A SEMINAR PAPER ON

THE CLASH OF RELIGION IN ASIA: CHRISTIAN, ZORAOASTRIAN AND MANICHEAN

Submitted to: Rev. Dr. Rajeevan M Thomas
Submitted by: Justin George, MTh 1 HC
Subject: History of Christianity in Asia
1.1 Introduction
Asia saw the rise of several religions. We can see a Christian, Zoroastrian, and Manichean religious
background in Asia. Asia's prehistoric religion was zoroastrianism. Following the growth of many religions
including Christianity, Islam, and Manichaeism, there was a battle between these religions, which led to the
persecution of other faiths. From the sixth century B.C. until the twentieth century A.D., a string of dynasties
with their capital in present-day Iran were collectively known as the Persian Empire. In the Persian Empire,
there were two dynasties: Parthian and Sassanid. These two dynasties were crucial to the spread of
Christianity throughout Asia. The period saw both acceptance and rejection. Both happiness and affliction
prevailed at that period. In this seminar paper, I'll try to explain how the religions emerged and had clash
with their teachings under the dynasties.
1.2 Religious Background of Asia
Asia, the vast landmass stretching from the Mediterranean to the Pacific, is home to roughly three-quarters
of the world's current population. The roots of today's great civilizations can be found in Asia. The world's
major religions and philosophical traditions originated here: Hinduism, Buddhism, Confucianism, East of the
Euphrates: Early Christianity in Asia, Jewish, Christian, and Islam.1
Asia is the birthplace of many major religions and hundreds of minor ones. Like all forms of culture, Asian
religions may be considered geographically in terms of both their places of origin and their distribution.
Beginning centuries ago, many world religions followed a similar pattern of growth and dissemination from
west to east along the trans-Asian trade route known as the Silk Road. Buddhism, Christianity, Manichaeism
and Islam were transmitted mainly by traveling merchants and missionaries who joined up with merchant
caravans. As new religious communities arose throughout Asia, their continued existence was ensured
largely by support from these same merchants. Thus, the relationship of religious traditions to traders was
one of dependence; historically speaking, the very idea of world religion is inextricably connected to long-
distance commercial activity.2
Hinduism, with a polytheistic and ritual tradition comprising numerous cults and sects, is the oldest of
several religions that originated in South Asia. It remains a unifying force of Indian culture and the social
caste system which Hindu tradition sees as a reflection of the relative spiritual purity of reincarnated souls.
Jainism and Buddhism emerged in reaction to prevailing Hindu practices in the 6th and 5th centuries BCE,
respectively. Although Jainism never spread significantly beyond two present-day states of north-
western India, its principles of nonviolence and asceticism have deeply influenced Indian thought.
Buddhism arose in north-eastern India as a “universal” alternative to hierarchical religion, offering nirvana,
or enlightenment, to individuals regardless of culture or social station. In the centuries following its
foundation, Buddhism gave rise to two main divergent schools: Theravada, which claimed
orthodox adherence to the teachings of the religion’s founder, the Buddha, and Mahayana, which held its
teachings to be the fullest account of the Buddha’s message. Southwest Asia (the Middle East) is the cradle
of three great monotheistic systems: Judaism and its offshoots Christianity and Islam.3
In his book The Hidden History of Christianity in Asia, John C. England, a New Zealand church historian,
correctly points out that only a few churches in the region have retained a strong sense that their history
began in the early Christian era. Then he says: “Christianity can be considered an ancient Asian religion not
only because of its origins in west Asian cultures and in the life of a Palestinian Jew, nor because of the

1
http://www.religion-online.org/cgi-bin/relsearchd.dll/showchapter?chapter_id=1360 (1 of 11) access on 17/9/2022
2
https://ccnmtl.columbia.edu/services/dropoff/china_civ_temp/week06/pdfs/religi.pdf, accessed on 17/9/2022.
3
https://www.britannica.com/place/Asia/Religion,accessed on 17/9/2022.
Asian form of its foundation scriptures, but also because of its long and diverse presence throughout central,
south, southeast, and north-east Asian countries”.4
1.3 Persian empire and the Historical Background of Persia
The Persian Empire was a collection of dynasties centered in modern-day Iran that lasted several centuries,
from the 6th century B.C. to the 20th century A.D. The Achaemenid Empire was the first (549-330 B.C.). This
period is also known as Persia's golden age. The second empire was actually Greek, as it was ruled by
Alexander the Great's heirs. The Seleucid Empire was at the time (312-238 B.C.). Western culture had
spread throughout Asia. Greek military colonies existed in Edessa (today's Urfa in Turkey) and Ecbatana.
For the early Christian advance eastward, this Greek connection may have been as important as the Jewish
one. Asian Christianity (the Church of the East) began to develop separately from Western Christianity
under the Parthians (63 B.C. – 226 A.D.), who returned Persia to its Asian origins. The Sassanian Empire
came after the Parthian Empire. The duration would be about 400 years. It would be the final Persian Empire
before the birth of Islam and would greatly increase the area under Persia's authority. After the Sassanian
Empire came the Safavid Dynasty (1501–1736). The Sassanian Empire was overthrown in just five years at
the middle of the seventh century. Invading Muslim troops managed to overthrow the empire in 651 CE by
taking advantage of the empire's already-present weakness. This led to the start of a radical shift in Persian
history and culture. Islam replaced Zoroastrianism as the leading religion at the period when it started to
decline.
The Qajar Dynasty (1789-1925) is considered Persia's final dynasty. Its downfall correlates with the
outbreak of World War II, and pressures from both foreign and domestic sources forced it to accept a
constitutional monarchy for the final 20 years of its reign. The Qajar Dynasty is credited with Iran's
"modernization." In 1851, they established Iran's and the Middle East's first university, the Dar ul-Funun in
Tehran. The Qajar Dynasty's most distinguishing feature was its submission to foreign powers.
1.4 Socio political background of Persia.
At its peak, the Persian Empire (c. 550-330 BCE) stretched from India to Libya, Armenia to Arabia, uniting
the entire Near East for the first time in history under the rule of a single Great King. Many of Persia's
subject areas had long-standing indigenous kingship traditions, but these were either abolished or adapted to
fit the new framework of universal Persian rule. People in the ancient Near East interacted with kingship in
the Persian Empire in a variety of ways that carried more implications than simple political allegiance or
rebellion. It is crucial to understand how they remembered and reshaped their own indigenous traditions in
response to these experiences. This is a topic that is relevant to Rome, Egypt, Babylonia, Israel, and Iran, as
well as periods ranging from the Empire's founding to the post-Seleucid era. Kingship is as much a cultural
and social institution as it is a political one. In practise, this means that any interactions between rulers and
the ruled must always negotiate historical and cultural legacies as well as realpolitik expediencies. As a
result, any assessment of the impact of a political system in this case, the Persian kings' requires an
understanding of previous systems as well as the resulting legacy among subsequent systems.5
The anthropological concept of political memory can help to provide a framework for these questions about
Persian kingship. Halbwachs is often credited with developing the concept of collective memory as a
sociological concept, as he closely linked group identity and collective memory. More recent approaches to
collective memory, dubbed dynamics of memory by Misztal, emphasise the complex interactions between
historical events, power ideologies, and social values represented in memory. This means that the needs of
the present shape the past, but within the constraints of historical givens and a variety of social realities.
Thus, for studies of the Achaemenid Empire, social memory provides a lens through which to view long-
term, dynamic interactions between the ancient cultures of the Ancient Near East and their Persian overlords.
These are not limited to issues of "ethnicity" or instrumental politics (both of which are important), but also
to the shaping of social values and worldviews, both present and possible politics. Furthermore, Ricoeur's
distinction between memories of singular events and those that are "paradigmatic" is particularly useful.6

4
John C. England and Archee Lee (ed); Doing Theology with Asian Resources, ( New Zealand: Pace Publishing, 1993),129.
5
Jason M. Silverman and Caroline Waerzeggers (eds), Political Memory in and after the Persian Empire (Atlanta: SBL Press, 2015),
1-5.
6
https://www.sbl-site.org/assets/pdfs/pubs/062813P-front.pdf Accesses on 10/8/22.
1.5 Religious Tradition of Persia
In the ancient world, most cultures followed a polytheistic religion, or one featuring several deities. Around
600 BCE, a Persian prophet named Zoroaster began preaching a new ideology, based around a single god
called Ahura Mazda. His teachings were contained in a series of poems called the Gathas and later the sacred
book called the Avesta. Earthly life, in the view of Zoroaster and the religion he founded known as
Zoroastrianism, was characterised by an ongoing conflict between good and evil. All persons experienced
suffering, which served to better prepare them for life after this one. Humans would have to make a final
decision between good and evil in the hereafter. In the end, good would prevail over evil. Ahura Mazda, who
represented kindness and wisdom in its purest form, kept watch over this last judgement as well as the
entirety of the earth. If you recognise these themes, it's because some academics feel that the Zoroastrians
affected the ancient Hebrews and their conceptions of faith. The official religion of the Persian Empire was
Zoroastrianism, which was widely followed by the Persian populace. It wasn't the only religion practised in
the empire, either. The Persians had a considerably more liberal stance than the Mesopotamian and Egyptian
empires, which forced captured populations to accept their own religions. Conquered peoples were free to
follow their own religions as long as they paid their taxes and acknowledged Persian rule. Even local
temples that had been damaged during battles to conquer a city were rebuilt by the Persian monarchs. It was
the world's first system of religious acceptance.7
1.6 Zoroastrianism
Zoroastrianism was founded by Zarathustra (Zoroaster in Greek) in Persia between 1500-1200BCE. There
are several thousand Zoroastrians still in the old country, Iran but most Zoroastrians are now concentrated in
India. There are also significant numbers of adherents in Canada and the USA, but London has the largest
Zoroastrian community of any city outside the old country about 5,000. 8 Zoroastrianism has been called the
“world’s oldest revealed religion.” The religion derives its title from the Iranian philosopher/poet/priest,
Zarathustra, who is often referred to by the Greek version of his name - “Zoroaster.”9
1.6.1 Origin and Development of Zoroastrianism
An ancient Persian religion known as Zoroastrianism may have started as early as 4,000 years ago. It's one
of the oldest still-practicing religions and is thought to be the earliest monotheistic faith in the world. Until
the Muslim conquest of Persia in the 7th century A.D., Zoroastrianism was the official religion of three
Persian dynasties. Parsis, or Zoroastrian refugees, left Iran to avoid persecution at the hands of Muslims.
Today, Zoroastrianism is a minority religion in some parts of Iran and India, with an estimated 100,000–
200,000 believers worldwide.10
1.6.2 Zoroaster
The world's oldest monotheistic religion, Zoroastrianism, is thought to have been founded by the prophet
Zoroaster (Zarathrustra in ancient Persian). The Avesta, a collection of Zoroastrian sacred texts, is where
most information on Zoroaster is found. When Zoroaster may have lived is uncertain.
Some scholars believe that he lived during the reign of Cyrus the Great, a ruler of the Persian Empire in the
sixth century B.C., however the majority of linguistic and archaeological evidence suggests that he lived
between 1500 and 1200 B.C. It is believed that Zoroaster was born in either south western Afghanistan or
what is now north-eastern Iran. He might have been a member of a tribe that practiced a pagan religion with
numerous gods (polytheism). This religion was probably related to early Hinduism. Zoroastrian history holds
that around the age of 30, Zoroaster participated in a pagan purifying ritual and experienced a divine vision
of a superior entity. Zoroaster started instructing his followers to worship Ahura Mazda as their only god.11

7
https://study.com/academy/lesson/the-persian-empire-religion-social-structure.html . Accesses on 10/8/22.
8
https://www.reonline.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/Zoroastrianism.pdf accesses on 10/8/2022.
9
https://dallasinstitute.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/Zoroastrianism-Introduction.pdf accesses on 10/8/22.
10
John Waterhouse, Zoroastrianism (California: The Book Tree, 2006), 111.
11
Eric H. Cline and Sarolta Anna Takacs, eds., The Ancient World, Volumes 1-5 (London: Routledge, 2015), 438.
1.6.3 Zoroastrian Symbols
An old representation of the Zoroastrian religion is the Faravahar. It shows a bearded man extending forward
with one hand. He is positioned over a pair of wings that extend from an eternal circle. Another significant
emblem of Zoroastrianism is fire, which is associated with light, warmth, and purification. The evergreen
cypress tree is seen by some Zoroastrians as a representation of perpetual life.12
1.6.4 Zoroastrian Beliefs
Zoroastrian adherents respect and believe in the Avesta's sacred writings. It includes the Gathas, Yasna,
Pahlavi Scriptures, and the Videvdat in addition to Zoroaster's hymns. The Avesta is similar to the Bible in
that it is made up of numerous volumes that were written over a long period of time. According to
Zoroastrianism, there is one God who is made up of six Amesha Spentas. The one and only God to be
worshipped is Ahura Mazda (later known as Ohrmazd), however Ahura Mazda has holy immortals or
Angels who carry out his orders. Together with Ahura Mazda, these six immortals form the Heptad, also
referred to as the Seven Amesha-Spenta in Zoroastrianism literature. According to Zoroastrianism, Angra
Mainyu is an evil demon that tries to prevent creatures from obeying Ahura Mazda.
Zoroastrianism adheres to ritualistic traditions involving prayer and fire but does not conduct animal
sacrifices, possibly because Zoroaster believed cows to be sacred or too valuable for economic purposes.
According to Zoroastrianism, after someone passes away, the scales evaluate their deeds. One is sent to hell
if their bad deeds outweigh their good. According to Zoroastrianism, the world will end and three prophets,
Aushetar, Aushetarmah, and Saoshyant, will manifest in the future. A cosmic flood of molten metal signals
the end of the planet.
However, evil people will experience all the suffering and pain shown in the image, both on earth and in
hell. The interesting thing is that in the end everyone gets cleansed of all wickedness, which portrays a
picture of universalism, and in the end all will be brought back to purity. Zoroastrianism holds that handling
a dead body might make one impure. They still don't conduct burials; instead, they mount the bodies so that
scavengers may get rid of them.13
1.6.5 Ahura Mazda as the creator
Creation is a free act of Ahura Mazda's almighty goodness. He first had the idea to cover the heavenly realm
in light when he was living in the height of self-sufficiency. Darkness preexisted when he created light
because it casts a shadow on it. He is the originator and father of Geush Tashan, Vohu Manah, Asha,
Khshathra, Armaiti, Haurvatat, and Ameretat, as well as Khshathra. He created both the universe and the
joyful cattle. He prevents the firmament and the earth from collapsing. He set the sun and star paths and
caused the moon to wax and wane. Swiftness was yoked to the wind and the clouds. He spread light
throughout the heavenly spheres. He was the one who created morning, noon, and night. He gave life to
plants, wine, and waters. He gave life to human bodies, created their spirits, and gave them the capacity for
free will. He made the father and son fall in love. He created both slumber and awakeness. He is the gracious
giver of blessings to humanity. He has predetermined both good and bad.14
1.6.6 Zarathushtra’s Mission
Revolutionaries are prophets, and Zarathushtra was the first. He realised that the world was flawed and that
its flaws and injustices were severe. He was Ahura Mazda's messenger, the weak's refuge, the suffering's
consolation, humanity's ray of hope, and the world's regenerator. He brought the good news of the arrival of
the Kingdom of Righteousness to the miserable world.15
1.7 Manicheanism
Manicheanism was a gnostic religious movement founded by Mani, an Iranian religious figure who believed
that he had received divine instruction from a spiritual “Twin.” The Twin revealed to him “the mystery of
light and of darkness” and “the battle which darkness stirred up” when its demons attempted to invade the
12
John Waterhouse, Zoroastrianism…, 66.
13
Mary Boyce, Zoroastrians: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices (London: Routledge, 2003), 3.
14
Mary Boyce, Zoroastrians: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices…., 19.
15
Jenny Rose, Zoroastrianism: An Introduction (London: I.B. Tauris, 2012), 15.
kingdom of light and entrapped light particles in material bodies. In 240, the Twin commanded him to
become the apostle of a new religion and church.16
Manichaeism, a basically Gnostic religion founded by Mani, was widespread in antiquity. In Iran, this
religion made extensive use of Zoroastrian motifs in order to appear to be a genuine Iranian religion. This
resulted in both intensive interaction between Manichaeism and other Iranian religions, which stimulated
some aspects of those religions, and severe persecution of both Manichaeans and other Iranian religions.
1.7.1 Origin
Manichaeism arose in Persia in the middle of the 3rd century. Like other early heresies, such as Gnosticism,
it taught that the physical world was inherently evil and that salvation is obtained primarily through
knowledge. The religion was founded in the third century CE by Mani, who reportedly was born in western
Persia and lived approximately 210–276 CE. The name Mani is mainly a title and term of respect rather than
a personal name. This title was assumed by the founder himself and so completely replaced his personal
name that the precise form of the latter is not known. Mani’s holy book was called Arzhang and was
beautified with paintings. This gave him the title “The Painter”.
Mani was likely influenced by the existing Mandaean Gnosticism of his day. According to biographical
accounts preserved by Ibn al-Nadim and al-Biruni, Mani received a revelation as a youth from a spirit,
whom he would later call his Twin, his Syzygos, his Double, his Protective Angel or ‘Divine Self’. This
spirit allegedly taught him divine truths which developed into the Manichean religion. His ‘divine’ Twin or
true Self brought Mani to Self-realization and as such he becomes a gnosticus, someone with divine
knowledge and a liberating insight into things. He claimed to be the Paraclete of the Truth, as promised in
the New Testament: The Last Prophet and Seal of the Prophets that finalized a succession of men guided by
God and included figures such as Zoroaster, Hermes, Plato, Buddha, and Jesus.17
1.7.2 Theology
The most striking principle of Manichee theology is its dualism, a theme collected from the Persian religion
of Zoroastrianism. Mani postulated two natures that existed from the beginning: light and darkness. The
realm of light lived in peace, while the realm of darkness was in constant conflict with itself. The universe is
the temporary result of an attack of the realm of darkness on the realm of light, and was created by the
Living Spirit, an emanation of the light realm, out of the mixture of light and darkness.
The Manichees made every effort to include all known religious traditions in their faith. As a result, they
preserved many apocryphal Christian works, such as the Acts of Thomas, that otherwise would have been
lost. Mani was eager to describe himself as a “disciple of Jesus Christ”, but the early Christian church
rejected him as a heretic. Mani declared himself, and was also referred to, as the Paraclete: A Biblical title,
meaning “comforter” or “helper”, which the Catholic Church understands as referring to God the Holy
Spirit. Certain Muslim writers claimed it is a prophecy of Jesus regarding Muhammad.
A key belief in Manicheanism is that there is no omnipotent good power. This claim addresses a theoretical
part of the problem of evil by denying the infinite perfection of God and postulating the two equal and
opposite powers mentioned previously. The human person is seen as a battleground for these powers: the
good part is the soul (which is composed of light) and the bad part is the body (composed of dark earth). The
soul defines the person and is incorruptible, but it is under the domination of a foreign power, which
addressed the practical part of the problem of evil. A human is said to be able to be saved from this power
(matter) if they come to know who they are and identify themselves with their soul.18
1.7.3 Common Features with other Religions
Manichaeism has far more in common with faiths such as Zoroastrianism than with Christian theology.
Other than certain words and phrases, there is little connection between the Bible and the teachings of Mani.
As a result, Manichaeism was much more successful in the East. As paganism faded out, it was replaced
mostly by Christianity in the West. Manichaeism, briefly, was the primary competitor to the Christian

16
Michel Tardieu, Manichaeism, translated by M.B. De Bevoise (Chicago: University of Illinois, 1997), 2.
17
Nicholas J Baker-Brian, Manichaeism: An Ancient Faith Rediscovered (New York: T &T Clark, 2011), 15.
18
Nicholas J Baker-Brian, Manichaeism: An Ancient Faith Rediscovered…, 61.
gospel. This was a relatively short era and, within a few centuries, Manichaeism was practically extinct.
Manichaeism’s legacy comes in two primary ways: historical and rhetorical. Some of the earliest Christian
theological works were composed specifically to point out errors and heresies in Manichaeism. In fact, one
of the first major Christian apologists, Augustine, was a convert from Manichaeism. Prior to committing to
Christ, Augustine was part of Manichaeism as a “hearer,” or someone who participated without making any
overt vows toward the faith.19
1.7.4 Mani’s Teachings and its Impact
Mani’s teachings were recounted through his books. Six of the original books were written in Syriac
Aramaic . These original books have since been lost, but not before being widely translated to help spread
the religion of Manichaeism. Translations included Middle Persian, Parthian, Sogdian, Tocharian, Uyghur,
Chinese, Greek, Coptic, and Latin. Manichaeism spread very quickly through the Syriac Aramaic region,
ultimately becoming one of the most widespread religions in the world. Its most prosperous time was
between the third and seventh centuries, before it faded away in the 14th century. It was considered the main
rival to Christianity at one point. To many, Manichaeism was the only true combination of all religions
known at the time; combining Babylonian, Buddhist, Chaldean, Judaic, Christian, Iranian, and Zoroastrian
dualism. With such a combination of religions , it is easy to see how Manichaeism would have appealed to a
great many people. The classic focus on light versus dark is a theme that prevails in many major religions
even today.20
1.7.5 The Spread of Manichaeism
Persecutions of the Manichaeans resulted in a migration of Manichaeans from central Iran to Mesopotamia
and the eastern provinces of the Roman Empire. Other refugees found shelter with the Arab king Amaro of
Hira (end of third to beginning of fourth centuries), who in the last decade of the third century convinced the
Sassanian king Narseh (r. 293–302) to put an end to the persecutions of Manichaeans in Iran. Narseh had
another reason to end the repression of the Manichaeans: when the Roman emperor Diocletian (r. 284–305)
issued an edict against the Manichaeans in 297, Narseh saw a chance to get Manichaean support for his
military agitations against the Romans.
For some years the Manichaeans managed to live calmly, but during the reign of Narseh’s successor
Hormīzd II (r. 302–309), the Zoroastrian priests again voted for the extirpation of the Manichaean creed.
Once again the kingdom of Hira helped many Manichaeans to flee from Iran to the west; others sought
refuge in eastern Iran, spreading Manichaeism along the Silk Road as far as central Asia in the following
centuries. In eastern Iran (present-day Turkmenistan), Manichaeism had been known since the middle of the
third century, due to the missionary efforts of Mar Ammo, and in the early fourth century, refugees could
find shelter there. As a result, Iranian Manichaeism came into intensive contact with Buddhism that spread
westward from the Kushana Empire, thus leading to the further adaptation of Buddhist traditions by
Manichaean missionaries, who partly adapted Buddhist terminology like nirvaṇa or “salvation” for
Manichaean theological ideas.21
1.8 Clash between Zorashtrianism and Manicheanism
Even though Mani spent most of his life establishing his religion in the core area of Iran, from the
early fourth century on, Manichaeism had its centres elsewhere and there are relatively few extant original
Manichaean sources in Iran. From the Denkard, a theological compendium of the Zoroastrians in Middle
Persian language, it is written that during the reign of Shapur II (r. 309–379), the Zoroastrian priest Adurbad
Maraspandan (mid-fourth century) was the main adversary of Manichaeism, and the third book of the
Denkard brings to light Adurbad’s refutation of Mani’s doctrine, opening with the line: “Ten injunctions
which the crippled demon Mani clamoured against those of the restorer of righteousness, Adurbad
Maraspandan.” These refutations showed some differences between Manichaeism and Zoroastrianism,
mainly that the Zoroastrian world view was believed to be much more in agreement with the cosmos and not
as anti-cosmic as Manichaeism. It is probable that this theological refutation of Mani’s religion by an

19
John Kevin Coyle, Manichaeism and Its Legacy (Leiden: Brill, 2009), 283.
20
Jason David Be Duhn and Paul Allan Mirecki, eds., Frontiers of Faith: The Christian Encounter…, 131.
21
Richard Foltz, Religions of the Silk Road (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1999), 66.
important Zoroastrian priest of the time gave an ideological justification for the persecution of Manichaeans
during the mid-fourth century.22
Although the persecution of Manichaeans during the reign of Shapur II seemed to be less fierce than
the persecution of Christians by the same king, there is one interesting Syriac text referring to the martyrdom
of the Christian Aitallah: The Sassanian authorities tried to persuade Aitallah to abstain from his faith by
referring to the example of an imprisoned Manichaean who, after being tortured, had anathemized Mani and
his faith. To prove his abrogation from his former religion, this Manichaean even killed an ant to show that
he no longer followed the Manichaean prohibition of killing any animal. Manichaeans believed that some
part of the divine light was included in every being, thus killing even an ant would harm the divine element
in it. This episode not only highlighted the persecution of Manichaeans in the Sassanian Empire, it also
indicated the attempts to reconvert them to Zoroastrianism. By killing the ant, the (former) Manichaean not
only showed his willingness to break with his former religious behavior, but also acted according to
Zoroastrian behavior: Killing ants and other creatures of this kind, which are Ahreman’s creations bringing
evil to the world, is a religious act to partake as a Zoroastrian in the cosmic battle against Ahreman’s
creations.23
During the fourth century Zoroastrians tried to convince Manichaeans to convert to Zoroastrianism,
even-through pressure. But the Zoroastrian clergy also reacted against the still-practicing Manichaeans in
another way. Several scholars have argued that the appreciation Manichaeans gave to their canonical “holy
books” led to the creation of a written Avesta by the Zoroastrian clergy during the fourth century. This book
was produced to compete with the Manichaean books. In theological disputes, Zoroastrians no longer had to
rely solely on the oral tradition; they now had a book showing that it was not Zoroastrianism that had failed,
but Mani who had falsified the teaching of Zoroaster.
1.9 History of Christianity in Persia
Edessa and Arbela in Parthia were the first Christian centres in the East. While some early traditions identify
Aggai, an Addai disciple, as the first missionary to Parthia, other early traditions credit both Aggai and Mari
Addai, another Addai disciple, as the pioneers of the other gospel in Parthia. Other stories refer to Addai,
Aggai, and Mari as missionaries to Parthia. Another version claims that Mari, an Addai follower, was the
one who preached the gospel in Persia.24 It is unnecessary to find any contradiction with these customs.
There was always a chance that more than one apostle would visit a certain nation. Perhaps all three
travelled to Parthia as missionaries. The fact that Addaeus enlisted people in his ministry is specifically
noted in the book Teaching of Addaeus, The Apostle. In addition, Aggeus, who created the king's silks and
headpieces, as well as Palut, Barshelma, and Barsamya, came to the apostle Addaeus; he received them and
partnered with them in ministry.
According to Moffett Mari was a disciple of Addai, who in turn was a disciple of Thomas. He was sent from
Edessa to Persia, but he pleaded with his home church to let him come back; rather, the church in Edessa
asked him to carry on with his job. In order to evangelise Parthia, he embarked on perilous missionary treks
that nearly carried him to India. It was there, he claimed, "when he smelled the scent of the apostle Thomas,"
that he finally felt he had completed his mission and gone as far as he needed to. According to Robert
Murray, Jews were Adiabene's earliest Christians. According to him, the neighbouring state of Osrhoene,
Adiabene, had a thriving Jewish population that converted many people. The movement culminated in the
conversion of the royal household in the first century.25
1.10 Christianity in the Parthian Era
In the early First century Christianity came to Parthia. Persian Christians sometimes claim that the wise men
(the magi) of the Epiphany were the first Christians. The book of Acts cites that “Parthians, Medes, and
Elamites,” three Persian tribal groups, were present at the founding of the Christian Church on the day of
Pentecost (Acts 2:9). St. John Chrysostom affirmed this view when he taught, “The Incarnate Word on

22
Richard E. Payne, A State of Mixture: Christians, Zoroastrians, and Iranian Political Culture…, 142.
23
Jason David BeDuhn and Paul Allan Mirecki, eds., Frontiers of Faith: The Christian Encounter…, 144.
24
T V Philip, East of the Euphrates: Early Christianity in Asia (Delhi: CSS & ISPCK. 1998)37 .
25
T V Philip, East of the Euphrates: Early Christianity in Asia…,37
coming into the world gave to Persia, in the person of the magi, the first manifestations of His mercy and
light so that the Jews themselves learn from the mouths of Persians of the birth of their Messiah.”26
There were some reasons for the arrival Christians to the Parthian empire. Some Christians probably moved
into the tolerant realm of the Parthian kings, settling just across the Roman frontier, as refugees fleeing
persecution in the Roman Empire (beginning around 68 A.D). Some thers may have come as missionaries
seeking to preach to Jewish communities in the Parthian Empire.27
All of these Christians focused to Edessa as their spiritual home. Edessa had a flourishing Christian
community by the end of the second century. It was under the ecclesiastical control of the Patriarch of
Antioch. The eastern Aramaic dialect of Edessa, perhaps the Aramaic spoken by Jesus, was to become the
primary liturgical language of the Orthodox churches of Persia. Missionary bases were set up in northern
Mesopotamia and a Christian bishop was appointed for the largely Jewish city of Arbela (near the Tigris
River in Iraq) in 104. According to the disputed Chronicles of Arbela, one of the first martyrs of Persian
Christianity was Samson, the bishop of Arbela, who was killed somewhere between 118 and 123 by
Zoroastrian priests who felt threatened by the rapid growth of the church.28
Christians had been allowed by the government to practice their faith freely but were arrested quickly
whenever they began to preach their faith to settled Zoroastrian communities. This was because
Zoroastrianism was seen as the only faith of a true-born Persian and arrests began as early as 170 in the
province of Bactria. A number of early Christian writings, including reflections by Chrysostom and Clement
of Alexandria, reveal an early and vigorous discussion between Christianity and Zoroastrianism. Local
officials, however, did not allow such debates to express themselves in Zoroastrians choosing to convert to
Christianity.
One of the first verifiable histories of Christianity in the region was written by Tatian the Assyrian (110–
180), a zealous ascetic who wrote a synoptic gospel in hopes of stamping out heretical ideas among the
Christians who lived “between the two rivers.”
One Armenian document written by a cleric named Bardaisan, from 196, shows that a Christian community
was in existence “among the Gilanians and Bactrians,” and the apocryphal Acts of Thomas (from the same
era) mentions Christians in the “land of the Kushans.”29
By the year 225, over twenty bishoprics were established throughout the Parthian Empire. Christians in
Persia even established monasteries although they used different titles for monks and nuns than were used
among Greek and Coptic Christians. These Christian parishes were spread out over a wide range of the
Parthian Empire. Dutch archaeologists have uncovered a Christian cemetery on the Persian island of Kharg
which dates to 250 along with about sixty tombs that speak of the remnants of an active Christian church. By
the end of the Parthian Era, Christian churches spread from Edessa to Herat in western Afghanistan.30
1.11 The Sassanian Empire (224 AD-651 AD)
Persian culture flourished under the Sassanians, who made many contributions to the development of the
region. Most specifically, the Sassanians were well known for their art, and paintings, sculptures, and
decorative textiles were commissioned and traded all over the empire. Many scholars consider Sassanian art
to be the predecessor to Muslim art, which would become one of the most well-known styles in all the world
as Islam grew in prominence throughout the 1st millennia .
Part of the success of Persia under the Sassanians was that the Sassanian kings returned to the form of
centralized government implemented by the Achaemenids. Unlike the Parthians, who elected instead to rely
on local kings and rulers to help them enforce their rule, the Sassanians used satraps and appointed
provincial governors directly, using the intricate roads system built throughout Mesopotamia and central
Asia to move troops and give orders about how to best manage the empire. This helped the Sassanians
become far more powerful and therefore far more influential than the Parthians.

26
Christian Van Gorder, Christianity in Persia & the Status of Non-muslims in Iran (UK: Lexington Books. 2010), 24.
27
Christian Van Gorder, Christianity in Persia & the Status of Non-muslims in Iran…25.
28
Christian Van Gorder, Christianity in Persia & the Status of Non-muslims in Iran…25.
29
Christian Van Gorder, Christianity in Persia & the Status of Non-muslims in Iran…26.
30
Christian Van Gorder, Christianity in Persia & the Status of Non-muslims in Iran…26.
1.11.1 Mass Deportation
Christianity, which had first come to Persia during the Parthian Era, continued to flourish under early
Sasanian rule. Whenever Sasanian warriors captured Roman territories in battle, they deported Christians
from conquered lands and resettled them in Persia. The first such mass deportation took place between 256
and 260 at the outset of the reign of King Shapur I. These thousands of Christian prisoners of war originally
came from Antioch. Some of these Christians who arrived in their new country served with distinction at
high levels of the Sasanian military and in the government.31
1.11.2 Christian Leaders
One of the first Persian church leaders was the fourth-century monk Aphrahat whom Jacob Neusner called
one of the “first great fathers (along with Ephrem) of the Iranian Church.” Aphrahat wrote long polemics
against Judaism and encouraged Persian Christians to pay little attention to their Jewish neighbors. Another
important person in early Persian Christianity was Abraham of Kashgar (born about 491) who was
responsible for reviving monastic Christian orders in the country.32
1.12 Zoroastrians and Christians
It’s believed that Zoroaster, who is considered a prophet in the religion but who was most likely a religious
reformer, began spreading his version of the faith in the 10th century BC. Zoroastrianism is a monotheistic
religion. Ahura Mazda was the God of Zoroastrianism. One of the defining characteristics of Zoroastrianism
is the significance it places on duality. Specifically, it depicts the world as being locked in a struggle
between good and evil, and that the end of times will coincide with a final triumph of good. Zoroastrianism
asks its followers to protect nature, specifically outlining the need to maintain earth, air, wind, and water.
The pillars of Zoroastrianism are: 1) Humata, Hukhta, Huvarshta, which translate to Good Thoughts, Good
Words, Good Deeds; 2) There is only one path, the path of Truth; and 3) Do the right thing because it’s
right, and then you will see rewards later.33
Christians and Zoroastrians often had an uneven relationship from the outset. Zoroastrianism reached its
zenith of power under the patronage of Shapoor I. Persian Christianity became the primary target of the
intolerance with which the Magian religion became imbued. Christians were so numerous in Persia during
the Sasanian period that one Zoroastrian leader suggested that Christians should be eliminated altogether.
Laws were passed which were stricter than previous Parthian laws about Christians in Persia, and Christians
were no longer able to operate with their own legal civil codes. Zoroastrians attacked Christians for
believing that God could be a human being and that He could mysteriously allow Himself to be killed. Some
Christians responded by engaging Zoroastrians in challenging debates about the nuances of their own
religion. Other Zoroastrians called for calm: “Cease, therefore to harass the Christians, but exert yourselves
diligently in doing good works, so that the Christians and adherents of other religions, seeing that, may
praise you for it and feel themselves drawn to your religion.”34
1.13 Christianity and the Great Persecution
According to East Syrian historiographical traditions, the Christian populations of the Iranian Empire were
subject to systematic persecution from 340 until the death of Shapur II in 379. 35 There have been several
works which describe Zoroastrian religious authorities relentlessly tormenting Christian men and women at
every possible opportunity on account of their religious identities. Zoroastrian Empire reportedly aimed to
eliminate “the Christian people,” who they considered were a threat to the religion, society, and political
structures of Iran. For their beliefs and practices, the Christians were to be erased from the empire. The
outpouring of Zoroastrian hostility toward Christians took place by the kings who often directly supervised
the torture and execution of the martyrs.

31
Christian Van Gorder, Christianity in Persia & the Status of Non-muslims in Iran… 29
32
Christian Van Gorder, Christianity in Persia & the Status of Non-muslims in Iran…29.
33
The Persian Empire A Captivating Guide to the History of Persia, Starting from the Ancient Achaemenid, Parthian, and
Sassanian Empires to the Safavid, Afsharid, and Qajar Dynastie. 60-62.
34
Christian Van Gorder, Christianity in Persia & the Status of Non-muslims in Iran… 30.
35
Suha Rassam, Christianity in Iraq: Its Origins and Development to the Present Day (Leominster: Gracewing, 2005), 31.
It was not until the middle of the fifth century, moreover, that East Syrian authors began to report that
Shapur II had accused Christians of harboring Roman loyalties. The most detailed, extensive, and influential
of these are the History of Simeon and the Martyrdom of Simeon, both narratives of the bishop of Seleucia-
Ctesiphon whose martyrdom marked the beginning of the violence. The account of a king of kings seeking
the collaboration of religious authorities in the levying of taxes in preparation for military campaigns is
eminently plausible. When the edict was pronounced, Shapur II was in the middle of organizing imperial
resources in a bid to reconquer the city of Nisibis, which had been lost to Rome in a humiliating
concession.36 In the absence of financial instruments that would allow for the large-scale accumulation of
capital through state debt, the successful practice of war required substantial cash reserves for the
provisioning of men and materials. Early Sasanian infrastructures of taxation, however, appear to have been
underdeveloped.
The refusal of Simeon to collect taxes created a separate, secular space for the Sasanian state, in which the
ecclesiastical leaders of the Christian community could only assume roles if their service complemented
their spiritual responsibilities. The importance of this distinction between the secular and the ecclesiastical
that the fifth-century author articulated recurs throughout the following chapters. Simeon, in this view, could
not collect taxes, because such service impinged on the welfare of Christian communities. But if the
separateness of worldly and spiritual spheres became common language in the writings of East Syrian
leaders, there was no consensus on the permissibility of participating in the fiscal system. There is, however,
an intimation in the Martyrdom of Simeon that not all bishops rejected the opportunity to collaborate in the
collection of taxes as readily and definitively as Simeon did. Although almost all of the bishops of the other
major cities of Khuzestan were executed together with the bishop of Seleucia Ctesiphon, the bishop of Karka
d-Ledan, the site of Shapur II’s palace, was spared. He was perhaps among the dissenting East Syrian leaders
against whom the authors of the Martyrdom of Simeon and the History of Simeon composed their elaborate,
theologically informed expositions of the view that taxation was incompatible with the episcopal office. An
alternative conception of the relationship between the worldly and the spiritual need not have been an
innovation of Ishoyahb III. Simeon and allied ecclesiastical leaders perished in the 340s for failing to
cooperate in the extension of the fiscal system, not simply for being Christians.37
1.13.1 Execution as a crucial mode of persecution
Execution was the consequence for disobeying a king of kings, whether the offender was Christian or
Zoroastrian, an aristocrat or a commoner. Unlike their Roman peers, Iranian elites regardless of their status
or background enjoyed no exemption from corporeal punishment. The violence that followed Simeon’s
disobedience targeted ecclesiastical leaders associated with the bishop and his circle, with only a handful of
documented secular Christian men and women finding themselves accountable for the actions of their
leaders. Among the Christians executed in the outskirts of Karka d-Ledan in 344 were the bishops of Beit
Lapat and Ohrmazd-Ardashir in Khuzestan and Prat d-Maishan and Karka d-Maishan in Mesopotamia,
ninety seven priests and deacons, two secular elites who associated themselves with the recalcitrant bishops,
and an ascetic woman, a bart qyama.38
The Myth of Zoroastrian Intolerance accounts describe the execution during the following three decades of
bishops, priests, and ascetics in Seleucia-Ctesiphon and Kashkar in southern Mesopotamia; Arbela, Karka d-
Beit Slok, and their hinterlands in northern Mesopotamia; and Khuzestan. The court of Shapur II might have
identified Christianity as a potentially centrifugal force within the empire. But the violence that Iranian elites
inflicted on Christians was restricted to its religious leaders who had failed adequately to fulfil the
obligations that the court imposed on them. Shapur II punished ecclesiastical leaders for disobedience.39
Accounts of violence against Christians in the fourth century suggest that Christian ecclesiastical leaders,
secular elites, and their subordinate communities were becoming visible to a court eager to make sense of the
populations and resources under its control with a view to maximizing their exploitation. The execution of
ecclesiastical leaders for disobeying Shapur II counterintuitively points to the intimate collaboration of their
successors with the Iranian rulers of the fifth, sixth, and early seventh centuries. But not all persecution had
36
Suha Rassam, Christianity in Iraq: Its Origins and Development to the Present Day…, 31.
37
Richard E Payne, A State of Mixture: Christians, Zoroastrians, and Iranian Political Culture (California: University of California,
2015), 38.
38
Richard E. Payne, A State of Mixture: Christians, Zoroastrians, and Iranian Political Culture…, 42.
39
Richard E. Payne, A State of Mixture: Christians, Zoroastrians, and Iranian Political Culture…, 45.
ended. The Sassanids still ruled in Armenia, and under a new king, Yazdegerd II (438-457) another attempt
to force the Armenians to give up their Christianity. Intolerance was deeply embedded in Zoroastrianism, as
it was in Christianity. Zoroastrian missionaries were sent to Armenia in great numbers, and there a
systematic persecution of Christians and Jews began.40
1.13.2 Destruction of Polytheism a Reason for Persecution
The leading Zoroastrian authority was willing to pardon the ascetic for dismantling a fire temple. Narsai,
however, remained uncooperative. Following a brief imprisonment, he was beheaded for the damage done to
a fire temple and, symbolically, to the position of the Good Religion as a whole. These zealous Christians
were killed not for failing to contribute to the organization of the empire but for intentionally and
unapologetically dismantling its infrastructure. In addition to being sites of ritual functions, foundational of
imperial authority, fire temples were an indispensable basis for the economic and social power of the
aristocratic houses. It was through isolated acts of temple destruction that certain Christians openly
challenged Iran’s social and political structures, with or without knowledge of how they were embedded in
fire temples and their rituals. In so doing, Abda and Narsai imitated the actions of Christian zealots in the
Roman world, known to them through reports transmitted either orally or textually, who in the fourth and
fifth centuries rendered the destruction of polytheist, Jewish, and other non-Christian places and objects of
worship an ascetic practice. In the hagiographical literature of the era, violence against temples, idols,
synagogues, and their respective believers became a mark of ascetic distinction. 41 This vision of Christian
holiness resulted in countless hostile acts that have left their imprint on both literary sources and numerous
remaining, or archaeologically excavated, polytheist statues and temples.
1.13.3 Examples of Christian witness persecuted
The accounts of twenty-nine martyrdoms from the regime of Shapur II (309-79), who, with his Grand
Mobad Adurbad, hounded the Christians in a sustained and, according to the Syriac acts of the martyrs,
ruthless attack in the last forty years of his reign, depict the most notorious series of persecutions. The
persecution began shortly after Constantine converted to Christianity and made it the official religion of the
Roman Empire. The second period of persecution occurred during the final years of Yazdegird I (399-421),
as well as the early years of his successor Bahram V (c. 421-39), due to the influence of the infamous Mihr-
Narseh, prime minister, commander in chief, and scourge of Christians. Third, during the reign of Yazdegird
(439-57), there was a wave of anti-Christian fanaticism and persecution in 446-48, followed by the most
unusual attempt in Zoroastrian history to convert Christian Armenia to Zoroastrianism. 42 The texts paint a
vivid picture of how Christianity viewed the other religion in conflict, as well as the weapons with which it
chose to engage in polemical strife as a victim; they also show how the religion represented itself to itself
through the genre of mythologized sacred history: the martyrdom. Persecutions, torture, and martyrdoms are
documented in the Syriac acts of Iranian Christian martyrs.
1.13.3.1 Simun bar Sabbae.
Mar Simun bar Sabbae, the head of the bishops and Catholikos of the Church of the East, was persecuted in
CE 344 for refusing to impose a double tax on Christians, as demanded by the King of Kings because
Christians were not serving in the military forces. Sapuhr, the Sasanian King of Kings, deduced that Simun
intended to incite an insurgency among Christians and ally with the Roman Emperor. According to the text,
Jews supported this point of view. The King is said to have acted like a raging lion who had tasted sweet
human blood in his rage. There appears to be a point in many of the martyrdoms where the king realises that
the original grounds for persecution are insufficient, and instead of demanding obedience, begins to plead
the Christian's submission in religious terms. Simun is asked by the king to worship the Sun and Fire.
Gustazad, the king's minister and a Christian, betrays Christ and then repents, but the king orders his
beheading; Simeun is to be executed the next day, which happens to be a Friday, and then the command is
given that he and all his brethren should be dispatched by the sword. It was the sixth hour on Friday. At the
same time that the Lord began his passion on the cross, those glorious ones began to die. And the Grand
Mobad went out and once again asked all those who confessed who were with Simun: ‘Worship the sun, the
40
Richard E. Payne, A State of Mixture: Christians, Zoroastrians, and Iranian Political Culture…, 45.
41
Richard E. Payne, A State of Mixture: Christians, Zoroastrians, and Iranian Political Culture…, 63.
42
S. P. Brock, “Christians in the Sasanian Empire: A Case of Divided Loyalties,” in Studies in Church History Vol. 18 1982, 19.
god, and do the will of Saphur, the King of Kings and Lord of all Lords, and you shall live’. All replied
aloud: ‘Certainly we do the will of the king of kings and the lord of the whole earth, the king of eternity’. we
will not worship the sun’. The Grand Mobad said: ‘Who is the king of kings, the Lord of the whole earth, if
Shapur is not the king of kings?’ The saints said: ‘You have spoken an obvious untruth. The king of kings,
the lord of the whole earth is God, the creator of heaven and earth and all that is in them. He is the king of
kings eternally. Shapur rules one little corner of the earth; today he is, and tomorrow he is not there
anymore’ Saying this they became victims of the horrendous execution.43
1.13.3.2 Pusai
The acts of the Persian martyrs reflect Pusai's martyrdom. Pusai was not an indigenous Iranian, but came
from the West as a prisoner of war, married a Persian woman, and was honoured by the king. He happened
to be present at Simun's martyrdom and was moved to speak up at another, to an elderly man. According to
the text, this was noticed by Zoroastrian religious authorities, and the Grand Mobad reportedly ordered him
to be chained. The king demanded that he abandon the false religion. In a triumphant irony, Pusai thanked
Shapur for the gift of death. If you, King of Kings, deem me worthy of death for God’s religion, so my
tongue is not enough to say thank you to your merciful majesty. For of all honours, gifts and graces which I
received from your majesty there is none like this. For God is your giver, and through you will he give it to
me and my companions life eternal. Even when he was condemned and sent off for execution, the feebleness
of the oppressor’s position is emphasized in a scene where the king ordered the Grand Mobad himself to run
after them and try to cajole Pusai to save himself, saying he was one of the most useful men of his kingdom’.
A theological debate begins with a conversation between Pusai and the Grand Mobad, who asks him to yield
and worship the sun. The visible world, Pusai responded, is not God because it is created and finite. For it is
only in this way that our truth is recorded and is our firm belief that we worship the unattainable, the
unlimited, and the infinite. Man waits for the invisible, which we see in faith. Because you are of this world,
you only see the visible; we wait for the spiritual, the hidden. Pusai was martyred exactly one day after
speaking up to the old man, on Saturday. A hailstorm and darkness followed the execution. A holy woman
carried the saint's body away on the back of a donkey to be anointed and buried.
1.13.3.3 Mar Aba.
Cases of Christians who had apostatized from the Good Religion and turned against it are thought to have
enraged the Zoroastrian authorities more than anything else. Mar Aba and Mar Giwargis were two of the
most celebrated martyrs of the later period. Mar Aba was born into a Zoroastrian family and was reportedly
strongly attached to that doctrine in his youth; he had a successful administrative career and is said to have
outperformed most 'pagans' in his (zeal for) paganism. The dramatic story of his conversion is told in his
martyrdom, with careful and specific allusion to St Paul's conversion. The Grand Mobad reported him to the
state authorities for converting too many Zoroastrians to Christianity. Indeed, even during his persecution, he
attempted to convert the Mobadan-Mobad to Christianity: "The catholikos will accept you, Great Magician,
if you listen to his teaching and desire to be a Christian, and we Christians will not cast you out of the
church." The Mobadan Mobad and the magicians were furious, but because that believer was a great man,
they couldn't harm him. The Great Magician and his companions, on the other hand, arose and stormed up to
the king, yelling angrily about what had been said. He ended up in a bad way, but with the best kind of
martyrdom.
1.13.3.4 Mar Giwargis.
Mar Giwargis, St George of the Persian Christians, was born a Zoroastrian whose maternal grandfather had
been a mobad. After his parents had died in heathendom and left them behind as orphans, his grandfather
brought him up. Giwargis, was from his youth thoroughly instructed in Persian literature and trained in the
wisdom of the Magians, so that before he was even seven years old, according to the error of Magian
practice, performed the sacrificial prayer. He saw the foolishness of his ways, however, realizing that the
devilish magic was an error, that there was absolutely nothing which equated to truth, nothing on which the
spirit could rely, he soon rejected the concept and was converted and baptized. His sister is given a great deal
of attention in the martyrdom, as she is reported to have been strong than him in her new-found faith. In their
persecution of her brother, the religious authorities are depicted as being anxious about whether Giwargis
43
Fernando Filoni, The Church in Iraq, translated by Fernando Cardinal Filoni (US: The Catholic University of America Press, 2015),
16.
was originally a practising Zoroastrian and whether his conversion was voluntary or enforced. He boasts that
indeed he quitted the Good Religion. Towards the end of the martyrdom there is an exchange between Mar
Giwargis and the Rad, chief of the inquisitors, which in several respects, epitomizes the interaction with the
opponent religion in these texts. Giwargis says:’ You worship the fire and sacrifice to it. How has it given
you being since you give life to it with wood and other material which feeds it?’ The Rad replied: ‘We do
not take fire to be God; but we worship God through the medium of the fire, as you worship God through the
cross’. Holy Giwargis answered: ‘When we worship the cross we do not say we adore you, cross, God, as
you do: we adore you fire, God’. The magician replied: ‘This is not so’. Then the martyr recited before the
Rad a magical text and demonstrated to him: ‘Thus you maintain in the Avesta, that it is a God’, Having
become uncomfortable in this way the Rad forgot about his first words and said: ‘We worship the fire
because it is of the same nature as Ohrmazd’. The saint replied: ‘Is everything that is the fire’s also
Ohrmazd’s?’ The Rad answered: ‘Yes’. The saint remarked: ‘We understand that fire consumes rubbish and
filth wherever it is. So also does Ohrmazd, if he is of the same nature as fire’. With this the ‘magician’
became very embarrassed about the topic. 44 And so on, until all present shouted out in unison: ‘Never before
have we seen a man who understood like this man to be able to confirm Christianity’. Finally the Rad also
was swept away by their praise and also confessed: ‘Even I have never met a man like this one’. And all
said: ‘Woe upon us, since we trusted in the Rad, who knew the Avesta better than all the magicians, and he
failed and did not know what he said. Henceforth our hope is cut short’. There was, reportedly, a flurry of
conversion after his martyrdom.45
1.14 Conclusion and Evaluation
One could understand the many interpretations of Zoroastrianism and the relationship between
Zoroastrianism and Christianity in terms of their mutual enmity. Although the fundamental principles of
both religions emphasise peace rather than violence, a segment of followers of both have resorted to armed
conflict as a means of achieving their respective goals of dominance and assertion. In some cases, this has
been more of a political ploy driven by the egotistical whims of the leaders, with both the laity and the clergy
becoming the oppressed.It is possible to say that early Manichaeism can be viewed as a cult and a form of
Christian heresy. In fact, the Manichaeans proclaimed themselves to be authentic Christians within the
Roman Empire. The church raised their dialectical stance against the rising false beliefs through its
considerations and planned responses. The laymen were aided in their ability to defend themselves by the
pontificating on the parity of the philosophical and theological variances in the teachings. Although it was
still widespread in some regions with deliberate resistance to maintain its existence, the steadfast opposition
to these heresies meant that it lost steam and faded away.

Bibliography

44
Fernando Filoni, The Church in Iraq…, 156.
45
Fernando Filoni, The Church in Iraq…, 156-161.
Baker-Brian Nicholas J. Manichaeism: An Ancient Faith Rediscovered. New York: T &T Clark, 2011.
Boyce, Mary. Zoroastrians: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices. London: Routledge, 2003.

Brock, S. P. “Christians in the Sasanian Empire: A Case of Divided Loyalties,” in Studies in Church
History Vol. 18 1982.
Coyle, John Kevin. Manichaeism and Its Legacy. Leiden: Brill, 2009.
England, John C. and Archee Lee (ed); Doing Theology with Asian Resources. New Zealand: Pace
Publishing, 1993.

Eric H Cline and Sarolta Anna Takacs, eds., The Ancient World, Volumes 1-5. London: Routledge, 2015.

Filoni, Fernando. The Church in Iraq. Translated by Fernando Cardinal Filoni. US: The Catholic University
of America Press, 2015.
Foltz, Richard. Religions of the Silk Road. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1999.

Payne, Richard E. A State of Mixture: Christians, Zoroastrians, and Iranian Political Culture. California:
University of California, 2015.
Philip, T V. East of the Euphrates: Early Christianity in Asia. Delhi: CSS & ISPCK. 1998.

Rassam, Suha. Christianity in Iraq: Its Origins and Development to the Present Day. Leominster:
Gracewing, 2005.
Rose, Jenny. Zoroastrianism: An Introduction London: I.B. Tauris, 2012.

Silverman, Jason M and Caroline Waerzeggers (eds), Political Memory in and after the Persian Empire.
Atlanta: SBL Press, 2015.

Tardieu, Michel. Manichaeism, translated by M.B. De Bevoise. Chicago: University of Illinois, 1997.

Van Gorder, Christian. Christianity in Persia & the Status of Non-Muslims in Iran. UK: Lexington Books.
2010.

Waterhouse, John. Zoroastrianism. California: The Book Tree, 2006.

Webliography
http://www.religion-online.org/cgi-bin/relsearchd.dll/showchapter?chapter_id=1360 (1 of 11) accessed on
17/9/2022
https://ccnmtl.columbia.edu/services/dropoff/china_civ_temp/week06/pdfs/religi.pdf, accessed on
17/9/2022.
https://www.britannica.com/place/Asia/Religion,accessed on 17/9/2022.
https://www.sbl-site.org/assets/pdfs/pubs/062813P-front.pdf Accesses on 10/8/22.
https://study.com/academy/lesson/the-persian-empire-religion-social-structure.html. Accesses on 10/8/22.
https://www.reonline.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/Zoroastrianism.pdf accesses on 10/8/2022.
https://dallasinstitute.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/Zoroastrianism-Introduction.pdf accesses on 10/8/22.