Pressure Measurements 2023lecture 4 +5
Pressure Measurements 2023lecture 4 +5
Pressure Measurements 2023lecture 4 +5
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Pressure conversion table
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Instrument : is a device used to measure ,monitor and
control the process variables
Three Questions :we should answer to understand Instruments.
1-Why? 2- What? 3- How?
1- Why should I measure Process Variables ?
To obtain final product with an economic and standard specification”
by: .Control .Protection .Monitor
2- What will I measure?
Physical Parameters .
Mechanical Parameters.
Chemical Parameters.
3- How could I Measure these Variables By using :
.Transmitters
.Switches
.Indicators
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Physical Parameters:
Pressure , Temperature ,Level ,Flow…
Chemical Parameters:
PH , Conductivity , O2 ,CO …
Mechanical Parameters:
Vibration ,Speed ,Expansion ,Fraction…
sensor intelligent
real
feedback
world actuator system
Need for Sensors
• Sensors are pervasive. They are embedded in our
bodies, automobiles, airplanes, cellular telephones,
radios, chemical plants, industrial plants and
countless other applications.
• Without the use of sensors, there would be no
automation !!
As a comparison……
‘Sensor' for the sensing element itself and
'transducer' for the sensing element plus any
associated circuitry. All transducers would thus
contain a sensor and most (not all) sensors would
also be transducers.
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Classification of transducers
Transducer can be classified according to their application,
based primarily on the physical quantity, property, or
condition that is measured.
The transducer can be categories into:
A) Passive transducer:
- requires an external power
- output is a measure of some variation, such resistance and
capacitance. E.g. : condenser microphone
B) Self generating transducer:
- not require an external power, and
- they produce analog voltage or current when stimulated
by some physical form of energy. E.g. : Thermocouple
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Selecting a transducers
When selecting transducer, it has to be compatible
with its application;
1. Operating range
2. Sensitivity
3. Frequency response and resonant frequency
4. Environmental compatibility -
5. Minimum sensitivity measurand.
6. Accuracy
7. Usage and ruggedness
8. Electrical parameter
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Ch. 3 Pressure measurement content
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Pressure measurement
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Pressure Measurement
• Absolute pressure is the pressure measured wrt a vaccum
(unit = psia, Pa, kPa,bar)
• Gauge pressure is the pressure measured wrt atmospheric
pressure (unit = psig, Pa, kPa, bar)
• Atmospheric pressure is the pressure on the earth’s surface
due to the weight of gases in the earth’s atmosphere (14.7psi)
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Types of pressure transducers:
1. Liquid Column manometers
2. Elastic tubes, diaphragms, membranes
(equipped with displacement or strain
sensors)
3. Semiconductor elements (with
implanted stress elements)
4. Piezoelectric elements (directly convert
crystal lattice stress into voltage)
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5- Optical pressure transducer
6- inductance pressure transducer
7- Capacitance pressure transducer
8- strain gauge pressure transducer
9-Electrical Resistance Pressure Gauge(high pressure)
10- vaccum pressure gauge ( McLeod, Pirani,
ionization)
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Pressure Measurement
scale
mercury
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The hydrostatic pressure at any point in a fluid
is related to the pressure at any other point by the
weight of the fluid between the two points:
p2– p1= γ ( h 2- h 1)
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Pressure manometers
After applying pressures P1 & P2. •
At balance we find that:
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1-Manometers
manometer
Well-type
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U-tube with one Leg Enlarged(well-type manometer)
After applying the P1 & P2,
Equating the pressure at the level XX’
For the left hand side:
Px = P1 + f gH
For the right hand side: a
H
Px’ = P2 + m gH A
f
But Px = Px’
P1 + f gH = P2 + + m gH
P1 - P2 = (m - f) gH m
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micro manometer
Properties of Manometric Fluids:
1-low viscosity
2-low co-efficient of thermal expansion
3-low vapor pressure, negligible surface tension
4-non-corrosive, non-poisons
5-long term stability
Types of fluids
1-water 2-Mercury 3-Carbon Tetrachloride
4-Tetrabromethane 5-Aniline
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Advantages of manometers
1-simple in construction, high accuracy
2-wide range of filling fluids, more flexibility
3-used both as measuring instruments and also
primary standards for pressure measurement
4-used for measurement of other variables like
temperature, flow and liquid level.
Disadvantages of manometers
1-poor in dynamic pressure
2-samll range about 1000 kN/m2
3-errors due non-vertical position
4-lake of portability
25 5-errors in reading( h )
2- Elastic pressure elements
1-Bourdon tube 2-Bellows 3-Diaphragm
كل هذه العناصر تتبع أساسا القانون الطبيعي وهو أن خالل الحدود فإن اإلجهاد )(Stress
يتناسب مع اإلنفعال )(Strainأى أن إنحراف ( ) Deflectionللعنصر المرن عن
وضعه األصلي يتناسب مع الضغط المؤثر به.
range
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2- Bellows
p2
Range:
0-2.5 mbar and
0-600 mbar
With accuracy of
0.1-2.5%
C-shape
Bourdon tube
Spiral Bourdon
Helical Bourdon tube
33 Twisted Bourdon tube tube
Troubleshooting
1. Temperature
2. Corrosion
3. vibration
4. overpressure
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Electromechanical pressure transducers
Potentiometer pressure transducers
The device consists of a precision potentiometer whose wiper
alarm is mechanically linked to bourdon tube or bellow. The
movement of wiper alarm across the potentiometer converts
the mechanically detected sensor deflection into a resistance
measurement using a Wheatstone bridge circuit
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Electrical bourdon tube Pressure Sensors
As a potentiometer.
Early attempts to
convert pressure
into an electrical
signal were crude.
These low cost, low
performance
devices had poor
repeatability and
hysteresis errors
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3-Linear variable differential pressure transducer LVDT
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4- Capacitive Transducers
The capacitive transducers can be made
to be self-contained units, as shown in Fig
Some transducers work by making one of
the capacitor plates movable, either in
such a way as to vary the overlapping area
or the distance between the plates.
Other transducers work by moving a
dielectric material in and out between two
fixed plates to detect and transmit the Figure : Capacitive
physical position of mechanical parts via Transducers.
electrical signals
Above is the formula of the parallel-plate kA o
capacitor where, C ( farads )
k = dielectric constant.
d
A = Area of the plate, in square meters.
eo = 8.854x10-12, in farad per meter.
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d= the plate spacing in meters.
Measures pressure difference
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5-Piezoelectric pressure transducers
Applying mechanical energy to a crystal is called a direct
piezoelectric effect
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coil
Sensing
element Magnetic core on
diaphragm sensing element
coil
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7-Strain Gauge: Motion, Stress, Pressure
Strain gauge: how they look like
The construction of a bonded strain
gauge shows a fine wire looped back
and forth on amounting plate, which
is usually cemented to the element
that undergoing stress.
D L
It is an example of a passive transducer,
Uses electric resistance variation in wires to sense the strain
produced by a force on wires.
Measuring weight, pressure, mechanical force, or displacement.
A tensile stress tends to elongate the wire and thereby increase its
length and decrease its cross sectional area 46
Strain gauge is used to measure deflection, stress, pressure, etc.
The resistance of the sensing element changes with applied strain
A Wheatstone bridge is used to measure small changes in the strain
gauge resistance
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• What’s Photoelectric Effect?
-is the emission of electrons from matter upon
the absorption of electromagnetic radiation, such
as ultraviolet radiation or x-rays.-refers to the
emission, or ejection, of electrons from the
surface of, generally, a metal in response to
incident light.
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8- Optical pressure transducer
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8- Optical pressure transducers
Optical pressure transducers detect the effects of minute
motions due to changes in process pressure and generate a
corresponding electronic output signal.
Idea: A light emitting diode (LED) is used as the light
source, and a vane blocks some of the light as it is moved
by the diaphragm. As the process pressure moves the vane
between the source diode and the measuring diode, the
amount of infrared light received changes.
Advantages:
1. Optical pressure transducers do not require much maintenance.
2. They have excellent stability and are designed for long-duration
measurements.
3. They are available with ranges from 35 kPa to 413 MPa and with
0.1% full scale accuracy.
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9 - Vacuum pressure gauges
1-McLeod Gauge: (Originally invented in 1878),
The McLeod gauge measures the pressure of gases by compressing
a known volume with a fixed pressure. The new volume is then a
measure of the initial absolute pressure.
The McLeod gauge has been used until recently for calibrating other
gauges.
It covers the vacuum range between 1 and 10-6 torr
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Thermal Designs:
The thermal conductivity (K) of a gas changes with its
pressure in the vacuum range. If an element heated by a
constant power source is placed in a gas, the resulting
surface temperature of the element will be a function of the
surrounding vacuum. Because the sensor is an electrically
heated wire, thermal vacuum sensors are often called hot
wire gauges. Typically, hot wire gauges can be used to
measure down to 10-3 mm Hg.
Basic principle of Pirani gauge A conducting wire gets
heated when electric current flows through it. The rate at which heat
is dissipated from this wire depends on the conductivity of the
surrounding media. The conductivity of the surrounding media in turn
depends on the density of the surrounding media (that is, lower
pressure of the surrounding media, lower will be its density). If the
density of the surrounding media is low, its conductivity also will be
low causing the wire to become hotter for a given current flow, and
vice versa
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2 - Pirani gauge
In this design, a sensor wire
is heated electrically and the
pressure of the gas is
determined by measuring the
current needed to keep the
wire at a constant
temperature
Disadvantages:
1-require calibration
2- calibration is nonlinear and varies with from one
gas to anther.
3- the transient response is poor, the time required
(of several minutes).
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3-Ionization vacuum gauge pressure
(Ionization of gas at low pressure)
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By measuring the current Ig flowing between
anode and cathode within the vessel. Thus I α to
number of ions per unit volume , which in turn α
to gas pressure. Range from 10-13 to10-3 bar
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Electrical Resistance Pressure Gauge(high pressure)
• The concept of operation is based on electrical resistance
change in a conductor when applied directly to a pressure.
• The sensing element consist of a loosely wound coil of
relatively fine wire, and it will be compressed when high
pressure applied on it.
• The length and cross section of the wire affect its electrical
resistance, when pressure applied at a rate determined by
the bulk of modulus material.
Bridgman gauge
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It is known that the resistance of fine wires changes with
pressure according to linear relationship
R= Ro (1+b∆ p).
Fine wires of Manganin or Gold chromium alloys.
Up to 3000bar , ±0.5%
Advantages:
1-available with full scale .
2- good dynamic response .
Note : respond to variations in Mhz
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Magnetic pressure transducers
• These included the use of inductance, reluctance, and
eddy currents. Inductance is that property of an electric
circuit that expresses the amount of electromotive force
(emf) induced by a given rate of change of current flow in
the circuit.
• Reluctance is resistance to magnetic flow, the opposition
offered by magnetic substance to magnetic flux.
• In these sensors, a change in pressure produces a
movement, which in turn changes the inductance or
reluctance of an electric circuit.
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Why Electrical Pressure Transducers?
• Transmission requirements for remote display as
electric signal transmission can be through cable or
cordless.
• Electric signals give quicker responses and high
accuracy in digital measurements.
• The linearity property of the electric signal produced
to pressure applied favors simplicity.
• They can be used for extreme pressure applications,
i.e. high vacuum and pressure measurements.
• EPTs are immune to hysteresis, shock and
mechanical vibrations.
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Pressure Sensors Applications
• Measure pressure of fluid, gas or liquid
• Measure altitude
– For plains or weather balloons
• Measure flow
– pressure sensors in conjunction with the
venturi effect to measure flow
• Measure depth of water
– When measuring liquids, most sensors
are not rated to have unclean liquids
contact the sensor components. A small
amount of air in the tube right before the
sensor will create a barrier from the
liquid.
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Range of pressure
gauges
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Example: A quartz piezoelectric crystal having a
thickness of 2 mm and a voltage sensitivity of 0.055
V · m/N is subjected to a pressure of 200 psi.
Calculate the voltage output. E = g.t.p , Q = d.F
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Wheatstone Bridge
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Choosing a Sensor
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