Chemical Structure

Term Definition
Ionic Bond Electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions
Molecule Group of 2 or more atoms joined together by a covalent bond
Covalent Bond Electrostatic attraction between a shared pair of electrons and positively charged nuclei
Metallic Bond Electrostatic attraction between lattice of positive metal ions & delocalized outer shell
electrons
Allotropes Compounds of the same that differ in structure
Pi Bond Overlapping p-orbitals
Intermolecular Attractions between molecules that have temporary dipoles, permanent dipoles or
Forces hydrogen bonding
Bond Order measurement of the number of electrons involved in bonds between 2 atoms in a
molecule
Free Radicle atoms/molecules with unpaired valence electron & are highly reactive
Alloy Mixture of metals and one or more elements
Melting Point Temperature that gives the particles enough kinetic energy to overcome the attractive
forces acting in the lattice of the solid crystal

Ionic Bond Ionic lattice

- Non-directional bond – strength of bond is equal in all directions Repeating lattice of ions
- Conducts electricity when molten or in solution (aq)
- High melting point & high boiling point hard solid NaCl, coordination number
- Low volatility (6,6) Na+ surround by 6Cl-
- Brittle, as if a force is applied there will be instant repulsion due to and Cl- surrounded by 6Na+
the opposing charges
Strength Polyatomic ions
Strongest attraction: Smaller ions & great charge Nitrate NO3-
Reason: Greater charge density within the structure Phosphate PO43-
Hydroxide OH-
Covalent Bonding: Ammonium Ion NH4+
Octet Rule: Elements gain or lose electrons in order to have the same Sulfate SO42-
electron configuration as noble gases. Hydrogen Carbonate HCO3-
Carbonate CO32-

Exceptions Reason
B (GII) Stable with only 3 bonds, only 3 valence e- small nucleus, only small no. of atoms fit around B
Be G(III) Stable with only 2 bonds, only 2 valence e- small nucleus, only small no. of atoms fit around Be
Atoms with atomic no. bigger than silicon Have access to more 3d orbitals for any
hybridization that include 5/6 orbitals
Polarity: ∂+¿ ↦ ∂−¿
↦ is a dipole moment
To be polar: Electron densities are asymmetrical & polar bonds do not cancel out
Strength:
- Each bond has 2e- If there are difficulties when
- C≡C are shorter & stronger than C=C drawing Lewis structures, try
- C=C are shorter & stronger than C-C dative bonds

Metallic
Strength
Strongest attraction: Small metal ions, high charge on the ion ∴ more delocalized outer electron shells
Due: Greater charge density within the structure

Properties
- Shiny + ductile
- Conductive: has delocalized electrons
- Malleable: can be bent & re-shaped under pressure, due to the close-packed layers of positive ions can
slide over each other without break more bonds than are made

Alloys Examples:
Substitutional: Atoms of 1 metal are substituted by atoms of another metal Brass: Copper + Zinc
Interstitial: Different metals occupy interstitial spaces in the lattice structure Steel: Iron + Carbon

Properties: increased strength, durability, hardness, resistance to corrosion & magnetic properties
- Reason: the different elements being of different sizes disruption the lattice, preventing the atoms
from sliding over one another

Bond Formation
Difference in Electronegativity Bond Van Arkle-Ketelaar can be
0.0 – 0.4 Non-polar covalent used to compare bonding
0.4 – 1.8 Polar Covalent character
>1.8 Ionic Bond

VSEPR
Theory: Best arrangement of a given number of electron domains (negative charge centers) is the one that
minimizes repulsions among them
Rules of using VSEPR Model
Rules: 1. Draw the electron-dot structure
-
- Determined by number of valence e of central atom 2. Identify the central atom
- 3D shapes determined by bonded pairs & lone pairs of e -
3. Count the total number of electron
- All electron pairs repel reach other pairs around central atom
- Shape is predicted by assuming the electron pairs are 4. Predict the electron shape
placed far away from each other 5. Predict the shape of the molecule
-
- Electron domain is the number of bonds/ e pairs on a suing bonding atoms
central atom
Greatest Repulsion lone pair – lone pair  lone pair – bond pair  bond pair – bond pair (lowest
Reason Lone pairs cause extra repulsion, making bond angles to be slightly less as they have been
squeezed together

Expanded Shells
Expanded Octet: Elements in 3rd period (Al  Ar) & below can promote an e- to have more than 4 e- domains
5 Electron Domains:
- Nonbonding e- in the equatorial position of a trigonal bipyramidal shape
- Free e- domains always form around the equatorial bonds, because they are only repelled by two axial
bonds. If on axial it would be repelled by 3 equatorial bonds
6 electron domains: Nonbonding e- in the axial positions of an octahedron or square bipyramidal
 Overlapping Orbitals Triple bond:1 sigma + 2 pi bonds
Sigma bonds
- result from the axial overlap of orbitals Double bond: 1 sigma + 1 pi bond
- Head-to-head overlap
- Cylindrical symmetry of electron density about the Single Bond: sigma, overlap is greater =
internuclear axis stronger bond and more energy
lowering
Pi bonds
- results from the sideways overlap of parallel p-orbitals
- Side-to-side overlap
- Electron Density above & below the internuclear axis

Resonance
Occurs: Lewis structure allows for same arrangement of atoms but a different valid arrangement of electrons
- Due to unhybridized p-orbitals on all of the atoms in the resonance structure, pi bond is delocalized,
and electrons are spread over two or more bonding orbitals

Characteristics:
- Extra stability as electrons spread out forming resonance stabilization energy

Evidence for resonance

- Bond lengths are measured to be equal experimentally
- May need to use data booklet to predict the resonance bond length

Benzene Nitrate Ion

- Has a p-orbital on each atom - 4 atoms in the nitrate ion has a p- orbital
- Pi elections are delocalized - N=O bond has a pi bond
- Even distribution of the pi - P-orbitals on all 3 O’s overlap with the p-orbital on the
electrons makes the molecule central nitrogen
stable ∴pi electrons are delocalized throughout the ion

Ozone
total number of bonding pairs If bond order is 0 there is no bonding
Bond Order =
total number of positions At ground level reacts
with chemicals to form
Importance of Ozone: smog that is harmful
1. Absorbed harmful UV radiation that causes cancer & inhibition of photosynthesis respiratory systems &
2. Exothermic reactions; cause a temperature inversion in the stratosphere, this degrades materials
warm layer prevent convections keeping the layer of Earth’s atmosphere stable

Formation
- O2 requires photons with more energy as O3 only has the energy of 1 ½ bond
- UV light breaks the bond in oxygen to create free radicles causing exothermic reaction:
O2(g) + UV ( λ <242 nm)  O•(g) + O• (g)
O• (g) + O2(g)  O3(g)
Ozone bond angle
Depletion
is 117
Exothermic reactions:
O3(g) + UV ( λ < 330 nm)  O2(g) + O•(g)
O3(g) + O•(g)  2O2(g)
Destroying chemicals

1. CFC’s – chlorofluorocarbons catalyze the break 2. NOx catalyzes breakdown of O3, as

down of ozone nitrogen compound free radicles are very
CCl2F2(g) CClF2•(g) +Cl•(g) by UV radiation reactive
Cl•(g) + O3(g)  O2(g) + ClO•(g) NO•(g) + O3(g)  NO2• + O2(g)
ClO•(g) + O•(g)  O2(g) + Cl• (g) NO2• (g) + O•(g)  NO• + O2(g)
ClO•(g) + O3(g)  2O2(g) + Cl• (g) NOx slowly diffuse from troposphere 
stratosphere
Cl • catalyzes breakdown of O3 Aircrafts fly in the lower stratosphere causing
direct injection of NOx. NO can last ≈ 22 to 111
years before breaking down

Allotropes of Carbon
Diamond
Bonding: Each carbon bonded to 4 others by sp3 hybridization forming a giant network covalent compound
Properties
- ↑ Melting: strong directional covalent bonds
- Hard: difficult to break atoms apart or move them in relation to 1 another
- No electrical conductivity – electrons are localized in specific bonds
- Insoluble: polar & non-polar solvents because molecular bonds are stronger than any intermolecular
forces
Graphite (Graphene & pyrolytic carbon)
Bonding:
- Each carbon bonded sp2 hybridization to 3 others forming sheets of graphene
- Sheet: 6-sided rings with p-orbitals perpendicular from plane of ring
- 1 delocalized p-orbitals; allows for stronger London force to hold sheets together
Properties
- Slippery: Can be used as a lubricant as graphene sheets slide over each other
- Conducts electricity: delocalized electrons
- Insulator of Heat: lack of vibration between
- High melting point: Delocalized electrons
- Insoluble polar & non-polar solvents because molecular bonds are stronger than any intermolecular
forces

Fullerenes – Bucky balls & nanotubes

Bucky balls: Spherical
- Carbons bonded in units of 60 atoms forming structure with 6 interlocking 6 sided and all 5 sides rings
- sp2 hybridization: Extra p-orbital from pi bonds resulting in
o Electrical conductivity
o Stronger covalent bonds therefore stronger materials

Nanotubes: tube shaped

Properties
- Very strong
- Conduct electricity
- Heat with low resistances
- Free radical scavenger
Silicon Dioxide (SiO2)
- SiO2 repeating unit; every oxygen links with a second Si atom
- Tetrahedral structure
- Si is larger than C ∴ Si-O bond length is greater
- Greater the bond lento = lower the bond enthalpy ∴ easier to break ∴ Si is more reactive than carbon

Formal Charge
Formal Charge=Valence electrons−½ Bonding Electrons−Nonbonding electron
Role in determine of most favored Lewis structure:
1. Structure with a FC closest to zero
2. Structure with the negative FC on the most electronegative atom

Intermolecular Forces
Types of Forces:
1. c

London Dispersion Forces

Strength: Weakest
Caused: Motion of electrons around a nucleus
- Electrons may be asymmetrical about an atom, causing a instantaneous induced dipoles
- Formation of a dipole in one molecule can cause an opposite dipole to form in a nearby molecule
- Dispersion forces increases with atomic radii

To increase London Forces:

1. Large radius contains more electrons London Dispersion
2. Increase size of electron cloud, with longer molecules Forces are always
3. Less branching allows for more surface area interaction present

Dipole-dipole forces
- Occurs between polar molecules (molecules with permanent dipoles)
- Partially charged ends of the molecules attract + repel reach other
- Opposite charges attract, larger electronegativity difference = stronger attraction
- LDF are working as well

Hydrogen Bonding
- Attractive force between an unshared electron pair and a hydrogen atom covalently bonded with a
strong electronegative element (NOF)
Strength: Strongest
- Reason: small size & high electronegativity of non-metal, creates large charge difference making the
bond very strong
Physical Properties Trends
London Forces Non-Polar, Butane Lowest
Dipole – Dipole Slightly miscible, Propanone
Hydrogen – Bonding Miscible with polar substances Increasing Melting P
Ionic bonding Conducts electricity in molten/aq
Metallic Bonding Conducts electricity, not water soluble Regulated by valence, size
& packing
Giant Covalent Insoluble in both non-polar & polar Highest
solvents, do not conduct electricity
(except graphite)

How IMF affect the boiling point

- Liquid  gas attractive forces are completely broke
- Covalent macromolecular: very high melting + boiling points
- Metals & Ionic: relatively high boiling + melting due to ionic attractions
- The weaker the attractive forces the more volatile the substance