‫بسم هللا الرحمن الرحيم‬

‫‪1‬‬
 Pressure conversion table

2
Instrument : is a device used to measure ,monitor and
control the process variables
Three Questions :we should answer to understand Instruments.
1-Why? 2- What? 3- How?
1- Why should I measure Process Variables ?
To obtain final product with an economic and standard specification”
by: .Control .Protection .Monitor
2- What will I measure?
 Physical Parameters .
 Mechanical Parameters.
 Chemical Parameters.
3- How could I Measure these Variables By using :
 .Transmitters
 .Switches
 .Indicators
3
Physical Parameters:
Pressure , Temperature ,Level ,Flow…
Chemical Parameters:
PH , Conductivity , O2 ,CO …
Mechanical Parameters:
Vibration ,Speed ,Expansion ,Fraction…

‘Sensor' is `a device that detects a change in a physical

stimulus and turns it into a signal which can be measured
or recorded.
E.g. : Thermistor
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 Transducers
Basically transducer is defined as : a device which converts
energy or information from one form to another. These
are widely used in measurement work because not all
quantities that need to be measured can be displayed as
easily as others. A better measurement of a quantity can
usually be made if it may be converted to another form,
which is more conveniently or accurately displayed.
For example, the common mercury thermometer converts
variations in temperature into variations in the length of a
column of mercury. Since the variation in the length of the
mercury column is rather simple to measure, the mercury
thermometer becomes a convenient device for measuring
temperature.
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 Transducers
• Transducer
– a device that converts a primary form of energy into a
corresponding signal with a different energy form
• Primary Energy Forms: mechanical, thermal, electromagnetic,
optical, chemical, etc.
– take form of a sensor or an actuator
• Sensor (e.g., thermometer)
– a device that detects/measures a signal or stimulus
– acquires information from the “real world”
• Actuator (e.g., heater)
– a device that generates a signal or stimulus

sensor intelligent
real
feedback
world actuator system
 Need for Sensors
• Sensors are pervasive. They are embedded in our
bodies, automobiles, airplanes, cellular telephones,
radios, chemical plants, industrial plants and
countless other applications.
• Without the use of sensors, there would be no
automation !!
As a comparison……
‘Sensor' for the sensing element itself and
'transducer' for the sensing element plus any
associated circuitry. All transducers would thus
contain a sensor and most (not all) sensors would
also be transducers.
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 Classification of transducers
Transducer can be classified according to their application,
based primarily on the physical quantity, property, or
condition that is measured.
The transducer can be categories into:
A) Passive transducer:
- requires an external power
- output is a measure of some variation, such resistance and
capacitance. E.g. : condenser microphone
B) Self generating transducer:
- not require an external power, and
- they produce analog voltage or current when stimulated
by some physical form of energy. E.g. : Thermocouple
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 Selecting a transducers
When selecting transducer, it has to be compatible
with its application;

1. Operating range
2. Sensitivity
3. Frequency response and resonant frequency
4. Environmental compatibility -
5. Minimum sensitivity measurand.
6. Accuracy
7. Usage and ruggedness
8. Electrical parameter
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 Ch. 3 Pressure measurement content

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 Pressure measurement

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 Pressure Measurement
• Absolute pressure is the pressure measured wrt a vaccum
(unit = psia, Pa, kPa,bar)
• Gauge pressure is the pressure measured wrt atmospheric
pressure (unit = psig, Pa, kPa, bar)
• Atmospheric pressure is the pressure on the earth’s surface
due to the weight of gases in the earth’s atmosphere (14.7psi)

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 Types of pressure transducers:
1. Liquid Column manometers
2. Elastic tubes, diaphragms, membranes
(equipped with displacement or strain
sensors)
3. Semiconductor elements (with
implanted stress elements)
4. Piezoelectric elements (directly convert
crystal lattice stress into voltage)
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5- Optical pressure transducer
6- inductance pressure transducer
7- Capacitance pressure transducer
8- strain gauge pressure transducer
9-Electrical Resistance Pressure Gauge(high pressure)
10- vaccum pressure gauge ( McLeod, Pirani,
ionization)

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 Pressure Measurement

Low-pressure measurement Mid-range pressure High-pressure

(P < 1.013 bar) measurement measurement
(1.013-7,000 bar) (P > 7,000 bar)

• McLeod Gage Intelligent

• Priani Gage • Liquid manometers pressure
• Thermister Gage • Bourdon-tube transducers
• Ionization Gage • Dead weight gage
• Alphatron Gage •Diaphragms
• Thermocouple Gage • Bellows
• Resonant – wire device
• Fibre optic pressure sensors
• Capacitance, Piezoelectric,
Resistance, .. Pressure
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transducers
A barometer is used to measure the atmospheric
pressure

scale

mercury

Manometer used as a barometer Metallic barometer

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17
 Mercury Barometer

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The hydrostatic pressure at any point in a fluid
is related to the pressure at any other point by the
weight of the fluid between the two points:
p2– p1= γ ( h 2- h 1)

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 Pressure manometers
After applying pressures P1 & P2. •
At balance we find that:

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1-Manometers

U-tube manometer For higher pressures

P1-p2= ρ*g*h P-pa =n*h*g(ρHg-ρw)- ρw*g*h\
Inverted manometer

manometer
Well-type
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U-tube with one Leg Enlarged(well-type manometer)
After applying the P1 & P2,
Equating the pressure at the level XX’
For the left hand side:
Px = P1 + f gH
For the right hand side: a
H
Px’ = P2 + m gH A
f
But Px = Px’
P1 + f gH = P2 + + m gH
P1 - P2 = (m - f) gH m

In figure, OO’ represents the level of liquid

manometer surface when the pressure difference
P1 - P2 is zero
Volume decrease in left leg = volume increased in right leg
A (H-h) = ah or H = h (1+a/A)
If f<<<< m and a <<<<< A
P1 - P2 = (m - f) gh (1+a/A)
22 P1 - P2 = mgh
 Raised well manometer Inclined manometer
Dead weight tester

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micro manometer
Properties of Manometric Fluids:
1-low viscosity
2-low co-efficient of thermal expansion
3-low vapor pressure, negligible surface tension
4-non-corrosive, non-poisons
5-long term stability

Types of fluids
1-water 2-Mercury 3-Carbon Tetrachloride
4-Tetrabromethane 5-Aniline
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Advantages of manometers
1-simple in construction, high accuracy
2-wide range of filling fluids, more flexibility
3-used both as measuring instruments and also
primary standards for pressure measurement
4-used for measurement of other variables like
temperature, flow and liquid level.
Disadvantages of manometers
1-poor in dynamic pressure
2-samll range about 1000 kN/m2
3-errors due non-vertical position
4-lake of portability
25 5-errors in reading( h )
 ‫‪2- Elastic pressure elements‬‬
‫‪1-Bourdon tube‬‬ ‫‪2-Bellows‬‬ ‫‪3-Diaphragm‬‬

‫كل هذه العناصر تتبع أساسا القانون الطبيعي وهو أن خالل الحدود فإن اإلجهاد )‪(Stress‬‬
‫يتناسب مع اإلنفعال )‪(Strain‬أى أن إنحراف ( )‪ Deflection‬للعنصر المرن عن‬
‫وضعه األصلي يتناسب مع الضغط المؤثر به‪.‬‬

‫‪range‬‬

‫‪i- C type Bourdon tube‬‬

‫‪26‬‬
‫‪ii- spiral type Bourdon tube‬‬
27
iii- Helix type Bourdon tube
 Classification of Bourdon tube

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 2- Bellows

• Used for measuring lower pressures

• Spring is used to determine the range
• Bellows material may be brass, phosphor bronze, or stainless steel
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 3- Diaphragm gauge

p2

Materials used phosphor bronze, stainless steels, beryllium

copper, Ni-span C, rubber, nylon, Teflon
0---200kN/m2,accuracy ±0.5 % ± to ± 1.25 %
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 ‫عناصر األغشية(‪)Diaphragm Elements‬‬
‫هناك نوعان من األغشية المستخدمة فى تصميم أجهزة قياس الضغط وهما‪:‬‬
‫‪ .1‬األغشية المعدنية (‪)Metallic diaphragm‬‬
‫‪ .2‬األغشية الغير معدنية(‪Non Metallic diaphragm‬‬
‫‪ -‬خصائص األغشية المعدنية‬
‫)‪(Metallic Diaphragm Characteristics‬‬
‫يعتمد إنحراف الجدار الغشائي لمكبسولة عمى ‪:‬‬
‫‪ .1‬قطر الغشاء (‪. )Diameter of Diaphragm‬‬
‫‪ .2‬سمك المعدن المصنوع منه (‪.)Thickness of metal‬‬
‫‪ .3‬شكل التعريجات (‪.)Shape of corrugations‬‬
‫‪ .4‬عدد التعريجات (‪.)Number of corrugations‬‬
‫‪ .5‬معامل المرونة (‪.) Modulus of elasticity‬‬
‫‪ .6‬الضغط المؤثر عميه(‪.)Effective pressure‬‬
‫‪31‬‬
 4-Capsule

Range:
 0-2.5 mbar and
 0-600 mbar
 With accuracy of
0.1-2.5%

Smallest pressure measurement of all elastic deformation

elements.
Used with electrical pressure sensors.
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 Elastic Elements
Flat diaphragm Corrugated diaphragm Capsule

Bellows Straight tubes

C-shape
Bourdon tube

Spiral Bourdon
Helical Bourdon tube
33 Twisted Bourdon tube tube
Troubleshooting
1. Temperature
2. Corrosion
3. vibration
4. overpressure

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35
 Electromechanical pressure transducers
Potentiometer pressure transducers
The device consists of a precision potentiometer whose wiper
alarm is mechanically linked to bourdon tube or bellow. The
movement of wiper alarm across the potentiometer converts
the mechanically detected sensor deflection into a resistance
measurement using a Wheatstone bridge circuit

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Electrical bourdon tube Pressure Sensors
As a potentiometer.
Early attempts to
convert pressure
into an electrical
signal were crude.
These low cost, low
performance
devices had poor
repeatability and
hysteresis errors

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3-Linear variable differential pressure transducer LVDT

 This device is a transformer:

 The primary winding powered by an external source of AC voltage,
and two secondary windings connected in series-bucking fashion.
 It is variable because the core is free to move between the
windings.
 When the core is centered and both windings are outputting the
same voltage, the net result at the output terminals will be zero volts.
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Advantages of LVDT
1. • It produces a high output voltages for
small
2. changes in core position.
3. • Low cost
4. • Solid and robust - capable of working in a
wide variety of environments.
5. • No permanent damage to the LVDT if
measurements exceed the designed range.

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 4- Capacitive Transducers
 The capacitive transducers can be made
to be self-contained units, as shown in Fig
 Some transducers work by making one of
the capacitor plates movable, either in
such a way as to vary the overlapping area
or the distance between the plates.
 Other transducers work by moving a
dielectric material in and out between two
fixed plates to detect and transmit the Figure : Capacitive
physical position of mechanical parts via Transducers.
electrical signals
 Above is the formula of the parallel-plate kA o
capacitor where, C ( farads )
k = dielectric constant.
d
A = Area of the plate, in square meters.
eo = 8.854x10-12, in farad per meter.
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d= the plate spacing in meters.
 Measures pressure difference

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5-Piezoelectric pressure transducers
Applying mechanical energy to a crystal is called a direct
piezoelectric effect

1. A piezoelectric crystal is placed between two metal plates. At this

point the material is in perfect balance and does not conduct an
electric current .
2. Mechanical pressure is then applied to the material by the metal
plates, which forces the electric charges within the crystal out of
balance. Excess negative and positive charges appear on opposite
sides of the crystal face.
3. The metal plate collects these charges, which can be used to
produce a voltage and send an electrical current through a circuit.
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Piezoelectric pressure trans. • Quartz
• Tourmaline
Applying 2 kN of force
• Aquamarine
to 1 cm3 of quartz can Examples on • Sugar cane
be produced with a piezoelectric
• Sodium
materials
voltage of 12,500 volts • Potassium
tartrate

Idea: The element used for converting mechanical motion to

electrical signals may be taught as charge generator and
capacitor. Mechanical signal generates a charge and this charge
appears as a voltage across the electrodes.
E=g*t*p p=pressure
.t=thickness, g= constant .
Range : 5,000 to 10,000 psig
Rugged construction, small size and high speed
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 6-Inductance-Type Transducers

• The inductance-type transducer consists of three parts:

1- a coil, 2- a movable magnetic core, and 3- a
pressure sensing element.

• An AC voltage is applied to the coil, and, as the core

moves, the inductance of the coil changes.

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 coil
Sensing
element Magnetic core on
diaphragm sensing element

coil
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7-Strain Gauge: Motion, Stress, Pressure
Strain gauge: how they look like
The construction of a bonded strain
gauge shows a fine wire looped back
and forth on amounting plate, which
is usually cemented to the element
that undergoing stress.

D L
 It is an example of a passive transducer,
 Uses electric resistance variation in wires to sense the strain
produced by a force on wires.
 Measuring weight, pressure, mechanical force, or displacement.
 A tensile stress tends to elongate the wire and thereby increase its
length and decrease its cross sectional area 46
Strain gauge is used to measure deflection, stress, pressure, etc.
The resistance of the sensing element changes with applied strain
A Wheatstone bridge is used to measure small changes in the strain
gauge resistance
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48
• What’s Photoelectric Effect?
-is the emission of electrons from matter upon
the absorption of electromagnetic radiation, such
as ultraviolet radiation or x-rays.-refers to the
emission, or ejection, of electrons from the
surface of, generally, a metal in response to
incident light.

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 8- Optical pressure transducer

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 8- Optical pressure transducers
Optical pressure transducers detect the effects of minute
motions due to changes in process pressure and generate a
corresponding electronic output signal.
Idea: A light emitting diode (LED) is used as the light
source, and a vane blocks some of the light as it is moved
by the diaphragm. As the process pressure moves the vane
between the source diode and the measuring diode, the
amount of infrared light received changes.
Advantages:
1. Optical pressure transducers do not require much maintenance.
2. They have excellent stability and are designed for long-duration
measurements.
3. They are available with ranges from 35 kPa to 413 MPa and with
0.1% full scale accuracy.
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 9 - Vacuum pressure gauges
1-McLeod Gauge: (Originally invented in 1878),
 The McLeod gauge measures the pressure of gases by compressing
a known volume with a fixed pressure. The new volume is then a
measure of the initial absolute pressure.
 The McLeod gauge has been used until recently for calibrating other
gauges.
 It covers the vacuum range between 1 and 10-6 torr

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53
 Thermal Designs:
The thermal conductivity (K) of a gas changes with its
pressure in the vacuum range. If an element heated by a
constant power source is placed in a gas, the resulting
surface temperature of the element will be a function of the
surrounding vacuum. Because the sensor is an electrically
heated wire, thermal vacuum sensors are often called hot
wire gauges. Typically, hot wire gauges can be used to
measure down to 10-3 mm Hg.
Basic principle of Pirani gauge A conducting wire gets
heated when electric current flows through it. The rate at which heat
is dissipated from this wire depends on the conductivity of the
surrounding media. The conductivity of the surrounding media in turn
depends on the density of the surrounding media (that is, lower
pressure of the surrounding media, lower will be its density). If the
density of the surrounding media is low, its conductivity also will be
low causing the wire to become hotter for a given current flow, and
vice versa
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 2 - Pirani gauge
In this design, a sensor wire
is heated electrically and the
pressure of the gas is
determined by measuring the
current needed to keep the
wire at a constant
temperature
Disadvantages:
1-require calibration
2- calibration is nonlinear and varies with from one
gas to anther.
3- the transient response is poor, the time required
(of several minutes).

56
3-Ionization vacuum gauge pressure
(Ionization of gas at low pressure)

• It can be used to measure pressure down to

about 2 torr.
• The gas is ionized with a beam of electrons and
the current is measured between two electrodes
in the gas.
• The current is proportional to the number of ions
per unit volume, which also proportional to the
gas pressure.

57
By measuring the current Ig flowing between
anode and cathode within the vessel. Thus I α to
number of ions per unit volume , which in turn α
to gas pressure. Range from 10-13 to10-3 bar

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Electrical Resistance Pressure Gauge(high pressure)
• The concept of operation is based on electrical resistance
change in a conductor when applied directly to a pressure.
• The sensing element consist of a loosely wound coil of
relatively fine wire, and it will be compressed when high
pressure applied on it.
• The length and cross section of the wire affect its electrical
resistance, when pressure applied at a rate determined by
the bulk of modulus material.

Bridgman gauge

59
It is known that the resistance of fine wires changes with
pressure according to linear relationship
R= Ro (1+b∆ p).
Fine wires of Manganin or Gold chromium alloys.
Up to 3000bar , ±0.5%
Advantages:
1-available with full scale .
2- good dynamic response .
Note : respond to variations in Mhz

Also, Pressure up to 7000bar can be measured by

strain gauge and Bourdon tubes.
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61
 The resonant wire pressure transducer
 The resonant-wire pressure transducer
 was introduced in the late 1970s.
 a wire is gripped by a static member at one end,
and by the sensing diaphragm at the other. An
oscillator circuit causes the wire to oscillate at
its resonant frequency.
 A change in process pressure changes the wire
tension, which in turn changes the resonant
frequency of the wire. A digital counter circuit
detects the shift. Because this change in
frequency can be detected quite precisely,
 This type of transducer can be used for low
differential pressure applications as well as to
detect absolute and gauge pressures.
 Resonant wire transducers can detect absolute
pressures from 10 mm Hg, differential
pressures and gauge pressures up to 42 MPa.
Typical accuracy is 0.1% of calibrated span,
with six-month drift of 0.1%

62
Magnetic pressure transducers
• These included the use of inductance, reluctance, and
eddy currents. Inductance is that property of an electric
circuit that expresses the amount of electromotive force
(emf) induced by a given rate of change of current flow in
the circuit.
• Reluctance is resistance to magnetic flow, the opposition
offered by magnetic substance to magnetic flux.
• In these sensors, a change in pressure produces a
movement, which in turn changes the inductance or
reluctance of an electric circuit.

63
 Why Electrical Pressure Transducers?
• Transmission requirements for remote display as
electric signal transmission can be through cable or
cordless.
• Electric signals give quicker responses and high
accuracy in digital measurements.
• The linearity property of the electric signal produced
to pressure applied favors simplicity.
• They can be used for extreme pressure applications,
i.e. high vacuum and pressure measurements.
• EPTs are immune to hysteresis, shock and
mechanical vibrations.
64
Pressure Sensors Applications
• Measure pressure of fluid, gas or liquid
• Measure altitude
– For plains or weather balloons
• Measure flow
– pressure sensors in conjunction with the
venturi effect to measure flow
• Measure depth of water
– When measuring liquids, most sensors
are not rated to have unclean liquids
contact the sensor components. A small
amount of air in the tube right before the
sensor will create a barrier from the
liquid.

65
66
Range of pressure
gauges
67
Example: A quartz piezoelectric crystal having a
thickness of 2 mm and a voltage sensitivity of 0.055
V · m/N is subjected to a pressure of 200 psi.
Calculate the voltage output. E = g.t.p , Q = d.F
68
Wheatstone Bridge

Example: For the basic Wheatstone bridge in the above Fig.

determine the uncertainty in the measured resistance Rx as a
result of an uncertainty of 1 percent in the known resistances.
Repeat for 0.05 percent.
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70
 Calibration of a pressure gauge
By: 1-manometer 2- dead weight tester
***Limitation of d. w.t 1- friction force 2-
uncertainty of value of effective area of piston 3-
uncertainty of value of gravity g

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73
 Choosing a Sensor

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