Problem 7.

1 [Difficulty: 2]

Given: Equation describing the propagation speed of surface waves in a region of uniform depth
Find: Nondimensionalization for the equation using length scale L and velocity scale Vo. Obtain the dimensionless
groups that characterize the flow.
Solution: To nondimensionalize the equation all lengths are divided by the reference length and all velocities are divided by
the reference velocity. Denoting the nondimensional quantities by an asterisk:
 h c
*  h*  c* 
L L V0

  2 g* L  2h* L
Substituting into the governing equation: c V 
* 2
   
2 
tanh Simplifying this expression:
 L * L
0 *

  2 gL *  2h*
c*    tanh *
2
 2
 LV0  V0 2 
2 *


g L σ
The dimensionless group is which is the reciprocal of the square of the Froude number, and
2 2
V0 ρ L V0

which is the inverse of the Weber number.

 Problem 7.2 [Difficulty: 2]

Given: Equation for beam

Find: Dimensionless groups

Solution:

Denoting nondimensional quantities by an asterisk

A y I x
A*  y*  t*  t I*  x* 
L2 L L4 L

t*
Hence A  L2 A * y  Ly* t I  L4 I * x  Lx*

2 y * 4 1 4 y *
Substituting into the governing equation L L A *
2 2
 EL 4 LI * 0
t *2 L x *4
2 y *  E  4 y *
A*  I * 0
t *2   L2 2  x *4
The final dimensionless equation is

 E 
The dimensionless group is  2 2 
 L 
 Problem 7.3 [Difficulty: 2]

Given: Equation describing one-dimensional unsteady flow in a thin liquid layer

Find: Nondimensionalization for the equation using length scale L and velocity scale Vo. Obtain the dimensionless
groups that characterize the flow.
Solution: To nondimensionalize the equation all lengths are divided by the reference length and all velocities are divided by
the reference velocity. Denoting the nondimensional quantities by an asterisk:

x h u t
x*  h*  u*  t* 
L L V0 L V0

 u *V0 
*  u *V0

 

 h* L  
Substituting into the governing equation:

 t * L V0
u V

0
 x* L  
g
 x* L   Simplifying this expression:

V02 u * V02 * u * h * u * * u
*
gL h *
 u   g Thus:  u  
L t * L x * x * t * x * V02 x *

g L
The dimensionless group is which is the reciprocal of the square of the Froude number.
2
V0
 Problem 7.4 [Difficulty: 2]

Given: Equation describing two-dimensional steady flow in a liquid

Find: Nondimensionalization for the equation using length scale L and velocity scale V 0. Obtain the dimensionless
groups that characterize the flow.
Solution: To nondimensionalize the equation all lengths are divided by the reference length and all velocities are divided by
the reference velocity. Denoting the nondimensional quantities by an asterisk:

x h u y
x*  h*  u*  y* 
L L V0 L

Substituting into the governing equation:

*  
 u *V0
 g 
 
 h * L    2 u *V0
 
 
 2 u *V0   

u V0
 
 x* L        
 x * L    x * L  x * L  y * L  y * L 
Simplifying this expression:

V02 * u * h * V0   2u *  2u * 
u  g *  2   
L x * x L  x * 2 y * 2 
 

u * gL h *    2 u *  2 u * 
Thus: u*    
x * V02 x * V0 L  x * 2 y * 2 

g L μ
The dimensionless groups are which is the reciprocal of the square of the Froude number, and which is the
2 V0  ρ L
V0

reciprocal of the Reynolds number.

 Problem 7.5 [Difficulty: 4]

Given: The Prandtl boundary-layer equations for steady, incompressible, two-dimensional flow neglecting gravity
Find: Nondimensionalization for the equation using length scale L and velocity scale V 0. Obtain the dimensionless
groups that characterize the flow.
Solution: To nondimensionalize the equation all lengths are divided by the reference length and all velocities are divided by
the reference velocity. Denoting the nondimensional quantities by an asterisk:

x y u v
x*  y*  u*  v* 
L L V0 V0

Substituting into the continuity equation:    

 u *V0  v *V0
  Simplifying this expression: V0 u  V0 v  0
* *

   
 x* L  y*L
0
L x * L y *

u * v *
 0
x * y *

We expand out the second derivative in the momentum equation by writing it as the derivative of the derivative. Upon substitution:

*  
 u *V0
 v V0
*  u *V0 

1 p

  u *V0   Simplifying this expression yields:
u V0
 
 x* L  y*L     x* L  
 y*L  y*L    
u * * u
*
1 p   2 u * Now every term in this equation has been non-dimensionalized except the
u*  v   
x * y * V02 x * V0 L y * 2 pressure gradient. We define a dimensionless pressure as:

p* 
p
Substituting this into the momentum equation: u
u *
*
 v * u
*
 

1  p * V02


  2u *
V02 x * y * V02 x * V0 L y * 2

u * * u
*
p *   2u *
Simplifying this expression yields: u*  v   
x * y * x * V0 L y * 2
ν
The dimensionless group is which is the reciprocal of the Reynolds number.
V0  L
 Problem 7.6 [Difficulty: 2]

Given: Equations Describing pipe flow

Find: Non-dimensionalized equation; Dimensionless groups

Solution:

Nondimensionalizing the velocity, pressure, spatial measures, and time:

u p x r V
u*  p*  x*  r*  t*  t
V p L L L
Hence
L
u V u* p  p p * x  Lx* r  Dr* t t*
V

Substituting into the governing equation

u V u * 1 1 p * 1   2 u * 1 u * 
V   p  V 2  
t L t *  L x * D  r *2 r * r * 

The final dimensionless equation is

u * p p *    L   2 u * 1 u * 
    
t * V 2 x *  DV  D  r *2 r * r * 

The dimensionless groups are

p  L
V 2 DV D
 Problem 7.7 [Difficulty: 2]

Given: Functional relationship between pressure drop through orifice plate and physical parameters
Find: Appropriate dimensionless parameters
Solution: We will use the Buckingham pi-theorem.

1 p   V D d n = 6 parameters

2 Select primary dimensions M, L, t:

3 p   V D d

M M M L L L
r = 3 dimensions
Lt 2 L3 Lt t

4  V D m = r = 3 repeating parameters

5 We have n - m = 3 dimensionless groups. Setting up dimensional equations:

a b
a b c  M    M    L   Lc  M0 L0 t0
Π1  Δp  ρ  V  D
 2   3   t 
Thus:
 L t   L 
Summing exponents:

M: 1  a  0 The solution to this system is: Δp

Π1 
L: 1  3  a  b  c  0 a  1 b  2 c  0 2
ρ V
t: 2  b  0

4 2
F L t
Check using F, L, t primary dimensions:    1 Checks
2 2 2 out.
L F t L

a b
a b c  M    M    L   Lc  M0 L0 t0
Π2  μ ρ  V  D Thus:  L t   3   t 
  L   
Summing exponents:

M: 1  a  0 The solution to this system is: μ

Π2 
L: 1  3  a  b  c  0 a  1 b  1 c  1 ρ V D
(This is the Reynolds number, so it checks out)
t: 1  b  0
 a b
L 
M
 
a b c cL 0 0 0
Π3  d  ρ  V  D
 3   t   L  M  L  t
Thus:
L 
Summing exponents:

M: a  0 The solution to this system is: d

Π3 
L: 1c0 a0 b0 c  1 D
(This checks out)
t: b0
 Problem 7.8 [Difficulty: 2]

Given: That drag depends on speed, air density and frontal area

Find: How drag force depend on speed

Solution:

Apply the Buckingham  procedure

 F V  A n = 4 parameters

 Select primary dimensions M, L, t

F V  A
 r = 3 primary dimensions
ML L M
L2
t2 t L3

 V  A m = r = 3 repeat parameters

 Then n – m = 1 dimensionless groups will result. Setting up a dimensional equation,

1  V a  b Ac F

 
a b
L M  c ML
    3  L2  M 0 L0 t 0
 t  L  t2

Summing exponents,

M: b 1  0 b  1
L: a  3b  2c  1  0 c  1
t: a20 a  2
Hence
F
1 
V 2 A
 Check using F, L, t as primary dimensions

 1
F
1  2
Ft L2
L2
L4 t 2

The relation between drag force F and speed V must then be

F  V 2 A  V 2
The drag is proportional to the square of the speed.
 Problem 7.9 [Difficulty: 2]

Given: Functional relationship between the drag on a satellite and other physical parameters
Find: Expression for FD in terms of the other variables

Solution: We will use the Buckingham pi-theorem.

1 FD λ ρ L c n = 5 parameters
2 Select primary dimensions M, L, t:
3 FD λ ρ L c

M L M L
L L r = 3 dimensions
2 3 t
t L

4 ρ L c m = r = 3 repeating parameters

5 We have n - m = 2 dimensionless groups. Setting up dimensional equations:

a d
M L

M
 L  
a b d b L 0 0 0
Π1  D ρ  L  c Thus:
 3   M L t
2  
t
t L 
Summing exponents: The solution to this system is: FD
Π1 
a  1 b  2 d  2 2 2
M: 1  a  0 ρ L  c

L: 1  3 a  b  d  0
t: 2  d  0
4 2
L 1 t
Check using F, L, t dimensions: F   1
2 2 2
F t L L

a d
L 
M
 L  
a b d b L 0 0 0
Π2  λ ρ  L  c Thus:
 3   M L t
t
L 
Summing exponents: The solution to this system is: λ (Π2 is sometimes referred to
Π2 
L as the Knudsen number.)
a0 b  1 d0
M: a  0
L: 1  3 a  b  d  0
t: d0
1
Check using F, L, t dimensions: L 1
L
FD
 f 
λ
  FD  ρ L  c  f  
2 2 λ
The functional relationship is: Π1  f Π2 
2 2
ρ L  c  L  L
 Problem 7.10 [Difficulty: 2]

Given: Functional relationship between drag on an object in a supersonic flow and physical parameters
Find: Functional relationship for this problem using dimensionless parameters

Solution: We will use the Buckingham pi-theorem.

1 FD V ρ A c n = 5 parameters

2 Select primary dimensions M, L, t:

3 FD V ρ A c

M L L M 2 L
L
2 t 3 t r = 3 dimensions
t L
4 V ρ A m = r = 3 repeating parameters

5 We have n - m = 2 dimensionless groups. Setting up dimensional equations:

 
a b c
M L
 
L
   L
a b c M 2 0 0 0
Π1  FD V  ρ  A Thus:     M L t
t
2  t   L3 
Summing exponents:
FD
M: 1  b  0 The solution to this system is: Π1 
2
L: 1  a  3 b  2 c  0 a  2 b  1 c  1 V  ρ A

t: 2  a  0
2 4
t L 1
Check using F, L, t dimensions: F   1
2 2 2
L F t L

 2
a b c
 
L

a b c L M 0 0 0
Π2  c V  ρ  A Thus:   L  M L t
t    L3 
t

Summing exponents:
c
M: b  0 The solution to this system is: Π2  (The reciprocal of Π 2 is also referred
V to as the Mach number.)
L: 1  a  3 b  2 c  0 a  1 b  0 c0
t: 1  a  0
L t
Check using F, L, t dimensions:  1
t L
FD
 f   c
The functional relationship is: Π1  g Π2   2

 V
V  ρ A
 Problem 7.11 [Difficulty: 2]

Given: Functional relationship between wall shear stress in a boundary layer and physical parameters
Find: Appropriate dimensionless parameters
Solution: We will use the Buckingham pi-theorem.

1 w x   U n = 5 parameters

2 Select primary dimensions M, L, t:

3 w x   U

M L M M L
r = 3 dimensions
Lt 2 L3 Lt t

4  x U m = r = 3 repeating parameters

5 We have n - m = 2 dimensionless groups. Setting up dimensional equations:

a c
a b c  M    M   Lb  L   M0 L0 t0
Π1  τw ρ  x  U Thus:
 2  3 t
 
 L t   L 
Summing exponents:

M: 1  a  0 The solution to this system is: τw

Π1 
L: 1  3  a  b  c  0 a  1 b  0 c  2 2
ρ U
t: 2  c  0

 F    L    t   1
4 2
Check using F, L, t dimensions:
 2  2  L 
 L   F t 

a c
a b c  M    M   Lb  L   M0 L0 t0
Π2  μ ρ  x  U Thus:  L t   3  t
  L   
Summing exponents:

M: 1  a  0 The solution to this system is: μ

Π2 
L: 1  3  a  b  c  0 a  1 b  1 c  1 ρ x  U

t: 1  c  0

 F t    L    1    t   1
4 2

 2   2   L   L 
Check using F, L, t dimensions: The functional relationship is:
 L   F t  Π1  f Π2  
 Problem 7.12 [Difficulty: 2]

Given: Functional relationship between boundary layer thickness and physical parameters
Find: Appropriate dimensionless parameters
Solution: We will use the Buckingham pi-theorem.

1  x   U n = 5 parameters

2 Select primary dimensions M, L, t:

3  x   U

L L M M L
r = 3 dimensions
L3 Lt t

4  x U m = r = 3 repeating parameters

5 We have n - m = 2 dimensionless groups. Setting up dimensional equations:

a c
L 
M
 L  
a b c b L 0 0 0
Π1  δ ρ  x  U Thus:
 3   M L t
t
L 
Summing exponents:

M: 0  a  0 The solution to this system is: δ

Π1 
L: 1  3 a  b  c  0 a0 b  1 c  0 x

t: 0c0

Check using F, L, t dimensions: ( L)  

1
1
 L

a c
a b c  M    M   Lb  L   M0 L0 t0
Π2  μ ρ  x  U Thus:  L t   3  t
  L   
Summing exponents:

M: 1  a  0 The solution to this system is: μ

Π2 
L: 1  3  a  b  c  0 a  1 b  1 c  1 ρ x  U

t: 1  c  0

 F t    L    1    t   1
4 2

 2   2   L   L 
Check using F, L, t dimensions: The functional relationship is:
 L   F t  Π1  f Π2  
 Problem 7.13 [Difficulty: 2]

Given: That light objects can be supported by surface tension

Find: Dimensionless groups

Solution:

Apply the Buckingham  procedure

 W p  g  n = 5 parameters

 Select primary dimensions M, L, t

 
W p  g  
 
   r = 3 primary dimensions
 ML M L M
L
 t 2 L3 t2 t 2 

 g  p m = r = 3 repeat parameters

 Then n – m = 2 dimensionless groups will result. Setting up a dimensional equation,

a b
L M 
 3  L  2  M L t
c ML
1  g  p W   2 
a b c 0 0 0

t  L  t
M: b 1  0 b  1
W
Summing exponents, L : a  3b  c  1  0 c  3 Hence 1 
g p 3
t:  2a  2  0 a  1
a b
L M 
 2  g  p    2   3  L  2  M 0 L0t 0
a b c c M

t   L  t
M: b 1  0 b  1

Summing exponents, L : a  3b  c  0 c  2 Hence 2 
gp 2
t:  2 a  2  0 a  1
F
 1  1
F L
 Check using F, L, t as primary dimensions 1  2 
L Ft 2 3 L Ft 2 2
L L
t 2 L4 t 2 L4
1 Wp
Note: Any combination of 1 and 2 is a  group, e.g.,  , so 1 and 2 are not unique!
2 
 Problem 7.14 [Difficulty: 2]

Given: Functional relationship between mean velocity for turbulent flow in a pipe or boundary layer and physical
parameters
Find: (a) Appropriate dimensionless parameters containing mean velocity and one containing the distance from the
wall that are suitable for organizing experimental data.
(b) Show that the result may be written as:

u  yu  
 f  *  where u*  w is the friction velocity
u*    
Solution: We will use the Buckingham pi-theorem.

1 u w y   n = 5 parameters

2 Select primary dimensions M, L, t:

3 u w y  

L M L M M
r = 3 dimensions
t Lt 2 L3 Lt

4  y w m = r = 3 repeating parameters

5 We have n - m = 2 dimensionless groups. Setting up dimensional equations:

a c

M
L  
L b M 0 0 0
1  u y  a b c
w
Thus:
 3  2   M L t
t
L   L t 
Summing exponents:

M: a  c  0 The solution to this system is:

1  3 a  b  c  0 a
1
b0 c
1  u
L: 1  u 
t: 1  2  c  0
2 2  w u*

 L   t   1
Check using F, L, t dimensions:  t   L
  

a c

M
L  
M M
 2   a y b wc
b 0 0 0
 2   M L t
Thus:
L t  3
L   L t 
Summing exponents:

M: 1  a  c  0 The solution to this system is:

1  3  a  b  c  0 a
1
b  1 c  
1     
L: 2    
t: 1  2  c  0
2 2
y  w y  w yu* yu*

Π2 is the reciprocal of the Reynolds number, so we know that it checks out.

    yu 
The functional relationship  
Π1  g Π2 u
 g   which may be rewritten as: u
 f *
is: u*  yu*  u*   
 Problem 7.15 [Difficulty: 2]

(The solution to this problem was first devised by G.I. Taylor

in the paper "The formation of a blast wave by a very intense
explosion. I. Theoretical discussion," Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London. Series A, Mathematical and Physical
Sciences, Vol. 201, No. 1065, pages 159 - 174 (22 March 1950).)

Given: Functional relationship between the energy released by an explosion and other physical parameters
Find: Expression for E in terms of the other variables

Solution: We will use the Buckingham pi-theorem.

1 E t R p ρ n = 5 parameters
2 Select primary dimensions M, L, t:
3 E t R p ρ
2
M L M M
t L r = 3 dimensions
2 2 3
t L t L

4 ρ t R m = r = 3 repeating parameters

5 We have n - m = 2 dimensionless groups. Setting up dimensional equations:

2 a
M L

a b c Mb c 0 0 0
Π1  E ρ  t  R
 3  t L  M L t
Thus:
2
t L 
2
Summing exponents: The solution to this system is: E t
Π1 
a  1 b2 c  5 5
M: 1  a  0 ρ R

L: 2  3 a  c  0
t: 2  b  0
4
L 2 1
Check using F, L, t dimensions: F L t  1
2 5
F t L

a

a b c M b c M
0 0 0
Π2  p  ρ  t  R
 3  t L  M L t
Thus:
2
L t  L 
2
Summing exponents: The solution to this system is: p t
Π2 
a  1 b2 c  2 2
M: 1  a  0 ρ R

L: 1  3  a  c  0
t: 2  b  0
4
F L 2 1
Check using F, L, t dimensions:  t  1
2 2 2
L F t L

E t
2  p t2  ρ R
5  p t2 
The functional relationship is: Π1  f Π2    f  E f  
5  2 2   2
ρ R  ρ R  t ρR 
 Problem 7.16 [Difficulty: 2]

Given: Functional relationship between the speed of a capillary wave and other physical parameters
Find: An expression for V based on the other variables
Solution: We will use the Buckingham pi-theorem.

1 V σ λ ρ n = 4 parameters
2 Select primary dimensions M, L, t:
3 V σ λ ρ
L M M
L r = 3 dimensions
t 2 3
t L

4 σ λ ρ m = r = 3 repeating parameters

5 We have n - m = 1 dimensionless group. Setting up dimensional equations:

a c

M
L 
a b c L b M 0 0
Π1  V σ  λ  ρ
 3   L t
Thus:
t  2
t  L 
Summing exponents: The solution to this system is: λ ρ
Π1  V
1 1 1 σ
a b c
M: a  c  0 2 2 2
L: 1  b  3 c  0
t: 1  2  a  0

2
 L   L F t  L  1
Check using F, L, t dimensions: t
  L
4 F

λ ρ σ
The functional relationship is: Π1  C V C Therefore the velocity is: V  C
σ λ ρ
 Problem 7.17 [Difficulty: 2]

Given: That automobile buffer depends on several parameters

Find: Dimensionless groups

Solution:

Apply the Buckingham  procedure

 T  F e   n = 6 parameters

 Select primary dimensions M, L, t

 
 T  F e   
 
   r = 3 primary dimensions
 ML2 1 ML M M
 2 L 
 t t t2 Lt t2 

 F e  m = r = 3 repeat parameters

 Then n – m = 3 dimensionless groups will result. Setting up a dimensional equation,

a c
 ML  b  1  ML
2
1  F e  T   2  L    2  M 0 L0t 0
a b c

 t  t t
Summing exponents,
M: a 1  0 a  1
T
L: ab20 b  1 Hence 1 
Fe
t:  2a  c  2  0 c0
a c
 ML  b1 M
 2  F a eb c    2  L     M 0 L0t 0
 t   t  Lt
M: a 1 0 a  1
e2
Summing exponents, L: a  b 1  0 b2 Hence 2 
F
t :  2a  c  1  0 c  1
a c
 ML  b1 M
 3  F e     2  L    2  M 0 L0t 0
a b c

 t  t t
M: a 1  0 a  1
e
Summing exponents, L: ab0 b 1 Hence 3 
F
t :  2a  c  2  0 c  0

 Check using F, L, t as primary dimensions

 Ft 2 1 F
L L
 1  1  1
FL L2
t L
1  2  3 
FL F F
1 T
Note: Any combination of 1, 2 and 3 is a  group, e.g.,  , so 1, 2 and 3 are not unique!
 2 e3
 Problem 7.18 [Difficulty: 2]

Given: That the power of a vacuum depends on various parameters

Find: Dimensionless groups

Solution:
Apply the Buckingham  procedure
 P p D d   di do n = 8 parameters

 Select primary dimensions M, L, t

 
 P p D d   di do 
 
   r = 3 primary dimensions
 ML2 M 1 M 
 3 L L L L
 t Lt 2 t L3 

  D  m = r = 3 repeat parameters

 Then n – m = 5 dimensionless groups will result. Setting up a dimensional equation,

a c
M  b  1  ML
2
1   D  P   3
a b c
 
 L   3  M Lt
0 0 0

L  t t
M: a 1  0 a  1
P
Summing exponents, L :  3a  b  2  0 b  5 Hence 1 
D 5 3
t: c30 c  3
a c
M  b 1 M
 2   D  Δp   3  L   
a b c
 M 0 L0t 0
L   t  Lt
2

M: a 1  0 a  1
p
Summing exponents, L :  3a  b  1  0 b  2 Hence 2 
D 2 2
t: c20 c  2
d d d
The other  groups can be found by inspection: 3  4  i 5  o
D D D
 Check using F, L, t as primary dimensions
FL F
L
1  t  1 2  L2  1 3   4  5   1
Ft 5 1
2
Ft 2 1 2
L
L 3 L 2
L4 t L4 t
1 P
Note: Any combination of 1, 2 and 3 is a  group, e.g.,  , so the ’s are not unique!
 2 pD 3
 Problem 7.19 (In Excel) [Difficulty: 2]

Given: That drain time depends on fluid viscosity and density, orifice diameter, and gravity

Find: Functional dependence of t on other variables

Solution:
We will use the workbook of Example 7.1, modified for the current problem

The number of parameters is: n =5

The number of primary dimensions is: r =3
The number of repeat parameters is: m =r =3
The number of  groups is: n -m =2

Enter the dimensions (M, L, t) of

the repeating parameters, and of up to
four other parameters (for up to four  groups).
The spreadsheet will compute the exponents a , b , and c for each.

REPEATING PARAMETERS: Choose , g , d

M L t
 1 -3
g 1 -2
d 1

 GROUPS:
M L t M L t
t 0 0 1  1 -1 -1

 1: a = 0  2: a = -1
b = 0.5 b = -0.5
c = -0.5 c = -1.5

The following  groups from Example 7.1 are not used:

M L t M L t
0 0 0 0 0 0

 3: a = 0  4: a = 0
b = 0 b = 0
c = 0 c = 0

Hence 1  t
g and 2 


2 with  1  f  2 
d 1 3
 gd 3
2
g 2d 2

d  2 
The final result is t f 2 3
g   gd 
 
 Problem 7.20 [Difficulty: 2]

Given: Functional relationship between the power transmited by a sound wave and other physical parameters
Find: Expression for E in terms of the other variables

Solution: We will use the Buckingham pi-theorem.

1 E V ρ r n n = 5 parameters
2 Select primary dimensions M, L, t:
3 E V ρ r n

M L M 1
L r = 3 dimensions
3 t 3 t
t L

4 ρ V r m = r = 3 repeating parameters

5 We have n - m = 2 dimensionless groups. Setting up dimensional equations:

a b

M
 
a b c M c 0 0 0 L
Π1  E ρ  V  r
 3   t   L  M  L  t
Thus:
3
t L 

Summing exponents: The solution to this system is: E

Π1 
a  1 b  3 c0 3
M: 1  a  0 ρ V

L: 3  a  b  c  0
t: 3  b  0
4 3
F L t
Check using F, L, t dimensions:   1
L t 2 3
F t L

a b

M
 
a b c 1 c 0 0 0 L
Π2  n  ρ  V  r
 3   t   L  M  L  t
Thus:
t
L 
Summing The solution to this system is: n r
exponents: Π2 
a0 b  1 c1 V
M: a  0
L: 3  a  b  c  0
t: 1  b  0
1 t
Check using F, L, t  L 1
dimensions: t L

n r  n r 
   f  E  ρ V  f 
E 3
The functional relationship is: Π1  f Π2  
ρ V
3  V  V
 Problem 7.21 [Difficulty: 3]

Given: Functional relationship between the flow rate of viscous liquid dragged out of a bath and other physical
parameters
Find: Expression for Q in terms of the other variables

Solution: We will use the Buckingham pi-theorem.

1 Q μ ρ g h V n = 6 parameters
2 Select primary dimensions M, L, t:
3 Q μ ρ g h V
3
L M M L L
L r = 3 dimensions
t L t 3 2 t
L t

4 ρ V h m = r = 3 repeating parameters

5 We have n - m = 3 dimensionless groups. Setting up dimensional equations:

3 a b

M
 
a b c L c 0 0 0 L
Π1  Q ρ  V  h Thus:
   L  M L t
L   
t 3 t

Summing exponents: The solution to this system is: Q

Π1 
a0 b  1 c  2 2
M: a  0 V h

L: 3  3 a  b  c  0
t: 1  b  0
3
L t 1
Check using F, L, t dimensions:   1
t L 2
L

a b

M
 
a b c M c 0 0 0 L
Π2  μ ρ  V  h Thus:
   L  M L t
L   
L t 3 t

Summing exponents: The solution to this system is: μ

Π2 
a  1 b  1 c  1 ρ V h
M: 1  a  0
L: 1  3  a  b  c  0
t: 1  b  0
4
F t L t 1
Check using F, L, t dimensions:    1
2 2 L L
L F t
 a b

M
 
a b c L c 0 0 0 L
Π3  g  ρ  V  h
 3   t   L  M  L  t
Thus:
2
t L 

Summing exponents: The solution to this system is: g h

Π3 
a0 b  2 c1 2
M: a  0 V

L: 1  3 a  b  c  0
t: 2  b  0
2
L t
Check using F, L, t dimensions:  L 1
2 2
t L

 ρ V h V2   ρ V h V2 
 
Q
 f  Q  V h  f  
2
The functional relationship is: Π1  f Π2 Π3  
V h
2  μ g h   μ g h 
 Problem 7.22 [Difficulty: 2]

Given: Functional relationship between the mass flow rate exiting a tank through a rounded drain hole and other
physical parameters
Find: (a) Number of dimensionless parameters that will result
(b) Number of repeating parameters
(c) The Π term that contains the viscosity

Solution: We will use the Buckingham pi-theorem.

1 m h0 D d g ρ μ n = 7 parameters
2 Select primary dimensions M, L, t:
3 m h0 D d g ρ μ
M L M M
L L L
t 2 3 L t r = 3 dimensions
t L We have n - r = 4 dimensionless groups.

4 ρ d g m = r = 3 repeating parameters

5 Setting up dimensional equation involving the viscosity:

a c

M
L 
a b c M b L 0 0 0
Π1  μ ρ  d  g
 2   M L t
Thus:
L t  3 
L  t 
Summing exponents: The solution to this system is: μ
Π1 
3 1 3
a  1 b c ρ d  g
M: 1  a  0 2 2
L: 1  3  a  b  c  0
t: 1  2  c  0
4
F t L 1 t
Check using F, L, t dimensions:    1
2 2 3 1
L F t
2 2
L L
 Problem 7.23 [Difficulty: 3]

Given: Functional relationship between the deflection of the bottom of a cylindrical tank and other physical parameters

Find: Functional relationship between these parameters using dimensionless groups.

Solution: We will use the Buckingham pi-theorem.

1 δ D h d γ E n = 6 parameters
2 Select primary dimensions F, L, t:

3 δ D h d γ E
F F
L L L L r = 2 dimensions
3 2
L L

4 D γ m = r = 2 repeating parameters We have n - m = 4 dimensionless groups.

5 Setting up dimensional equations:

b
L L   
a b a F 0 0
Π1  δ D  γ
 3   F L
Thus:
L 
Summing exponents: The solution to this system is: δ
Π1 
F: b0 a  1 b0 D

L: 1  a  3 b  0
1
Check using M, L, t dimensions: L 1
L
Now since h and d have the same dimensions as δ, it h d
would follow that the the next two pi terms would be: Π2  Π3 
D D

b
L  
a b F a F 0 0
Π4  E D  γ
 3   F L
Thus:
2
L L 
Summing exponents: The solution to this system is: E
Π4 
F: 1b0 a  1 b  1 D γ

L: 2  a  3  b  0 2 2
M 1 L t
Check using M, L, t dimensions:   1
2 L M
L t

 f 
h d E 
 
δ
The functional relationship is: Π1  f Π2 Π3 Π4   
D  D D D γ 
(For further reading, one should consult an appropriate text, such as Advanced Strength of Materials by Cook and Young)
 Problem 7.24 [Difficulty: 3]

Given: Functional relationship between the diameter of droplets formed during jet breakup and other physical
parameters
Find: (a) The number of dimensionless parameters needed to characterize the process
(b) The ratios (Π-terms)
Solution: We will use the Buckingham pi-theorem.
1 d ρ μ σ V D n = 6 parameters
2 Select primary dimensions M, L, t:
3 d ρ μ σ V D
M M M L
L L r = 3 dimensions
3 L t 2 t
L t

4 ρ V D m = r = 3 repeating parameters We have n - m = 3 dimensionless groups.

5 Setting up dimensional equations:

a b
L 
M
 
a b c c L
0 0 0
Π1  d  ρ  V  D
 3   t   L  M  L  t
Thus:
L 
Summing exponents: The solution to this system is: d
Π1 
a0 b0 c  1 D
M: a  0
L: 1  3 a  b  c  0
1
Check using F, L, t dimensions: L 1
t: b  0 L
a b
       L  M  L  t
a b c M M L c 0 0 0
Π2  μ ρ  V  D Thus:
 
L   
L t 3 t

Summing exponents: The solution to this system is: μ

Π2 
a  1 b  1 c  1 ρ V D
M: 1  a  0
L: 1  3  a  b  c  0 4
F t L t 1
Check using F, L, t dimensions:    1
t: 1  b  0 2 2 L L
L F t
a b

M
 
a b c M c L
0 0 0
Π3  σ ρ  V  D
 3   t   L  M  L  t
Thus:
2
t L 

Summing exponents: The solution to this system is: σ

Π3 
a  1 b  2 c  1 2
M: 1  a  0 ρ V  D
4 2
L: 3  a  b  c  0 F L t 1
Check using F, L, t dimensions:    1
t: 2  b  0 L 2 2 L
F t L
 Problem 7.25 (In Excel) [Difficulty: 3]

Given: That dot size depends on ink viscosity, density, and surface tension, and geometry

Find:  groups

Solution:
We will use the workbook of Example 7.1, modified for the current problem

The number of parameters is: n =7

The number of primary dimensions is: r =3
The number of repeat parameters is: m =r =3
The number of  groups is: n -m =4

Enter the dimensions (M, L, t) of

the repeating parameters, and of up to
four other parameters (for up to four  groups).
The spreadsheet will compute the exponents a , b , and c for each.

REPEATING PARAMETERS: Choose , V , D

M L t
 1 -3
V 1 -1
D 1

 GROUPS:

M L t M L t
d 0 1 0  1 -1 -1

1: a = 0 2: a = -1
b = 0 b = -1
c = -1 c = -1

M L t M L t
 1 0 -2 L 0 1 0

3: a = -1 4: a = 0
b = -2 b = 0
c = -1 c = -1

1 
d  VD  L
Hence 2   3  4 
D VD  V 2 D D

Note that groups 1 and 4 can be obtained by inspection

 Problem 7.26 (In Excel) [Difficulty: 3]

Given: Speed depends on mass, area, gravity, slope, and air viscosity and thickness

Find:  groups

Solution:
We will use the workbook of Example 7.1, modified for the current problem

The number of parameters is: n =7

The number of primary dimensions is: r =3
The number of repeat parameters is: m =r =3
The number of  groups is: n -m =4

Enter the dimensions (M, L, t) of

the repeating parameters, and of up to
four other parameters (for up to four  groups).
The spreadsheet will compute the exponents a , b , and c for each.

REPEATING PARAMETERS: Choose g , , m

M L t
g 1 -2
 1
m 1

 GROUPS:

M L t M L t
V 0 1 -1  1 -1 -1

1 : a = -0.5 2 : a = -0.5
b = -0.5 b = 1.5
c = 0 c = -1

M L t M L t
 0 0 0 A 0 2 0

3: a = 0 4 : a = 0
b = 0 b = -2
c = 0 c = 0
3
V V2  2  2 3 4 
A
Hence 1   2   3  
1 1 g 1 2
m g 2
g 2 2 g 2m

Note that the 1 , 3 and 4 groups can be obtained by inspection

 Problem 7.27 [Difficulty: 2]

Given: Functional relationship between the length of a wake behind an airfoil and other physical parameters
Find: The Π terms that characterize this phenomenon
Solution: We will use the Buckingham pi-theorem.
1 w V L t ρ μ
n = 6 parameters
2 Select primary dimensions M, L, t:
3 w V L t ρ μ
L M M
L L L
t 3 L t r = 3 dimensions
L

4 ρ V L m = r = 3 repeating parameters

5 We have n - m = 3 dimensionless groups. Setting up dimensional equations:

a b
L 
M
 
a b c c L
0 0 0
Π1  w ρ  V  L
 3   t   L  M  L  t
Thus:
L 
Summing exponents: The solution to this system is: w
Π1 
a0 b0 c  1 L
M: a  0
L: 1  3 a  b  c  0
1
Check using F, L, t dimensions: L 1
t: b  0 L
a b
L 
M
 
a b c c L
0 0 0
Π2  t  ρ  V  L
 3   t   L  M  L  t
Thus:
L 
Summing exponents: The solution to this system is: t
Π2 
a0 b0 c  1 L
M: a  0
L: 1  3 a  b  c  0
1
Check using F, L, t dimensions: L 1
t: b  0 L

a b

M
 
a b c M c 0 0 0 L
Π3  μ ρ  V  L Thus:
   L  M L t
L   
L t 3 t

Summing exponents: The solution to this system is: μ

Π3 
a  1 b  1 c  1 ρ V L
M: 1  a  0
L: 1  3  a  b  c  0 4
F t L t 1
Check using F, L, t dimensions:    1
t: 1  b  0 2 2 L L
L F t
 Problem 7.28 [Difficulty: 2]

Given: That the power of a washing machine agitator depends on various parameters

Find: Dimensionless groups

Solution:
Apply the Buckingham  procedure

 P H D h max f   n = 8 parameters

 Select primary dimensions M, L, t

 
 P H D h max f  
 
   r = 3 primary dimensions
 ML2 1 1 M M
 3 L L L 
 t t t L3 Lt 
  D max m = r = 3 repeat parameters

 Then n – m = 5 dimensionless groups will result. Setting up a dimensional equation,

a c
M  b  1  ML
2
a b c

max 
1   D  P   3  L   3  M 0 L0t 0
L  t t
M: a 1  0 a  1
P
Summing exponents, L :  3a  b  2  0 b  5 Hence 1 
D max
53

t: c30 c  3
a c
M  b1 M
 2   D     3  L   
a b c
max  M 0 L0t 0
 
L  
t Lt
M: a 1  0 a  1

Summing exponents, L :  3a  b  1  0 b  2 Hence 2 
D max
2
t:  c 1  0 c  1
H h f
The other  groups can be found by inspection: 3  4  5 
D D max
 Check using F, L, t as primary dimensions
FL Ft
1  t  1 2  L2  1  3   4   5  1
Ft 2 5 1 Ft 2 2 1
L 3 L
L4 t L4 t
1 P
Note: Any combination of ’s is a  group, e.g.,  , so the ’s are not unique!
 2 D 3max
2

 Problem 7.29 [Difficulty: 3]

Given: Functional relationship between the mass flow rate of gas through a choked-flow nozzle and other physical
parameters
Find: (a) How many independent Π terms that characterize this phenomenon
(b) Find the Π terms
(c) State the functional relationship for the mass flow rate in terms of the Π terms

Solution: We will use the Buckingham pi-theorem.

1 m A p T R (Mathcad can't render dots!) n = 5 parameters
2 Select primary dimensions M, L, t:
3 m A p T R
2
M 2 M L
L T r = 4 dimensions
t 2 2
L t t T
4 p A T R m = r = 4 repeating parameters We have n - m = 1 dimensionless group.

5 Setting up dimensional equations:

d
c L 
2 
 
a b

M 
 L T 
a b c d M 2 0 0 0 0
Π1  m p  A  T  R Thus:  M L t T
t  2  2 
 L t   t T 
Summing exponents: The solution to this system is: m
Π1   R T
1 1 p A
a  1 b  1 c  d
M: 1  a  0 2 2
L: a  2  b  2  d  0 1
2
t: 1  2  a  2  d  0 F t L 1 L 2
Check using F, L, t dimensions:    T  1
T: cd0 L F 2 1
L
2
t T

m p A
The functional relationship is: Π1  C  R T  C So the mass flow rate is: m  C
p A R T
 Problem 7.30 (In Excel) [Difficulty: 3]

Given: Time to speed up depends on inertia, speed, torque, oil viscosity and geometry

Find:  groups

Solution:
We will use the workbook of Example 7.1, modified for the current problem

The number of parameters is: n =8

The number of primary dimensions is: r =3
The number of repeat parameters is: m =r =3
The number of  groups is: n -m =5

Enter the dimensions (M, L, t) of

the repeating parameters, and of up to
four other parameters (for up to four  groups).
The spreadsheet will compute the exponents a , b , and c for each.

REPEATING PARAMETERS: Choose , D , T

M L t
 -1
D 1
T 1 2 -2

 GROUPS:
Two  groups can be obtained by inspection: /D and L /D . The others are obtained below

M L t M L t
t 0 0 1  1 -1 -1

1: a = 1 2: a = 1
b = 0 b = 3
c = 0 c = -1

M L t M L t
I 1 2 0 0 0 0

3: a = 2 4: a = 0
b = 0 b = 0
c = -1 c = 0

Hence the  groups are

t  L  D 3 I 2
D D T T
Note that the 1 group can also be easily obtained by inspection
 Problem 7.31 [Difficulty: 3]

Given: Functional relationship between the mass flow rate of liquid from a pressurized tank through a contoured nozzle
and other physical parameters
Find: (a) How many independent Π terms that characterize this phenomenon
(b) Find the Π terms
(c) State the functional relationship for the mass flow rate in terms of the Π terms

Solution: We will use the Buckingham pi-theorem.

1 m A ρ h Δp g n = 6 parameters
2 Select primary dimensions M, L, t:
3 m A ρ h Δp g
M 2 M M L
L L r = 3 dimensions
t 3 2 2
L L t t
4 ρ A g m = r = 3 repeating parameters We have n - m = 3 dimensionless groups.

5 Setting up dimensional equations:

 2  L2 
a b c

a b c M M 0 0 0
Π1  m ρ  A  g Thus:  L  M L t
t  3
L  t 
Summing exponents: The solution to this system is: m
Π1 
5 1 5 1
a  1 b c
M: 1  a  0 4 2 4 2
ρ A  g
L: 3  a  2  b  c  0
4
t: 1  2  c  0 F t L 1 t
Check using F, L, t dimensions:    1
L 2 5 1
F t
2 2
L L

 2  L2 
a b c
L 
a b c M 0 0 0
Π2  h  ρ  A  g Thus:  L  M L t
 3
L  t 
Summing exponents: The solution to this system is: h
Π2 
1 A
a0 b c0
M: a  0 2
L: 1  3 a  2 b  c  0
t: 2  c  0 1
Check using F, L, t dimensions: L 1
L
  2  L2 
a b c

a b c M M 0 0 0
Π3  Δp ρ  A  g Thus:  L  M L t
2  3
L t  L  t 
Summing exponents: The solution to this system is: Δp
Π3 
1 ρ g  A
a  1 b c  1
M: 1  a  0 2
L: 1  3  a  2  b  c  0
4 2
t: 2  2  c  0 F L t 1
Check using F, L, t dimensions:    1
2 2 L L
L F t

 f  
m h
 
Δp
The functional relationship is: Π1  f Π2 Π3   So the mass flow rate is:
5 1  A ρ g  A 
5 1
4 2
ρ A  g
m  ρ A  g  f  
4 2 h Δp
 
 A ρ g  A 
 Problem 7.32 [Difficulty: 2]

Given: Ventilation system of cruise ship clubhouse

Find: Dimensionless groups

Solution:
Apply the Buckingham  procedure
 c N p D  p  g  n = 9 parameters
 Select primary dimensions M, L, t
 
c N p D  p  g 
 
   r = 3 primary dimensions
1 M 1 M M L M
 L3 1 L
Lt 2 t L3 L3 t2 Lt 
  D  m = r = 3 repeat parameters

 Then n – m = 6 dimensionless groups will result. Setting up a dimensional equation,

a c
M  b1 M
1   D  Δp   3  L   
a b c
 M 0 L0t 0
L
  t
  Lt 2

M: a 1  0 a  1
p
Summing exponents, L :  3a  b  1  0 b  2 Hence 1 
D 2 2
t: c20 c  2
a c
M  b1 M
2   D     3  L     M 0 L0t 0
a b c

L  t
  Lt
M: a 1  0 a  1

Summing exponents, L :  3a  b  1  0 b  2 Hence 2 
D 2
t:  c 1  0 c  1
p g
The other  groups can be found by inspection:  3  cD 3 4  N 5  6 
 D 2
 Check using F, L, t as primary dimensions
F Ft
1  L2  1 2  L2  1  3   4   5   6  1
Ft 2 2 1 Ft 2 2 1
L 2 L
L4 t L4 t
1 p
Note: Any combination of ’s is a  group, e.g.,  , so the ’s are not unique!
 2 
 Problem 7.33 [Difficulty: 3]

Given: Functional relationship between the mass burning rate of a combustible mixture and other physical parameters
Find: The dependence of mass burning rate

Solution: We will use the Buckingham pi-theorem.

1 m δ ρ α D (Mathcad can't render dots!)
n = 5 parameters
2 Select primary dimensions M, L, t:
3 m δ ρ α D
2 2
M M L L r = 3 dimensions
L
t 3 t t
L

4 δ ρ α m = r = 3 repeating parameters
5 We have n - m = 2 dimensionless groups. Setting up dimensional equations:
c
b  2
L      M L t
a b c M Ma L 0 0 0
Π1  m δ  ρ  α Thus:
t  3  t 
L 
Summing exponents: The solution to this system is: m
Π1 
M: 1  b  0 a  1 b  1 c  1 δ ρ α

L: a  3 b  2 c  0
t: 1  c  0
c
2  L2  b
L      M L t
a b c L a M 0 0 0
Π2  D δ  ρ  α Thus:
t  3  t 
L 
Summing exponents: The solution to this system is: D
Π2 
M: b  0 a0 b0 c  1 α

L: 2  a  3 b  2 c  0
t: 1  c  0

4 2
F t 1 L t L t
6 Check using F, L, t dimensions:    1  1
L L 2 2 t 2
F t L L

 f 
D
 
m
The functional relationship is: Π1  f Π2 
δ ρ α α
 Problem 7.34 [Difficulty: 4]

Given: Functional relationship between the heat transfer rate in a convection oven and other physical parameters
Find: The number of Π terms that characterize this phenomenon and the Π terms
Solution: We will use the Buckingham pi-theorem.
1 Q cp Θ L ρ μ V n = 7 parameters
2 Select primary dimensions F, L, t, T (temperature):
3 Q cp Θ L ρ μ V
2 2
F L L F t F t L
T L
t 2 4 2 t r = 4 dimensions
t T L L
4 ρ V L Θ m = r = 4 repeating parameters We have n - m = 3 dimensionless
groups.
5 Setting up dimensional equations:
a
F L  F t2   L  b c d 0 0 0 0
    L T  F L t T
a b c d
Π1  Q ρ  V  L  Θ Thus:
t  4  t
L 
Summing exponents: The solution to this system is: Q
Π1 
F: 1a0 a  1 b  3 c  2 d  0 3 2
ρ V  L
L: 1  4 a  b  c  0
t: 1  2  a  b  0
T: d0
a
 F t2   L  b c d 0 0 0 0
2
    L T  F L t T
a b c d L
Π2  cp  ρ  V  L  Θ Thus:
2  4   t
t T  L 
Summing exponents: The solution to this system is: cp  Θ
Π2 
F: a0 a0 b  2 c0 d1 2
V
L: 2  4 a  b  c  0
t: 2  2  a  b  0
T: 1  d  0
a
 F t2   L  b c d 0 0 0 0
F t
    L T  F L t T
a b c d
Π3  μ ρ  V  L  Θ Thus:
2  4   t
L  L 
Summing exponents: The solution to this system is: μ
Π3 
F: 1a0 a  1 b  1 c  1 d  0 ρ V L

L: 2  4  a  b  c  0
t: 1  2 a  b  0
T: d0
 2 3 2 2 2 3
M L L t 1 L t M L t 1
6 Check using M, L, t, T dimensions:    1  T  1    1
3 M 2 3 2 2 L t M L L
t L L t T L

Q  cp Θ μ   cp  Θ μ 
   f Q  ρ V  L  f 
3 2
The functional relationship is: Π1  f Π2 Π3  
3 2  V2 ρ V L   V2 ρ V L 
ρ V  L    
 Problem 7.35 [Difficulty: 3]

Given: Functional relationship between the thrust of a marine propeller and other physical parameters
Find: The Π terms that characterize this phenomenon
Solution: We will use the Buckingham pi-theorem.
1 FT ρ D V g ω p μ n = 8 parameters

2 Select primary dimensions F, L, t:

3 FT ρ D V g ω p μ

M L M L L 1 M M
L
2 3 t 2 t 2 L t
t L t L t r = 3 dimensions
4 ρ V D m = r = 3 repeating parameters
5 We have n - m = 5 dimensionless groups. Setting up dimensional equations:
a b
M L

M
 
a b c c L
0 0 0
Π1  FT ρ  V  D
 3   t   L  M  L  t
Thus:
2
t L 
Summing exponents: The solution to this system is: FT
Π1 
M: 1  a  0 a  1 b  2 c  2 2 2
ρ V  D
L: 1  3 a  b  c  0
t: 2  b  0
a b
       L  M  L  t
a b c L M L c 0 0 0
Π2  g  ρ  V  D Thus:
 
t L   
2 3 t

Summing exponents: The solution to this system is: g D

Π2 
M: a  0 a0 b  2 c1 2
V
L: 1  3 a  b  c  0
t: 2  b  0
a b

M
 
a b c 1 c 0 0 0 L
Π3  ω ρ  V  D Thus:
   L  M L t
L   
t 3 t

Summing exponents: The solution to this system is: ω D

Π3 
M: a  0 a0 b  1 c1 V

L: 3  a  b  c  0
t: 1  b  0
 a b

M
 
a b c M c 0 0 0 L
Π4  p  ρ  V  D
 3   t   L  M  L  t
Thus:
2
L t  L 

Summing exponents: The solution to this system is: p

Π4 
M: 1  a  0 a  1 b  2 c0 2
ρ V
L: 1  3  a  b  c  0
t: 2  b  0

a b

M
 
a b c M c 0 0 0 L
Π5  μ ρ  V  D Thus:
   L  M L t
L   
L t 3 t

Summing exponents: The solution to this system is: μ

Π5 
M: 1  a  0 a  1 b  1 c  1 ρ V D

L: 1  3  a  b  c  0
t: 1  b  0
4 2 2 4 2 4
L t 1 L t 1 t F L t F t L t 1
6 Check using F, L, t dimensions: F   1  L 1  L 1   1    1
2 2 2 2 2 t L 2 2 2 2 2 L L
F t L L t L L F t L L F t
 Problem 7.36 [Difficulty: 3]

Given: Functional relationship between the power to drive a marine propeller and other physical parameters
Find: (a) The number of Π terms that characterize this phenomenon
(b) The Π terms
Solution: We will use the Buckingham pi-theorem.
1 P ρ D V c ω μ n = 7 parameters
2 Select primary dimensions F, L, t:
3 P ρ D V c ω μ
2
M L M L L 1 M
L
3 3 t t t L t
t L r = 3 dimensions
4 ρ V D m = r = 3 repeating parameters

5 We have n - m = 4 dimensionless groups. Setting up dimensional equations:

2 a b
M L

M
 
a b c c L
0 0 0
Π1  P ρ  V  D
 3   t   L  M  L  t
Thus:
3
t L 
Summing exponents: The solution to this system is: P
Π1 
M: 1  a  0 a  1 b  3 c  2 3 2
ρ V  D
L: 2  3 a  b  c  0
t: 3  b  0
a b
       L  M  L  t
a b c L M L c 0 0 0
Π2  c ρ  V  D Thus:
 
L   
t 3 t

Summing exponents: The solution to this system is: c

Π2 
M: a  0 a0 b  1 c0 V

L: 1  3 a  b  c  0
t: 1  b  0
a b

M
 
a b c 1 c 0 0 0 L
Π3  ω ρ  V  D Thus:
   L  M L t
L   
t 3 t

Summing exponents: The solution to this system is: ω D

Π3 
M: a  0 a0 b  1 c1 V

L: 3  a  b  c  0
t: 1  b  0
 a b

M
 
a b c M cL 0 0 0
Π4  μ ρ  V  D
 3   t   L  M  L  t
Thus:
L t
L 
Summing exponents: The solution to this system is: μ
Π4 
M: 1  a  0 a  1 b  1 c  1 ρ V D

L: 1  3  a  b  c  0
t: 1  b  0
4 3 4
F L L t 1 L t 1 t F t L t 1
6 Check using F, L, t dimensions:    1  1  L 1    1
t 2 3 2 t L t L 2 2 L L
F t L L L F t
 Problem 7.37 [Difficulty: 2]

Given: Boundary layer profile

Find: Two  groups by inspection; One  that is a standard fluid mechanics group; Dimensionless groups

Solution:

Two obvious  groups are u/U and y/. A dimensionless group common in fluid mechanics is U (Reynolds number)

Apply the Buckingham  procedure

 u y U dU/dx   n = 6 parameters

 Select primary dimensions M, L, t

 
u y U dU dx  
 
   m = r = 3 primary dimensions
L L 1 2
L 
 L L
t t t t 

 U  m = r = 2 repeat parameters

 Then n – m = 4 dimensionless groups will result. We can easily do these by inspection

1 
u
2 
y
3 
dU dy 
4 

U  U U

 Check using F, L, t as primary dimensions, is not really needed here

Note: Any combination of ’s can be used; they are not unique!
 Problem 7.38 [Difficulty: 3]

Given: Model scale for on balloon

Find: Required water model water speed; drag on protype based on model drag

Solution:

kg  5 Ns kg  3 Ns
From Appendix A (inc. Fig. A.2) ρair  1.24 μair  1.8  10  ρw  999 μw  10 
3 2 3 2
m m m m

m
The given data is Vair  5  Lratio  20 Fw  2 kN
s

ρw Vw Lw ρair Vair Lair

For dynamic similarity we assume 
μw μair

μw ρair Lair μw ρair  10 3 

m    1.24   20 m
Then Vw  Vair    Vair   Lratio  5    999  Vw  6.90
μair ρw Lw μair ρw s  1.8  10 5    s
 

Fair Fw

For the same Reynolds numbers, the drag coefficients will be the same so we have 1 2 1 2
 ρair Aair Vair  ρw Aw Vw
2 2
2
Aair  Lair  2
where    Lratio
Aw
 Lw 

2
ρair  Vair 
2  1.24   202   5 
2
Hence the prototype drag is Fair  Fw  Lratio     2000 N   999   6.9  Fair  522 N
ρw
 Vw     
 Problem 7.39

1
Given: Airship is to operate at 40 m/s in air at standard conditions. A scale model is
40
to be tested in a wind tunnel at the same temperature to determine drag

To find: (a) Criterion needed to obtain dynamic similarity.

(b) Air pressure required if air speed in wind tunnel in 80 m/s
(c) Prototype drag if the drag on the model is 300 N.

Solution:

Dimensional analysis predicts

F  VL 
 f 
V L2 2
  
Therefore, for dynamic similarity, it would follow that
mVm Lm mVP LP

m P
Since, the tests are performed at the same temperature, the viscosities are the same. Solving for
the ratio of densities
m VP LP m
  
 P Vm Lm  P

Substitute corresponding values in the above equation

m 40
 10 1  20
 P 80
Now, from the ideal gas equation of state
P

RT
Thus,
 T
Pm m PP  m  P (1)
 P Tm
Substitute corresponding values in equation (1)
Pm  101kPa  20 1
 20.20 105 Pa

Hence, the required air pressure is 20.20 105 Pa .

Now, from the force ratios:

FP Fm

 PVP LP mVm2 L2m
2 2

Thus,
2
 V   L 
FP  Fm P  P   P 
m  Vm   Lm 

Substitute corresponding values in the above equation

2
 1  40 
FP   300 N      40 
2

 20  80 
 6 103 N
 6 kN

Hence, the prototype drag is 6 kN .

 Problem 7.40 [Difficulty: 2]

Given: A model is to be subjected to the same Reynolds number in air flow and water flow
Find: (a) Which flow will require the higher flow speed
(b) How much higher the flow speed needs to be
ρw Vw Lw ρa  Va La Va ρw μa νa
Solution: For dynamic similarity:  We know that Lw  La Thus:   
μw μa Vw ρa μw νw

2 2
6 m 5 m
From Tables A.8 and A.10 at 20 deg C: νw  1.00  10  and νa  1.51  10  Therefore:
s s

Va 5
1.51  10
  15.1 Air speed must be higher than
Vw 6 water speed.
1.00  10

To match Reynolds number: Va  15.1 Vw

 Problem 7.41 [Difficulty: 5]

Given: Vessel to be powered by a rotating circular cylinder. Model tests are planned to determine the required power
for the prototype.
Find: (a) List of parameters that should be included in the analysis
(b) Perform dimensional analysis to identify the important dimensionless groups
Solution: From an inspection of the physical problem: P  f ( ρ μ V ω D H)
We will now use the Buckingham pi-theorem to find the dimensionless groups.
1 P ρ μ V ω D H n = 7 parameters
2 Select primary dimensions M, L, t:
3 P ρ μ V ω D H
2
M L M M L 1
L L r = 3 dimensions
3 3 L t t t
t L

4 ρ ω D m = r = 3 repeating parameters
5 We have n - m = 4 dimensionless groups. Setting up dimensional equations:
2 a b
M L

M
 
a b c c 1
0 0 0
Π1  P ρ  ω  D
 3   t   L  M  L  t
Thus:
3
t L 
Summing exponents: The solution to this system is: P
Π1 
M: 1  a  0 a  1 b  3 c  5 3 5
ρ ω  D
L: 2  3 a  c  0
t: 3  b  0
a b

M
 
a b c M c 1
0 0 0
Π2  μ ρ  ω  D
 3   t   L  M  L  t
Thus:
L t
L 
Summing exponents: The solution to this system is: μ
Π2 
M: 1  a  0 a  1 b  1 c  2 2
ρ ω D
L: 1  3  a  c  0
t: 1  b  0
a b

M
 
a b c L c 0 0 0 1
Π3  V ρ  ω  D Thus:
   L  M L t
L   
t 3 t

Summing exponents: The solution to this system is: V

Π3 
M: a  0 a0 b  1 c  1 ω D

L: 1  3 a  c  0
t: 1  b  0
 a b
L 
M
 
a b c 1
c 0 0 0
Π4  H ρ  ω  D
 3   t   L  M  L  t
Thus:
L 
Summing exponents: The solution to this system is: H
Π4 
M: a  0 a0 b0 c  1 D

L: 1  3 a  c  0
t: b  0

4 4
F L L 3 1 F t L 1 L 1 1
6 Check using F, L, t dimensions:  t  1   t 1  t 1 L 1
t 2 5 2 2 2 t L L
F t L L F t L

 f
H
 
P μ V
The functional relationship is: Π1  f Π2 Π3 Π4  
3 5  2 ω D D 
ρ ω  D  ρ ω D 
 Problem 7.42 [Difficulty: 3]

Given: Measurements of drag are made on a model car in a fresh water tank. The model is 1/5-scale.
Find: (a) Conditions requred to ensure dynamic similarity between the model and the prototype.
(b) Required fraction of speed in air at which the model needs to be tested in water to ensure dynamically similar
conditions.
(c) Drag force on the prototype model traveling at 90 kph in air if the model drag is 182 N traveling at 4 m/s in
water.

Solution: The flows must be geometrically and kinematically similar, and have equal Reynolds numbers to be dynamically
similar:
Geometric similarity requires a true model in all respects.
Kinematic similarity requires the same flow pattern, i.e., no free-surface or cavitation effects.
The problem may be stated as F = f(ρ,V,L,μ)

F ρ V L V L
Dimensional analysis gives this relation:  g ( Re) where Re  
2 2 μ ν
ρ V  L

Vm Lm Vp  Lp Vm νm Lp
Matching Reynolds numbers between the model and prototype  Thus:  
flows: νm νp Vp νp Lm

2 2
6 m 5 m
From Tables A.8 and A.10 at 20 deg C: νw  1.00  10  and νa  1.51  10  Therefore:
s s

Vm 6 Vm
1.00  10 5
   0.331  0.331
Vp 5 1 Vp
1.51  10

2 2
Fm Fp  Vp   Lp 
ρp
If the conditions are dynamically similar:  Thus: Fp  Fm    
ρm Vm
2
ρm Vm  Lm
2 2
ρp  Vp  Lp
2
   Lm 

2 2
1.20  km 1000 m hr s  5
Substituting in known values: Fp  182  N    90      1 Fp  213 N
999  hr km 3600  s 4  m  
 Problem 7.43

Given: Flow around ship’s propeller

To find: Model propeller speed using Froude number and Reynolds number

Solution:

Basic equations required:

V V L
Fr  Re 
gL v

Assumptions:

1) The model and the actual propeller are geometrically similar

2) The flows about the propellers are Kinametically and dynamically similar

Using the Froude number

V V
Frm   Fr  or
g  Lm g  L
Vm Lm
 1
V L

But the angular velocity is given by

V  L  so
Vm Lm m
   2
V L 

Comparing Eqn (1) and (2)

 Lm m Lm
 
L  L

m L

 Lm

The model rotation speed is then

L
m   
Lm
10
m  120rpm 
1
m  379.5rpm

Using the Reynolds number,

Vm  Lm V L
Re m   Re     or
vm v
Vm L vm L
   3
V Lm v Lm

(We have assumed the viscosities of the sea water and model water are comparable)

Comparing equation (2) and (3)

Lm m L
 
L  Lm
2
m  L 
 
  Lm 

The model rotation speed is then,

2
L 
m      
 Lm 
2
 10 
 120rpm  
1
m  12000rpm

Of the two models, the Froude number appears most realistic: at 12,000 rpm serious cavitation
will occur, which would invalidate the similarity assumptions. Both flows will likely have high
Reynolds number so that the flow becomes independent of Reynolds number; the Froude number
is likely to be a good indicates of static pressure is likely to dynamic pressure for this (although
cavitation number would be better)
 Problem 7.44

Given: A torpedo with D = 547 mm and L = 7.1 m is to travel at 32 m/s in water. A

1
scale model of the torpedo is to be tested in wind tunnel. The maximum speed
7
in the tunnel is fixed at 115 m/s, but the pressure can be varied at a constant
temperature of 25 C.

To find: a) Minimum pressure required in the wind tunnel for dynamically similar testing.
b) The expected drag on the prototype if the model drag is 628 N

Solution:

The problem may be stated as F  f   , V , D,   . From the Buckingham pi theorem, we expect

2 terms.

F VD
 g  Re  where Re 
V 2 D 2 

Matching Reynolds number between the model and prototype flows:

 mVm Dm  pV p D p
 Thus,
m p
Vp Dp m
m   p
Vm Dm  p

At 25 C:

N s
 p  8.92 104  Table A.8
m2
N s
m  1.84 105 2  Table A.10 
m

So substituting in values yield

 kg 32 7 1.84 105
 m  997 3   
m 115 1 8.93 104
kg
 m  40.0 3
m

From the ideal gas equation of state: pm  m RTm

Substituting in values:

kg Nm Pa×m 2
pm  40.0 3  287  298K 
m kg×K N
pm  3.421 MPa

If the conditions are dynamically similar:

Fm Fp
 Thus :
 mVm Dm
2 2
 pV p 2 D p 2
 V   D 
2 2

Fp  Fm p  p   p 
 m  Vm   Dm 

Substituting in known values:

2 2
997  32   7 
Fp  628N     
40  115   1 
Fp  59.40KN
 Problem 7.45 [Difficulty: 3]

7.45 The drag of an airfoil at zero angle of attack is a function of

density, viscosity, and velocity, in addition to a length parameter.
A 1:5-scale model of an airfoil was tested in a wind tunnel at a
speed of 40 m/s, temperature of 15°C, and 3800 mm Hg. The
prototype airfoil has a chord length of 1.8 m and is to be flown in
air at standard conditions. Determine the Reynolds number at
which the wind tunnel model was tested and the corresponding
prototype speed at the same Reynolds number.

Given: A 1/10 scale airfoil was tested in a wind tunnel at known test conditions. Prototype airfoil has a chord length of
1.8 m and is to be flown at standard conditions.

Find: (a) Reynolds number at which the model was tested.

(b) Corresponding prototype speed.

Solution:

Assumptions: (a) The viscosity of air does not vary appreciably between 760 mm and 3800 mm Hg.
(b) Geometric, kinematic, and dynamic similarity applies.

The problem may be stated as: F = f(ρ, V, L, µ). From the Buckingham pi theorem, we expect 2 Π terms:

F ρ⋅V⋅L 1.8 m
2 2
= g(Re) where Re = The model chord length is L m = = 0.36 m
ρ⋅V ⋅L µ 5

pm
We can calculate the model flow density from the ideal gas equation of state: ρm = Substituting known values:
R ⋅ Tm

kg ⋅ K 1 kg
ρm = (3800 × 133.32) Pa × × ρm = 6.129
287 N ⋅ m 288 K m3

N ⋅s kg m m2
At 15°C: µ m = 1.79 × 10−5 2
Therefore: Re m = 6.129 3
× 40 × 0.36 m ×
m m s 1.79 × 10−5 N ⋅ s

Re m = 4.93 × 106

ρm ⋅ Vm ⋅ L m ρp ⋅ Vp ⋅ L p ρ L µp
Matching Reynolds numbers between the model and prototype flows: = Thus: Vp = Vm ⋅ m ⋅ m ⋅
µm µp ρp Lp µm

ρm p m Tp p Tp L m µ p
From the ideal gas equation of state: = ⋅ Therefore: Vp = Vm ⋅ m ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ So substituting in values yields:
ρp p p Tm p p Tm L p µ m

m 3800 288 0.36 1.79 × 10−5 m

Vp = 40 × × × × Vp = 40
s 760 288 1.8 1.79 × 10−5 s
 Problem 7.46 [Difficulty: 2]

7.46 Consider a smooth sphere, of diameter D, immersed in a fluid

moving with speed V. The drag force on a 3 m diameter weather
balloon in air moving at 1.5 m/s is to be calculated from test data. The
test is to be performed in water using a 50 mm diameter model. Under
dynamically similar conditions, the model drag force is measured as
3.8 N. Evaluate the model test speed and the drag force expected on
the full-scale balloon.

Given: Model of weather balloon.

Find: Model test speed; drag force expected on full-scale balloon.

Solution:

F  ν V
From Buckingham Π 2
=f 2
,  = F(Re, M)
ρ⋅V ⋅D  V⋅D c 

For similarity Re p = Re m and Mp = Mm (Mach number criterion

satisfied because M << 1)

Vp ⋅ D p Vm ⋅ D m
Hence Re p = = Re m =
νp νm

νm D p
Vm = Vp ⋅ ⋅
νp D m

m2 m2
From Table A.8 at 20°C νm = 1.01 × 10 −6 From Table A.10 at 20°C νp = 1.5 × 10 −5
s s

 m2 
 1.01× 10−6 
m s 3m m
Vm = 1.5 ×  × Vm = 6
s  −5 m
2
 0.05 m s
 1.50 × 10 
 s 

Fm Fp ρp Vp2 D2p
Then = Fp = Fm ⋅ ⋅ ⋅
ρm ⋅ Vm2 ⋅ D2m ρp ⋅ Vp2 ⋅ D2p ρm Vm2 D2m

2
 kg   m 
 1.2 3   1.5   3m 
2
Fp = 3.8 N ×  m × s
 ×  Fp = 1.03 N
 103 kg   6 m  
0.05 m 
 
 m3   s 
 Problem 7.47

Given: Model of wing

To find: Model test speed for dynamic similarity; ratio of model of prototype forces.

Solution:

We would expect
F  F 1, S ,V ,  ,  
Here, F is the force (lift or drag), 1 is the chord and S the span

From Buckingham 
F    V 1 1 
 f , 
  V 1  S
2
  S

From dynamic similarity,

mVm1m  PVP1P

m P
Hence,
 P 1P m
Vm  VP    1
m 1m P
From table A.8 at 20C
m  1.01103 Ns/m2

From table A.10 at 20C

P  1.81105 Ns/m2

Substitute corresponding values in equation (1)

 1.21 kg/m3   20   1.01103 Ns 
Vm  10 m/s  3   5 2 
 998 kg/m   1   1.8110 Ns/m 
 13.53 m/s

Hence, the model test speed for dynamic similarity is 13.53 m/s .
Then,
Fm FP

 m Vm 1m  Sm  P  VP 2 1P  S P
2

Fm  m Vm 2 1m Sm
   
FP  P VP 2 1P S P

Substitute corresponding values in the above equation

2
Fm 998  13.53   1  1 
     
FP 1.21  10   10  10 
 15.1

Hence, the ratio of model of prototype forces is 15.1 .

 Problem 7.48 [Difficulty: 3]

Given: The fluid dynamic charachteristics of a gold ball are the be tested using a model in a wind tunnel. The
dependent variables are the drag and lift forces. Independent variables include the angular speed and dimple
depth. A pro golfer can hit a ball at a speed of 75 m/s and 8100 rpm. Wind tunnel maximum speed is 25 m/s.
Find: (a) Suitable dimensionless parameters and express the functional dependence between them.
(b) Required diameter of model
(c) Required rotational speed of model

Solution:
Assumption: Wind tunnel is at standard conditions

The problem may be stated as: FD  FD( D V ω d ρ μ) FL  FL( D V ω d ρ μ) n = 7 and m = r = 3, so
from the Buckingham pi theorem, we expect two sets of four Π terms. The application of the Buckingham pi theorem will not be
shown here, but the functional dependences would be:
FD ρ V D ω D d  FL ρ V D ω D d 
 f      g    
2 2
ρ V  D  μ V D  2
ρ V  D
2  μ V D

To determine the required model diameter, we match Reynolds numbers between the model and prototype flows:

ρm Vm Dm ρp  Vp  Dp ρp Vp μm 75
 Thus: Dm  Dp    Substituting known values: Dm  4.27 cm  1  1
μm μp ρm Vm μp 25
Dm  12.81  cm

To determine the required angular speed of the model, we match the dimensionless rotational speed between the flows:

ωm Dm ωp  Dp Dp Vm 4.27 25
 Thus: ωm  ωp   Substituting known values: ωm  8100 rpm   ωm  900  rpm
Vm Vp Dm Vp 12.81 75
 Problem 7.49 [Difficulty: 3]

7.49 A water pump with impeller diameter 60 cm is to be

3
designed to move 0.4 m /s when running at 750 rpm. Testing is
performed on a 1:4 scale model running at 2400 rpm using air
(20°C) as the fluid. For similar conditions (neglecting Reynolds
number effects), what will be the model flow rate? If the model
draws 75 W, what will be the power requirement of the
prototype?

Given: Model of water pump.

Find: Model flow rate for dynamic similarity (ignoring Re); Power of prototype.

Solution:

From Buckingham Π Q P where Q is flow rate, ω is angular speed,

and
ω⋅ D 3
ρ⋅ω ⋅D 3 5 d is diameter, and ρ is density (these Π
groups will be discussed in Chapter 10)

Qm Qp
For dynamic similarity =
ω m ⋅ D3m ω p ⋅ D3p

3
ωm D 
Hence Qm = Qp ⋅ ⋅ m 
ωp  Dp 
 

3
m3  2400   1  m3
Q m = 0.4 × ×  Q m = 0.02
s  750   4  s

kg kg
From Table A.8 at 20°C ρp = 998 3
From Table A.10 at 20°C ρm = 1.21
m m3

Pm Pp
Then =
ρm ⋅ ω 3m ⋅ D5m ρp ⋅ ω 3p ⋅ D5p

3 5
ρp  ωp   D p 
Pp = Pm ⋅ ⋅  ⋅ 
ρm  ωm   D m 

3 5
998  750   4 
Pp = 75 W × × × Pp = 1.93 MW
1.21  2400   1 

Note that if we had used water instead of air as the working fluid for the model pump, it would have drawn 62 kW. Water would
have been an acceptable working fluid for the model, and there would have been less discrepancy in the Reynolds number.
 Problem 7.50 [Difficulty: 2]

7.50 A model test is performed to determine the flight

characteristics of a Frisbee. Dependent parameters are drag
force, FD, and lift force, FL. The independent parameters should
include angular speed, ω, and roughness height, h. Determine
suitable dimensionless parameters, and express the functional
dependence among them. The test (using air) on a 1:7-scale
model Frisbee is to be geometrically, kinematically, and
dynamically similar to the prototype. The wind tunnel test
conditions are Vm = 42 m/s and ωm = 5000 rpm. What are the
corresponding values of Vp, and ωp?

Given: Model of Frisbee.

Find: Dimensionless parameters; Prototype speed and angular speed.

Solution:

Assumption: Geometric, kinematic, and dynamic similarity between model and prototype.

The functional dependence is F = F(D,V, ω, h, ρ, µ) where F represents lift or drag

F  ρ ⋅ V ⋅ D ω⋅ D h 
From Buckingham Π 2
=f2
, , 
ρ⋅V ⋅D  µ V D

ρm ⋅ Vm ⋅ D m ρp ⋅ Vp ⋅ D p ρm D m µ p m  1
For dynamic similarity = Vp = Vm ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ Vp = 42 × (1) ×   × (1)
µm µp ρp D p µ m s  7

m
Vp = 6
s

ω m ⋅ Dm ω p ⋅ Dp D m Vp 1  6 
Also = ωp = ωm ⋅ ⋅ ωp = 5000 ⋅ rpm ×   ×  
Vm Vp D p Vm  7   42 

ω p = 102 ⋅ rpm
 Problem 7.51 [Difficulty: 3]

7.51 A model hydrofoil is to be tested at 1:20 scale. The test

speed is chosen to duplicate the Froude number corresponding
to the 30 m/s prototype speed. To model cavitation correctly,
the cavitation number also must be duplicated. At what ambient
pressure must the test be run? Water in the model test basin can
be heated to 54°C, compared to 7°C for the prototype.

Given: A 1:20 model of a hydrofoil is to be tested in water at 54°C. The prototype operates at a speed of 30 m/s in water
at 7°C. To model the cavitation, the cavitation number must be duplicated.

Find: Ambient pressure at which the test must be run.

Vm Vp
Solution: To duplicate the Froude number between the model and the prototype requires: = Thus:
g ⋅ Lm g ⋅ Lp

Lm 1
Vm = Vp ⋅ Vm = 30 m/s Vm = 6.7 m/s
Lp 20

pm − pvm pp − p vp
To match the cavitation number between the model and the prototype: = Therefore:
1 1
⋅ρm ⋅ Vm 2 ⋅ρp ⋅ Vp2
2 2

2 2
ρ V  V 
p m = p vm + (p p − p vp ) ⋅ m ⋅ m  Assuming that the densities equal: p m = p vm + (p p − p vp ) ⋅  m 
ρp  Vp   Vp 
   

From table A.8 at 54°C pvm = 15.4 kPa at 7°C pvp = 1.03 kPa Thus the model pressure is:

2
 6.7 
p m = 15.4 kPa(abs) + (101.3 − 1.03) kPa(abs) ×   pm = 20.4 kPa
 30 
 Problem 7.52 [Difficulty: 2]

7.52 SAE 10 W oil at 25°C flowing in a 25 mm diameter

horizontal pipe, at an average speed of 1 m/s, produces a
pressure drop of 450 kPa (gage) over a 150 m length. Water at
15°C flows through the same pipe under dynamically similar
conditions. Using the results of Example 7.2, calculate the
average speed of the water flow and the corresponding pressure
drop.

Given: Oil flow in pipe and dynamically similar water flow.

Find: Average water speed and pressure drop.

Solution:

∆p  µ 1 e
From Example 7.2 =f , ,
ρ⋅ V 2  ρ⋅ V ⋅ D D D 

µ H 2O µ Oil µ H 2O ρOil νH O
For dynamic similarity = so VH 2O = ⋅ ⋅ VOil = 2 ⋅ VOil
ρH 2O ⋅ VH2 O ⋅ D H 2O ρOil ⋅ VOil ⋅ DOil ρH 2O µOil ν Oil

m2
From Fig. A.3 at 25°C ν Oil = 8 ×10−5
s

m2
From Table A.8 at 15°C ν H 2O = 1.14 × 10−6
s

m2
1.14 × 10−6
Hence VH 2O = s ×1 m VH 2O = 0.0142
m
2 s
m s
8 ×10−5
s

∆pOil ∆p H 2 O ρH 2O ⋅ VH2 O 2
Then 2
= ∆p H 2 O = ⋅ ∆pOil
ρOil ⋅ VOil ρH 2O ⋅ VH2 2O ρOil ⋅ VOil 2

From Table A.2 SG Oil = 0.92

2
1  0.0142 
∆p H 2 O = × × 450 kPa ∆p H 2O = 98.6 Pa
0.92  1 
 Problem 7.53

7.53 The speed of a prototype of a sub-marine is 12m/s. A model is

constructed to 28:1 scale and tested in a wind tunnel. Determine the
speed of air in wind tunnel. Also find out the drag ratio between the
sub-marine model and its prototype. The kinematic viscosity for sea
water is 0.015 stokes, and for air is 0.018 stokes. The density of for air
is given as 1.35 kg/m3, and for sea-water is given as 1080 kg/m3.

Given: Prototype of a sub-marine and its model constructed to 28:1 scale.

To find: Speed of air in wind tunnel; drag ratio between the sub-marine model and its
prototype.

Solution:

For Prototype:

Speed, Vp  12 m/s

Fluid = Sea-water

Kinematic viscosity,

v p  0.015 stokes = 0.015 cm2 /s

= 0.015  104 m2 /s

Density, ρ p  1080 kg/m3

For Model:

Fluid = Air

Kinematic viscosity,

vm  0.018 stokes = 0.018 cm2 /s

= 0.018  104 m2 /s

Density, ρm  1.35 kg/m3

Also,

Length of prototype Lp
  28.0
Length of Model Lm
Let the velocity of the air in model = Vm

For dynamic similarity between the sub-marine prototype and the model, the Reynold’s number
for both of them should be same.

ρ pVp Dp ρmVm Dm V D V D V D V D
 or p p  m m ; p p  m m
μp μm     p    m v p vm

vm DP
Vm    Vp
vP Dm
0.018  104  DP V p 
  28  12m/s    28
0.015  104  Dm Vm 
 403.2 m/s

Drag force ratio us given by:

Drag force  Mass × Acceleration

V
 ρL3 
t
L  L 
 ρ  L2   V  V 
t  t 
 ρL2V 2

For prototype, drag force = Fp

for model, drag force = Fm

Fp ρ p Lp 2V p 2

Fm ρ m Lm 2Vm 2
1080  282 102

1.35  403.22
 385.80

Thus, speed of air in tunnel is 403.2 m/s and drag ratio between the sub-marine model and its
prototype is 385.80
 Problem 7.54 [Difficulty: 3]

7.54 A
1
8
scale model of a tractor-trailer rig is tested in a
pressurized wind tunnel. The rig width, height, and length are
W = 0.305 m, Π = 0.476 m, and L = 2.48 m, respectively. At wind
speed V = 75.0 m/s, the model drag force is FD = 128 N. (Air
3
density in the tunnel is ρ = 3.23 kg/m .) Calculate the aerodynamic
drag coefficient for the model. Compare the Reynolds numbers for
the model test and for the prototype vehicle at 88 km/h. Calculate
the aerodynamic drag force on the prototype vehicle at a road speed
of 88 km/h into a headwind of 16 km/h.

Given: 1/8-scale model of a tractor-trailer rig was tested in a pressurized wind tunnel.

Find: (a) Aerodynamic drag coefficient for the model.

(b) Compare the Reynolds numbers for the model and the prototype vehicle at 88 km/h.
(c) Calculate aerodynamic drag on the prototype at a speed of 88 km/h into a headwind of 16 km/h.

Solution: We will use definitions of the drag coefficient and Reynolds number.

Governing CD =
FD (Drag Coefficient)
Equations: 1
⋅ρ⋅ V 2 ⋅ A
2

ρ⋅ V ⋅ L (Reynolds Number)
Re =
µ

Assume that the frontal area for the model is: A m = Wm ⋅ H m A m = 0.305 ⋅ m × 0.476 ⋅ m A m = 0.1452 ⋅ m 2

2
m3  s  1 kg ⋅ m
The drag coefficient would then be: C Dm = 2 × 128 ⋅ N × ×  × × CDm = 0.0970
3.23 ⋅ kg  750.0 ⋅ m  0.1452 ⋅ m 2 N ⋅ s 2

Rem ρm Vm L m µ p
From the definition of Re : = ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ Assuming standard conditions and equal viscosities:
Re p ρp Vp L p µ m

Rem 3.23  m 5  1
= ×  75 ×  × ×1 = 1 Re m = Re p
Re p 1.23  s 24.4 m  8

Since the Reynolds numbers match, assuming geometric and kinetic similarity we can say that the drag coefficients are equal:

1
FDp = ⋅ CD ⋅ ρp ⋅ Vp 2 ⋅ A p Substituting known values yields:
2

2
1 kg  m N ⋅ s2
FDp = × 0.0970 × 1.23 ⋅ 3 ×  (24.4 + 4.4)  × 0.1452 ⋅ m 2 × 82 × FDp = 460 N
2 m  s kg ⋅ m
 Problem 7.55 [Difficulty: 2]

7.55 On a cruise ship, passengers complain about the amount of

smoke that becomes entrained behind the cylindrical smoke stack.
You have been hired to study the flow pattern around the stack, and
have decided to use a 1:15 scale model of the 4.75 m smoke stack.
What range of wind tunnel speeds could you use if the ship speed
for which the problem occurs is 6 to 12 m/s?

Given: Flow around cruise ship smoke stack.

Find: Range of wind tunnel speeds.

Solution:

Vm ⋅ D m Vp ⋅ D p Dp 15
For dynamic similarity = or Vm = ⋅ Vp = ⋅ Vp = 15 ⋅ Vp
νm νp Dm 1

m m m
Hence for Vp = 6 Vm = 15 × 6 Vm = 90
s s s

m m m
Vp = 12 Vm = 15 × 12 Vm = 180
s s s

Note that these speeds are very high - compressibility effects may become important, since the Mach number is no longer much
less than 1!
 Problem 7.56 [Difficulty: 2]

Given: Model of flying insect

Find: Wind tunnel speed and wing frequency; select a better model fluid

Solution: For dynamic similarity the following dimensionless groups must be the same in the insect and model (these are
Reynolds number and Strouhal number, and can be obtained from a Buckingham Π analysis)

Vinsect Linsect Vm Lm ωinsect Linsect ωm Lm

 
νair νm Vinsect Vm
2
kg 5 m
From Table A.9 (68oF) ρair  1.21 νair  1.50  10 
3 s
m
m Linsect 1
The given data is ωinsect  60 Hz Vinsect  1.5 
s Lm 8
Linsect νm Linsect m 1 m
Hence in the wind tunnel Vm  Vinsect   Vinsect Vm  1.5  Vm  0.1875
Lm νair Lm s 8 s
Vm Linsect 0.1875 1
Also ωm  ωinsect  ωm  60 Hz   ωm  0.9375 Hz
Vinsect Lm 1.5 8
It is unlikely measurable wing lift can be measured at such a low wing frequency (unless the measured lift was averaged, using an
integrator circuit, or perhaps a load cell and data acquisition system). Maybe try hot air (100 oC) for the model
2 2
5 m 5 m
For hot air try νhot  2.29  10  instead of νair  1.50  10 
s s
Vinsect Linsect Vm Lm Linsect νhot 5
m 1 2.29  10 m
Hence  Vm  Vinsect  Vm  1.5   Vm  0.286
νair νhot Lm νair s 8 5 s
1.50  10

Vm Linsect 0.286 1
Also ωm  ωinsect  ωm  60 Hz   ωm  1.43 Hz
Vinsect Lm 1.5 8
2
6 m
Hot air does not improve things much. Try modeling in water νw  1.01  10 
s
Vinsect Linsect Vm Lm Linsect νw 6
m 1 1.01  10 m
Hence  Vm  Vinsect  Vm  1.5   Vm  0.01262
νair νw Lm νair s 8 5 s
1.50  10
Vm Linsect Vm 0.01262 1
Also ωm  ωinsect   ωinsect L ωm  60 Hz   ωm  0.0631 Hz
Vinsect Lm Vinsect ratio 1.5 8
This is even worse! It seems the best bet is hot (very hot) air for the wind tunnel. Alternatively, choose a much
smaller wind tunnel model, e.g., a 2.5 X model would lead to V m = 0.6 m/s and ωm = 9.6 Hz
 Problem 7.57 [Difficulty: 3]

7.57 A model test of a tractor-trailer rig is performed in a wind

tunnel. The drag force, FD, is found to depend on frontal area A,
wind speed V, air density ρ, and air viscosity µ. The model
2
scale is 1:4; frontal area of the model is 0.625 m . Obtain a set
of dimensionless parameters suitable to characterize the model
test results. State the conditions required to obtain dynamic
similarity between model and prototype flows. When tested at
wind speed V = 89.6 m/s in standard air, the measured drag
force on the model was FD = 2.46 kN. Assuming dynamic
similarity, estimate the aerodynamic drag force on the full-scale
vehicle at V = 22.4 m/s. Calculate the power needed to
overcome this drag force if there is no wind.

Given: A model test of a 1:4 scale tractor-trailer rig is performed in standard air. The drag force is a function of A, V, ρ,
and µ.

Find: (a) Dimensionless parameters to characterize the model test results.

(b) Conditions for dynamic similarity.
(c) Drag force on the prototype vehicle based on test results.
(d) Power needed to overcome the drag force.

Solution: We will use the Buckingham pi-theorem.

1 FD A V ρ µ n = 5 parameters

2 Select primary dimensions F, L, t:

3 FD A V ρ µ

M⋅L L M M
2
L2 3
r = 3 dimensions
t t L L⋅t

4 ρ V A m = r = 3 repeating parameters

5 We have n − m = 2 dimensionless groups. Setting up dimensional equations:

a b
M⋅L  M  L
Π1 = F ⋅ρa ⋅ V b ⋅ A c Thus: ⋅  ⋅   ⋅ (L2 )c = M 0 ⋅ L0 ⋅ t 0
t 2  L3  t
Summing exponents: The solution to this system is:
FD
M: 1 + a = 0 a = −1 b = −2 c = −1 Π1 =
ρ⋅ V 2 ⋅ A
L: 1 − 3⋅a + b + 2c = 0
t: −2 − b = 0
a b
M  M  L
Π 2 = µ ⋅ρa ⋅ V b ⋅ A c Thus: ⋅   ⋅   ⋅ (L2 )c = M 0 ⋅ L0 ⋅ t 0
L ⋅ t  L3   t 
Summing exponents: The solution to this system is:
1 µ
M: 1 + a = 0 a = −1 b = −2 c=− Π2 =
2 ρ⋅ V ⋅ A
L: −1 − 3⋅a + b + 2⋅c = 0
t: −1 − b = 0
 L4 t2 1 F ⋅ t L4 t 1
6 Check using F, L, t dimensions: F ⋅ 2
⋅ 2
⋅ 2
=1 2 2
⋅ ⋅ =1
F⋅ t L L L F⋅ t L L

For dynamic similarity: We must have geometric and kinematic

similarity, and The Reynolds numbers
must match.

FDm FDp
Once dynamic similarity is insured, the drag coefficients must be equal: =
1 1
⋅ρm ⋅ Vm 2 ⋅ A m ⋅ρp ⋅ Vp 2 ⋅ A p
2 2

2 2
ρp  Vp  Ap 1.23  22.4 
So for the prototype: FDp = FDm ⋅ ⋅  ⋅ FDp = 2.46 kN × × × 42 FDp = 2 ⋅ 46 kN
ρm  Vm  Am 1.23  89.6 

m
The power requirement would be: P = FDp ⋅ Vp P = 2.46 kN × 22.4 P = 55.1 kW
s
 Problem 7.58 [Difficulty: 2]

7.58 Tests are performed on a 1:10-scale boat model. What must

be the kinematic viscosity of the model fluid if friction and
wave drag phenomena are to be correctly modeled? The full-
size boat will be used in a freshwater lake where the average
water temperature is 10°C.

Given: Model of boat.

Find: Model kinematic viscosity for dynamic similarity.

Solution:
For dynamic similarity Vm ⋅ L m Vp ⋅ L p Vm Vp (from Buckingham Π; the first
= (1) = (2) is the Reynolds number, the
νm νp g ⋅ Lm g ⋅ Lp
second the Froude number)

Vm g.L m Lm
Hence from Eq 2 = =
Vp g ⋅ Lp Lp

3
V L Lm Lm L 2
Using this in Eq 1 νm = νp ⋅ m ⋅ m = νp ⋅ ⋅ = νp ⋅  m 
Vp L p Lp Lp  Lp 
 

3
−6 2 −6  1 2
2
From Table A.8 at 10°C νp = 1.3 × 10 m /s ν m = 1.3 × 10 m /s ×   νm = 4.11 × 10 −8 m2 /s
 10 

Note that there aren’t any fluids in Figure A.3 with viscosities that low!
 Problem 7.59 [Difficulty: 3]

7.59 An automobile is to travel through standard air at 96 km/h.

1
To determine the pressure distribution, a 5
-scale model is to be
tested in water. What factors must be considered to ensure
kinematic similarity in the tests? Determine the water speed that
should be used. What is the corresponding ratio of drag force
between prototype and model flows? The lowest pressure
coefficient is Cp = −1.4 at the location of the minimum static
pressure on the surface. Estimate the minimum tunnel pressure
required to avoid cavitation, if the onset of cavitation occurs at
a cavitation number of 0.5.

Given: Model of automobile.

Find: Factors for kinematic similarity; Model speed; Ratio of protype and model drags; Minimum pressure for no
cavitation.

Solution:
ρm ⋅ Vm ⋅ L m ρp ⋅ Vp ⋅ L p ρp Lp µ m
For dynamic similarity = Vm = Vp ⋅ ⋅ ⋅
µm µp ρm Lm µp
For air (Table A.10) and water (Table A.8) at 20°C
kg N ⋅s
ρp = 1.21 3
µ p = 1.81 × 10−5
m m2
kg N ⋅s
ρm = 998 3
µ m = 1.01 × 10−3
m m2
m
26.67
s ×  1.21  ×  5  ×  1.01×10 
−3
km m
Vm = 96 ×       Vm = 9.02
h km  998   1   1.81× 10−5  s
96
h
Fm Fp
Then 2 2
=
ρm ⋅ Vm ⋅ L m ρp ⋅ Vp 2 ⋅ Lp 2

Fp ρp ⋅ Vp 2 ⋅ L p 2 2
1.21  26.67   5 
2
Fp
Hence = = × × = 0.205
Fm ρm ⋅ Vm ⋅ L m2 2 998  9.02   1  Fm

pmin − p V 1
For Ca = 0.5 = 0.5 so we get p min = p v + ⋅ρ⋅ V 2 for the water tank
1 2 4
⋅ρ⋅ V
2
From steam tables, for water at 20°C p V = 2.34 kPa so
2
1 kg  m
p min = 2.34 kPa + × 998 3 ×  9.02  p min = 22.6 kPa
4 m  s 
This is the minimum allowable pressure in the water tank; we can use it to find the required tank pressure.
p min − p tank 1.4
C p = −1.4 = p tank = p min + ⋅ρ ⋅ V 2 = p min + 0.7 ⋅ ρ ⋅ V 2
1 2
⋅ ρ⋅ V 2
2
2
kg  m
p tank = 22.6 kPa + 0.7 × 998 × 9.02 
3 
p tank = 79.4 kPa
m  s 
 Problem 7.60 [Difficulty: 3]

7.60 A l:50-scale model of a submarine is to be tested in a towing

tank under two conditions: motion at the free surface and motion
far below the surface. The tests are performed in freshwater. On
the surface, the submarine cruises at 12 m/s. At what speed
should the model be towed to ensure dynamic similarity? Far
below the surface, the sub cruises at 0.18 m/s. At what speed
should the model be towed to ensure dynamic similarity? What
must the drag of the model be multiplied by under each condition
to give the drag of the full-scale submarine?

Given: A scale model of a submarine is to be tested in fresh water under two conditions:
1 - on the surface
2 - far below the surface

Find: (a) Speed for the model test on the surface.

(b) Speed for the model test submerged.
(c) Ratio of full-scale drag to model drag.

Vm Vp Lm
Solution: On the surface, we need to match Froude numbers: = or : Vm = Vp ⋅
g ⋅ Lm g ⋅ Lp Lp

1 m
Thus for 1:50 scale: Vm = 12 m/s × Vm = 1.7 ⋅
50 s

ρm ⋅ Vm ⋅ L m ρp ⋅ Vp ⋅ L p ρp L p µ m
When submerged, we need to match Reynolds numbers: = or :Vm = Vp ⋅ ⋅ ⋅
µm µm ρm L m µ p

N ⋅s
From Table A.2, SG seawater = 1.025 and µ seawater = 1.08 × 10 −3 ⋅ at 20°C. Thus for 1:50 scale:
m2

1.025 50 1.08 × 10 −3 m
Vm = 0.18 m/s × × × Vm = 9.98 ⋅
0.998 1 1.00 × 10−3 s

FDm FDp
Under dynamically similar conditions, the drag coefficients will match: =
1 1
⋅ρm ⋅ Vm 2 ⋅ A m ⋅ρp ⋅ Vp 2 ⋅ A p
2 2

2 2
FDp ρp  Vp  Ap ρp  Vp L p 
Solving for the ratio of forces: = ⋅  ⋅ = ⋅  ⋅  Substituting in known values:
FDm ρm  Vm  A m ρm  Vm L m 

2
FDp 1.025  12 50  FDp
For surface travel: = × × = 1.28 × 105 = 1.28 × 105 (on surface)
FDm 0.998  1.7 1  FDm

2
FDp 1.025  0.18 50  FDp
For submerged travel: = × × = 0.835 = 0.835 (submerged)
FDm 0.998  9.98 1  FDm
 Problem 7.61 [Difficulty: 2]

7.61 A wind tunnel is being used to study the aerodynamics of a

full-scale model rocket that is 30 cm long. Scaling for drag
calculations are based on the Reynolds number. The rocket has
an expected maximum velocity of 190 km/h. What is the
Reynolds number at this speed? Assume ambient air is at 20°C.
The wind tunnel is capable of speeds up to 160 km/h; so an
attempt is made to improve this top speed by varying the air
temperature. Calculate the equivalent speed for the wind tunnel
using air at 5°C and 65°C. Would replacing air with carbon
dioxide provide higher equivalent speeds?

Given: Model size, model speed, and air temperatures.

Find: Equivalent speed of the full scale vehicle corresponding to the different air temperatures.

Solution:

Governing Re L =
VL
(Reynolds Number)
Equation: ν
where V is the air velocity, L is the length of the rocket or model, and, ν is the kinematic viscosity of air.
Subscript m corresponds to the model and r is the rocket.

Assumption: Modeling follows the Reynolds equivalency.

The given or available data is: Lm = LR = 30 cm VT = 160 km/h VR = 190 km/h

m2 m2
ν5°C = 1.37 × 10 −5 (Table A.9) ν 20° C = 1.5 × 10 −5 (Table A.10)
s s
m2
ν65°C = 1.94 × 10 −5 (Table A.9)
s
m2
ν CO2 = 8.3 × 10 −6 (Figure A.3 or other source)
s

Determine the Reynolds Number for expected maximum speed at ambient temperature:

km h 1000 m
190 × × × 0.3 m
VR LR h 3600 s km
Re L = = Re L = 1.06 × 106
νR m2
1.5 × 10 −5
s

VL L M ν 20°C
Re-arrange the Reynolds Number Equation for speed equivalents: Re L = ⇒ VR = VT × ×
ν LR νT

In this problem, the only term that changes is νT

m2
1.5 × 10 −5
LM ν 20° C km 0.3 m s = 175 km
Solve for speed at the low temperature: VR = VT × × = 160 × × 2
LR ν 5° C h 0.3 m m h
1.37 × 10 −5
s
 m2
1.5 × 10 −5
LM ν 20°C km 0.3 m s = 123.7 km
Solve for speed at the high temperature: VR = VT × × = 160 × ×
LR ν 65° C h 0.3 m m2 h
1.94 × 10 −5
s

m2
1.5 × 10 −5
LM ν 20°C km 0.3 m s = 289 km
Solve for CO2: VR = VT × × = 160 × ×
LR ν CO2 h 0.3 m m2 h
8.3 × 10 −6
s

km km km
VR @5° C = 175 VR @65° C = 123.7 VR @ CO2 = 289
h h h

Chilling the air to 5°C increases the model speed, but not enough to achieve the target. Heating the air works against the desired
outcome.

This shows that the equivalent speed can be increased by decreasing the kinematic viscosity. An inspection of figure A.3 shows
that cooling air decreases the kinematic viscosity. It also shows that CO2 has a lower kinematic viscosity than air resulting in much
higher model speeds.
 Problem 7.62

Given: The drag force on a circular cylinder immersed in a water flow can be expressed
as function of D, l, V,  , and  . Static pressure distribution can be expressed in
terms of the pressure coefficient. At the minimum static pressure, the pressure
coefficient is equal to -2.8. Cavitation onset occurs at a cavitation number of 0.7.

To find: a) Drag force in dimensionless form as a function of all relevant variables

b) Maximum speed at which a cylinder could be towed in water at atmospheric
pressure without cavitation

Solution:

The functional relationship for drag force is FD  FD  D, l , V ,  ,   . From the Buckingham

 theorem , we have 6 variables and 3 repeating parameters. Therefore, we will have 3
dimensional groups. The functional form of:

FD  1 VD 
 g  
 V  D
2 2
D  

The pressure coefficient is:

p  pinf
Cp  and the cavitation number can be expressed as
1
V 2

p  pv
Ca 
1
V
2

At the minimum pressure point

 1
pmin  pinf  Vmax 2  C pmin
2

Where C pmin   2.8

At the onset of cavitation

1
pmin  pv  Vmax 2Ca where Ca  0.7
2

Equating these two expressions:

1 1
pinf  Vmax 2  C pmin  pv  Vmax 2  Ca
2 2

And if we solve for Vmax

2  pinf  pv 
Vmax 
  Ca  C pmin

At room temperature (20 C)

pv  0.339  6894.757  2.34 KPa

slug
  1.94
ft 2
lbf ft 3 1 slug  ft 144in 2
Vmax  2  14.7  0.339     
in 2 1.94slug 0.7   2.8   lbf  s 2 ft 2
ft m
Vmax  24.7  7.51
s s
m
Vmax  7.51
s
 Problem 7.63 [Difficulty: 4]

Given: A circular container partiall filled with water is rotate about its axis at constant angular velocity ω. Velocity in the
θ direction is a function of r, τ, ω, ρ, and μ.
Find: (a) Dimensionless parameters that characterize this problem
(b) If honey would attain steady motion as quickly as water if rotated at the same angular speed
(c) Why Reynolds number is not an important parameter in scaling the steady-state motion of liquid in the
container.
Solution: The functional relationship for drag force is: Vθ  Vθ( ω r τ ρ μ) From the Buckingham Π-theorem, we have
6 variables and 3 repeating parameters. Therefore, we will have 3 dimensionless groups. The functional form of
these groups is:

Vθ
 g ω τ
μ
ω r  2 
 ρ ω r 

μ
From the above result Π2  containing the properties μ and ρ, and Π3  ω τ containing the time τ
2
ρ ω r

μ μ τ ν τ νh  τh νw τw
Π2  Π3   ω τ   Now for steady flow:  and at the same radius:
2 2 2 2 2
ρ ω r ρ r r r r

νw
νh  τh  νw τw τh  τw Now since honey is more viscous than water, it follows that: τh  τw
νh

At steady state, solid body rotation exists. There are no viscous forces, and therefore, the Reynolds number would
not be important.
 Problem 7.64

Given: Model of tractor-trailer truck

To find: Drag coefficient; Drag on prototype; Model speed for dynamic similarity

Solution:

For kinetic similarity we need to ensure the geometrics of model and prototype are similar, as is
the incoming flow field.

The drag coefficient is

Fm
CD 
1
mVm 2 Am
2

For air (standard) at 20 C from table A.10

kg Ns
 m  1.21  p  1.81105
m3 m2
N  s2
2
m3  s  1
CD  2  370N     
1.21kg  85m  0.2m 2 kg  m
CD  0.42

This is the drag coefficient for model and prototype for the rig,

1 Ap L 
Fp   pV p 2 Ap CD with   p  2  81
2 Am  Lm 
Ap  9m 2
1 kg  km 1000m 1hr  N  s2
Fp   1.21 3  100    2  9m  0.42 
2

2 m  hr 1km 3600s  kgm

Fp  1.76 kN
For dynamic similarity

 pVm Lm  pV p Lp

m p
 p Lp m Lp
Vm  V p  Vp
 m Lm  p Lm
km 1000m 1hr 9
Vm  100   
hr 1km 3600s 1
m
Vm  250
s

For air at standard conditions, the speed of sound is

c  KRT
Nm kg  m
c  1.40  286.9   20  273 K  2
kg  K s N
m
c  343
s

Hence we have

Vm 250
M   0.729
c 343

Which indicates compressibility is significant; this model is impractical (and unnecessary).

 Problem 7.65 [Difficulty: 3]

7.65 It is recommended in [8] that the frontal area of a model be

less than 5 percent of the wind tunnel test section area and Re =
6
Vw/ν > 2 × 10 , where w is the model width. Further, the model
height must be less than 30 percent of the test section height,
and the maximum projected width of the model at maximum
yaw (20°) must be less than 30 percent of the test section width.
The maximum air speed should be less than 91 m/s to avoid
compressibility effects. A model of a tractor-trailer rig is to be
tested in a wind tunnel that has a test section 0.46 m high and
0.61 m wide. The height, width, and length of the full-scale rig
are 4.1 m, 2.4 m and 19.8 m respectively. Evaluate the scale
ratio of the largest model that meets the recommended criteria.
Assess whether an adequate Reynolds number can be achieved
in this test facility.

Given: Recommended procedures for wind tunnel tests of trucks and buses suggest:
-Model frontal area less than 5% of test section area
-Reynolds number based on model width greater than 2,000,000
-Model height less than 30% of test section height
-Model projected width at maximum yaw (20 deg) less than 30% of test section width
-Air speed less than 91 m/s to avoid compressibility effects
Model of a tractor-trailer to be tested in a tunnel 0.46 m high × 0.61 m wide. Full scale rig is 4.1 m, 2.4 m and 19.8 m long.

Find: (a) Max scale for tractor-trailer model in this tunnel.

(b) If adequate Reynolds number can be achieved in this facility.

Solution: Let s be the scale ratio. Then: hm = s ⋅ hp wm = s ⋅ wp lm = s ⋅ lp

0.014
Area criterion: A m = 0.05 × 0.46 m × 0.61 m A m = 0.014 m2 Therefore: s = s = 0.0378
4.1 × 2.4

0.138
Height criterion: h m = 0.30 × 0.46 m h m = 0.138 m Therefore: s = s = 0.0336
4.1

Width criterion: we need to account for the yaw in the model. We make a relationship for the maximum width as
a function of the model dimensions and the yaw angle and relate that to the full-scale dimensions.

w m20 deg = w m ⋅ cos(20 ⋅ deg) + 1m ⋅ sin(20 ⋅ deg) = s ⋅ (w p ⋅ cos(20 ⋅ deg) + l p ⋅ sin(20 ⋅ deg))

w m20 deg = 0.30 × 0.61m w m20 deg = 0.183 m

0.183
Therefore: s = s = 0.02
2.4 × cos(20°) + 19.8 × sin(20°)

To determine the acceptable scale of the model, we take the smallest of these scale factors: s = 0.02

1 1
= 50 We choose a round number to make the model scale easier to calculate: Model = Prototype
s 50
Vm ⋅ w m
For the current model conditions: Re = For standard air: ν m = 1.45 × 10 −5 m2 /s Substituting known values:
νm
m  1  s
Re = 91 ×  × 2.4 m  × Re = 3.01 × 105 This is less than the minimum stipulated in the problem, thus:
s  50  1.45 ×10 −5 m 2
An adequate Reynolds number cannot be achieved.
 Problem 7.66 [Difficulty: 4]

7.66 The power, 3, required to drive a fan is assumed to depend

on fluid density ρ, volume flow rate Q, impeller diameter D,
and angular speed ω. If a fan with D1 = 200 mm delivers Q1 =
0.4 m3/s of air at ω1 = 2500 rpm, what size diameter fan could
be expected to deliver Q2 = 2.38 m3/s of air at ω2 = 1800 rpm,
provided they were geometrically and dynamically similar?

Given: Power to drive a fan is a function of ρ, Q, D, and ω.

m3
Condition 1: D1 = 200 mm ω1 = 2500 ⋅ rpm Q1 = 0.4 Condition 2: Q 2 = 2.38 m3 /s ω2 = 1800 ⋅ rpm
s

Find: Fan diameter for condition 2 to insure dynamic similarity.

Solution: We will use the Buckingham pi-theorem.
1 P ρ Q D ω n = 5 parameters
2 Select primary dimensions M, L, t:
3 P ρ Q D ω
M ⋅ L2 M L3 1
3 3
L r = 3 dimensions
t L t t
4 ρ D ω m = r = 3 repeating parameters
5 We have n - m = 2 dimensionless groups. Setting up dimensional equations:
a c
M ⋅ L2  M  1
Π1 = P ⋅ ρa ⋅ D b ⋅ ωc Thus: ⋅   ⋅ Lb ⋅   = M 0 ⋅ L0 ⋅ t 0
t 3  L3  t
P
Summing exponents: The solution to this system is: Π1 =
ρ ⋅ ω3 ⋅ D5
M: 1 + a = 0 a = −1 b = −5 c = −3
L: 2 − 3⋅a + b = 0
t: −3 − c = 0
a c
L3 M 1
Π 2 = Q ⋅ρa ⋅ Db ⋅ ωc Thus: ⋅  3  ⋅ Lb ⋅   = M 0 ⋅ L0 ⋅ t 0
t L  t
Q
Summing exponents: The solution to this system is: Π2 =
ω⋅ D3
M: a = 0 a=0 b = −3 c = −1
L: 3 − 3⋅a + b = 0
t: −1 − c = 0
F ⋅ L L4 1 3 L3 1
6 Check using F, L, t dimensions: ⋅ 2
⋅ 5
⋅ t = 1 ⋅t⋅ 3 =1 Thus the relationship is:
t F⋅ t L t L
P  Q 
=f 
ρ ⋅ ω3 ⋅ D5  ω⋅ D3 
Q1 Q2
For dynamic similarity we must have geometric and kinematic similarity, and: = Solving for D2
ω1 ⋅ D13 ω2 ⋅ D 2 3
1 1
 Q ω 3  2.38 2500  3
D 2 = D1 ⋅  2 ⋅ 1  D 2 = 200 mm ×  ×  D 2 = 0.4 m
 Q1 ω2   0.4 1800 
 Problem 7.67 [Difficulty: 3]

7.67 Tests are performed on a 1-m long ship model in a The assumption is that wave drag modeling is
water tank. Results obtained (after doing some data done using the Froude number, and friction drug
analysis) are as follows: by the Reynolds number. The full size ship will be
50 m long when built. Estimate the total drag when
V(m/s) 3 6 9 12 15 18 20 it is cruising at 7.7 m/s and at 10.3 m/s in a
DWave (N) 0 0.125 0.5 1.5 3 4 5.5 freshwater lake.
DFriction (N) 0.1 0.35 0.75 1.25 2 2.75 3.25

D D
For drag we can use CD = A As a suitable scaling area for A we use L2 CD =
1 2 1 2 2
ρV ρV L
2 2
Model: L= 1 m
For water ρ= 1000 kg/m3
µ= 1.01E-03 N⋅s/m2
The data is:
V (m/s) 3 6 9 12 15 18 20
DWave (N) 0 0.125 0.5 1.5 3 4 5.5
DFriction (N) 0.1 0.35 0.75 1.25 2 2.75 3.25

Fr 0.958 1.916 2.873 3.831 4.789 5.747 6.386

Re 2.97E+06 5.94E+06 8.91E+06 1.19E+07 1.49E+07 1.78E+07 1.98E+07
CD(Wave) 0.00E+00 6.94E-06 1.23E-05 2.08E-05 2.67E-05 2.47E-05 2.75E-05
CD(Friction) 2.22E-05 1.94E-05 1.85E-05 1.74E-05 1.78E-05 1.70E-05 1.63E-05

The friction drag coefficient becomes a constant, as expected, at high Re.

The wave drag coefficient appears to be linear with Fr, over most values.
Ship: L= 50 m
V (m/s) 7.7 10.3 1 2 2
Fr 0.348 0.465 D= ρV L CD
2
Re 3.82E+08 5.09E+08
Hence for the ship we have very high Re, and low Fr.
From the graph we see the friction CD levels out at about 1.75 × 10−5.
From the graph we see the wave CD is negligibly small.
CD(Wave) 0 0
CD(Friction) 1.75E-05 1.75E-05

DWave (N) 0 0
DFriction (N) 1303 2316

DTotal (N) 1303 2316

 Problem 7.68 (In Excel) [Difficulty: 4]

7.68 A centrifugal water pump running at speed ω = 800 rpm has the
following data for flow rate. Q, and pressure head, ∆p.
3
Q (m /hr) 0 100 150 200 250 300 325 350
∆p (kPa) 361 349 328 293 230 145 114 59
The pressure head is a function of the flow rate, speed, impeller
diameter D, and water density ρ. Plot the pressure head versus flow rate
curve. Find the two Π parameters for this problem, and, from the above
data, plot one against the other. By using Excel to perform a trendline
analysis on this latter curve, generate and plot data for pressure head
versus flow rate for impeller speeds of 600 rpm and 1200 rpm.

Given: Data on centrifugal water pump.

Find: Π groups; plot pressure head vs flow rate for range of speeds.
Solution: We will use the workbook of Example 7.1, modified for the current problem.

The number of parameters is: n=5

The number of primary dimensions is: r=3
The number of repeat parameters is: m=r=3
The number of Π groups is: n−m=2

Enter the dimensions (M, L, t) of

the repeating parameters, and of up to
four other parameters (for up to four Π groups).
The spreadsheet will compute the exponents a, b, and c for each.

REPEATING PARAMETERS: Choose ρ, g, d

M L t
ρ 1 −3
ω −1
D 1

Π GROUPS:
M L t M L t
∆p 1 −1 −2 Q 0 3 −1

Π 1: a= −1 Π 2: a= 0
b= −2 b= −1
c= −2 c= −3

The following Π groups from Example 7.1 are not used:

M L t M L t
0 0 0 0 0 0

Π 3: a= 0 Π 4: a= 0
b= 0 b= 0
c= 0 c= 0
∆p Q
Hence Π1 = 2 2
and Π2 = with Π1 = f ( Π 2 ).
ρω D ω D3
Based on the plotted data, it looks like the relation between Π1 and Π2 may be parabolic.

2
∆p  Q   Q 
Hence 2 2
= a + b  + c 
ρω D  ω D3   ω D3 
The data is
Q (m3/hr) 0 100 150 200 250 300 325 350
∆p (kPa) 361 349 328 293 230 145 114 59

ρ= 999 kg/m3
ω= 750 rpm
D= 1 m (D is not given; use D = 1 m as a scale)

ωD3)
Q/(ω 0.00000 0.000354 0.000531 0.000707 0.000884 0.00106 0.00115 0.00124
ω2D2)
∆p/(pω 0.0586 0.0566 0.0532 0.0475 0.0373 0.0235 0.0185 0.00957

From the Trendline analysis

a = 0.0582
b = 13.4
c = −42371
 2

 Q   Q 
and ∆p = ρω D  a + b 
2 2
3 
+ c 3 

  ωD   ωD  
 

Finally, data at 500 and 1000 rpm can be calculated and plotted

ω= 500 rpm

Q (m3/hr) 0 25 50 75 100 150 200 250

∆p (kPa) 159 162 161 156 146 115 68 4
 ω= 1000 rpm

Q (m3/hr) 0 25 50 100 175 250 300 350

∆p (kPa) 638 645 649 644 606 531 460 374
 Problem 7.69 [Difficulty: 3]

Given: Model of water pump

Find: Model head, flow rate and diameter

Solution:
 Q ρ ω D2   Q ρ ω D2 
 f   f 
h P
From Buckingham Π  and 
2 2   3 μ  3 5   3 μ 
ω D ωD  ω D ωD 
Qm Qp hm hp Pm Pp
Neglecting viscous effects  then  and 
3 3 2 2 2 2 3 5 3 5
ωm Dm ωp  Dp ωm  Dm ωp  Dp ωm  Dm ωp  Dp
3 3 3
Qm  Dm 
ωm 1000  Dm   Dm 
Hence if     500     2   D  (1)
Qp ωp Dp
   Dp   p
2 2 2 2 2
hm ωm Dm
1000  Dm Dm


then
    2  4 2 (2)
hp 2
ωp Dp
2  500 
Dp Dp
3 3 5 5 5
Pm ωm Dm
1000  Dm Dm
and 

    5  8 5 (3)
Pp 3
ωp Dp
5  500 
Dp Dp
3
kg m J
We can find Pp from Pp  ρ Q h  1000  0.75  15  11.25 kW
3 s kg
m
1 1
5 5 5
Pm Dm  1 Pm   1  2.25 
From Eq 3  8 so Dm  Dp     Dm  0.25 m   8 11.25 Dm  0.120 m
Pp
Dp
5
 8 Pp   

3 3 3 3 3
Qm  Dm   Dm  m  0.12 m
From Eq 1  2   so Qm  Qp  2    Qm  0.75  2  0.25 Qm  0.166
Qp
 Dp   Dp  s   s

2 2 2
hm  Dm   Dm  J  0.12 J
From Eq 2  4   so hm  hp 4   h m  15  4  0.25 h m  13.8
hp
 Dp   Dp  kg   kg
 Problem 7.70

7.70 The discharge per meter length in a geometrically similar model of

1
spillway is 1/5 m3/s. The scale of the model is 30 . Determine the
discharge per meter length of the prototype.

Given: Discharge per meter length for model and scale of the model.

To find: Discharge per meter length of the prototype.

Solution:

1 3
Discharge per meter length of the model, Qm  m /s
5

Linear scale ratio, Lr  30

Let discharge per meter length of prototype, Q p

The discharge ratio for spillway is given by,

L L3
Q  A  V  L2  
T T

 L3 
 
Qp  T  p  Lp   Tm 
3
1
Qr   3        Lr 3   Lr 2.5
Qm  L   
 Lm   Tp  Lr
 
 T m

But discharge ratio per meter length is given as,

 Qp 
 
Q p  Lp  Q p Lm 1
    Lr 2.5   Lr1.5
Qm  Qm  Qm Lp Lr
 
 Lm 

1
Qp  Qm  Lr1.5    30   32.9 m3 /s per meter length
1.5

Thus, the discharge per meter length of prototype is 32.9 m3 /s per meter length
 Problem 7.71 [Difficulty: 2]

Given: Water drop mechanism

Find: Difference between small and large scale drops

Solution:
3

3 5
  ρ V2 D 
 D  
5
d  D ( We)
Given relation  σ 
3

5
 ρ V 2 D  2

6
m m
Dm   5 5
dm
 σ   Dm   Vm 
For dynamic similarity      where d p stands for dprototype not the original
dp

3
 Dp   Vp  d p!
5
 ρ V 2 D 
p p
Dp   
 σ 
2 6

dm 5 5 dm
 1   5
Hence   20  1  0.044
dp     dp

The small scale droplets are 4.4% of the size of the large scale
 2
6
5 
 1   (5) 5
x     0.044
 20 
 Problem 7.72 [Difficulty: 2]

7.72 Closed-circuit wind tunnels can produce higher speeds

than open-circuit tunnels with the same power input because
energy is recovered in the diffuser downstream from the test
section. The kinetic energy ratio is a figure of merit defined as
the ratio of the kinetic energy flux in the test section to the drive
power. Estimate the kinetic energy ratio for the 12.2 m × 24.4 m
wind tunnel at NASA-Ames described on page 318.

Given: Kinetic energy ratio for a wind tunnel is the ratio of the kinetic energy flux in the test section to the drive power.

Find: Kinetic energy ratio for the 12.2 m × 24.4 m tunnel at NASA-Ames.

km 103 m hr
Solution: From the text: P = 93255 kW Vmax = 556 × × Vmax = 154.4 m/s
hr 1 km 3600 s

V2 Assuming standard
m⋅ 2 3 conditions and
Therefore, the kinetic energy ratio is: KE ratio = 2 = ( ρ⋅ V ⋅ A ) ⋅ V = ρ⋅ A ⋅ V
substituting values:
P 2⋅P 2⋅P

3
1 kg  m 1 W ⋅s N ⋅ s2
KE ratio = ×1.23 3 × (12.2 m × 24.4 m) × 154.4  × × ×
2 m  s  93255 × 103 W 1 N ⋅ m kg ⋅ m

KE ratio = 7.23
 Problem 7.73 [Difficulty: 3]

7.94 A 1:16 model of a 20 m long truck is tested in a wind tunnel at

a speed of 80 m/s, where the axial static pressure gradient is
2 2
−11.17 N/m per meter. The frontal area of the prototype is 9.9 m .
Estimate the horizontal buoyancy correction for this situation.
Express the correction as a fraction of the measured CD, of CD =
0.85.

Given: A scale model of a truck is tested in a wind tunnel. The axial pressure gradient and frontal area of the prototype
are known. Drag coefficient is 0.85.

Find: (a) Horizontal buoyancy correction.

(b) Express this correction as a fraction of the measured drag force.

Solution: The horizontal buoyancy force is the difference in the pressure force between the front and back of the model due
to the pressure gradient in the tunnel:

∆p Lp Ap
FB = (pf − pb ) ⋅ A = ⋅ Lm ⋅ A m where : L m = Am =
∆L 16 162

N 20 m 9.9 m 2
Thus: FB = −11.17 × × FB = −0.54 N
m2 ⋅ m 16 162

The horizonal buoyancy correction should be added to the measured drag force on the model. The measured drag
force on the model is given by:

1 1 Ap
FDm = ⋅ρ⋅ V 2 ⋅ A m ⋅ CD = ⋅ρ⋅ V 2 ⋅ 2 ⋅ CD When we substitute in known values we get:
2 2 16

2
1 kg  m  9.9 m 2
FDm = × 1.23 3 ×  80  × × 0.85 FDm = 129.38 N
2 m  s 162

−0.54
Therefore the ratio of the forces is: DragRatio = DragRatio = −0.42 ⋅ %
129.38
 Problem 7.74 [Difficulty: 4]

Given: Flapping flag on a flagpole

Find: Explanation of the flapping

Solution:

Discussion: The natural wind contains significant fluctuations in air speed and direction. These fluctuations tend to disturb the flag
from an initially plane position.

When the flag is bent or curved from the plane position, the flow nearby must follow its contour. Flow over a convex surface tends to
be faster, and have lower pressure, than flow over a concave curved surface. The resulting pressure forces tend to exaggerate the
curvature of the flag. The result is a seemingly random "flapping" motion of the flag.

The rope or chain used to raise the flag may also flap in the wind. It is much more likely to exhibit a periodic motion than the flag
itself. The rope is quite close to the flag pole, where it is influenced by any vortices shed from the pole. If the Reynolds number is
such that periodic vortices are shed from the pole, they will tend to make the rope move with the same frequency. This accounts for
the periodic thump of a rope or clank of a chain against the pole.

The vortex shedding phenomenon is characterized by the Strouhal number, St = fD/V∞, where f is the vortex shedding frequency, D is
the pole diameter, and D is the wind speed. The Strouhal number is constant at approximately 0.2 over a broad range of Reynolds
numbers.
 Problem 7.75

Given: A 1:16 scale model of a bus 154 mm  204 mm  768 mm  is tested in a wind
tunnel at 28.5 m/s. Drag force is 6.18 N. The axial pressure gradient is
 12.4 N/m2  m 
To find: (a) Horizontal buoyancy correction.
(b) Drag coefficient for the model.
(c) Aerodynamic drag on the prototype at 120 kph on a calm day.

Solution:

The horizontal buoyancy force is the difference in the pressure force between the front and back
of the model due to the pressure gradient in the tunnel.

FB   Pf  Pb   A
dP
  Lm  Am
dx
Here,
Am  154 mm  204 mm 
 31416 mm 2
Thus,
3
 
FB   12.4 N/m  m   768 mm   31416 mm  
2 2 m

 1000 mm 
 0.299 N

Hence, the horizontal buoyancy correction is 0.299 N .

So, the corrected drag force is:

FDC  5.881 N

The corrected model drag coefficient would then be:

 FDC
CDm 
1
V 2 Am
2

Substitute the corresponding values in the above expression.

2
 m3  s     1000 mm 
2
1
CDm   2   5.88 N     2   kg  m/Ns
2

 1.23 kg   28.5 m   31416 mm   m 

 0.375

Hence, the drag coefficient for the model is 0.375 .

If the assume that the test was conducted at high enough Reynolds number, then the drag
coefficient should be the same at both scales.
i,e.:
CDp  CDm
1
FDp  V 2 Ap CDp
2

Here,
2
 
Ap   31416 mm 16  
2 2 m

 1000 mm 
 8.043 m 2

2
1  hr 
FDP    1.23 kg/m3  120 km/hr 1000 m/km    8.043 m  0.375 Ns /kg  m 
2 2

 
2  3600  s 
 7419.6 kN

Hence, the Aerodynamic drag on the prototype at 120 kph on a calm day is 7419.6 kN .