > a:
elif a == b:
print("a and b are equal")
else:
print("a is greater than b")
In this example a is greater than b, so the first condition is not true, also the elif condition
is not true, so we go to the else condition and print to screen that "a is greater than b".
You can also have an else without the elif:
Example
a = 200
b = 33
if b > a:
else:
print("b is not greater than a")
Short Hand If
If you have only one statement to execute, you can put it on the same line as the if
statement.
Example
One line if statement:
if a > b: print("a is greater than b")
Short Hand If ... Else

If you have only one statement to execute, one for if, and one for else, you can put it all on
the same line:
Example
One line if else statement:
a = 2
b = 330
print("A") if a > b else print("B")
This technique is known as Ternary Operators, or Conditional Expressions.
You can also have multiple else statements on the same line:
Example
One line if else statement, with 3 conditions:
a = 330
b = 330
print("A") if a > b else print("=") if a == b else print("B")
And
The and keyword is a logical operator, and is used to combine conditional statements:
Example
Test if a is greater than b, AND if c is greater than a:
a = 200
b = 33
c = 500
if a > b and c > a:
print("Both conditions are True")
Or
The or keyword is a logical operator, and is used to combine conditional statements:
Example
Test if a is greater than b, OR if a is greater than c:
a = 200
b = 33
c = 500
if a > b or a > c:
print("At least one of the conditions is True")
Nested If
You can have if statements inside if statements, this is called nested if statements.
Example
x = 41
if x > 10:
print("Above ten,")
if x > 20:
print("and also above 20!")
else:
print("but not above 20.")
The pass Statement
if statements cannot be empty, but if you for some reason have an if statement with no
content, put in the pass statement to avoid getting an error.
Example
a = 33
b = 200
if b > a:
pass
Python While Loops
Python Loops
Python has two primitive loop commands:
 while loops
 for loops
The while Loop

With the while loop we can execute a set of statements as long as a condition is true.
Example
Print i as long as i is less than 6:
i = 1
while i < 6:
print(i)
i += 1
Note: remember to increment i, or else the loop will continue forever.

The while loop requires relevant variables to be ready, in this example we need to define an
indexing variable, i, which we set to 1.
The break Statement

With the break statement we can stop the loop even if the while condition is true:
Example
Exit the loop when i is 3:
i = 1
while i < 6:
print(i)
if i == 3:
break
i += 1
The continue Statement

With the continue statement we can stop the current iteration, and continue with the next:
Example
Continue to the next iteration if i is 3:
i = 0
while i < 6:
i += 1
if i == 3:
continue
print(i)
The else Statement

With the else statement we can run a block of code once when the condition no longer is
true:
Example
Print a message once the condition is false:
i = 1
while i < 6:
print(i)
i += 1
else:
print("i is no longer less than 6")
Python For Loops
Python For Loops
A for loop is used for iterating over a sequence (that is either a list, a tuple, a dictionary, a
set, or a string).
This is less like the for keyword in other programming languages, and works more like an
iterator method as found in other object-orientated programming languages.
With the for loop we can execute a set of statements, once for each item in a list, tuple, set
etc.
Example
Print each fruit in a fruit list:
fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
for x in fruits:
print(x)
The for loop does not require an indexing variable to set beforehand.
Looping Through a String
Even strings are iterable objects, they contain a sequence of characters:
Example
Loop through the letters in the word "banana":
for x in "banana":
print(x)
The break Statement

With the break statement we can stop the loop before it has looped through all the items:
Example
Exit the loop when x is "banana":
for x in fruits:
print(x)
if x == "banana":
break
Example
Exit the loop when x is "banana", but this time the break comes before the print:
for x in fruits:
if x == "banana":
break
print(x)
The continue Statement

With the continue statement we can stop the current iteration of the loop, and continue
with the next:
Example
Do not print banana:
for x in fruits:
if x == "banana":
continue
print(x)
The range() Function

To loop through a set of code a specified number of times, we can use the range() function,
The range() function returns a sequence of numbers, starting from 0 by default, and

increments by 1 (by default), and ends at a specified number.
Example
Using the range() function:
for x in range(6):
print(x)
Note that range(6) is not the values of 0 to 6, but the values 0 to 5.
The range() function defaults to 0 as a starting value, however it is possible to specify the

starting value by adding a parameter: range(2, 6), which means values from 2 to 6 (but
not including 6):
Example
Using the start parameter:
for x in range(2, 6):
print(x)
The range() function defaults to increment the sequence by 1, however it is possible to

specify the increment value by adding a third parameter: range(2, 30, 3):
Example
Increment the sequence with 3 (default is 1):
for x in range(2, 30, 3):
print(x)
Else in For Loop

The else keyword in a for loop specifies a block of code to be executed when the loop is
finished:
Example
Print all numbers from 0 to 5, and print a message when the loop has ended:
for x in range(6):
print(x)
else:
print("Finally finished!")
Note: The else block will NOT be executed if the loop is stopped by a break statement.

Example
Break the loop when x is 3, and see what happens with the else block:
for x in range(6):
if x == 3: break
print(x)
else:
print("Finally finished!")
Nested Loops
A nested loop is a loop inside a loop.
The "inner loop" will be executed one time for each iteration of the "outer loop":
Example
Print each adjective for every fruit:
adj = ["red", "big", "tasty"]
for x in adj:
for y in fruits:
print(x, y)
The pass Statement

for loops cannot be empty, but if you for some reason have a for loop with no content, put
in the pass statement to avoid getting an error.
Example
for x in [0, 1, 2]:
pass
Python Functions
A function is a block of code which only runs when it is called.
You can pass data, known as parameters, into a function.
A function can return data as a result.
Creating a Function
In Python a function is defined using the def keyword:
Example
def my_function():
print("Hello from a function")
Calling a Function
To call a function, use the function name followed by parenthesis:
Example
def my_function():
print("Hello from a function")
my_function()
Arguments
Information can be passed into functions as arguments.
Arguments are specified after the function name, inside the parentheses. You can add as
many arguments as you want, just separate them with a comma.
The following example has a function with one argument (fname). When the function is
called, we pass along a first name, which is used inside the function to print the full name:
Example
def my_function(fname):
print(fname + " Refsnes")
my_function("Emil")
my_function("Tobias")
my_function("Linus")
Arguments are often shortened to args in Python documentations.
Parameters or Arguments?
The terms parameter and argument can be used for the same thing: information that are
passed into a function.
From a function's perspective:
A parameter is the variable listed inside the parentheses in the function definition.
An argument is the value that is sent to the function when it is called.
Number of Arguments
By default, a function must be called with the correct number of arguments. Meaning that if
your function expects 2 arguments, you have to call the function with 2 arguments, not
more, and not less.
Example
This function expects 2 arguments, and gets 2 arguments:
def my_function(fname, lname):
print(fname + " " + lname)
my_function("Emil", "Refsnes")
If you try to call the function with 1 or 3 arguments, you will get an error:
Example
This function expects 2 arguments, but gets only 1:
def my_function(fname, lname):
print(fname + " " + lname)
my_function("Emil")
Arbitrary Arguments, *args
If you do not know how many arguments that will be passed into your function, add
a * before the parameter name in the function definition.
This way the function will receive a tuple of arguments, and can access the items
accordingly:
Example
If the number of arguments is unknown, add a * before the parameter name:
def my_function(*kids):
print("The youngest child is " + kids[2])
my_function("Emil", "Tobias", "Linus")
Arbitrary Arguments are often shortened to *args in Python documentations.
Keyword Arguments
You can also send arguments with the key = value syntax.
This way the order of the arguments does not matter.
Example
def my_function(child3, child2, child1):
print("The youngest child is " + child3)
my_function(child1 = "Emil", child2 = "Tobias", child3 = "Linus")

The phrase Keyword Arguments are often shortened to kwargs in Python documentations.
Arbitrary Keyword Arguments, **kwargs

If you do not know how many keyword arguments that will be passed into your function,
add two asterisks: ** before the parameter name in the function definition.
This way the function will receive a dictionary of arguments, and can access the items
accordingly:
Example
If the number of keyword arguments is unknown, add a double ** before the parameter
name:
def my_function(**kid):
print("His last name is " + kid["lname"])
my_function(fname = "Tobias", lname = "Refsnes")
Arbitrary Kword Arguments are often shortened to **kwargs in Python documentations.
Default Parameter Value

The following example shows how to use a default parameter value.
If we call the function without argument, it uses the default value:
Example
def my_function(country = "Norway"):
print("I am from " + country)
my_function("Sweden")
my_function("India")
my_function()
my_function("Brazil")
Passing a List as an Argument

You can send any data types of argument to a function (string, number, list, dictionary etc.),
and it will be treated as the same data type inside the function.
E.g. if you send a List as an argument, it will still be a List when it reaches the function:
Example
def my_function(food):
for x in food:
print(x)
my_function(fruits)
Return Values
To let a function return a value, use the return statement:
Example
def my_function(x):
return 5 * x
print(my_function(3))
The pass Statement

function definitions cannot be empty, but if you for some reason have a function definition
with no content, put in the pass statement to avoid getting an error.
Example
def myfunction():
pass
Recursion
Python also accepts function recursion, which means a defined function can call itself.
Recursion is a common mathematical and programming concept. It means that a function
calls itself. This has the benefit of meaning that you can loop through data to reach a result.
The developer should be very careful with recursion as it can be quite easy to slip into
writing a function which never terminates, or one that uses excess amounts of memory or
processor power. However, when written correctly recursion can be a very efficient and
mathematically-elegant approach to programming.
In this example, tri_recursion() is a function that we have defined to call itself
("recurse"). We use the k variable as the data, which decrements (-1) every time we
recurse. The recursion ends when the condition is not greater than 0 (i.e. when it is 0).
To a new developer it can take some time to work out how exactly this works, best way to
find out is by testing and modifying it.
Example
Recursion Example
def tri_recursion(k):
if(k > 0):
result = k + tri_recursion(k - 1)
print(result)
else:
result = 0
return result
print("\n\nRecursion Example Results")

tri_recursion(6)
Python Lambda
A lambda function is a small anonymous function.
A lambda function can take any number of arguments, but can only have one
expression.
Syntax
lambda arguments : expression
The expression is executed and the result is returned:
Example
Add 10 to argument a, and return the result:
x = lambda a : a + 10
print(x(5))
Lambda functions can take any number of arguments:
Example
Multiply argument a with argument b and return the result:
x = lambda a, b : a * b
print(x(5, 6))
Example
Summarize argument a, b, and c and return the result:
x = lambda a, b, c : a + b + c
print(x(5, 6, 2))
Why Use Lambda Functions?
The power of lambda is better shown when you use them as an anonymous function inside
another function.
Say you have a function definition that takes one argument, and that argument will be
multiplied with an unknown number:
def myfunc(n):
return lambda a : a * n
Use that function definition to make a function that always doubles the number you send in:
Example
def myfunc(n):
mydoubler = myfunc(2)
print(mydoubler(11))
Or, use the same function definition to make a function that always triples the number you
send in:
Example
def myfunc(n):
mytripler = myfunc(3)
print(mytripler(11))
Or, use the same function definition to make both functions, in the same program:
Example
def myfunc(n):
mydoubler = myfunc(2)
mytripler = myfunc(3)
print(mydoubler(11))
print(mytripler(11))
Use lambda functions when an anonymous function is required for a short period of time.
Python Arrays
Note: Python does not have built-in support for Arrays, but Python Lists can be used
instead.
Arrays
Note: This page shows you how to use LISTS as ARRAYS, however, to work with arrays in
Python you will have to import a library, like the NumPy library.
Arrays are used to store multiple values in one single variable:
Example
Create an array containing car names:
cars = ["Ford", "Volvo", "BMW"]
What is an Array?
An array is a special variable, which can hold more than one value at a time.
If you have a list of items (a list of car names, for example), storing the cars in single
variables could look like this:
car1 = "Ford"
car2 = "Volvo"
car3 = "BMW"
However, what if you want to loop through the cars and find a specific one? And what if you
had not 3 cars, but 300?
The solution is an array!
An array can hold many values under a single name, and you can access the values by
referring to an index number.
Access the Elements of an Array

You refer to an array element by referring to the index number.
Example
Get the value of the first array item:
x = cars[0]
Example
Modify the value of the first array item:
cars[0] = "Toyota"
The Length of an Array

Use the len() method to return the length of an array (the number of elements in an array).
Example
Return the number of elements in the cars array:
x = len(cars)
Note: The length of an array is always one more than the highest array index.
Looping Array Elements

You can use the for in loop to loop through all the elements of an array.
Example
Print each item in the cars array:
for x in cars:
print(x)
Adding Array Elements
You can use the append() method to add an element to an array.
Example
Add one more element to the cars array:
cars.append("Honda")
Removing Array Elements

You can use the pop() method to remove an element from the array.
Example
Delete the second element of the cars array:
cars.pop(1)
You can also use the remove() method to remove an element from the array.
Example
Delete the element that has the value "Volvo":
cars.remove("Volvo")
Note: The list's remove() method only removes the first occurrence of the specified value.
Array Methods
Python has a set of built-in methods that you can use on lists/arrays.
Method Description
append() Adds an element at the end of the list
clear() Removes all the elements from the list
copy() Returns a copy of the list
count() Returns the number of elements with the specified value

extend() Add the elements of a list (or any iterable), to the end of the current list
index() Returns the index of the first element with the specified value
insert() Adds an element at the specified position
pop() Removes the element at the specified position
remove() Removes the first item with the specified value
reverse() Reverses the order of the list
sort() Sorts the list
Note: Python does not have built-in support for Arrays, but Python Lists can be used
instead.

Python W3schools List To Array

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Python W3schools List To Array

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Python Lists

mylist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

A list can contain different data types:

The list () Constructor

Python Collections (Arrays)

Note: The first item has index 0.

Check if Item Exists

Python - Change List Items

Change Item Value

Change a Range of Item Values

Python - Add List Items

The elements will be added to the end of the list.

Add Any Iterable

Python - Remove List Items

Remove Specified Index

The del keyword also removes the specified index:

The del keyword can also delete the list completely.

Clear the List

Loop Through the Index Numbers

The iterable created in the example above is [0, 1, 2].

Using a While Loop

Looping Using List Comprehension

You can set the outcome to whatever you like:

The expression in the example above says:

Python - Sort Lists

Customize Sort Function

thislist = [100, 50, 65, 82, 23]

Case Insensitive Sort

Python - Copy Lists

Another way to make a copy is to use the built-in method list().

Python - Join Lists

list3 = list1 + list2

Python - List Methods

append() Adds an element at the end of the list

Create Tuple With One Item

A tuple can contain different data types:

The tuple() Constructor

Python Collections (Arrays)

Note: The first item has index 0.

Check if Item Exists

Python - Update Tuples

Change Tuple Values

Or you can delete the tuple completely:

Python - Unpack Tuples

(green, yellow, red) = fruits

(green, yellow, *red) = fruits

(green, *tropic, red) = fruits

Python - Loop Tuples

Loop Through the Index Numbers

Using a While Loop

Python - Join Tuple

Join Two Tuples

To join two or more tuples, you can use the + operator:

tuple3 = tuple1 + tuple2

Python - Tuple Methods

count() Returns the number of times a specified value occurs in a tuple

A set is a collection which is unordered, unchangeable*, and unindexed.

Sets are written with curly brackets.

Get the Length of a Set

Set Items - Data Types

A set can contain different data types:

The set() Constructor

thisset = set(("apple", "banana", "cherry")) # note the double round-brackets

Python Collections (Arrays)

 List is a collection which is ordered and changeable. Allows duplicate members.

To add one item to a set use the add() method.

Add Any Iterable

Note: If the item to remove does not exist, discard() will NOT raise an error.

The return value of the pop() method is the removed item.

Python - Join Set

Keep All, But NOT the Duplicates

Python - Set Method

add() Adds an element to the set

clear() Removes all the elements from the set

copy() Returns a copy of the set

difference() Returns a set containing the difference between two or