Chapter One

Matter & Mass

Matter
Matter is anything that takes up space and has mass
Examples include water, planets, and atoms
Density
Density (D) is the Mass (M) per unit of Volume (V); how packed molecules are
Density (kg/m^3) is equal to Mass (kg) divided by volume (m^3)

Law of Conservation of Mass

In an isolated system (enclosed space) mass can be neither formed, nor destroyed through
chemical reactions and physical transformations, but will remain constant.

Classification of Matter
Properties of Types of Matter
Atoms: The smallest part of an element that retains its chemical properties.
Elements: A substance where all atoms of the substance share the same properties.
Compounds: A substance which is made up of two or more different elements.
Mixtures: A material that is made up of two or more different substances that are physically
mixed together, and can be separated physically.
Pure and Impure Substances
A pure substance is a substance that is made up of only one type of molecule. For example:
An Oxygen or Water.
An impure substance is a substance that is made up of two or more different molecules. For
example: Air or Salt Water.

States of Matter
Solid: High density and resistant to changes: For example: Rock
Liquid: Medium density fluid that maintains its volume. For example: Water
Gas: Low density fluid that can change its volume. For Example: Air
 Particle Arrangement
STP and Gas Volume
STP stands for Standard Temperature and Pressure, which is the state of an enclosed system
when the temperature is 0∘ C, and the pressure is 1 atm (the pressure of the atmosphere at
sea level).
At STP, one mole, a unit of mass specific to a substance, of a gas takes up 22.4 liters of
volume.
Standard Ambient Temperature and Pressure (SATP) is the same as STP with following
difference: the temperature is considered 25∘ C, and the molar volume of gas at SATP is 24.8
liters.
Changes of State

When a substance is heated up, its molecules move faster with greater energy. The resulting
increase in collisions causes the substance to move farther away from one another,
becoming less dense.

Kinetic Theory
Definition: There are 2 parts to kinetic theory
 1. the temperature of a substance increases with an increase in either the average kinetic
energy of the particles or the average potential energy of separation (as in fusion) of the
particles or in both when heat is added
2. the particles of a gas move in straight lines with high average velocity, continually encounter
one another and thus change their individual velocities and directions, and cause pressure by
their impact against the walls of a container
Relation to Temperature
According to part one, an increase in average kinetic energy or average potential energy as
well as an increase in temperature will occur if heat is added. This means that an increase
temperature and average energy both occur simultaneously, so they will be proportional to
one another.

Particle Movement

Diffusion
Definition
The movement of a fluid from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower
concentration.
Factors that Affect Diffusion
Temperature: An increase in temperature increases the rate of diffusion as it increases the
energy of the particles, enabling them to move faster.
Concentration Difference: A higher concentration difference will result in a faster rate of
diffusion, as a lot more diffusion needs to take place.
Diffusion Distance: The shorter distance the particles have to move, the faster they will be
able to diffuse.
Mass of the Molecule: The more mass a molecule has, the rate of diffusion will decrease, as
greater mass means that more energy is required to move it.
Terminology and Skills
SI Units: These are the units used for all calculations and investigations in chemistry:
Length - meter (m)
Time - second (s)
Amount of substance - mole (mole)
Electric current - ampere (A)
Temperature - kelvin (K)
Luminous intensity - candela (cd)
Mass - kilogram (kg)
Parallax Error
This happens when you measure with your eyes at a different perspective causing you to get
the wrong reading.
Always ensure that the measuring cylinder is placed on a flat surface and crouch down to
ensure that you are at eye level with the measurement.
Meniscus
The effect when a liquid forms a small curve at the top in beaker where it’s meant to be
measured. Measure from the middle of the curve to get the right reading.
Chapter Two
Matter
Arrangements of Matter

Impure Substances
A homogeneous substance is a substance from which all samples taken will have the same
properties
A heterogeneous substance is a substance from which all samples taken will not have the same
properties.
A pure substance has one melting point and one boiling point, whereas an impure substance
will have different melting and boiling points for each of the different molecule within it.
Phases
Definitions
Solute: The minor component in a solution, dissolved in the solvent.
Solvent: The liquid in which a solute is dissolved to form a solution.
Phase: A physically distinctive form of matter with uniform properties
Suspension: A state in which larger particles are dispersed throughout a fluid, which eventually
settle and form layers.
Colloid: A state in which smaller particles are dispersed throughout a fluid.
Gel: A dispersion of liquid molecules in a solid.
Emulsion: A mixture with two substances that originally don’t mix but bind together with the
aid of a chemical agent (emulsifier).
Miscible V/S Immiscible
Miscible substances are substances that are able to form a solution with one another, whereas
immiscible substances cannot.
Emulsifiers
An emulsifier is a chemical agent that is used to make immiscible substances form a solution.
This is done by binding the two substances to different ends of the emulsifier.
For example, water and oil are immiscible, but if one end of an emulsifier bonds to water
(hydrophilic end) and the other bonds to oil (hydrophobic end) then a solution will be made.
Separating Substances
Definitions
Filtrate: The product of filtration
Residue: What is left after filtration takes place.
Distillate: The vapor collected in distillation which is then cooled to form a liquid.
Volatile: When a substance can easily undergo a change from liquid into a gas.
Methods of Separation
Decantation: Separating a solid + liquid mixture by pouring out the liquid and leaving only the
solid.
 Evaporation: Heating up a solution so that the solvent of the solution evaporates and leaves
the solute in the container.
Vaporization: Heating up the solid/liquid to turn it into a gas.
Filtration: Using a funnel and filter paper over a beaker, place a solid + liquid mixture in the
funnel, and only the liquid will pass through.
Separation Funnel: Place a suspension of 2 liquids in a separation funnel, the higher density
liquid will sink to the bottom and will flow through the funnel.
Distillation: Attached to a Liebig condenser with cold flowing water, heat up (its boiling point)
mixture and collect the condensed vapor on the other end of the Liebig condenser. For example,
take a solution of alcohol and water, with a boiling point of 70 and 100 degrees respectively. In
order to separate the two solutions, the mixture is heated to boiling point. Alcohol will soon
reach the boiling point and will evaporate. Leaving behind water molecules. The evaporated
solution is condensed and collected through a Liebig condenser. Hence both elements are
separated.
Chromatography: Place a small spot of the ink 2cm from the bottom of a piece of paper, and
suspend the paper so that the bottom 1cm is in the water in a beaker.

Retardation Factor
The retardation factor is the distance moved by the sample divided by the distance moved by
the solvent (water).
Dialysis
Definitions
Diffusion: When a fluid moves from an area of high concentration to an area of low
concentration.
Osmosis: When a solvent (water) moves from an area of high concentration to an area of low
concentration through a semi - permeable membrane.
Semi - permeable: A barrier that only allows certain substances to go through it.
Dialysate: The part of a mixture that flows through the membrane in dialysis.
Process
1. Either the bloodstream gets connected to a dialysis machine or a dialysis fluid is pumped into
the abdominal area.
2. The machine or the dialysis fluid diffuses out the toxins from the blood into it through osmosis.
3. Since the toxin is a solvent, and there is a lower concentration of the toxin in the dialysis fluid
or the machine, then osmosis takes place.
 Chapter Three
Atomic Structure
Atom

Definitions
Mass Number (A): The relative mass of an atom of an element
Atomic number (P): The amount of protons per atom of that element
Subatomic Particles

Subatomic Particle Relative Mass Relative Charge

Proton 1 1

Electron 0 (negligible amount) -1

Neutron 1 0

Valence is the amount of electrons in the outer shell of the atom

 Atomic Models

Isotopes
Definition
An atom that has more or less neutrons in its nucleus than normal, and therefore has a change
in atomic mass but not atomic number.
Examples and Uses
Heavy Water: Water made up of oxygen and isotopes of hydrogen (H-1, H-2, and H-3) is used
to slow down neutrons in order to increase the likelihood of a nuclear reaction.
Uranium 235: Used as an energy source in a nuclear power plant.
Relative Atomic Mass based on Abundance
Average Relative Atomic Mass = ((Mass of Isotope 1 * Percentage Abundance) + (Mass of
Isotope 1 * Percentage Abundance)) / 100

The Periodic Table

Terminology
Group: All elements in a group share the same number of valence electrons
Period: All elements in a period share the same number of shells
History of the Periodic Table
Lavioser: Discovered the role oxygen plays in combustion, developed a method for naming
compounds
Dobereiner: Discovered that the relative atomic mass of the middle element in a group is
close to the average relative atomic mass of the other two (there were only three elements
placed per group at the time).
Newlands: Discovered that the element eight elements after another element is similar when
arranging elements based on relative atomic mass.
Mendeleev: Arranged them similarly to Newlands but left spaces for undiscovered elements
as they were not discovered yet but were theorized to have similar properties to others in the
group.
Moseley: Ordered the periodic table based on atomic number, not atomic weight.
Modern Periodic Table:
Metals & Non-Metals: Properties
Metals Non-Metals

Lustrous Dull

Malleable Non-Malleable

Ductile Non-Ductile

Good Conductor of Heat/ Electricity Bad Conductor of Heat/ Electricity

Solid at Room Temp (except mercury and gallium) Solid/ Liquid/ Gas at Room Temp

High Density Low Density

Positive Ions (Cations) Negative Ions (Anions)

Hard Brittle

Sonorous (metalloids have properties from both columns)

 Metal Extraction
• Metals are listed on what's known as the reactivity series, a list that describes
which metals are more reactive than others.
• Metals that are less reactive than carbon can be extracted by having carbon
replace them in whatever compound they are currently in.
• Metals that are less reactive hydrogen are considered ‘native,’ and do not
need to be extracted.
• Metals above carbon need to be extracted through electrolysis, through the
use of special bacteria, which then release leachate solution, which contains
the extracted metal. Electrolysis drives chemical reactions through the use of
currents.

Groups in the Periodic Table: Properties

Group 1 Group 7 Group 8

Good conductor of electricity Highly reactive with metals Does not react at all

Malleable Different states at room Gas at room temperature

temperature
Trends
Group 1 Group 7 Group 8

Atomic radius gets larger as you go down the group

MP and BP go up as you go down the group

More reactive as you go down the Less reactive as you go down the Non-reactive
group group

Ions and Valence

Groups 1, 2, 3
Group 1: Forms +1 ions
Group 2: Forms +2 ions
Group 3: Forms +3 ions
Groups 5.6.7
Group 5: Forms -3 ions
Group 6: Forms -2 ions
Group 7: Forms -1 ions
Compounds
All compounds have a charge of 0
Transition Metals
Transition metals can sometimes have different charges
For example, iron can have a +2 or +3 charge, shown as iron (II) or iron (III)
Polyatomic Ions
Ions made of 2 or more atoms
Common Polyatomic Ions:
 Chapter Four
Balancing Equations
Law of Conservation of Mass
In any chemical reaction, mass cannot be created or destroyed.
Rules of Balancing Equations
There should be the same proportion of each element on each side of the equation.
Ionic Bonding
Ions
- Ions are atoms that are positively or negatively charged. When electron transfer happens,
atoms have more or less electrons than protons, making them ions.
- AnIons: Negatively charged Ions
- CatIons: Positively charged Ions

The Process
All atoms want to have a full outer shell. Ionic bonding occurs when atoms exchange electrons
with each other to fulfill this. Because one atom loses an electron, making it positively
charged, and vice versa for the other atom, they are attracted to each other, and therefore they
bond. This happens between metals and non-metals.
Diagram

Covalent Bonding
The Process
Covalent bonding is the sharing of electrons for atoms to fill each other’s outer shells. The
positive nucleuses are attracted to the shared electrons, thus they become a bond.
Single, Double and Triple Bonds
Single bonds occur when there is a single pair of electrons shared (2 electrons)
Double bonds occur when there is a double pair of electrons shared (4 electrons)
Triple bonds occur when there is a triple pair of electrons shared (6 electrons)
Diagram
 Carbon Allotropes

Allotrope Appearance Conductivity Hardness Density Uses

Graphite Black and Opaque Good Conductor Soft, slippery Low Batteries, Pencils, Lube

Diamond Transparent Poor Conductor Very Hard High Jewelry, Machinery

Simple and Giant Covalent Structures

Simple covalent structures are made up of individual molecules. Giant covalent structures
consist of rigid 3D lattices where atoms are held in place

Metallic Bonding
The Process
Atoms share delocalized electrons which float around in a ‘sea of electrons.’ Since the atoms
have lost electrons, they become Cations. The positively charged atoms are attracted to the
negatively charged delocalized electrons. The atoms form a grid.
 Diagram

Properties of Metals
Conductive, as the delocalized electrons are free to move and have a charge
Malleable, as the metals form layers, which are easy to bend
Ductile, as the metal forms layers, which can be stripped off

Skills
Properties of Substances
The properties of a substance can be linked to what kind of compound it is, for example, since
oxygen is a covalent bond, it cannot conduct electricity, as it has no free-to-move charged
particles.
Types of Molecular Forces
Intermolecular Forces: Forces that take place between multiple molecules
Hydrogen Bonding - Is an electrostatic attraction created between covalently bonded
hydrogen atom to an electronegative atom (Oxygen, Fluorine, and Nitrogen). This creates strong
dipoles that can then interact.
Dipole-Dipolele Action - Different atoms have different electronegativity values
hence dipoles are created as the shared electron are more attracted to one side.
London Dispersion Forces- These are temporary dipoles created in a molecule through
the movement of electrons. Often large molecules have very strong diples created by LDF's; this is
cause they have many electrons.
Intramolecular Forces: Forces that take place within a molecule

Lewis Structure -
https://www.dummies.com/education/science/chemistry/drawing-lewis-dot-structures-
for-chemistry/
 Chapter 5
Acid and Alkalis
● There have been multiple different definitions over the time. Although, keep in mind that they are
all correct with the scope increasing:

○ The most basic is the Bronsted Lowry definition that describes an acid as an H+ donor or
give an H+, while a base is something which accepts that H+.
○ While on the other hand Leview describes base is something that can donate a lone pair
of electrons, while an acid is something which can accept the lone pair.
○ Finally you have something which is known as an Arrhenius acid/base. This is something
which when dissolved in water form H+ while a base when dissociates does increase the
OH concentration of the solution.

● Acid V/S Bases V/S Neural

○ Together with multiple definition of Acid mentioned above, it is classified on basis of the
pH scale. The pH scale basically shows the concentration of H+ ions. So the lower the
pH number, the higher the concentration. Hence an inverse relationship exists between
pH and acidity
○ A base is something which has a low amount of H+ ions or is not very acidic. It is when
the pH scale is above 7.
○ Finally neutral is 7 where you have the same amount of acid and bases.

● Strong V/S Weak Acid and Bases

○
Strong Weak

They normally tend to have a much larger They tend to have a much lower value as
K value. This is because of the equilibrium they do not dissociate much due to the
favoring the right side. fact they are not very polar.

More conductive Less Conductive due to the fact that less

ions dissociate
 Takes a larger volume of the opposite, Takes a small volume the opposite, base -
base -acid or vice versa to neutralize acid or vice versa to neutralize using
using titrations. titrations.

Often react much faster Reacts much slower

● Concentrated V/S Strong Acid

○ A concentrated acid means that there are more molecules per volume; however, it does
not share the same properties of a Strong acid as mentioned above. A concentrated
weak acid can have the same pH as a strong acid. This is because pH measures the
concentration of H+ ions.

Neutralization
● Neutralization is a chemical reaction in which an acid and a base react quantitatively with each
other. This often leads to the production of a salt
● There are multiple different types of acid-base reactions. However, the basic reactions are:
○ Acid + Base ---> Salt + Water
■ HCl + NaOH ---> H2O + NaCl
■ H2SO4 + KOH ---> H2O + K2SO4
○ Acid + Metal ---> Hydrogen Gas + Salt
■ HBr + Mg ---> H2 + MgBr2
■ HNO3 + Zn ---> H2 + ZnNO3
○ Acid + Metal Hydroxide ---> Salt + Water
■ Mg(OH)2 + HCl --->MgCl2 + H2O
■ Zn(OH)2 + HCl ----> ZCl + H2O
○ Acid + Metal Oxide ----> Salt + Water
■ MgO + HNO3 -----> Mg(NO3)2 + H2O
■ ZnO + H2SO4 -----> ZnS2 + H2O
○ Acid + Metal Carbonate ----> Carbon Dioxide + Salt + Water
■ CuCO3 + 2HNO3 ---> Cu(NO3)2 + H2O + CO2
■ ZnCo3 + H2SO4 ---> ZnSO4 + H2O + CO2
● There are multiple uses of Neutralization in industries such as:
○ Treatment of wasp stings
■ These stings are traditionally very basic. Although, applying something acid-like
vinegar neutralizes them.
○ Toothpaste
■ When you eat throughout the day acidic and basic food goes in and out of your
mouth. Hence, when you brush your teeth one of the main jobs of tooth paste is
to neutralize what is present and create a buffer. A buffer basically is something
that resist pH changes meaning that adding acid will not change the pH
significantly.
○ To combat acidification
■ In farming there is something known as acid soil; this often leads to less plant
growth and yield. In order to combat this issue farmer often use a basic
substance, to neutralize the soil after acid rain.
 Chapter 6
Mole
●
Much like the word dozen, a mole represent a certain amount of a substance.
Mole is basically 6 * 10^26 of anything. This is often used to convert between
amu (atomic mass units) and grams. Additionally, it is a convention and used in
experiments.
○ A formal definition is that mass of substance containing the same number
of fundamental units as there units as there are atoms in exactly 12.00g
of carbon - 12
● A mole ratio is the ratio between the amounts in moles of any two compounds
involved in a chemical reaction. Mole ratios are used as conversion factors
between products and reactants in many problems.
● A few definitions
○ Mass Number: The total number of protons and neutrons in a nucleus
○ Relative Atomic Mass: The ratio of the average mass of one atom of an
element to one twelfth of the mass of an atom of carbon - 12
○ Relative molecular mass: the ratio of the average mass of one molecule
of an element or compound to one twelfth of the mass of an atom of
carbon-12.
○ Solute: The minor component in a solution, dissolved in the solvent. Or in
other words; it is the smaller part of the solution.
○ Solvent: Is the part of the solution in which the solute is dissolved. Or is
the part of the solution present in greater amounts
○ Solution: A mixture of solvent and solute.
Common Equations
Percentage Composition/ Limiting Reactant
● Percentage Composition
○ Percentage Composition is a technique in chemistry in which a certain elements
mass is calculated from the complete element.
■ The formula for percentage composition is Mass/ Total mass * 100
● Limiting Reactant
○ Limiting reactants are important to calculate as they are used when forming mole
ratios.
○ There are a few steps when calculating limiting reactants
■ Balance the equation for the chemical reaction.
■ Convert the given information into moles.
■ Use stoichiometry for each individual reactant to find the mass of product
produced.
■ The reactant that produces a lesser amount of product is the limiting
reagent.
■ The reactant that produces a larger amount of product is the excess
reagent.
■ To find the amount of remaining excess reactant, subtract the mass of
excess reagent consumed from the total mass of excess reagent given.
● Empirical Formula is the smallest Ratio while molecular formula is when the equation is
not simplified.

Examples

Mass : https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7Cfq0ilw7ps

Molarity : https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-4E6rOkiw2I
 Chapter Seven
Isotopes
Definition
An atom of an element which has more or less neutrons
Examples and Uses
Carbon-14, used for carbon dating organisms for archeology.
Stable isotopes used are markers to find migratory patterns
Average Relative Atomic Mass
(𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 1 × % 𝐴𝑏1) + (𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 2 × % 𝐴𝑏2) + (𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 3 × % 𝐴𝑏3)...
Average Relative Atomic Mass =
100
% Ab = Percentage Abundance
Notation
(Element)- (Atomic Mass)
For example: Oxygen-17

Radioactivity
Stable V/S Unstable
Stable nuclei are those which do not undergo radioactive decay
Unstable nuclei are those which do undergo radioactive decay, as they have an excess of
internal energy. If they actively release radiation, they are radioactive, hence unstable.
Definitions
Decay Series: The series of decay in which radioactive element is decomposed in different
elements until it produces one stable atom.
Parent Isotope: The isotope that decays
Daughter Isotope: The isotope that is formed after the decay
Half-Life: The time it takes for the radioactivity of an unstable isotope to become half.
Trans-uranium Element: Any element that lies beyond Uranium on the periodic table.
Types of Decay
Alpha: When the isotope releases 2 neutrons, 2 protons and 2 electrons, forming a helium-4
atom.
Beta: When the isotope releases a high speed, high energy electron from its nucleus, and a
neutron turns into a proton.
Gamma: When the isotope releases a high amount of energy in the form of gamma radiation.
Geiger counter
A Geiger counter is an instrument that measures the radiation of an area. It is used to make
sure that an area is habitable and safe to enter.
 Chapter 8
Redox
● Definitions
○ Reduction: A reaction that involves the gaining of electrons by one of the atoms
involved in a reaction, or two or more chemical species. Oxidation of that
element is lowered.
○ Oxidation: Is the loss of electrons during a reaction by a molecule, atom or ion.
When oxidation happens the oxidation state of the molecule increases.
○ Reducing Agent: This is an element or compound that loses/donates an
electron to another chemical species in a redox chemical reaction.
○ Oxidizing Agent: Is a substance that has the ability to oxidize other substances.
In other words, it is the one that gains electrons.
○ The oxidation number is the charge on an element or molecule.
● Oxidation and Reduction can be remembered by the acronym OILRIG. Oxidation is loss
of electron, while reduction is the gain of electrons.
● When trying to figure out which elements are oxidized and which are reduced by taking
the following example:

• Let’s break up the example above:

■ Firstly let’s take the Iron (Fe). Before reaction it has an Oxidation number
of 0
 ■ Then let’s look at the O2. It is diatomic. It even has an Oxidation number of
0
■ Finally let’s take a look at the other side, where we have the element
Fe2O3
● We know this element has a total charge of “0”.
● Oxygen normally have a charge of -2, meaning that 3 oxygen
have a total charge of -6
● Iron has to be positive to cancel it out. So the iron in total has to
have a charge of +6, hence one Fe equals to +3.
● From this is can be concluded that oxygen is an oxidation agent,
while iron is the reducing agent.
● Half equations an example would be:

○
● For a more detailed look at this can be seen on the Lewis structure level

Electrolysis

● Definitions
○ Electrolysis: Is the passing of direct electric current through an ionic substance
that is either molten or dissolved in a suitable solvent, producing a chemical
reaction at the electrode.
○ Electrolyte: Is a chemical compound that conducts electricity by changing into
ions when melted or dissolved into a solution.
○ Anode: Anode is where oxidation takes place
○ Cathode: Where reduction takes place.
 ○ Corrosion: is the irreversible damage or destruction of material due to a
chemical or electrochemical reaction
○ Reactivity series: A series of metals from the most reactive to least.
○ Ore: A natural occurrence of a rock or sediment that contains sufficient minerals
with economically important elements. Normally is combined with other elements.

●
○ In the diagram above you have two examples: Galvanic cells & Electrolytic cells.
Galvanic cells are spontaneous and no power is needed. While electrolytic cells
require power as the reaction is not spontaneous.
○ Salt bridge is used to allow the current to flow
● Electrolysis cells function due to the difference in charge. Normally one of the metals is
more electronegative than the other. Hence, the electrons get attracted to the more
electronegative end (the Cathode.) The cathode will normally loose mass as it becomes
more soluble. While on the other hand, Cu will increase in mass as it loses electrons.
● Metals are often found in ores hence extracting them has to take place. Electrolysis can
be used to extract a more reactive metal from the ore. This can be done through a
similar process as above where the metal gets plated.
Electroplating
● Electroplating uses many of the same principles as mentioned above of electrolysis.
○ Firstly you have a solution known as electrolyte. Then in the solution two
terminals are placed. They are known as electrodes (they can be anode and
cathode). Then when electricity flows through the circuit the electrolysis solution
start to split and plate on the cathode creating a thin layer.
 ○
● An industrial example of this is copper
○ There is a solution of copper containing compounds such as copper (ll) sulfate. In
the solution there is an anode made from impure copper and a cathode made
from pure copper.
○ As the reaction takes place copper gets dissolved from the anode as it loses
electrons, while the cathode gains mass of the deposited copper.
○ This can be seen through half-life reactions
■ Anode: Cu ---> Cu2++ 2e-
■ Cathode: Cu2+ + 2e-----> Cu
○ Half-life reactions are equations which show the oxidation and reduction taking
place in a reaction.
Voltaic Cell
● Definitions
○ Salt Bridge: The purpose is to stop a reaction from reaching equilibrium too
quickly. If salt bridge is not installed, then a high positive and high negative will
accumulate on either side causing huge potential difference. Additionally, it helps
to complete the circuit.
○ Half Cell: This is half of the normal cell normally consisting of one electrode.
● As this is a spontaneous reaction, this means that for the flow of electrons no energy is
needed. Moreover, the flow of electrons is electricity hence it produces electricity. An
example of this would be the Baghdad battery.
 Chapter 9
Atmospheric Composition
● The current composition of air by volume: 78.09% Nitrogen, 20.95% Oxygen, 0.93%
Argon, carbon dioxide and small amounts of other gases. Air also contains a variable
amount of water vapor, on average around 1% at Sea and 0.4% over the entire
atmosphere
● Fractional Distillation is most commonly used to separate different gases from the
general air. This is done due to a property of liquids that they all have different boiling &
melting point. Basically it works through a system in which the gas is first cooled and
turned into liquid. Sublimation of few gases convert into solid directly, hence they are
easy to separate. Subsequently it is heated. Oxygen flows out while liquid nitrogen
becomes a gas due to the different boiling points.

● Over time the composition of earth's atmosphere has changed. Multiple different factors
can account for this
○ Industrial Revolution
○ Ice Age
○ Extinction
○ Plant Growth
●

● Characteristics of the different atmospheric gases

○ Oxygen
■ Reactive and form oxides with nearly all elements
■ Colorless
■ Odorless
■ Tasteless
 ○ Carbon Dioxide
■ Colorless
■ Odorless at small amount otherwise smells acidic.
○ Nitrogen
■ Colorless
■ Tasteless
■ Diatomic
■ Does not react much
● Test for different gases
○ Hydrogen
■ The Lit splint test. You collect the hydrogen gas in a test tube and take a
Lit splint. Place the lint splint in the test tube a pop sound should come.
○ Oxygen
■ Take a glowing splint and place it in the test tube where oxygen is meant
to be. The glowing splint should ignite.
○ Carbon Dioxide
■ Take the Carbon Dioxide and pass it through lime water. The lime water
should turn milky.
Greenhouse Effect
● The greenhouse effect is a process by which radiation from the planet’s
atmosphere warms the planet's surface to a point above what it would be without
this atmosphere or additional particles.
○ When looking from physics preservative: As light enter the atmosphere it
heats up earth and then bounces back. Although particles such as Water
vapor and Carbon Dioxide absorb some of it, and later disperse it, some
of the energy redistributes back to earth.
● The production and creation of the ozone can be described as a two-step
process. The first step involves the ionization of oxygen. In the same step the
ultraviolet light/radiation breaks apart O2 into 2O. In the second step the reactive
2O combine and soon form O3
● Main Greenhouse Gases

Greenhouse Gases Sources

Water Evaporation of Water from oceans,

rivers, lakes, irrigation

Carbon Dioxide Forest fires, volcanic eruptions,

evaporation of water from oceans.
Or Burning of fossil fuels in power
plants and cars

Methane Wetlands, oceans, lakes, and

river, termites. Flooded rice field,
farm animals and processing of
 coal and natural gases

Nitrogen Oxide Burning of fossil fuels, forests,

oceans, soil and grasslands.
Manufacture of cement.

● When ultraviolet light hit CFC, the molecules in the upper atmosphere break the
carbon chlorine bonds. This leads to the production of chlorine (CL) and the CL
then reacts with an ozone molecule and breaks apart the ozone layer.

Figure: Source of Fossil Fuels

Nutrient Cycling
● Main source of nitrogen is from anaerobic, denitrifying bacteria

○
● Phosphorus is need for all living things. It shows the amount of mater in the food
chain.
 ● Carbon Cycle

○
Air & Water Pollution
● The atmosphere helps in the transportation of water after evaporation takes
place.
● Cause of different form of pollution
○ Air pollution
■ Fumes from car exhausts
■ Ammonia
■ Livestock
○ Water Pollution
■ Run off from the environment
○ Land & Soil Pollution
■ Landfills
■ Plastic
○ Noise and Light Pollution
■ Parties
■ Camps
■ Highways
■ Speakers
 Chapter Ten
Combustion
Definitions
Flash Point: The lowest temperature at which the vapors of that material will ignite
Ignition Temperature: The lowest temperature at which a combustible substance when
heated in air takes fire and continues to burn
Complete and Incomplete Combustion
Combustion, otherwise known as burning, involves the reaction of a hydrocarbon and oxygen
to produce carbon dioxide and water.

If there is sufficient oxygen, carbon dioxide is produced. This is known as complete

combustion.
If there is not enough oxygen, carbon monoxide is produced. This is known as incomplete
combustion
.Chemical Equations
Complete: CxHy + O2 → CO2 + H2O
Incomplete: CxHy + O2 → CO + H2O

Enthalpy
Definitions
Standard Average Bond Enthalpy: The amount of energy required to break a specific type
of bond per mole of the substance.
Standard Enthalpy Change of a Reaction: The enthalpy change that will occur in the
system when matter is transformed by a chemical reaction.
Standard Enthalpy of Formation: Enthalpy during the formation of 1 mole of the substance
from its constituent elements
Hess’s Law
Regardless of the multiple stages or steps of a reaction, the total enthalpy change for the
reaction is the sum of all changes.
 Source of Energy
Energy can come from an external heat source, or by formation of chemical bonds, which
releases energy.
Calculating Enthalpy Change
𝛥𝐻 = 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠 − 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝐵𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐴𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
Thermochemical Equations
(Balanced equation) 𝛥𝐻 = 𝑥𝑦𝑧. 𝑘𝐽
Using Experimental Data
𝛥𝐻 = 𝑚𝑐𝛥𝑇
𝛥𝐻: Enthalpy change
M: Mass
C: Specific Heat Capacity (Heat it takes to increase the temperature of 1 gram of the substance
by 1℃)
𝛥𝑇: Change in temperature

Exothermic and Endothermic

Definitions and Examples
An exothermic reaction is a reaction that releases heat energy as the reaction happens
An endothermic reaction is a reaction that absorbs heat energy as the reaction happens
Examples:

Diagram of Reactions
 Identifying Type of Reaction
If 𝛥𝐻𝐻 ≥ 0 then the reaction is endothermic and vice versa
In terms of bond enthalpies, when bonds are broken, energy is required, but when they are
made they release energy. If the new bonds release more energy than the previous bonds
broken, then it is exothermic; vice versa.
If 𝛥𝐻 < 0 then the reaction is exothermic and vice versa
Use in Industry
• Exothermic reactions are used to heat up steam in order to move turbines and
generate electricity
• Endothermic reactions are used in cold packs to treat bruises.
Heat
Calorimetry
Calorimetry is the process of measuring the amount of heat released or absorbed during a
chemical reaction. By knowing the change in heat, it can be determined whether or not a
reaction is exothermic or endothermic.
Assumptions of Calorimetry
The substance is pure
No heat is absorbed by the calorimeter
A concentration of 1 mol/dm^3 is used
 Calorimeter Experiments

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SagNcyN1yUQ

Entropy
Definition
The measure of a system's thermal energy per unit temperature that is unavailable for doing
useful work. Because work is obtained from ordered molecular motion, the amount of entropy
is also a measure of the molecular disorder, or randomness, of a system.
 Chapter 11
States of Matter & Kinetic Theory
● There are many different states of matter each have different properties

● Kinetic Molecular Theory states that gas particles are in constant motion and exhibit
perfectly elastic collisions. This can be used to explain Charles’ and Boyle's Law. The
average energy of a collection of gas particles is directly proportional to absolute
temperature.
Collision Theory
● Collision theory is normally used to predict rates of chemical reaction, particularly for
gases. The theory is based on the assumption that for a reaction to occur it is necessary
for the reaction species to come together.
● There are three main points listed in collision theory
○ Molecules must collide to react
○ Collision must have the correct orientation
○ Collision must have enough energy
Equilibrium
● Definitions
○ Thermal Dissociation: The breaking apart of a molecule’s bond due to the
introduction of heat. Or it is the breaking down of a large substance into smaller
substance.
○ Reversible Reaction: It a chemical reaction where the reactants from product in
turn can be reversed and give back reactants.
○ Thermal Decomposition: Is a simple single step reaction where a molecule
splits into two products. It normally takes place due to ionization of a substance
of heat.
 ● Chemical equilibrium is a state in which the rate of the forward reaction equals the rate
of the backward reaction. In other words there is no net change in concentration.
Otherwise this is known as dynamic equilibrium.
● A physical equilibrium is a system whose physical state does not change when dynamic
equilibrium is reached in a system
● A Catalyst is used to find an alternative pathway to reaction with a lower activation
energy.
● Le Chatelier Principle is used to predict the behavior of a system due to changes in
temperature, concentration and pressure.
○ If the temperature in a system changes the behavior will change. If the system is
exothermic then an addition of heat will favor the front direction. In endothermic
reverse is applicable.
○ If pressure is increased then it depends where the most gas molecules are
present.
○ If the concentration of the products or reactants are increased respectively you
will get a change in the rate of reaction for that side.

● The Haber Process

Rate of Reaction
● Rate of Reaction - Is the speed at which reactants are converted into products
• There are multiple different factors that impact the rate of a reaction however the most
common include temprature, pressure/ Concentration, and catalyst.
• Temperature affects the rate of reactions as it increases the speed at which
particles collide; otherwise known as the kinetic energy. An increase in KE means
a higher percentage of particles have the minimum activation energy. Another
way in which temp can impact a reaction is that it increases the random motion of
 particles. This means collision can happen more often; hence being successful
more often
• An increase in concentration and pressure means that there are more particles in a
given volume. More particles in the same volume mean that there is a higher
chance of a collision to take place. It is more likely for a reaction to take place.
• Catalyst even impacts the rate of reaction by using an alternative pathway that has
lower activation energy. A lower activation energy means more particles have the
ability to pass the activation energy barrier. A catalyst increases the percentage of
particles with suitable activation energy by introducing a new pathway with less
activation energy.
• Surface Area is an important factor. A higher surface area means there is more
area for the reaction to take place on.
• Common Experimental Procedures
Temperature -
Measure out 50 cm3 of sodium thiosulfate and pour into the conical flask.
Draw a cross on the piece of paper and then place the conical flask on top of it.
Use the thermometer to measure the temperature of the sodium thiosulfate. Record this
value in the Results table below.
Measure out 5 cm3 of hydrochloric acid and pour into the conical flask. Start the stop
clock straightaway.
Looking from above, time how long it takes for the cross to ‘disappear’. Record this time
in seconds in the Results table
Pour the solution away as quickly as possible and rinse out and the flask.
Repeat steps 1 to 6 using sodium thiosulfate from one of the water (or ice) baths.
Continue until you have done the experiment with sodium thiosulfate from all of the
different water baths.
Concentration

Catalyst
• The minimum quantity of energy that the reacting species must possess in order to
undergo a specified reaction.
•
• Catalyst does impact the rate of a reaction by finding an alternative pathway of energy for
the reactants
• Catalyst does impact the rate of a reaction by finding an alternative pathway of energy for
the reactants
• .
Alkanes
● Alkanes are a type of hydrocarbon with single bonds and saturated.
○ They all have a general molecular formula of C n H 2 n+2
○ In the structural formula keep in mind they have single bonds
○ Empirical formula is not the simplest ratio.
○ A list of the different Alkanes

○ Alkanes can often take different shapes while having the same mass. This
is known as isomers.

Number of C Atoms Number of Isomers

4 2

5 3

6 5
■ An example of this can be seen with butane

■ Isomers have different properties

● There are multiple different features of Alkanes
 ○ Branched alkanes normally exhibit lower boiling points than unbranched
alkanes of the same carbon content.
○ Solid alkanes are normally soft, with low melting points
○ Insoluble in water
● As the amount of carbon atoms present increases so does the boiling and
melting point.

○
Alkene
● Alkenes are unsaturated hydrocarbon chain with a double bond.
● They often end in the suffix - ene
● There are multiple different isomers of Alkenes when they are linear. There are
two kinds of isomers which can be seen when looking at Alkenes: location of the
double bond and structural.
 ○ Location of the double bond:
Number of Carbon Number of isomers Name of the Isomers
Atoms

4 2 But-2-ene , but-1-ene

5 2 Pent -1-ene , pent-2-

ene

6 3 Hex-1-ene, hex -2-

ene , hex-3-ene
○ Structural
■ Double bonds have both sigma and PI bonds, unlike single bonds.
The PI bonds restrict the movement around the double bond. This
results in something known as CIS-trans- isomers.
● Forms of alkenes that have the same structure except of
orientation of components around the PI bond.
● An example of this can be seen in Butene

● The general formula for alkene is C nH 2n

● Generally in commercial industries Alkenes are converted to Alkanes. This is
carried out to make food healthier or stay longer.
 ○ For example vegetable oil of polyunsaturated fat - means multiple double
bonds. This is healthier although harder to spread as they are liquid at
room temp. So food scientists use hydrogenation to make them saturated
hence easy to spread.

Alcohols, Carboxylic Acids & Esters

● Alcohols - Are a type of functional group.
○ The general formula included : CnH2n+1OH
○ They can be created through the hydration of an alkene
○ Single bonded carbon and hydroxide atoms
○ They are a bunch of compounds with one OH group
● Carboxylic
○ Organic compounds which contain the functional group - COOH
○ Often has an ending in “oic” acid. For example Ethanoic acid.
● Esters
○ They are a group of organic compounds which all contain the functional
group - COO-.
■ Typical characteristics they include; volatile and have fruity smells.

Crude Oil
Crude Oil can be seen as a mixture of different hydrocarbons which are mixed together.
An important step is often separating the different components. After the sand and
water are removed fractional distillation is used to separate the remaining components.
• Fractional Distillation with crude oil can be broken down into three steps -
Distillation, Cracking and Reforming
Distillation
▪ Crude oil is heated in a furnace at extremely high temps. But the
temperature along the vessel varies with the top being the coolest
compared to the bottom.
▪ As the mixture is heated different hydrocarbons evaporate and
condense at different levels.
▪ The boiling point is directly proportional to amount of carbon in
Hydrocarbon.
▪ The ones with the highest boiling point condense towards the
bottom, and vice versa.
▪ They are piped out of the distillation depending where they
condense.
Cracking –
▪ Large saturated hydrocarbon molecules are broken down into smaller,
more useful hydrocarbons.
 ▪ This can be done through the use of a catalyst; for example EOLITE.
▪ Or can be done with high temperature and pressure.
Reforming
▪ In the presence of hydrogen and a heated catalyst, hydrocarbons, with
small carbon chain become more stable Benzene rings.
● Some products of this often include

Fraction Uses

Gases ● Fuel for cars

● Heating and cooking in
homes

Petrol ● Fuel in cars

Kerosene ● Used in aircraft engines

Diesel Oil ● Used in diesel engines

Bitumen ● Making roads waterproof

Reactions
● Substitution
○ A reaction in which one functional group in a chemical compound is
replaced by another functional group.

● Esterification
○ A reactions of acid with alcohol to make an ester (a condensation reaction
even takes place). The acid often acts as a catalyst.

○
○ This will result in an ester and water
An acid must be present as a catalyst. Often Alcohol is used
● Addition Reaction
 ○ Addition Polymerization and Hydrogenation (two or more molecules
combine to form one longer molecule)
■ C2H4 (g) + Br2→ C2H4Br2 (l)

■
● Hydrogenation
○ The breaking of double bonds into more stable saturated molecules, often
through the use of hydrogen.
○ Alkenes + Hydrogen ---> Alkanes
○ Alkynes + Hydrogen ---> Alkenes or Alkanes ( depends on the amount of
hydrogen)
○ An example is
■ Ethene + Hydrogen → Ethane
○ In industry this is often used on unsaturated oil to make then more
spreadable.
● Polymerization
○ Addition Reactions: Are reactions in which monomers are joined to
create one long chain of monomers.
○ Condensation Reactions The joining of two different monomers to form 2
products. A polymer and water.
IUPAC
● Non- Cyclic hydrocarbons
○ Identity the functional groups present.
■ Look for stuff such as number of bonds (single/double/triple). Then
select appropriate suffix.
●
Functional Group Suffix
alkane -ane
alkene -ene
alkyne -yne
○ Find the longest continuous carbon chain that contain the functional
group, and count the number of carbon atoms in that chain. Use this
information for the prefix.
■
Carbon atoms prefix
1 meth-
2 eth-
3 prop-
4 but-
5 pent-
6 hex-
7 hept-
8 oct-
9 non-
10 dec-
○ Number the carbons in the longest carbon chain (Important: If the
molecule is not an alkane (i.e. has a functional group) you need to start
numbering so that the functional group is on the carbon with the lowest
possible number). Start with the carbon at the end closest to the functional
group.
○ Look for any branched groups
■ Name them by counting amount of carbon atoms
■ Name the position of the main carbon using the numbers. If two are
present, then list both numbers
■ The branched groups must be listed before the name of the main chain in
alphabetical order
○ For alkyl halides and halogen atoms it is treated much the same way as branched
groups
■ To name them take the name of the halogen atom (e.g. iodine) and replace
the “ine” with “o” (e.g. iodo).
■
Halogen name
fluorine Fluoro
chlorine Chloro
 bromine Bromo
iodine Iodo
■ If more than one is present when listing the prefix should be used and
position shown(e.g. 3,4-diodo- or 1,2,2-trichloro-)
○ Combine all info in the order
■ branched groups/halogen atoms in alphabetical order (ignoring prefixes)
■ prefix of main chain
■ Name ending according to the functional group and its position on the
longest carbon chain.
● For naming alcohols, ester and acids please refer to the following link:
http://www.chem.uiuc.edu/GenChemReferences/nomenclature_rules.html