CHAPTER 4 How a Society is Organized

I. Groups within society

• → Groups are the smaller units that compose society.

• → Groups have been responsible for the development and advancement of cultures, economics,
politics, and other aspects of human civilization.

“Man as a social animal”

→ According to Plato, human being are naturally equipped with tools such as language and reason that
enable them to engage others in meaningful interaction.

Social Group - a collection of individuals who have relations with one another that make them
interdependent to some significant degree.

- Can be a collection of two or more people who interact with one another, share similar characteristics ,
and collectively have a sense of unity.

CHARACTERISTICS:

a. Reciprocal relationship

b. sense of unity and feeling of sympathy towards each other

c. we feeling: members defend their interest collectively.

d. Similar behavior: for achieving the common goals and interest

e. group norms: every group has its own set of rules and norms.

↘ Interdependence is a necessary condition that exists within social groups because it is what enables
its members to pursue shared goals or promote common values and principles.

Primary Group

-mostly nakakasama madalas o mas mahabng panahon

• a small, intimate, and less specialized group whose members engage in face to face and emotion-
based interactions over an extended period of time.

• interdependence among members is characterized by a deep and profound relationship with each
other.
• some of the examples include family, close friends, work-related peers, classmates and church groups.

Secondary Group

• are larger and less intimate, and more specialized groups where members engage in an impersonal
and objective- oriented relationship for a limited time.

• mutual benefit, rather than emotional affinity, becomes the driving force that compel individuals to
stay together in a secondary group.

• professional relationships between lawyers and clients, and a corporation that has hundreds of
employees are examples of secondary group.

Ingroups

•a group to which one belongs and with which one feels a sense of identity.

CHARACTERISTIC:

A. Members of such groups devise ways to distinguish themselves from nonmembers. This may come in
the form of group titles, symbol and even rituals required for membership.

B. Members display positive attitudes and behavior toward their fellow members, while may exhibit
negative attitudes and views toward members of their out-groups.

C. Similarities and shared experiences foster unity and cooperation among group members.

Outgroups

• A group to which one does not belong and to which he or she may feel a sense of competitiveness or
hostility.

• It is a social group toward which a person feels a sense of competition or opposition.

• It is a group that an individual identifies in negative direction.

• Sports teams, unions, and sororities are examples of in-groups and out-groups; people may belong to,
or be an outsider to, any of these.

Reference groups

• A group to which an individual compares himself or herself.

• It is a social group that serves as a point of reference in making evaluations and decisions individual
compares himself or herself.
• Such groups strongly influence an individual’s behavior and social attitudes whether he or she is a
member of these groups.

• Example of reference group include an individual’s primary group (family, work colleagues, etc.) or his
or her in-groups (church, fellow club members, neighbors in the community, etc.)

IV. Networks

-we use network to communicate with other people

-messenger, fb, twitter, instagram

-mas malawak na sinasakupang grupo nito dahil sa social media na ginagamit natin

→ refers to the structure of relationships between social actors or and the larger social institutions to
which they all belong to.

→ In the age of the Internet, a good example of networks are those provided by social media platforms
such as Facebook, Twitter, or Instagram.

→ In traditional societies, networks are exclusive, limited, and mostly defined by kinship. Modern
societies feature more expansive , diverse, and overlapping social networks.
Unit III Cultural, Social, Political Development

Chapter 5 Looking Back at Human Biocultural and Social Evolution (3/1/22)

Growth and Development Of Societies

Societies are said to have evolved as human beings learned to adapt to their environment.

Three types of Societal evolution

•BIOLOGICAL

•CULTURAL

•TECHNOLOGICAL

Biological Evolution / EVOLUTION

Evolution is defined as the process of growth and development or the theory that organisms have grown
and developed from past organisms.

Biological evolution refers to the process whereby organisms undergo various and genetic and physical
changes that pave the way for biological diversity.

➢According to Francisco Jose Ayala, a noted Spanish-American biologist, the theory of evolution in
biology suggests that "the various types of plants, animals, and other living things on earth have their
origins in other pre-existing types and the distinguishable differences are due to modifications in
successive generations."

Cultural Evolution it refers to the changes or development in cultures from a simple form to a more
complex form of human culture.

• Technological evolution as they learned to create various tools and equipment for their daily tasks
such as planting crops, domesticating animals, and trade.

-cellphone, tablet, laptop, computer

The Evolution of Social and Political Institutions

•In the 19th century, the anthropologist Lewis Henry Morgan came up with an
evolutionary scheme that divided history into three stages of development:
savagery, barbarism, and civilization.

➢He stated that the savage stage is the lowest stage of development which is exemplified by the
nomadic and hunter-gatherer lifestyle.

➢The barbaric stage, meanwhile, it is the middle stage of development where people began learning
agricultural techniques and the domestication of animals.

-Agricultural and Pastoral Society

➢Finally, the civilized stage is the highest stage of development where people learned writing.

❑The evolution of human beings has given rise to the development of social organizations from hunting
gathering groups to agricultural communities and industrial societies.

HUNTING AND GATHERING

Agricultural Communities

Industrial Societies

➢For instance, most hunting and gathering societies assigned the task of hunting to the men, while
women were employed in gathering.
➢The earliest societies were comprised of the hunters gatherers, and were referred to as band-level
societies or simply "bands."

➢They were basically small and nomadic family groups and were plainly organized.

➢ These groups were believed to be highly egalitarian and nonhierarchical since distinctions were
based on age and sex, and division of labor was natural (i.e., the men hunted and the women gathered).

➢Leadership was based on qualities such as strength, intelligence, and trustworthiness.

➢While the leader exercised a certain degree of authority or influence over band members because of
his skills, he did not exercise power to enforce rules and was not given special status in society.
➢Decisions made were usually concerned with moving to another territory, food distribution, and the
settlement of interpersonal conflicts.

➢Disputes between bands were rare because they lived far apart from one another. Because of these
characteristics, band-level societies were not considered as political organizations.

➢The emergence of more complex social organizations came the advent of agriculture and the
organization of sedentary communities.

➢The establishment of permanent settlements, the invention of tools, the introduction of new varied
task, and the increasingly complex social interaction and communication were significant changes in
human society that required new forms of social and political organization.

➢This led to the emergence of social inequality, lineage and kinship ties, marking the introduction of
more complex relationships between members of society.

➢These changes brought about the establishment of the tribe.

➢This was a more formal social organization made up several bands and groups that were connected
through a clan structure or kinship.

➢Additionally, the leader of the of tribe or headman was a more formal and established leader.

➢He had significant influence among the members of the tribe and was recognized as a person of great
importance.

➢The headman took advantage of the kinship ties among tribe members to assert his authority and
power.

➢The headman also performed other responsibilities such as resolving conflict; overseeing activities
such as planting harvesting and the movement of herds; and organizing feasts and celebrations.
➢The growth of tribes allowed them to increasingly interact with one another leading to the
establishment of a new political organization, the chiefdom, which consisted of tribes united under one
leader or chief.

➢Within chiefdoms, the more complicated interactions among member tribes as well as the large
populations and territories further transformed leadership roles and gave the chief more complex
responsibilities.

➢Industrial Revolution, begin the mid1700s until the 1800s, many societies in the world, particularly in
Western Europe. This event introduce significant social, cultural, and political changes in the lives of the
people in Europe. . Among the effects of the Industrial Revolution were increased migration, the growth
of urban populations, changes in lifestyle, production, technological increased advancement, and the
rise of the middle class.

➢It is widely believed that the factors that influenced the Industrial Revolution were mainly
technological in nature.

➢The inventions and technological breakthroughs that were achieved significantly altered economic
activities, paving the way for massive social, cultural, and political changes in society.

➢The increased use of mechanical devices and the discovery of steam power led to the development of
the factory system, which brought about many changes in society.

Examples ng machine na ginawa nila noon:

-use for pagtatahi

Chapter 6: Social Institutions

What is Social Institutions?

➢Social institutions refer to organized sets of elements such as beliefs, rules, practices, and relationship
that exist to attain social order.
➢It also refers to well- established and structured relationships between groups of people that are
considered fundamental components of society’s culture.
➢The institutional approach tells us that social institutions are ordered sets or rules, norms, beliefs, or
values that organize human behavior.
➢The relational approach meanwhile, focuses on social relations rather than rules, norms, beliefs, or
values.

1. THE FAMILY

• The smallest social institution with the unique function.

• It is the basic unit of Philippine society and the educational system where the child begins to learn his
ABC.
• The basic agent of socialization because it is here where the individual develops values, behaviors, and
ways of life through interaction with members of the family.

Characteristics of the Filipino Family

KINDS OF FAMILIES

The Filipino Family: Nuclear Family

-consist of father, mother, and children

The Filipino Family: Extended Family

-consists of parents, children, and other close relatives, often living in close proximity

• Reconstituted Family : This is a family where one or more parents have been married previously and
they bring with them children from their previous marriage(s). This introduces various combinations of
step-father, step-mother etc.

• Single Parent Family : This type of family is also known as the Lone Parent Family. It consists of one
parent and a child or children residing in one household.
• COHABITATION is an arrangement where two people are not married but live together. They are often
involved in a romantic or sexually intimate relationship on a long-term or permanent basis

• SAME –SEX COUPLES

-also known as gay marriage, is the marriage of two people of the same sex or gender, entered into in a
civil or religious ceremony. LGBT parenting refers to lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender people
raising one or more children as parents or foster care parents.

→ Kinship
➢ is a social structure defined by relations among individuals linked by blood or marriage ties.
➢ Kinship has been found to have a significant influence in defining the social status of individuals in
many societies.

Kinship ties based on Descent:

1. Unilineal – affiliates an individual through the descent of one gender only, that is either through males
or through females.

Types of Unilineal:

a. Matrilineal kinship -means that one's descent is based on the female line.

• common in Native American societies, notably the Crow and Cherokee tribes. In these societies,
children are seen as belonging to the women and, therefore, one’s kinship is traced to one’s mother,
grandmother, great grandmother, and so on (Mails 1996)

b. Patrilineal kinship - means that one's descent is based on the male line.

• - Such as those in rural China and India, only males carry on the family surname. This gives males the
prestige of permanent family membership while females are seen as only temporary members (Harrell
2001).

c. Bilineal kinship-refers to a descent system based on both the male and female lines.

most common in Southeast Asian countries, parents may choose to associate their children with the
kinship of either the mother or the father. (Lambert 2009).

B. Kinship by Marriage

•- Marriage is a socially or ritually recognized union or legal contract between spouses that establishes
rights and obligations between them and their children, and between them in their in-laws.
TRENDS IN MARRIAGE

DIVORCE

•– it is the legal separation of man and wife.

ANNULMENT

•– it means to nullify, to make void by competent authority.

INGREDIENTS OF A HAPPY MARRIAGE

LOVE
COMMITMENT
MATURITY
Communication
Honesty
Growth
Spiritual Sensitivity

Monogamy Vs. Polygamy

Types of Marriage

1. Monogamy is the practice of having only one spouse at one time or for an entire life span.
2. Polygamy is the practice of multiple marriage. It is a marriage pattern in which an individual is married
to more than one person at a time.

Types of Polygamy:
a. Polygyny – it is the practice of one man having more than one wife or sexual partner at a time. It is the
most common form of polygamy.
b. Polyandry – it is the less common form of polygamy. It involves one woman having multiple husbands.

The Filipino Family

•The Filipinos practice endogamy, the custom of marrying only within the limits of a local community,
clan, or tribe.

Same tribe Same religion

According to place of residence, the family may be classified as:

1. Patrilocal when the newly married couple lives with the parents of the husband.

2. Matrilocal when the newly married couple lies with the parents of the wife

3. Neolocal when the newly married pair maintains a separate household and live by themselves.

Kinds of Family Patterns

According to Authority

Patriarchal - Father is considered the head and plays a dominant role

Matriarchal - Mother is considered the head and makes the major decisions

Equalitarian - Both the mother and father share in making decisions and are equal in authority

ECONOMY

Basic Economic Problems

What goods and services to produce and how much?

How to produce goods and services?

For whom are the goods and services?

•is a social science concerned with the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services.
•is the study of how societies use scarce resources to produce valuable commodities and distribute
them among different people.

SALIGAN NG EKONOMIKS

Adam Smith

- Itinuturing na ama ng ekonomiks.

-May akda sa librong An Inquiry into the Nature and Cause of the Wealth of Nation
-Ipinaliwanang sa libro ang konsepto ng laissez-faire na hagsasabing hindi dapat manghimasok ang
pamahalaang sa daloy ng ekonomiya.

Karl Marx

-May-akda ng The Communist Manifesto

-Sa kanyang teorya, tinalakay niya ang konsepto ng bourgeoisie at proletariat

- Bourgeoisie

ay mga kapitalista na mayroong control sa yaman ng isang bansa.

- Proletariat

ay mga ordinaryong manggagawa na umaasa sa mga kapitalista

EDUCATIONAL AND HEALTH INSTITUTIONS

Educational and Health Institutions

❑Two institutions that uphold basic human rights are the educational and health institutions.
❑Educational institutions ensure that individuals are functionally literate, while health institutions
ensure that individuals have access to health services to promote universal public health.

❑Educational and health services could be provided by either the state or by private entities
❑Educational institutions like schools do not only ensure a literate population; they also transmit
culture. The beliefs, norms, values, and practices of a society are taught in classrooms.

❑As such, schools and teachers are agents of socialization. Educational institutions are also cultural
institutions that serve as depositories and preservers of culture.

❑Schools also provide its students with a sense of history. A shared national history and common
national culture binds members of the society with one another .Schools can therefore be a means for
the state to create a loyal citizenry.

HEALTH INSTITUTION

❑ Health institutions, meanwhile, are primarily established to ensure public health and to provide
universal health services. There are different kinds of health systems.

❑ Western health systems, on the one hand, are based on science and the skills of health workers are
standardized and learned from health sciences schools. Patients are treated based on standardized
diagnostic practices.

On the other hand, there are still societies that make use of traditional or alternative health systems.

➢ These health systems have been in existence even before the introduction of western health systems.
➢ Illnesses that are not recognized by western health systems are usually referred to traditional
healers. This is therefore indicative that some illnesses are also culture-specific.

RELIGION
❑Religion is an institution that involves a set of beliefs and practices of a particular social group.

❑ The beliefs of religious groups affect the behavior of their members.

❑ It is important therefore to know how the beliefs of a religion affect the actions of its members.
❑Religion may be organized into a group that has universal membership called a church or it could also
be organized into an exclusive group called a sect.

• Monotheism is the belief in one god. A narrower definition of monotheism is the belief in the
existence of only one god that created the world, is omnipotent, omnipresent and omniscient.

•Polytheism is the worship of many gods. It comes from the word poly meaning, "many," and theism
where we get the word "God."

MONOTEISM

HINDUISM

•Animism is the belief that objects, places, and creatures all possess a distinct spiritual essence.
Potentially, animism perceives all things—animals, plants, rocks, rivers, weather systems, human
handiwork, and perhaps even words—as animated and alive.

• Shintoism and Jainism are examples of belief systems that contain elements of animism
Chapter 7: Political Institutions (4/6/22) (April)

POLITICS, POWER, AND AUTHORITY

POLITICS

▪refers to activities through which people make, preserve, and amend the general rules under which
they live. It involves the dynamics of conflict resolution and cooperation, as well as the exercise of
power.

-government, leaders
-leaders are the one who lead the country, ensure peace and order in a society/country, representative,
creates the law, decisions and agreements.
-In politics, dito din nireresolve problems or conflicts na naeexperience dito sa banasa natin like
underemployment, mga walang trabaho and poverty.

POWER

▪refers to the ability to do something in order to achieve a desired outcome. Hence, a person with
power has the capability to control people or make them do something that they would not do
otherwise. Social Scientists emphasize the notion that power involves a relationship-there is one who
exercises power and another who is subject to it.

-in tagalog is kapangyarihan but it does no technically mean that someone have supernatural powers.
-Ang taong may power o kapangyarihan is kaya niyang magcommand, pilitin o utusan ang isang tao
makuha lang ang gusto niya.

Sa power, ang pwede lang gumamit niyan is yung may high position sa isang society or area

A person with power has the capability to control people or make them do something that they would
not do otherwise. Meron tayong leader and member. Leader exercises power and the member yung
sumusunod sa leader.

Example: Teacher is the one who have power than students.

Boss is the one who have power than employeers.

AUTHORITY

Accordin to max . ▪is legitimate power. This means that a person who has authority has the right to
exercise power. More concretely, the exercise of authority means that the person who exercises power
is obeyed by the people because he or she is recognized as the rightful or legitimate ruler or leader.
-magagamit mo lang authority and power mo kapa ikaw ay legit and authorize person. If you have
position, it means you have the capability
-Authority and power is connected to each other
LEGITIMACY AND TYPES OF AUTHORITY

LEGITIMACY

▪originated from the Latin word legitimare, meaning "to declare lawful," and is broadly defined as
"rightfulness’’. Legitimacy confers on an order or command an authoritative or binding character, Thus
transforming power into authority.

-It means to say na ang isang taong nasa position o leader ay dapat binabase ang kaniyang decisions o
ginagawa sa ataing 1987 Philippine Constitution
-Kailangan mong sundin kung ano nakasulat sa batas kasi paano ka magiging good example or role
model sa mamamayan kung ikaw mismo yung gumagawa ng mali

-Example paano nawawala authority and power ng isang tao kahit siya ay mayroong high position.
Former President GMA, she announced that she cheated during election. People lose trust, is
disappointed.

THREE TYPES OF AUTHORITY:

TRADITIONAL, CHARISMATIC, AND LEGAL-RATIONAL

TRADITIONAL AUTHORITY

➢In many societies, authority is based on a system that is believed to have "always existed."

Example, si nanay/tatay na leader ng country and ito ay ipapasa lang din within the family. Pwede ipasa
nung tatay sa asawa, then sa mga anak, panganay. Position ang pinamamana within the mebers of the
family.

Lahat ng country na mayroong type of government na monarchy usually have this type of authority.
They called their leaders Queen and King. Unlike in democratic which is President.

➢Some people have this type of authority because they inherited it or they occupy a position that has
been passed on to them.

➢Examples of traditional authority are those exercised by elders in a tribe or an indigenous people's
group as well as by monarchs who have inherited their power and authority.

QUEEN ELIZABETH II
CHARISMATIC AUTHORITY

▪is based on the presumed special and extraordinary characteristics or qualities possessed by a certain
individual. People with charisma are often very popular, highly persuasive, and inspire loyalty and
obedience from other people. They are also often seen as "born leaders" and "heroes".
▪Charisma is generally considered a gift or an innate quality unique to a person, but there are also
instances when it can be manufactured through the use of propaganda.
▪However, charismatic authority is the most unstable type of authority as leaders may eventually "lose"
their charisma when people's views regarding them change.

Example, kapag laos na artista, their strategy is to run on government and they often wins.
-FPJ kalaban ni GMA before, siya pinakasikat before, anlakas ng charisma niya, siya nanalo kaso nandaya
si GMA. Ma artista is anlakas ng dating nila s amga tao.

-Charismatic Authority is the mos unstable type of authority. Hindi permanent kasi pwedeng magbago
charisma, tingin ng mga tao sayo.

LEGAL-RATIONAL AUTHORITY

-dumaan ito sa tamang proseso, eleksiyon.

-Right to Suffrage is written on laws/rules. 18 pataas have the right to vote.

▪is the most typical type of authority in modern societies. Power and authority in a legal-rational context
are legitimized by a clearly define set of written rules and laws.

▪Heads of governments such as presidents and prime ministers possess legal-rational authority.

▪Among the three types of authority a legal-rational system has the highest degree of stability because
it is based on our law

TYPES OF POLITICAL ORGANIZATIONS AND LEADERSHIP STRUCTURES

POLITICAL ORGANIZATIONS

▪as "the groups within a culture that are responsible for public decision making and leadership,
maintaining social cohesion and order, protecting group rights, and ensuring safety from external
threats."
Example is partylist and they also have goals.

▪ political clientelism (or clientelistic politics) is defined by Susan Stokes as giving material goods
in return for electoral support."

-Ayuda, pagbibigay ng mga politicians ng kahit ano sa mga voter. Gamit, paying, etc.

-Kapalit is vote or electoral suppor

 ▪POLITICAL DYNASTIES are believed to have always existed even in advanced democratic
states.

▪ A "dynasty" refers to a succession from rulers from the same line or descent. Thus,
relatives who stay in power-specifically, members of one family who continuously hold
elective political positions-are considered members of a political dynasty.

Example, si tatay kapitan then anak, until lahat na ng fam nila is nasa politics na.

DIFFERENCE OF NATION AND STATE

▪nation consists of a distinct population of people bound together by a common culture, history, and
tradition who are typically concentrated within a specific geographic region.

-nation is usually activities na ginagawa ng mga tao

▪state, is a political unit that has sovereignty-the legitimate and ultimate authority of the state-over an
area of territory and the people within it.

4 elements of state:

Population/People
Territory
Sovereignty
Government

Philippines is an nation-state. Nation dahil binubuo tayo ng grupo ng mga tao na may iisang kultura,
language, tradition, customs, religion and at the same time state dahil meon tayong territory,
population, people, government and we are also independent or we have sovereignty.

▪State is a political unit that encompasses several communities, has a bureaucracy, and has leaders that
possess legitimate power

BUREAUCRACY

. Bureaucracy is an administrative or social system that relies on a set of rules and procedures,
separation of functions and a hierarchical structure in implementing controls over an organization,
government or social system

. Bureaucracy is the basis for the systematic formation of any organization and is designed to ensure
efficiency and economic effectiveness

-means "rule by officials”.

President – pinakamataas na position sa national government

Mayor – pinakamataas na position sa local government.
POLITICAL LIBERALIZATION

Liberal – we have the freedom

Democracy – the power is vested to the people

Tayo pumipili ng mga leaders na gusto natin. Madalas na may ganitong klase ng political liberalization sa
mga Western Societies.

▪refers to the emergence of liberal democratic regimes that are Characterized by a representative form
of democracy where political office is gained through formal, competitive elections in many Western
societies.

POLITICAL CULTURE

▪refers to the pattern of orientation to political objects such as parties, government, and constitution,
expressed in beliefs, symbols. and values.

-Sa politics may iba’t iba tayong cultures o kaugalian

Example, campaign elections, pupunta sa different parts of Philippines and nagpapakilala, nagbibigay ng
promises and plataporma. Andito din mga symbols and trademark.
CHAPTER 8: Social And Political Stratification (4/12/22)
Stratification

-arrangement, classification, categorization, layer, division

-mostly na ginagamit na shape is pyramid, triangle

Social Stratification

• refers to the division of large social groups into smaller groups based on categories determined by
economics. Members of society are arranged in hierarchy based on their access to or control over basic
economic resources.
-dito is dinidivide mga tao based on social class

Common basis of social stratification:

1. occupation and income

Example is doctor and nasa Upper class sila

2. wealth and social status

-kapag marami kang ari-arian, properties like usually celebrities, Sa upper class sila.

3. derived power (social and political)

Social stratification categorizes groups of people into a hierarchy on the basis of wealth, status, or
power.

A Five Class Model

Upper class
Upper middle class
Lower middle class
Lower class
Related to the concept of social stratification and inequality is social exclusion.

Social exclusion refers to the process by which individuals are cut off from full involvement in the wider
circles of society.

People who are socially excluded due to poor housing, lack of employment, inferior schools, or limited
transportations, may lack opportunity for self-improvement.

Systems of Stratification

Closed systems impose rigid boundaries between social groups and limit interactions among members
who belong to different social groups or occupy different levels in the social hierarchy.

Open system is based on achievement , allowing more flexibility in social roles, increased in social
mobility , and better interaction among social group and classes.

Caste systems are closed stratification systems because people are unable to change their social
standing.

CLASS SYSTEM is a stratification system based on the ownership of resources and the individual's
occupation or profession.

Class systems base social status on achievement rather than ascription and are thus more open in terms
of social mobility.

People, therefore are free to move from one social class to another and achieve a higher status in life
through education and employment.

The openness in class systems results in the prevalence of exogamous marriages or marriages between
people who come from different social classes.

Endogamous marriages (marriages between people of the same class) are also common, but these
unions are not imposed and are entered into freely by the individuals.

Meritocracy is another system of stratification that is determined by personal effort and merit.

Social standing and advancement in this system is determined by how well a person performs his or her
social role.
Meritocracy, however, remains an ideal and is only implemented in certain areas such as business and
industry.

Theoretical Perspectives on Social Stratification

• Social stratification can be examined using three different theoretical perspectives namely:

• 1. Functionalism

• 2. Conflict theory

• 3. Symbolic interactionism

Functionalism

•examines how the different aspects of society contribute to ensuring its stability and continued
function.

•each part or aspect of society serves an important purpose.

•Social stratification is necessary because it motivates individuals to be more efficient and productive in
their tasks (Davis-Moore thesis).

Conflict Theory

Conflict theory takes a critical view of social stratification and considers society as benefitting only a
small segment.

Conflict theorists believe that stratification perpetuates inequality; draw many of their ideas from the
works of Karl Marx who believed that social stratification is influenced by economic forces, and that
relationships in society are defined by the factors of production.

Marx considered society to be divided between two groups: the bourgeois or capitalists and the
proletariat (workers who provide the manual labor).

Symbolic Interactionism

Symbolic interactionism refrains from looking into the larger structural factors that define social
stratification and contribute to inequality and poverty.

It examines stratification from a microlevel perspective and attempts to explain how people’s standing
affects their everyday interactions.

Social stratification, for symbolic interactionists, often leads people to interact with others within their
own social class; a system that groups people together.
Social Mobility

• is the ability of individuals or groups to change their positions within a social stratification system.

• Also refers to how individuals progress from a lower to a higher social class, or even how individuals
lose their status and occupy a much lower social position in society.

Two main types of social mobility:

Upward mobility – refers to an upward movement in social class (e.g. by gaining wealth or rising to fame
or power like politicians and celebrities).

Downward mobility – refers to the lowering of an individual’s social class (maybe brought about by
economic setbacks, unemployment, illness, and dropping out of school).

Social mobility from different generations:

1. Intragenerational mobility focuses on the experience of people who belong to the same generation,
and the changes in a person’s social standing throughout his lifetime.

2. Intergenerational mobility refers to the changes in social standing experienced by individuals

belonging to different generations. Patterns of intergenerational mobility can reflect long-term social
changes.

❖ Large-scale changes in society can result in the improvement or decline of the conditions and status
of a large group of people. This is known as structural mobility.

Examples: massive upward mobility during The Industrial Age; downward social mobility during
economic crises.

Social Inequality

•Societies are usually characterized by divisions that reflect an unequal distribution of status, wealth,
and power within society.

Social Inequality and Poverty

POVERTY

Poverty is general scarcity, dearth, or the state of one who lacks a certain amount of material
possessions or money.
Absolute & Relative Poverty

. Absolute Poverty refers to the lack of means necessary to meet basic needs such as food,

clothing and shelter.

. Relative Poverty takes into consideration individual social and economic status compared to the rest of
society.

Subjective poverty is a type of poverty that is defined by how an individual evaluates his or her actual
income against his or her expectations and perceptions.

Gender Inequality

•Gender comprises the behavioral and psychological traits considered appropriate for men and women.
A person’s sex refers to his biological identity.

•Gender roles are the specific behaviors and attitudes that a society establishes for men and women.

•Gender identity is the awareness of being masculine or feminine as those traits are defined in the
culture.

➢ A more disturbing aspect of gender inequality is its tendency to result in violence, particularly
violence directed against women. Examples of these include sexual harassment, rape or sexual assault,
and spousal abuse.

➢ Over the past decades, various groups and advocacies have brought gender equality to much wider
attention through the conduct of various for a that inspired debate and discussion in wider circles
worldwide.

➢ The United Nations, in particular, has been actively supporting women's rights through its various
agencies and through official resolutions and declarations. In 1979, the United Nations adopted the
Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination against women (CEDAW), which defined
discrimination directed against women and called for action to end such discrimination. This document
eventually became known as the International Bill of Rights for Women. ISSUES I

ETHNICITY AND RACIAL ISSUES

Ethnicity is the feeling of affinity or loyalty toward a particular population, cultural group or territorial
area. The term is complex because it has both racial and cultural overtones.

Race refers to a group of people who share a common ancestry. It refers to physical or genetic
differences among humankind that distinguish one group of people from another such as skin, and hair
color.
RACISM

•refers to a set of attitudes, beliefs, and practices used to justify the superior treatment of one racial or
ethnic group and the inferior treatment of another racial or ethnic group. A racist believes that some
individuals are superior or inferior to others as a result of racial differences.

Discrimination

•refers to actions or behavior of members of a dominant social group that negatively impacts other
members of society that do not belong to the dominant group.

What is Global Inequality?

Global stratification

•refers to the unequal distribution of wealth, power, and prestige on a global basis, highlighting patterns
of social inequality and resulting in people having vastly different lifestyles and opportunities both
within and among the nations of the world.

There are a variety of theories that explain global inequality.

•Market-oriented theories such as modernization theory claim that cultural and institutional barrier to
development explain poverty in low-income. countries. This theory believes that poverty can be
eliminated by overcoming or adjusting cultural values like negative attitudes regarding work, limiting
government intervention in economic affairs, and encouraging high rates of savings and investment.

Dependency theories

claim that global poverty is the result of exploitation of poor countries by wealthy ones, thereby creating
a cycle of dependence. For dependency theorists, low-income countries are trapped in a cycle of
structural and economic dependency on high-income countries.

State-centered Theories

emphasize the role of governments in fostering economic development.

UNIT IV
CHAPTER 9 SOURCES OF SOCIAL AND CULTURAL CHANGE (4/19/22)

CHANGE
is an essential aspect of culture hence dynamic and never static.

SOCIAL CHANGE
refers to the transformations that alter the roles and status of people as well as the structure and
organization of society and its institutions

Roles – parang kau as of now is to study hard as a daughter and son. Soon you’ll become mother/father.

Status – students atm, but as time goes by, you can be employed/professional.

Example of Social Change

1. Religious Attachment Has Waned

-humina na, before kababaihan is required magdasal but now is hindi na gaano

2. Marijuana Legalization Has Gained Support

-before is illegal agad nasa isip ng mga tao dito but now it has gained support na kahit papano.

3. Interracial Marriage Has Gained Acceptance

-before is dapat katulad din nilang Pilipino o lahi pero ngayon they can married to foreigners na

4. Majority Now Think First-Trimester Abortions Should Be Legal

-before abortion is illegal kasi it is mostly done outside the hospital but now doctors can now abort
legally, but abortion is still illegal

-but now they think abortion should be legal

5. Filipinos Have Become Willing to for a Woman for President

-before women have no right to vote and to become in any position

-but now woman can vote and become president

6. Filipinos Now Prefer Smaller Family Size

-before andami daming pamilya na 5 or more anak and now is hindi na

7. Premarital Sex No Longer Taboo

-before is dapat kasal muna bago magsama, sensitive, strict and strict parents and now is madalas na
ang live in

8. Support for Gay Rights Goes Mainstream

-before is they don’t have rights, di inaaccept but now is madami ng aware like government that gays
should have rights.
CULTURAL CHANGE

refers to the dynamic processes where the living cultures of the world change and adapt to external and
internal forces.

HOME

• The social disorder associated with the increasing absence of parents in the lives of their children.

• The rise in the number of single parents

• The rise of stay-at –home ‘’housebands’’ looking after their children and house needs.

Women

• The increasing role of women in the workforce due to better education and social equality.

• The increasing number of millennial women who do not know how to cook

• Women have become more liberal when it comes to their sexual and relationship behaviors.

Communication

• the emergence of cheap smartphones.

•People relying more and more on free texting via apps such as line and messenger.

•The openness to talk strangers and fellow customers.

William F. Ogburn

Ogburn considers technology as the primary factor that induces social change.
Technology

Shopping

Radio to Television

Appliances
Processes of Social Change

1. Innovation is the process of introducing new ideas, things, and methods in society; entails the
improvement of things and processes and is primarily driven by technology.

-yung isang researcher/scientist/someone na can makapaginovate/invention ng bagay na kailangan

iproduce niya yan as much as nakakatulong yan sa society.

Example, scientist are busy experimenting/finding vaccine that can help lessen the spread of virus and
nakapacreate nga sila.

2. Diffusion refers to the spread of certain elements from one group to another in society. Technology is
an important factor that enables diffusion.

-is ralted with innovation kasi kung ano yug naimbento is need ikalat sa mga tao para malaman nila na
meron ng isang invention na makakatulong sa needs nila.

Example is vaccine, nagpainterview, presscon, and brioadcast na nakapagcreate na sila ng vaccine

Gamit ang technology is nadiffuse natin yung information just like paggamit ng tv, radio, newspaper and
social media platforms
CHAPTER 10: SOURCES OF POLITICAL CHANGE (5/5/22)

• Political change occurs when there is an alteration in the way power and authority are exercised in a
particular state.

-it means to say na nagkakaroon ng pagbabago sa politika kung nagkakaroon ng pagbabago sa paraan
kung paano gamitin ang power at authority sa isang estado. Best example is Martial Law

• Entails a shift in the relationship between those who govern and those who are governed.

• Several changes may happen within social groups, classes, and political institutions and processes.

Martial law is nagkaroon ng war and naging militarian authority.

The dictatorship of Philippine President Ferdinand E. Marcos in the 1970s and 1980s is
historically remembered for its record of human rights abuses, particularly targeting political
opponents, student activists, journalists, religious workers, farmers, and others who fought
against the Marcos dictatorship. Based on the documentation of Amnesty International, Task
Force Detainees of the Philippines, and similar human rights monitoring entities, historians
believe that the Marcos dictatorship was marked by 3,257 known extrajudicial killings, 35,000
documented tortures, 77 'disappeared', and 70,000 incarcerations.
Some 2,520 of the 3,257 murder victims were tortured and mutilated before their bodies were
dumped in various places for the public to discover - a tactic meant to sow fear among the public,
which came to be known as "salvaging." Some victims were even subjected to cannibalism.

When martial law is in effect, the military commander of an area or country has an unlimited
authority to make and enforce law.

From democracy to military authority.

Gumawa mga tao ng protesta or revolution. Ang naglead ng EDSA PEOPLE POWER
REVOLUTION ay si Cory Aquino. Millions sumali dito, mga pari, madre, ordinaryong tao and
nagdasal, nasama sama. Nag start ang revolution noong February 22 to 25 1986. We celebrate it
February 25, 1986.
-nagdeclare ng martial law si Ferdinand Marcos dahil during that time, madaming terorista,
ekonomista, mass demonstration, threats, conflict sa Mindanao which is lead by MNLF (MORO
NATIONAL LIBERATION FRONT) and para maprotektahan/madefend ni ferdiannd marcos is
nagdeclare siya.

Political change can be brought about by a revolution.

Revolution is defined by a political scientist, Theda Skocpol as a "rapid transformation of a society's

state and class structures that are accompanied and in part carried through by a class- based revolts
from below."

Primary Forms of Revolution

• Political Revolution results in the replacement or transformation of the government, without altering
other aspects of society and maintaining the relationship between socioeconomic classes. (e.g. First
People Power in 1986)

-nakafocus lang sa government, di na pinapakialaman ibang aspects ng society

• Social revolution results in the large-scale transformation of social structures, organizations, and
institutions such as the government, bringing about great changes in socioeconomic relations. (e.g.
French Revolution 1789-1799)

-mas malawak pagbabago kapag dito kasi lahat ng aspect ng society is nababago siya

Other events that bring about political change in society.

1. protests
– nagiging against sila sa batas, example kay Duterte is mabawasan drug user and tinotoo naman niya
pero may mga nagprotesta

2. riots

-its either kapag may protest/riots is ang mga government officals is mag implement social economics
reform or step down from power

Ang na impeach sa kasong plunder is Joseph Estrada. Kay Gloria Macapagal Arroyo is fraud sa eleksyon

3. popular movements

• These events often force the ruling government officials to either implement socioeconomic reforms or
step down from power.
Perspectives on Political Change

• Modernization is the process by which traditional societies transform into modern societies. It is a
major socioeconomic process that results in political change.

-makabago, traditional to modern society

• The ideas of Karl Marx, Emile Durkheim, and Max Weber embodied the major perspectives regarding
political and social change; they were particularly interested in modernization.

1. Karl Marx's political views

-nakakabili tayo sa mga supermarkets/markets ng needs and wants natin

• Political change is a result of changes in the economy, particularly the way goods and services are
produced in society.
• The key to political change is altering the means in which individuals produce the things they need for
survival.

• Political View ni Karl marx - When traditional societies shifted to capitalism, a change in the way
governments were organized ensued.

2. Emile Durkheim's views

• Agreed with Marx that political change is a result of great transformations in society but focused on
the impact of modernization on the division of labor and the social roles played by individuals in society.

• Considered society as a living organism whose members interact for their mutual benefit and survival.

3. Max Weber's views

• Focused on the significant role of culture and ideas in implementing change

• Paid attention to how practices, beliefs, and attitudes shape the political values and behavior of
individuals

-may important role ang practices, beliefs, and attitudes

• Believed that modern society is characterized by the ability of citizens to select their leaders through
elections and the existence of a system of laws and a bureaucracy
Modernization: The Engine of Political Change

• Modernization is defined as a multifaceted process involving changes in all areas of human thought
and activity.

• It penetrates culture, economics, politics, individual beliefs, and all other aspects of society.

Factors that bring about political change:

• Information technology

-nagyon may different website and medias that we can use to gather information

• Economic changes

-dati di pa gaanong naprapractice iba’t ibang natural resources sa pilipinas and pagtagal ng panahon is
nadiskobre na iba’t ibang yaman ng pilipinas. And before then is walang mode of money yung mga tao,
barter/ pagpapalitan ng produkto sa iba pang produkto pero ngayon is may value mga bagay na binibili
natin

• Sociocultural changes

-on how we socialize with other people, before is need pa puntahan and ngayon is may gadgets and
social media na that we can use to communicate with other people

• Globalization

-worldwide changes, hindi man naeexperience sa pinas, naging active na sa pagpasa/create ng laws na
magproprotect
CHAPTER 11: The New Challenges to Human Adaptation and Social Change (5/12/22)

Kung hindi nasusunog, nalulunod! Akala n'yo ba, sa pelikula lang nangyayari ito? Sa ngayon,
totoong buhay na ang mga ito at hindi na palabas. Kumpirmado ng mga eksperto: Code red na
ang nangyayaring pagbabago sa klima sa ating planeta. Ayon sa ulat, tao at ang ginagawa nito
ang dahilan ng patuloy na global warming. Pero para maunawaan natin kung ano ang ibig
sabihin niyan, throwback muna tayo sa mga science lesson natin. Climate change ang tawag sa
pagbabago sa kinagisnang klima Tumataas ang temperatura ng mundo. In short, global
warming. Pinatitindi ito ng greenhouse effect, kung saan tina-trap ng greenhouse gases galing
sa araw. Pinaka-binabantayan ngayon ang greenhouse gas na carbon dioxide o CO2. At hindi
lang ito galing sa hininga ng tao. Naglalabas din ng CO2 ang fossil fuel at natural gas. So, yes,
pati petrolyo, nakakadagdag sa greenhouse effect. Ayon sa report ng United Nations body na
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), 1.09°C na ang itinaas ng global
temperature mula noong panahon ni Rizal. At hindi ito dahil sa bulkan o sa araw. Dahil ito sa
tao. Scientists were quite careful about making that connection. But this time, they said, "No, it
is quite clear," we see the human signature, kumbaga. Dating miyembro ng IPCC si Fr. Jett
Villarin, SJ. Aling mga industry, Father, ang dapat bantayan when it comes to carbon emissions?
Well, energy, especially if the source of your electricity is coal, fossil fuel, which is the usual case
in the Philippines. Transport. 'Yung gasolina, carbon iyan, e. Cement and steel. We will have to
think creatively about how we build our cities. Agriculture is another sector we need to look at.
Livestock. Sinang-ayunan din niya ang nakasaad sa report, na patikim pa lang ang mga
nararanasang extreme weather conditions sa iba't ibang bahagi ng mundo. Sabihin natin, 'yung
Yolanda, once in 100 years lang iyan dumarating. We might see more frequent Yolandas. So you
cannot just say, "Lagi tayong binabagyo." Oo. Pero 'yung tindi ng bagyo ang magbabago. 'Di lang
iyan, patuloy rin ang pagtaas ng antas ng tubig dala ng pagkatunaw ng malalaking tipak ng yelo
Panganib ang dala nito sa mga nakatira sa dalampasigan. Maaari silang anurin ng daluyong o
storm surge. At kinalaunan, maaaring mabura sa mapa ang ibang lugar. Wala pa riyan ang mga
sakit na dati'y nakakulong lang sa mga yelo, at ngayo'y pwede nang kumawala sa hangin.
Mukhang ang daming nakaambang panganib. May magagawa pa ba? Para kay Fr. Villarin,
panahon na upang bigyang-tuon ng mga korporasyon ang clean at renewable. Right now, people
sometimes say, "Clean is expensive, e. To be clean, you need to spend." Well, expensive is
relative, and we can make things less expensive. We can actually influence the market. It's not
just individual choices. Sana rin daw, makipagtulungan sa international community ang mga
susunod na pinuno ng bansa upang malunasan ang krisis sa kalikasan. I hope that that person
will not treat environment as a side issue, like a side dish. It's not a side dish. Sustainability is a
real issue. Dahil sa huli, ang makikinabang... o mapapahamak sa mga desisyon natin ngayon ay
ang susunod na henerasyon. "This time, there's time to avert a catastrophe." So ayan, mga
Kapuso. Hindi maganda ang balitang dala ng IPCC report tungkol sa climate change. Pero hindi
ibig sabihin nito ay wala nang pag-asa. Kailangan ngayon ang pagkilos at pakikisama ng bawat
isa. dahil hindi lang isyu mo, o isyu ko ang kalikasan. Lahat tayo, may magagawa. Briane dela
Peña. GMA News.
Global Warming and Climate Change

• These phenomena refer to extreme or drastic changes in climate and patterns all over the world.
-simplest term is ito ang pag init ng mundo dahil sa pagtaas ng average temperature nito.

• These changes are often attributed to certain human practices such as:

• 1. the use of fossil fuel

• 2. rampant logging
• 3. pollution
• 4. use of certain chemicals called greenhouse gases

❖ Climate change refers to rise in average surface temperatures on earth mostly due to the burning of
fossil fuels.

❖ Further described as the consequence of unchecked pollution when carbon emissions caused by
human activity enter the air, their dangerous effects on the environment, the economy and well-being.

The Causes of Climate Change

•burning of fossil fuel such as oil and coal, which releases

greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, causing detrimental
effects on our environment.
-big factories contribute ng ganyan kalaking usok

• environmental practices such as slash and burn or kaingin, and

deforestation.

-left side is slash and burn, particularly in horticultural society is

ito ginagawa kasi wala pa silang enough technology
-right side is deforestation
If may earthquake/malakas na ulan is magkakaroon ng landslide
THE EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE

• steady rise in the earth's average temperature brought about by melting of the ice caps.
-magkakaroon ng pagbaha o flood, kawawa mga bansa na malapit sa south and northpole

-maaring mawala sa mapa ng mundo ilang mga countries

• the warming ocean waters also bring about an increase in strong storms and cyclones.

Addressing the Impact of Climate Change

Sustainable energy resources such as solar power and wind power are considered important solutions
to climate change, and various campaigns have advocated increased use of these energy sources in
place of fossil fuels . Environmental groups are also campaigning for the adoption of government
policies that advocate the use of renewable energy resources and the reduction or even complete
elimination of the use of coal and other fossil fuels. An important aspect and responding to the
challenge of climate change is information and awareness. These days information campaigns using
information technology and media are implemented in many communities to gather and spread
information. Most importantly some countries have already included to discussion of climate change in
their basic education curriculum.

What are the gasses found in the atmosphere?

Earth's atmosphere is composed of about 78 percent nitrogen, 21 percent oxygen, 0.9 percent argon,
and 0.1 percent other gases. Trace amounts of carbon dioxide, methane, water vapor, and neon are
some of the other gases that make up the remaining 0.1 percent.
ETHNIC, RELIGIOUS AND IDEOLOGICAL CONFLICTS

CONFLICT
• according to Max Weber, arises when one person or party intentionally carries out an action or deed
against another party.

-hidwaan and nangyayari ito kapag isang groupo ng tao is may ginawa na against sa isang party.

ETHNIC CONFLICTS

• conflicts brought about by issues of identity and ethnicity.

-tribo nila Whang-od sa Buscalan, need nila makipaglaban para mapalawak yung tribu, kapag nagkasagupa is
patayan, and sa kanila is dapat maputulan nila ng ulo and pagnakauwi ka na may dala. Tinatawag itong head
hunt. Di na ito ginagawa ngayon kasi nag stay na sila sa kung saan sila nakatira ngayon.

RELIGIOUS CONFLICTS

• are brought about by religious differences.

IDEOLOGICAL CONFLICTS

• are brought about by disparities in certain beliefs views.

NEGATIVE PEACE

• is a term used to refer to the absence of direct violence after a war.

-negative dahil nagkaroon na ng kaguluhan bago pa matapos yung violence o pang aabuso at may mga
taong namatay o tirahan na hindi na safe.

PEACE MAKING ACTIVITIES

• refer to the negotiation of a peace agreement between conflicting parties, often mediated by third-
party negotiators.

-sa school di maiwasan na may nag away, ang magiging negotiator is teacher or uidance councilor

China vs. Philippines and the negotiator is U.S.A

PEACE KEEPING ACTIVITIES

• refer to the preservation of a peace efforts through the involvement of civilian monitoring teams and
military peacekeeping forces.

PEACE BUILDING ACTIVITIES

• refer to the rebuilding of economic and social infrastructures that will sustain the peace efforts.
-ito naman ay muling pagpaatayo ng mga iba’t ibang infrastructures na magagamit sa economy and
society. This is mostly ginagawa kapag may war and need ito iparebuild/tayo uli.
-Peace Making, kepping and building is positive piece kasi nag usap lang sila and pinanatuili kapayapaan
and revealed ang data ireveal sa society.

POSITIVE PEACE
• is aim by peacemaking, peacekeeping and peacebuilding activities to resolve the structural causes of
conflicts

INTERNAL CONFLICTS

• conflict within countries.

MIGRATION

• is the movement of people from one place to another for the purpose of temporary or permanent
residence.

-paglipat ng isang tao sa lugar sa ibang lugar, can be temporary or for real

EMIGRATION

• also called as out-migration refers to the movement of people out of their own native country.

Paglipat mula sa orihinal na bansa.

IMMIGRATION

• refers to the movement of people into a country that is not their native land

-example is foreighners, the are called immigrants

INTERNAL MIGRATION

• refers to the movement of people within their own country, and involves transferring from city or
locality to another.

-dito sa pilipinos lang lumaban lang, lonely asf

PERMANENT MIGRANTS

• are those who have acquired residency or citizenship.

-permante is doon na mahlalaki niyo

TEMPORARY MIGRANTS

• are those who stay abroad for employment and have a work visa facilitated by their employer.

-nagounta sila dun to work and fouth

IRREGULAR MIGRANTS

• are those who do not possess legal documents but continue to stay in a foreign country because they
need to work.

-kababayan na tapos na iyun mga tover na to then

REFUGEES

• are migrants who forced to move into another country because they were displaced by wars, political
persecution, or natural disaster.