Chapter Eight: Dendrites

The Nervous System -are short, often highly branching cytoplasmic extensions that are tapered
from their bases at the neuron cell body to their tips
Major Functions Of The Nervous System - usually receive information from other neurons or from sensory receptors
1. Receiving sensory input and transmit the information toward the neuron cell body
- sensory receptors monitor numerous external and internal
stimuli Axon
2. Integrating information - a single long cell process extending from the neuron cell body
- the brain and spinal cord are the major organs for processing - axons of sensory neurons conduct action potentials towards the CNS, and
sensory input and initiating responses. The input may produce axons of motor neurons conduct action potentials away from the CNS.
an immediate response, be stored as memory, or be ignored - also conduct action potentials from one part of the brain or spinal cord to
3. Controlling muscles and glands another part
- skeletal muscles normally contract only when stimulated by - can be surrounded by a highly specialized insulating layer of cells called the
the nervous system myelin sheath
4. Maintaining homeostasis
- this function depends on the nervous system’s ability to Axon Hillock
detect, interpret, and respond to changes in internal and external - the area where the axon leaves the neuron cell body
conditions
5. Establishing and maintaining mental activity Collateral Axons
- the brain is the center of mental activity, including - an axon may remain unbranched or may branch to form collateral axons
consciousness, memory, and thinking

Two Major Divisions of the Nervous System:

1. Central Nervous System (CNS)
- consists of the brain and spinal cord
2. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
- consists of all the nervous tissue outside the CNS (nerves and ganglia)
- functions to link the CNS with the various parts of the body
-carries information about the different tissues of the body to the CNS
and carries commands from the CNS that alter body activities

Sensory Division
- or afferent (toward) division, of the PNS conducts action potentials from
sensory receptors to the CNS

Sensory Neurons
- neurons that transmit action potentials from the periphery to the CNS Three Categories Of Neurons Based On The Arrangement Of Their
Processes
Motor Division 1 - Multipolar Neurons
- or efferent (away) division, of the PNS conducts action potentials from the - have many dendrites and a single axon
CNS to effector organs, such as muscles and glands - most of the neurons within the CNS and nearly all motor neurons are
- can be further subdivided based on the type of effector being innervated multipolar
A.) Somatic Nervous System 2 - Bipolar Neurons
- transmits action potentials from the CNS to skeletal muscles - have two processes: one dendrite and one axon
B.) Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) - located in some sensory organs, such as in the retina of the eye and
- transmits action potentials from the CNS to cardiac muscle, in the nasal cavity
smooth muscle, and glands 3 - Pseudounipolar Neurons
- have a single process extending from the cell body
Motor Neurons
- neurons that transmit action potentials from the CNS toward the periphery Glial cells or neuroglia
- are the primarily supportive cells of the CNS and PNS, meaning these cells
Enteric Nervous System (ENS) do not conduct action potentials
- is a unique subdivision of the peripheral nervous system
- has both sensory and motor neurons contained wholly within the digestive Five Types of Glial Cells
tract 1.) Astrocytes
- can function without input from the CNS or other parts of the PNS, - serve as the major supporting cells in the CNS
although it is normally integrated with the CNS by sensory neurons and ANS - can stimulate or inhibit the signaling activity of nearby neuron
motor neurons 2.) Ependymal cells
- line the fluid-filled cavities (ventricles and canals) within the CNS
Two Types Of Cells That Make Up The Nervous System: 3.) Microglia
1- Neurons - act as immune cells of the CNS
2 -Glial cells - help protect the brain by removing bacteria and cell debris
4.) Oligodendrocytes
Neurons - in the CNS and
- or nerve cells, receive stimuli, conduct action potentials, and transmit 5.) Schwann Cells
signals to other neurons or effector organs - in the PNS, provide an insulating material that surrounds axons
- there are three parts to a neuron:
a cell body and two types of processes, called dendrites and axons Blood-brain Barrier
- a permeability barrier formed by astrocytes that participate with the blood
Cell Body vessel endothelium
- contains a single nucleus
- the nucleus of the neuron is the source of information for gene expression Myelin Sheaths
- extensive rough endoplasmic reticulum (rough ER), a Golgi apparatus, and - are specialized layers that wrap around the axons of some neurons
mitochondria surround the nucleus - are formed by the cell processes of oligodendrocytes in the CNS and
- large numbers of neurofilaments (intermediate filaments) and microtubules Schwann cells in the PNS
organize the cytoplasm into distinct areas.

@chastudies
 The resting membrane potential is generated by three main factors:
(1) a higher concentration of K+ immediately inside the cell
membrane,
(2) a higher concentration of Na+ immediately outside
the cell membrane, and
(3) greater permeability of the cell membrane

Leak channels are always open. Thus,

as the name suggests, ions can “leak” across the membrane down
Myelinated Axons their concentration gradient
- axons with these myelin sheaths

Nodes of Ranvier
- gaps in the myelin sheath that occur about every millimeter between the
oligodendrocyte segments or between individual Schwann cells
- where ion movement can occur

Gray Matter
- consists of groups of neuron cell bodies and their dendrites, where there is
very little myelin

Cortex
- gray matter on the surface of the brain in the CNS

Nuclei
- clusters of gray matter located deeper within the brain

Ganglion
- a cluster of neuron cell bodies in the PNS

White Matter
- consists of bundles of parallel axons with their myelin sheaths, which are
whitish in color

Nerve Tracts
- or conduction pathways
- formed by the white matter of the CNS
- propagate action potentials from one area of the CNS to another

Nerves
- bundles of axons and associated connective tissue in the PNS

Polarized
- this uneven distribution of charge means the cell membrane is polarized

Resting Membrane Potential

- in an unstimulated (or resting) cell, the uneven charge distribution is called
the resting membrane potential

@chastudies
 Synapse
- is a junction where the axon of one neuron interacts with another neuron or
with cells of an effector organ, such as a muscle or gland

Presynaptic Terminal
- formed by the end of the axon

The membrane of the dendrite or effector cell is the postsynaptic

membrane, and the space separating the presynaptic and postsynaptic
membranes is the synaptic cleft.

Neurotransmitters
Types of Glial Cells - chemical substances that are stored in synaptic vesicles in the presynaptic
(a) astrocytes, with foot processes surrounding a blood capillary. terminal
(b) ependymal cells, with cilia extending from the surfaces.
(c) microglial cell. If K+ or Cl− channels open, the inside of the postsynaptic cell tends to
(d) oligodendrocyte, forming a myelin sheath around parts of three axons become more negative, or hyperpolarized, and an action potential is
within the CNS inhibited from occurring.
(e) schwann cell forming part of the myelin sheath of an axon in the PNS
Of the many neurotransmitters or suspected neurotransmitter substances,
the best known are acetylcholine (ACh) and norepinephrine. Other
neurotransmitters include serotonin , dopamine, γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA),
glycine, and endorphins

In synapses where acetylcholine is the neurotransmitter, such as in the

neuromuscular junction, an enzyme called acetylcholinesterase breaks down
the acetylcholine.

Reflex
Gated Channels - is an involuntary reaction in response to a stimulus applied to the periphery
- are closed until opened by specific signals
and transmitted to the CNS
- when opened, the gated channels can change the membrane potential and
are thus responsible for the action potential Reflex Arc
- is the neuronal pathway by which a reflex occur
Chemically Gated Channels - is the basic functional unit of the nervous system because it is the smallest,
- are opened by neurotransmitters or other chemicals, whereas simplest pathway capable of receiving a stimulus and yielding a response
voltage-gated channels are opened by a change in membrane potential.
A reflex arc generally has five basic components:
Sodium-potassium Pump (Na+–K+ pump)
(1) a sensory receptor;
- is required to maintain the greater concentration of Na+ outside the cell
(2) a sensory neuron;
membrane and K+ inside (3) in some reflexes, interneurons, which are neurons located between and
communicating with two other neurons;
Muscle and nerve cells are excitable cells, meaning that the resting (4) a motor neuron; and
membrane potential changes in response to stimuli that activate gated ion (5) an effector organ (muscles or glands)
channels.
Converging Pathway
Local Current
- two or more neurons synapse with (converge on) the same neuron
- movement of Na+ that causes the inside of the cell membrane to become
- allows information transmitted in more than one neuronal pathway to
positive, a change called depolarization. This depolarization results in converge into a single pathway
a local potential.
Diverging Pathway
If depolarization is large enough, Na+ enters the cell so that the local
- the axon from one neuron divides (diverges) and synapses with more than
potential reaches a threshold value. This threshold depolarization causes one other neuron
voltage-gated Na+ channels to open.
Summation
Depolarization and repolarization constitute an action potential. At the end
- many presynaptic action potentials are needed
of repolarization, the charge on the cell membrane briefly becomes more - summation of signals in neuronal pathways allows integration of multiple
negative than the resting membrane potential; this condition is called sub-threshold local potentials
hyperpolarization. - summation of the local potentials can bring the membrane potential to
threshold and trigger an action potential
Action potentials occur in an all-or-none fashion. That is, if threshold is
reached, an action potential occurs; if the threshold is not reached, no action Spatial Summation
potential occurs. - occurs when the local potentials originate from different locations on the
postsynaptic neuron— for example, from converging pathways
The local currents in the adjacent membrane produce an action potential. By
this means, the action potential is conducted along the entire axon cell Temporal summation
membrane. This type of action potential conduction is called continuous - occurs when local potentials overlap in time
conduction.
- can occur from a single input that fires rapidly, which allows the resulting
local potentials to overlap briefly
In myelinated axons, an action potential at one node of Ranvier causes a local
current to flow through the surrounding extracellular fluid and through the Spinal Cord
cytoplasm of the axon to the next node, stimulating an action potential at - extends from the foramen magnum at the base of the skull to the second
that node of Ranvier. By this means, action potentials “jump” from one node lumbar vertebra
of Ranvier to the next along the length of the axon. This type of action
potential conduction is called saltatory conduction. Cauda Equina
- The inferior end of the spinal cord and the spinal nerves exiting there
resemble a horse’s tail

@chastudies
The white matter in each half of the spinal cord is organized into three
columns, called the dorsal (posterior), ventral (anterior), and lateral columns.
Each column of the spinal cord contains ascending and descending tracts, or
pathways.

Ascending Tracts
- consist of axons that conduct action potentials toward the brain

Descending Tracts
- consist of axons that conduct action potentials away from the brain

The gray matter of the spinal cord is shaped like the letter H, with posterior
horns and anterior horns.

Lateral Horns
- small; exist in levels of the cord associated with the autonomic nervous
system

Central Canal
- is a fluid-filled space in the center of the cord

The ventral rootlets combine to form a ventral root on the ventral (anterior)
side of the spinal cord, and the dorsal rootlets combine to form a dorsal root
on the dorsal (posterior) side of the cord at each segment. The ventral and
dorsal roots unite just lateral to the spinal cord to form a spinal nerve. The Dermatome
dorsal root contains a ganglion, called the dorsal root ganglion. - is the area of skin supplied with sensory innervation by apair of spinal
nerves

Most of the spinal nerves are organized into three major plexuses where
neurons of several spinal nerves come together and intermingle.

The three major plexuses are the cervical plexus, the brachial plexus, and the
lumbosacral plexus.

Coccygeal Plexus
- supplies motor innervation to the muscles of the pelvic floor and sensory
cutaneous innervation to the skin over the coccyx

Cervical Plexus
- originates from spinal nerves C1 to C4

Phrenic Nerve
- one of the most important branches of the cervical plexus which
innervates the diaphragm

Brachial Plexus
- originates from spinal nerves C5 to T1

Axillary Nerve
Stretch Reflex - innervates two shoulder muscles and the skin over part of the shoulder
- the simplest reflex
- in which muscles contract in response to a stretching force applied to them
Radial Nerve
- innervates all the muscles in the posterior arm and forearm as well as the
Knee-jerk Reflex skin over the posterior surface of the arm, forearm, and hand
- or patellar reflex, is a classic example of the stretch reflex
Musculocutaneous Nerve
- innervates the anterior muscles of the arm and the skin over the radial
surface of the forearm

Ulnar Nerve
- innervates two anterior forearm muscles and most of the intrinsic hand
muscles
- also innervates the skin over the ulnar side of the hand

Median Nerve
- innervates most of the anterior forearm muscles and some of the intrinsic
Withdrawal Reflex
hand muscles
- or flexor reflex, is to remove a limb or another body part from a painful
- it also innervates the skin over the radial side of the hand
stimulus
Lumbosacral Plexus
Spinal Nerves
- originates from spinal nerves L1 to S4
- arise along the spinal cord from the union of the dorsal roots and ventral
roots
Obturator Nerve
- innervates the muscles of the medial thigh and the skin over the same
All the spinal nerves contain axons of both sensory and somatic motor
region
neurons and thus are called mixed nerves.

@chastudies
Tibial Nerve Midbrain
- innervates the posterior thigh muscles, the anterior and posterior leg - just superior to the pons
muscles, and most of the intrinsic foot muscles - is the smallest region of the brainstem
- also innervates the skin over the sole of the foot
Colliculi
Common Fibular - the dorsal part of the midbrain consists of four mounds
- nerve innervates the muscles of the lateral thigh and leg and some intrinsic
foot muscles Substantia Nigra
- also innervates the skin over the anterior and lateral leg and the dorsal - black nuclear mass which is part of the basal nuclei and is involved in
surface (top) of the foot regulating general body movements

The tibial and common fibular nerves are bound together within a connective
tissue sheath and together are called the sciatic nerve.

Scattered throughout the brainstem is a group of nuclei collectively called

the reticular formation.

The reticular formation is a major component of the reticular activating

system, which plays an important role in arousing and maintaining
consciousness and in regulating the sleep-wake cycle.

Cerebellum
- is attached to the brainstem by several large connections called
cerebellar peduncles

Diencephalon
- is the part of the brain between the brainstem and the cerebrum

Thalamus
- is by far the largest part of the diencephalon
- consists of a cluster of nuclei and is shaped somewhat like a yo-yo, with two
large, lateral parts connected in the center by a small interthalamic
adhesion

Epithalamus
- is a small area superior and posterior to the thalamus
- consists of a few small nuclei, which are involved in the emotional and
visceral response to odors, and the pineal gland

Pineal Gland
- is an endocrine gland that may influence the onset of puberty and may play
a role in controlling some long-term cycles that are influenced by the
light-dark cycle
-In animals, the pineal gland is known to influence annual behaviors, such as
migration in birds, as well as changes in the color and density of fur in some
mammals
Brainstem
- connects the spinal cord to the remainder of the brain Hypothalamus
- consists of the medulla oblongata, the pons, and the midbrain - is the most inferior part of the diencephalon
- contains several nuclei involved in vital body functions, such as the control - it contains several small nuclei that are very important in maintaining
of heart rate, blood pressure, and breathing homeostasis
- plays a major role in controlling the secretion of hormones from the
Medulla Oblongata pituitary gland
- is the most inferior portion of the brainstem and is continuous with the - plays a central role in the control of body temperature, hunger, and thirst
spinal cord
Infundibulum
On the anterior surface, two prominent enlargements called pyramids - a funnel-shaped stalk that extends from the floor of the hypothalamus to
extend the length of the medulla oblongata the pituitary gland

A large tumor or hematoma, a mass of blood that occurs as the result of Mammillary Bodies
bleeding into the tissues, can cause increased pressure within the skull. - form externally visible swellings on the posterior portion of the
hypothalamus and are involved in emotional responses to odors and in
Immediately superior to the medulla oblongata is the pons. memory

@chastudies
Cerebrum The spinal cord and brainstem contain a number of ascending (sensory)
- is the largest part of the brain tracts, or pathways, that transmit information via action potentials from the
- divided into left and right hemispheres by a longitudinal fissure periphery to various parts of the brain.

Gyri
- numerous folds that are the most conspicuous features on the surface of
each hemisphere
- greatly increase the surface area of the cortex, and intervening grooves
called sulci

Frontal Lobe
- important in the control of voluntary motor functions, motivation,
aggression, mood, and olfactory (smell) reception

Parietal Lobe
- is the principal center for receiving and consciously perceiving most sensory
information, such as touch, pain, temperature, and balance

Central Sulcus
- separates the frontal and parietal lobes

Occipital Lobe
- functions in receiving and perceiving visual input and is not distinctly
separate from the other lobes

Temporal Lobe
- is involved in olfactory (smell) and auditory (hearing) sensations and plays
an important role in memory

Its anterior and inferior portions, called the “psychic cortex,” are associated
with functions such as abstract thought and judgment.

Most of the temporal lobe is separated from the rest of the cerebrum by the
lateral fissure, and deep within the fissure is the insula often referred to as
the fifth lobe.

Perception
- the conscious awareness of stimuli

Spinothalamic Tract
- transmits action potentials dealing with pain and temperature to the
thalamus and on to the cerebral cortex, is an example of an ascending tract

Dorsal Column
- transmits action potentials dealing with touch, position, and pressure, is
another example

The anterior and posterior spinocerebellar tracts, for example, transmit

information about body position to the cerebellum

Primary Sensory Areas

- ascending tracts project to specific regions of the cerebral cortex where
sensations are perceived

Primary Somatic Sensory Cortex

- or general sensory area, is located in the parietal lobe posterior to the
central sulcus

@chastudies
Association Areas
- cortical areas immediately adjacent to the primary sensory areas that are
involved in the process of recognition

Basal Nuclei
- are a group of functionally related nuclei

Two primary nuclei are the corpus striatum located deep within the
cerebrum, and the substantia nigra, a group of darkly pigmented cells in the
midbrain.
Involuntary Movements
- reflexes mediated through the spinal cord and brainstem are responsible
for some body movements
- occur without conscious thought

Voluntary Movements
- are consciously activated to achieve a specific goal, such as walking or
typing

Upper Motor Neurons

- have cell bodies in the cerebral cortex
- axons form descending tracts that connect to lower motor neurons

Lower Motor Neurons

- have cell bodies in the anterior horn of the spinal cord gray matter or in
cranial nerve nuclei

Primary Motor Cortex

- is located in the posterior portion of the frontal lobe, directly anterior to the
central sulcus

Primary Motor Cortex

- is located in the posterior portion of the frontal lobe, directly anterior to the
central sulcus

Prefrontal Area
- the motivation and foresight to plan and initiate movements occur in the
anterior portion of the frontal lobes

The corticospinal tracts are considered direct because they extend directly
from upper motor neurons in the cerebral cortex to lower motor neurons in
the spinal cord (a similar direct tract extends to lower motor neurons in the
brainstem). Other tracts are named after the part of the brainstem from
which they originate. Although they originate in the brainstem, these tracts
are indirectly controlled by the cerebral cortex, basal nuclei, and cerebellum.
These tracts are called indirect because no direct connection exists between Cerebellum
the cortical and spinal neurons. - is attached by cerebellar peduncles to the brainstem
- major function of the cerebellum is that of a comparator
Lateral Corticospinal
- tracts are especially important in controlling the speed and precision of Comparator
skilled movements of the hands - is a sensing device that compares the data from two sources—in this case,
the motor cortex and peripheral structures

Proprioceptive Neurons
- innervate joints, tendons, and muscles and provide information about the
position of body parts

Sensory information received by one hemisphere is shared with the other

through connections between the two hemispheres called commissures.

Corpus Callosum
- largest of the commissures
- a broad band of nerve tracts at the base of the longitudinal fissure

@chastudies
 Short-term Memory
- lasts longer than working memory and can be retained for a few minutes to
a few days

Short-term memory is transferred to long-term memory, where it may be

stored for only a few minutes or become permanent, by consolidation, a
gradual process involving the formation of new and stronger synaptic
connections.

Declarative Memory
- or explicit memory, involves the retention of facts, such as names, dates,
and places, as well as related emotional undertones

Procedural Memory
Sensory Speech - or reflexive memory, involves the development of motor skills, such as
- area (Wernicke area), located in the parietal lobe, functions in riding a bicycle
understanding and formulating coherent speech
Memory Engrams
Motor Speech - or memory traces, whole series of neurons that are probably involved in the
- area (Broca area), located in the frontal lobe, controls the movement long-term retention of a given piece of information, a thought, or an idea
necessary for speech
The olfactory cortex and certain deep cortical regions and nuclei of the
Damage to these parts of the brain or to associated brain regions may result cerebrum and the diencephalon are grouped together under the title limbic
in aphasia, absent or defective speech or language comprehension. The system.
most common cause is a stroke. It is estimated that 25–40% of stroke
survivors exhibit aphasia.

Electrodes placed on a person’s scalp and attached to a recording device can

record the brain’s electrical activity, producing an electroencephalogram
(EEG)

At other times, however, EEG patterns can be detected as wavelike patterns

known as brain waves.

Alpha Waves
- are observed in a normal person who is awake but in a quiet, resting state
with the eyes closed

Beta Waves
- have a higher frequency than alpha waves and occur during intense mental
activity Meninges
- three connective tissue membranes that surround and protect the brain
Delta Waves and spinal cord
- occur during deep sleep, in infants,
and in patients with severe brain disorders Dura Mater
- the most superficial and thickest of the meninges
Theta Waves - consists of two layers, which function as a single layer but are physically
- are usually observed in children, but they can also occur in adults who are separated into several regions to form dural folds and dural venous sinuses
experiencing frustration or who have certain brain disorders
Epidural Space
- within the vertebral canal between the dura mater and the vertebrae
- is clinically important as the injection site for epidural anesthesia of the
spinal nerves, which is often given to women during childbirth

Arachnoid
- second meningeal membrane
- very thin, wispy

Subdural Space
- space between the dura mater and the arachnoid mater which is normally
only a potential space containing a very small amount of serous fluid

Health professionals use such a needle to inject anesthetic into the area as a
spinal block or to take a sample of cerebrospinal fluid in a spinal tap.

Pia Mater
- third meningeal membrane
- is very tightly bound to the surface of the brain and spinal cord

Subarachnoid Space
- between the arachnoid mater and the pia mater
Working Memory - is filled with cerebrospinal fluid and contains blood vessels
- task-associated memory
- the brain briefly stores information required for the immediate performance Ventricles
of a task - fluid-filled cavities which are quite small in some areas and large in others

@chastudies
Each cerebral hemisphere contains a relatively large cavity called the lateral
ventricle.

Third Ventricle
- is a smaller, midline cavity located in the center of the diencephalon
between the two halves of the thalamus and connected by foramina (holes)
to the lateral ventricles

Fourth Ventricle
- is located at the base of the cerebellum and connected to the third ventricle
by a narrow canal, called the cerebral aqueduct

The fourth ventricle is continuous with the central canal of the spinal cord.
The fourth ventricle also opens into the subarachnoid space through
foramina in its walls and roof.

Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)

- bathes the brain and spinal cord, providing a protective cushion around the
CNS

Choroid Plexuses
- specialized structures made of ependymal cells, which are located in the
ventricle

Arachnoid Granulations
- masses of arachnoid tissue that penetrate the superior sagittal sinus, a dural
venous sinus in the longitudinal fissure, and CSF passes from the
subarachnoid space into the blood through these granulations

Hydrocephalus
- condition where the blockage of the openings in the fourth ventricle or the
cerebral aqueduct can cause CSF to accumulate in the ventricles

In the autonomic nervous system, two neurons in series extend from the CNS
to the effector organs. The first is called the preganglionic neuron; the
second is the postganglionic neuron. The neurons are so named because
preganglionic neurons synapse with postganglionic neurons in autonomic
ganglia outside the CNS.

The autonomic nervous system is composed of the sympathetic division

and the parasympathetic division.

@chastudies
Sympathetic Chain Ganglia
- connected to one another and are so named because they form
a chain along both sides of the spinal cord

Splanchnic Nerve
- the axons of those preganglionic fibers that do not synapse in the
sympathetic chain ganglia that extend to collateral ganglia

Collateral Ganglia
- are located nearer target organs and consist of the celiac, superior
mesenteric, and inferior mesenteric ganglia

Axons of the preganglionic neurons extend through spinal nerves or cranial

nerves to terminal ganglia either located near effector organs in the head or
embedded in the walls of effector organs in the thorax, abdomen, and pelvis.

Most of the thoracic and abdominal organs are supplied by preganglionic

neurons of the vagus nerve extending from the brainstem. The vagus nerve
branches to provide parasympathetic innervation to the heart, the lungs, the
liver, and the stomach and other digestive organs.

Biofeedback
- is a technique that uses electronic instruments or other methods to monitor
subconscious activities, many of which are regulated by the autonomic Microbiology
nervous system Experiment 3, 6, 7, 8

Meditation Exam on January 19 and Deadline of First Lab Rep

- is another technique that influences autonomic functions. January 22

All preganglionic neurons of both the sympathetic and the parasympathetic Introduction
divisions and all the postganglionic neurons of the parasympathetic division Background of the Study
secrete the neurotransmitter acetylcholine. Most postganglionic neurons of Significance of the Study
the sympathetic division secrete norepinephrine. Methodology Time and Place where samples are taken
Other methods that can be discussed
The sympathetic division is sometimes referred to as the fight-or-flight Results and Discussion that answers the guide questions
system because it prepares the person either to stand and face a threat or to Photoooooos
leave the situation as quickly as possible. Conclusion
Literature cited APA format
The parasympathetic division (rest-and-digest) of the autonomic nervous Calibri 11 1.5 spacing
system is generally consistent with resting conditions Deadline: January 25
Flow Chart agar slant/plate
Enteric Nervous System (ENS)
- consists of plexuses within the wall of the digestive tract A4 PAPER

The plexuses include TO DO LIST

(1) sensory neurons that connect the digestive tract to the CNS; - Plant Morph
(2) sympathetic and parasympathetic neurons that connect the CNS to the *Lab Report
digestive tract; and - Microbio
(3) enteric neurons, located entirely within the enteric plexuses. *Booklet Project
*Lab Report
*Lab Activities
- General Biology 2
* Printed Notes
- Human Anatomy & Physiology
* Lab Report

@chastudies
@chastudies