PHARRES_1: PHARMACY RESEARCH METHODS W/ PHARMACEUTICAL STATISTICS

UNIT I: ORIENTATION AND INTRODUCTION OF Scientific inquiry

RESEARCH METHODS
● The purpose of scientific inquiry is to create
Objectives knowledge or a body of information that can
explain observed phenomena
● Identify and discuss the various ● The information generated is used to
terminologies and procedures in conducting develop theory or laws.
research ● Research is an ongoing process to refine
● To define pharmaceutical practice and the existing knowledge of relationships
policy research
● To introduce the knowledge base and The National Research Council (NRC 2002)
stakeholders in pharmaceutical policy developed guiding principles for all scientific
research inquiries.
● To describe the guiding principles for
scientific inquiries ● The guiding principles imply that the
● To discuss the stages of pharmaceutical research should:
● practice and policy research 1. pose a significant scientific question that
needs empirical investigation;
Pharmaceutical practice and policy research 2. link research inquiry to relevant theory;
3. utilize relevant methodologies that involve
● is an applied field of research that deals direct investigation;
with issues that impacts pharmaceuticals, 4. provide coherent and explicit reasoning;
pharmacists, and pharmacy systems. 5. replicate and generalize across studies; and
● Research- the cornerstone in safe and 6. provide a mechanism for scientific scrutiny.
effective delivery of pharmaceutical care
● Applied research methodologies - 1. pose a significant scientific question that
instrumental in the growth of pharmaceutical needs empirical investigation
practice and policy research.
● Significance of a question can be evaluated
Goals of pharmaceutical practice and policy based on the literature review on the topic
research: and its relevance to practice and policy
● Empiricism refers to information obtained
● to aid decisions relevant to patients, by experience or explicit observation, it
providers, payers, and policy makers. necessitate conceptualization and
● to improve the practice of pharmacy and measurement
promote the profession.
● to improve populations’ health and quality of 2. link research inquiry to relevant theory
care
● Theories help to make the phenomenon of
Health services research interest understandable in a broad
conceptual, as well as a practical,
● the broadest applied field of research framework (Brazil et al. 2005).
dealing with all aspects of the healthcare
system. ● It also provides a framework for other
● “a multi-disciplinary field of inquiry, that aspects of the research process, including
examines access to, and the use, costs, data collection, analysis, and interpretation.
quality, delivery, organization, financing, and
outcomes of health care services to produce 3. utilize relevant methodologies that involve
new knowledge about the structure, direct investigation;
processes, and effects of health services for
individuals and populations.” (Institute of ● Scientific methods include research
Medicine IOM1994) designs, data collection procedures, and
analysis of data.

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PHARRES_1: PHARMACY RESEARCH METHODS W/ PHARMACEUTICAL STATISTICS

These stages are based on the six guiding

● Research designs refer to the structural principles of scientific research.
framework of investigation (Mikeal 1980)

4. provide coherent and explicit reasoning

● Inferential reasoning involves explanations,

conclusions, and predictions based on the
research findings.
● It is also needed to explain the information
obtained from data analysis

5. replicate and generalize across studies

This principle addresses two interrelated concepts

in sociobehavioral research, namely
reproducibility (reliability) and validity.

● refers to consistency of evidence across Research problem

studies.
● Data collection and the measurement ● The research problem describes the
process in individual studies focus on problem to be solved (Kerlinger 1986).
reliability and validity to strengthen the study ● The question has to be evaluated
findings. empirically to make a contribution to current
and future pharmaceutical practice and
6. provide a mechanism for scientific scrutiny policy.

● Scientific research requires scrutiny by ex.

peers; this is critical for scientific progress. Determining the effectiveness of a teaching
● Manuscripts are often reviewed by two or technique
more reviewers consisting of researchers
and practitioners. Research hypothesis
● The peer-review process is designed to
provide constructive criticism to improve the ● It is a statement of the expected relationship
quality of the research. (Kerlinger 1986).
● It relates to the set of facts that can be
Stages of pharmaceutical practice and policy tested by certain further investigations
research ● Basically of two types, namely, null
hypothesis and alternative hypothesis
The stages of pharmaceutical practice and policy
research can be grouped into: Research design

1. Research problem, (formulating, extensive ● relevant methodologies involve selection of

literature survey) appropriate research design to investigate a
2. Research hypothesis, research question.
3. Research design (determining sample ● There are four main types of Quantitative
design) research: Descriptive, Correlational,
4. Research methodology (collecting data, Causal-Comparative/Quasi-Experimental,
execution of the project) and Experimental Research.
5. Statistical analysis (hypothesis testing,
generalization and interpretation)
6. Research report (presentation of the results)

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Research methodology ● a comparison of prescribing patterns and

rates between hospitals
● Research methodologies refer to the data ● examination of associations between
collection procedures to address a research variables in a dataset, e.g. number of
question. medicines prescribed and reports of
● Research data can be primary or secondary medication-related problems, or attitudes
data, or a combination. and population characteristics or
● The primary data collection can involve experiences
observation, self-reports, or clinical ● randomised controlled trials in which
evaluations. differences in outcomes between groups
● Secondary data can include medical charts, are measured and compared
● insurance claims, or national surveys.
In pharmaceutical practice and policy research, the
Statistical analysis concepts studied are called variables.

● Statistical analysis involves application of There are four kinds of variables that are
the principles of probability and statistical important for research purposes:
concepts to analyze the research data.
● The goal of statistical analysis is to answer 1. independent and dependent variables;
the research question based on the data 2. attribute and active variables;
collected. 3. categorical and continuous variables; and
4. latent versus observable variables
Research report
Independent and Dependent variables
● The research report is the end product of a
research endeavor and it captures the ● In an experimental design, the independent
explicit research process, including variable is the presumed cause, the
research question, research hypothesis, dependent variable is the presumed effect.
research design, research methods, and ● However, in nonexperimental research, the
statistical analysis. independent variable “logically” has some
● The research report should address the effect on the dependent variable (Kerlinger
three principles of scientific research, 1986).
namely coherent and explicit reasoning, ● In other words, the independent variable
replication and generalization, and does the influencing and the dependent
scientific scrutiny. variable is being influenced.

Conceptualizing research UNIT II: RESEARCH TOPIC/PROBLEM

● A scientific investigation in pharmaceutical ● Selection of a research topic/problem

practice and policy research begins with the ● Formulation of a research question
conceptualization phase. ● Formulation of study objectives
● Conceptualization refers to the process of ● The ability to ask creative questions and
developing and refining theoretical ideas. generate new knowledge for pharmaceutical
● In quantitative research, it is basically a practice and policy involves a sequence of
process of finding appropriate theoretical steps starting from conceptualizing a
constructs for explaining or understanding research project to implementing and
practical phenomena. disseminating the findings.

Examples of quantitative research Steps in Operationalization:

● assessments of the frequencies of events 1. Research problem

● assessment of rates of adherence among 2. Research question
particular populations 3. Hypothesis

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4. Operational definition presented as a specific and precise

statement
Research Problem
Development of Working Hypothesis
● a well-written research problem statement
should be able to answer the following three ● After an extensive literature survey,
questions: researcher should state in clear terms the
working hypothesis.
1. What is being studied? ● A hypothesis is a proposed explanation for
- to identify a research topic that is to be an observable phenomenon which is
studied. capable of being tested by scientific
2. Who is being studied? methods.
- identifies the population in which the study ● For example, consider a statement:
would be conducted.
3. Why is this being studied? “The drug A is equally efficacious as drug
- emphasizes the relevance or significance B.”
of the study and its contribution to the
knowledge base ● This is a hypotheses capable of being
objectively verified and tested.
Sources of Research Problem
Types of hypotheses
1. improving clinical practice
2. tackling current issues 1. Simple versus complex hypotheses
3. inconsistencies in the literature Simple H - predicts the relationship
4. testing a theory between one independent variable and one
5. exploring variations in a dependent variable dependent variable complex hypothesis
6. providing an evaluation predicts the relationship between two or
7. implementing and studying action more related independent variables and/or
8. replicating a study. two or more related dependent variable
2. Nondirectional versus directional
Characteristics of a Well-Written Research hypotheses
Question 3. Associative versus causal hypotheses
4. Statistical versus research
1. Feasible - multidisciplinary approach,
technical expertise, time requirements, Concept Paper
funding
2. Interesting - maintain a good intensity of Major elements
interest and focus throughout the process 1. The title page. ...
3. Novel - potential to add to the existing 2. Introduction and statement of the problem.
knowledge base in pharm practice and ...
policy 3. Value of the study. ...
4. Ethical - meets ethical standards, reviewed 4. A preliminary literature review. ...
by ethics committee (protection of rights, 5. State the research goals or objectives. ...
reducing risks, etc,) 6. Write down all the research questions. ...
5. Relevant - must add to scientific knowledge 7. The research hypothesis. ...
base 8. State the methodology you intend to use.

Hypothesis

● Hypotheses are mostly associated with

quantitative research where they are
generally derived from a theory and