TYPES OF INQUIRIES

NORMATIVE INQUIRY (based on values)

It seeks to identify and justify the morally-desirable norms or standards that should guide individuals and groups. It also has the
theoretical goal of justifying particular moral judgments.

CONCEPTUAL INQUIRY : It is directed to clarify the concepts, principles and issues in applying morals and ethics.

FACTUAL INQUIRY: Also known as ‘descriptive or explorative’ inquiry, it is aimed to obtain facts needed for understanding and resolving
moral issues. Researchers conduct factual inquiries using mathematical or statistical techniques. The inquiry provide important
information on business realities, the procedures used, and the psychological profiles of managers.

MORAL DILEMMA: Moral dilemmas are situations in which two or more moral obligations, duties, rights, goods, or ideals come into
conflict with each other.The crucial feature of a moral dilemma is that all the moral principles cannot be fully respected in a given
situation.

STEPS IN CONFRONTING/ SOLVING MORAL DILEMMA:

Identification of all pertinent moral factors and reasons. It involves addressing solutions for conflicting responsibilities, opposing rights,
incompatible ideals involved. Collection of all information, data, and facts (factual inquiry) relevant to the situation. Rank the moral
options i.e., priority in application through value system, and also as obligatory, all right, acceptable, not acceptable, damaging, and
most damaging etc. Generate alternate courses of action to resolve the dilemma. Write down the main options and sub-options as a
matrix or decision tree to ensure that all options are included.Discuss with colleagues and obtain their perspectives, priorities, and
suggestions on various alternatives.Decide upon a final course of action, based on priority fixed or assumed.

MORAL AUTONOMY: Moral autonomy is defined as a skill and habit of thinking rationally about the ethical issues, on the basis of
moral concern.Autonomous people hold moral beliefs and attitudes based on their critical reflection rather than on passive adoption of
the conventions of the society or profession.

SKILLS TO IMPROVE MORAL AUTONOMY

Proficiency in recognizing moral problems and ability to distinguish as well as relate them to problems in law, economics, and
religion.Skill in comprehending, clarifying and critically assessing arguments on opposing sides of moral issues.Ability to form consistent
and comprehensive view points based on facts.Awareness of alternate responses to the issues and creative solutions for practical
difficulties.Sensitivity to genuine difficulties and subtletiesUsing rational dialogue in resolving moral conflicts and developing tolerance
of different perspectives among morally reasonable people, and Maintaining moral integrity.

KOHLBERG’S THEORY:

Level 1: PRECONVENTIONAL MORALITY 0-9 YEARS

Stage 1 - Obedience and Punishment Orientation

Especially common in young children, but adults are capable of expressing this type of reasoning. At this stage, children see rules as
fixed and absolute. Obeys rules in order to avoid punishment Determines a sense of right and wrong by what is punished and what is
not punished Obeys superior authority and allows that authority to make the rules, especially if that authority has the power to inflict
pain

Stage 2 – Self Interest Orientation

At this stage of moral development, children account for individual points of view and judge actions based on how they serve individual
needs. Reciprocity is possible, but only if it serves one's own interests. Is motivated by vengeance or “an eye for an eye” philosophy
Believes in equal sharing in that everyone gets the same, regardless of need Expects to be rewarded for every non-selfish deed he/she
does

LEVEL 2: CONVENTIONAL MORALITY 10-20 YEARS:

Stage 3 - "Good Boy-Good Girl" Orientation

This stage is focused on living up to social expectations and roles. There is an emphasis on conformity, being "nice," and consideration
of how choices influence relationships. Finds peer approval very importantFeels that intentions are as important as deeds and expects
others to accept intentions or promises in place of deeds

Stage 4 – Authority and Social Order Orientation

At this stage of moral development, people begin to consider society as a whole when making judgments. The focus is on maintaining
law and order by following the rules, doing one’s duty, and respecting authority.Respects authority and obeys it without question
Supports the rights of the majority without concern for those in the minority about 80% of the population that does not progress past
stage 4.
LEVEL 3: POST CONVENTIONAL MORALITY – 20+:

Stage 5 - Social Contract and Individual Rights Orientation

At this stage, people begin to account for the differing values, opinions, and beliefs of other people. Rules of law are important for
maintaining a society, but members of the society should agree upon these standards. Is motivated by the belief in the greatest amount
of good for the greatest number of people Believes in consensus (everyone agrees), rather than in majority rule Respects the rights of
the minority especially the rights of the individual

Stage 6 – Universal Ethical Principles Orientation

Kohlberg's final level is based upon universal ethical principles and abstract reasoning. At this stage, people follow these internalized
principles of justice, even if they conflict with laws and rules. Believes that there are high moral principles than those represented by
social rules and customs Is willing to accept the consequences for disobedience of the social rule he/she has rejected

CAROL GILLIGAN THEORY:

Carol Gilligan, a former student and colleague of Kohlberg, criticized Kohlberg’s theory as male biased. She charged that Kohlberg’s
studies were concluded with male samples only and also his approach is dominated by a typical preoccupation with general rules and
rights. According to Gilligan, males have tendency to over-ride the importance of moral rules and convictions while resolving moral
dilemmas; whereas females have tendency to try hard to preserve personal relationships with all people involved in a situation.

GILLIGAN’S LEVELS OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT:

Pre Conventional

-Person only cares for themselves in order to ensure survival-This is how everyone is as children In this transitional phase, the person's
attitude is considered selfish, and the person sees the connection betweenthemselves and others.

Conventional-Responsibility-More care shown for other people.-Gilligan says this is shown in the role of Mother & Wife -Situation
sometimes carries on to ignoring needs of self. In this transitional phase, tensions between responsibility of caring for others and caring
for self are faced.

Post Conventional -Acceptance of the principle of care for self and others is shown.-Some people never reach this level.

ETHICAL THEROY: A framework of rules and principles by which we can disoneuisn mendrom wrong. or cood from Dad. using reason. •
can be used to explain why someone thinks that somechings nent or Wrone. • Can be used to justify actions. can be appled to exalusse
the actions of individuals and firms.

Types of Ethical Theories:

Consequentialist/ Teleological theories (primarily concerned with the ethical consequences of particular actions)

Non-consequentialist/ Deontological theories (broadly concerned with duties and obligations in any given situation)

Agent-centered theories (more concerned with the overall ethical virtues/ status of a person)

Theories of Ethical Action:

Deontological (action-oriented ) approach- Under this approach an ethical standard consistent with the fact that it is performed by a
rational and free spirit of a person. The fundamental moral rights justify the action to be taken.

Teleological (result- oriented) approach- The moral character of actions depends on simple practical reasoning of which actions actually
help or hurt others. So, actions which produce more benefits are considered right.

Consequentialist Theories:

The Egoistic/Self Interest Approach Proposed by: Thrasymacus (c. 459-400 BCE), Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679), Ayn Rand (1905-1982)

Also known as Ethical Egoism, or the ethics of Self- Interest: The view that morality coincides with the self-interest of an individual or
an organization.The theory of ethical egoism justifies that human beings are essentially selfish. According to egoism we care for others
because it is in our best interest. An action is morally right if it promotes one’s long-term interest. An action is morally wrong if it
undermines it.Eg- providing more facilities does not mean you care about them but you want them to be more productive

Objections to Egoism:

The theory is not sound: The doctrine of psychological egoism is false – not all human acts are selfish by nature, and some are truly
altruistic/ unselfish. Egoism is not a moral theory at all: Egoism misses the whole point of morality, which is to restrain our selfish
desires for the sake of peaceful coexistence with others.Egoism ignores blatant wrongs: All patently wrong actions are morally neutral
unless they conflict with one’s advantage.
Utilitarianism Approach

Consequentialist Theories: This theory says that an action or decision is right if it maximizes the overall benefit of for good of
maximum no. of people.“Ends justify the Means”It asserts that any act which has better consequence is considered moral.We should
act in ways that produce the greater good or happiness for the greatest number of people affected by our actions.The principle of
utility: Actions are morally praiseworthy if they promote the greatest human welfare, and blameworthy if they do not

Four Theses/ Forms of Utilitarianism:

Consequentialism: The rightness of actions is determined solely by their consequences.

Hedonism: Utility is the degree to which an act produces pleasure. Hedonism is the thesis that pleasure or happiness is the highest
good that all individuals aim to get it in life.

Maximalism: A right action should produce maximum good consequences and the least bad consequences.

Universalism: Those consequences are to be considered where everyone is affected, and everyone is equally affected.

Two types of utilirizam:

Act: Act: An Action is right if and only if it produces the greatest balance of pleasure over pain for the greatest number.
(JeremyBentham)

Rule: Rule: An action is right if and only if it conforms to a set of rules the general acceptance of which would produce the greatest
balance of pleasure over pain for the greatest number.(John Stuart Mill)

Agent-centered Theories:

Argues that ethical actions should be consistent with ideal human virtues.

Aristotle: ethics should be concerned with the whole of a person’s life, not with the individual discrete actions a person may perform in
any given situation. Approach prominent in non-Western contexts, especially in East Asia (Confucius (551-479 BCE): to act virtuously (in
an appropriate manner)

Aristotle’s theory of the ‘Golden Mean’

Aristotle, defined virtue as a character trait that manifests itself in habitual action. Honesty, for example, cannot consist in telling the
truth once; it is rather the trait of a person who tells the truth as a general practice.According to his theory, the virtue of wisdom or
good judgement is highly essential for accomplishing the rational activities. The focus is on finding the ‘Golden Mean’ between the
extremes of excess (i.e., too much) and deficiency (i.e., too little).

Example: Courage is the ‘Golden mean’ between the two extreme moral grounds foolhardiness (the excess of rashness) and
cowardice (the deficiency of self control).That is, according to Aristotle, one should be courageous but should not go to the extremes of
being violent or coward

Use of Ethical Theories: Ethical theories aid in identifying the moral considerations or reasons that constitute a dilemma. They
sometimes, offer ways to rank the relevant moral considerations in order of importance and provide a rough guidance in solving moral
problems.The theories augment the precision with which we use moral terms and they provide frame works for moral reasoning when
discussing moral issues with colleagues.

Custom and Religion:

Relativism :Distinction between ‘morals’ (‘treatment of others’) and ‘mores’ (‘harmless customs’)

Cultural Relativism:Different cultures have ideas about ethical behavior

Moral (ethical) Relativism What is “really right or wrong” is completely determined by the culture and society in which a person lives

Value

Humans have the unique ability to define their identity, choose their values and establish

their beliefs.• Values are our basic and fundamental beliefs that guide or influences our attitudes, behavior and actions• They help us
to determine what is important (worthy) to us.• Values describe the personal qualities we have that guide our actions: the sort of
person we want to be: the manner in which we treat ourselves and others, and our interaction with the world around us • They provide
the general guidelines for conduct.

MORAL:• Morals are the principles of good and bad. which govern an individual's behavior and choices.• Individual's morals may be
derived from society, government, religion, or self.
Ethics: Ethics is concerned with what is good for individuals and society. The term is derived from the Greek word ethos which can
mean custom, habit, character or disposition. Through ethics, a standard is set to regulate an individual's behavior. This helps people to
distinguish between the wrong and the right.

Value education :Value education enables us to understand our needs and visualize our goals correctly and also indicate the direction
of their fulfilment. All the human being continuously aspire for a happy life, a fulfilling and successful life and the purpose of education
is to provide adequate competence to actualize this aspiration.

Need for Value Education:

Correct identification of our aspirations: Value education (VE) enables us to understand our needs and visualize our goals correctly and
also indicate the direction for their fulfilment. It also helps to remove our confusions and contradictions and bring harmony at all levels.

• Understanding universal human values to fulfill our aspirations in continuity: We need to understand the universality of various
human values. because only then we can have a definite and common program for value education. Then only we can be assured of a
happy and harmonious human society.

• Comolementarity or values and skills: To fulfill our aspirations both values and skills are necessary. When we identify and set the right
goals. produced in right direction, it is known as value domain. When we learn and practice techniques to actualize this goal in real life.
it is known as domain of skills. Hence. there is an essential complementarity between values and skills for the success of any goals.

• Evaluation of our beliefs: Each one of us believes in certain things and we base our values on these beliefs, which may or may not be
true in reality. These believes come to us from what we read, see, hear, what our parents tells us, our friends talk about. what the
magazines talk of, what we see around. Value Education helps us to evaluate our beliefs and assumed values.

• Technology and human values: The present education system's prime emphasis is on science and technology. However. science and
technology can only help to provide the means to achieve what is considered valuable. It is not within the scope of science and
technology to provide the competence of deciding what really is valuable. Value Education becomes important to rationalize the
decisions so that our efforts does not lead to counterproductive and serious threats at the individual, societal and environmental level.

Self-Exploration

• Process used for value education is self- exploration• Self-Exploration is the process of finding out what is valuable to one by
investigating within oneself. • Exploration = Observing Outside • Self-Exploration = Observing Inside

INTEGRITY

• Integrity is defined as the unity of thought, word and deed" open-mindedness •It includes the capacity to communicate the factual
information so that others can make well-informed decisions • It enthuse people not only to execute a job well but to achieve
excellence in performance • It helps them to own the responsibility and earn self-respect and recognition by doing the job

CIVIC VIRTUES

Virtues

- Are positive and preferred values are desirable attitudes or character traits, motives and emotions that enable us to be successful and
to act in ways that develop our highest potential Civic virtues -are the moral duties and rights, as a citizen of the society . An individual
may exhibit civic virtues by voting, volunteering, and organizing welfare groups .

RESPECT FOR OTHERS

This is a basic requirement for nurturing friendship, team work, and for the synergy it promotes and sustains. The principles enunciated
in this regard are:

1. Recognize and accept the existence of other persons as human beings, because they have a right to live, just as you have.

2. Respect others' ideas, words, and labor.

3. Appreciate colleagues and subordinates on their positive actions. Criticize constructively and encourage them.

4. Show 'goodwill on others. This will facilitate colinearity, focus, coherence, and strength to achieve the goals.

EMPATHY

• Empathy is sensing what others feel about, without their open talk.

• Empathy begins with showing concern, and then obtaining and understanding the feelings of others, from others' point of view.

Benefits of Empathy:

Good customer relationship 2. Harmonious labor relations 3. Good vendor-producer relationship

SPIRITUALITY

Spirituality is a way of living that emphasizes the constant awareness and recognition of the spiritual dimension of nature and people,
with a dynamic balance between the material development and the spiritual development. Spirituality includes creativity,
communication, recognition of the individual as human being, respect to others, acceptance, vision Spirituality is motivation as it
encourages the colleagues to perform better.Tolerance and empathy are the reflections of spirituality.

Spirituality at Workplace:

• Verbally respect the individuals as humans and recognize their values in all decisions and actions. • Get to know the people with
whom you work and know what is important to them.• Know their goals, desires, and dreams too.• State your personal ethics and your
beliefs clearly.• Support causes outside the business.• Encourage leaders to use value-based discretion in making decisions.•
Demonstrate your own self-knowledge and spirituality in all your actions.• Do unto others as you would have them do unto you.