OSI and TCP Model
OSI and TCP Model
OSI and TCP Model
Computer Network?
A computer network is a collection of computers and other devices (nodes) that use a common network protocol to share resources with each other over a network medium.
To share information or receive a service via a network, group members must be able to communicate with each other
Communication Model
Communication Model
Source
Generates data to be transmitted Converts data into transmittable signals Carries data Converts received signal into data Takes incoming data
Wired, Wireless and Fiber Optic Networks LANs, MANs and WANs Circuit Switched, Packet Switched and Virtual Circuit Switched Networks Access, Distribution and Core Networks
Architecture
Common LAN architectures: Ethernet IEEE 802.3, Token Ring, and FDDI.
Access Possibilities
shared-media networks switching networks
Transmission Technology
Broadcast links Point-to-point links
Types of Networks
LAN
reductions through sharing of information and databases, resources and network services. Increased information exchange between different departments in an organization, or between individuals. The trend to automate communication and manufacturing process. Increasing number and variety of intelligent data terminals, PCs and workstations.
LAN Approaches
There are two methods of networking computers together, 1) Peer-to-Peer 2) Client-Server. The proper method to use depends on the requirements.
Peer-to-Peer Networking
It offers a quick way to tie all your resources and people together. Users can access information from and share it directly with others in the network. Users can easily share files and directories in a peer-to-peer network
Peer-to-Peer Networking
Client/Server Networking
Clients are connected to a centralized server. The server provides centralized security, backup, and recover capability and controls access to sensitive files and expensive peripherals. A dedicated server improves data integrity, because the most current version of a document will be saved in one location. This type of network requires a network operating system.
IEEE
NBS
Wired LAN
EIA
CSM
A/CD
Headend Thin-wire Thick-wire CATV EIA: Electrical Industries Association (USA) ECMA: European Computer Manufacturers Association NBS: National Bureau of Standards RF modem
Higher LAN Protocols 802.2 Logical link control (LLC) 802.3 CSMA/CD (Ethernet) 802.4 Token Bus 802.5 Token Ring 802.6 Metropolitan area network 802.7 Broadband technical advisory 802.8 Fiber optic technical advisory (Obsolete) 802.9 Integrated services LAN 802.10 Interoperable LAN Security 802.11 Wireless LAN 802.12 100 VG-AnyLAN 802.14 Cable-TV based broadband (Obsolete) 802.15 Wireless Personal Area Network 802.16 Broadband Wireless Access (WiMAX)
Application Presentation Session Transport Network Data link Physical Higher layers Logical link control (LLC) Medium access control (MAC) Physical (PHY)
MAN
MAN
As we have seen, a local area network covers a room, a building or a campus. A metropolitan area network (MAN) covers a city or a region of a city. A wide area network (WAN) covers multiple cities, states, countries, and even the solar system.
Figure 1-4
WAN
WAN
Characteristics of WANs
Why WANs?
Federal Express package routing system. American Airlines reservation system. Amazon.com. Visa International payment process system. Any application system that is based on the Internet.
Internet
The Internet is a global system of interconnected computer networks that use the standard Internet Protocol Suite (TCP/IP) to serve billions of users worldwide. It is a network of networks that consists of millions of private and public, academic, business, and government networks of local to global scope that are linked by a broad array of electronic and optical networking technologies. The Internet carries a vast array of information resources and services, most notably the inter-linked hypertext documents of the World Wide Web (WWW)
Internetwork (Internet)
Intranet
An intranet is a private computer network that uses Internet Protocol technologies to securely share any part of an organization's information or operational systems within that organization. The term is used in contrast to internet, a network between organizations, and instead refers to a network within an organization. Sometimes the term refers only to the organization's internal website, but may be a more extensive part of the organization's information technology infrastructure. It may host multiple private websites and constitute an important component and focal point of internal communication and collaboration.
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
The OSI model is a layered framework for the design of network systems that allows for communication across all types of computer systems. The OSI model is built of seven ordered layers: (layer 1) physical layer (layer 2) data link (layer 3) network layer (layer 4) transport layer (layer 5) session layer (layer 6) presentation layer (layer 7) application layer
Peer-to-Peer Process
Within a single machine, each layer calls upon services of the layer just below it. Layer 3, for example, uses the services provided by layer 2 and provides services for layer 4. Between machines, layer x on one machine communicates with layer x on another machine, by using a protocol (this is Peer-to-Peer Process). Communication between machines is therefore a peer-to-peer process using protocols appropriate to a given layer.
There is an interface between each pair of adjacent layers. This interface defines what information and services a layer must provide for the layer above it.
Physical Layer
The physical layer coordinates the functions required to transmit a bit stream over a physical medium. It also defines the procedures and functions that physical devices and interfaces have to perform for transmission occur.
The physical layer is responsible for transmitting individual bits from one node to the next.
Physical layer
The physical layer is concerned with the following: Physical characteristics of interfaces and media: The physical layer defines the characteristics of the interface between devices and the transmission media, including its type. Representation of the bits: the physical layer data consist of a stream of bits without any interpretation. To be transmitted, bits must be encoded into signals electrical or optical-. The physical layer defines the type of encoding. Data rate: The physical layer defines the transmission rate, the number of bits sent each second.
Physical Layer
Line configuration: the physical layer is concerned with the connection of devices to the medium. Physical topology Transmission Mode
The data link layer transforms the physical layer, a raw transmission facility, to a reliable link and is responsible for node-to-node delivery. It makes the physical layer appear error free to the upper layer (network layer).
The data link layer is responsible for transmitting frames from one node to the next.
Node-to-node delivery
Framing. The data link layer divides the stream of bits received from the network layer into data units called frames. Physical addressing. If frames are to be distributed to different systems on the network, the data link layer adds a header to the frame to define the physical address of the sender (source address) and/or receiver (destination address) of the frame. If the frame is intended for a system outside the senders network, the receiver address is the address of the device that connects one network to the next.
Flow Control. If the rate at which the data are absorbed by the receiver is less than the rate produced in the sender, the data link layer imposes a flow control mechanism to prevent overwhelming the receiver. Error control. The data link layer adds reliability to the physical layer by adding mechanisms to detect and retransmit damaged or lost frames. Error control is normally achieved through a trailer to the end of the frame. Access Control. When two or more devices are connected to the same link, data link layer protocols are necessary to determine which device has control over the link at any time.
Network Layer
The Network layer is responsible for the source-to-destination delivery of a packet possible across multiple networks. If two systems are connected to the same link, there is usually no need for a network layer. However, if the two systems are attached to different networks, there is often a need for the network layer to accomplish source-to-destination delivery.
Network Layer
Functions: Logical addressing. Routing
The network layer is responsible for the delivery of packets from the original source to the final destination.
Source-to-destination delivery
Logical addressing. The physical addressing implemented by the data link layer handles the addressing problem locally. The network layer adds a header to the packet coming from the upper layer, among other things, includes the logical address of the sender and receiver. Routing. When independent networks or links are connected together to create an internetwork (a network of networks) or a large network, the connecting devices (called routers or gateways) route or switch the packets to their final destination.
Transport Layer
The transport layer is responsible for process-to-process delivery of the entire message. The network layer oversees host-to-destination delivery of individual packets, it does not recognize any relationship between those packets. The transport layer ensures that the whole message arrives intact and in order, overseeing both error control and flow control at the process-toprocess level.
Transport layer
The transport layer is responsible for delivery of a message from one process to another.
Port addressing:computer often run several processes (running programs) at the same time. Process-to-process delivery means delivery from a specific process on one computer to a specific process on the other. The transport layer header include a type of address called port address. The network layer gets each packet to the correct computer; the transport layer gets the entire message to the correct process on that computer.
Segmentation and reassembly: a message is divided into transmittable segments, each having a sequence number. These numbers enable the transport layer to reassemble the message correctly upon arrival at the destination. Connection control: The transport layer can be either connectionless or connection-oriented. A connectionless transport layer treats each segment as an independent packet and delivers it to the transport layer at the destination machine. A connection-oriented transport layer makes a connection with the transport layer at the destination machine first before delivering the packets. After all the data are transferred, the connection is terminated.
The session layer is the network dialog controller. It was designed to establish, maintain, and synchronize the interaction between communicating devices. The presentation layer was designed to handle the syntax and semantics of the information exchanged between the two systems. It was designed for data translation, encryption, decryption, and compression. The application layer enables the user to access the network. It provides user interfaces and support for services such electronic email, remote file access, WWW, and so on.
Application layer
Summary of duties
IP Header
Fragmentation Flags
The next section contains three flags. The first flag is reserved for future use and is set to 0.
Fragmentation Sample
IP Header Contd.,
1-ICMP,2 -IGMP,6-TCP,17-UDP
Every hardware technology specification includes the definition of the maximum size of the frame data area called the maximum transmission unit (MTU) Any datagram encapsulated in a hardware frame must be smaller than the MTU for that hardware
An internet may have networks with different MTUs Suppose downstream network has smaller MTU than local network?
Net 1 (MTU = 1500) Net 2 (MTU = 1000)
H1
H2
IP Addressing
IP addresses are 32 bits long. They are represented as four octets in dotted decimal format.
233.14.17.0
Layer 3 Addresses
Network ID assigned by ARIN (www.iana.org) identifies the network to which a device is attached may be identified by one, two, or three of the first three octets
Host ID assigned by a network administrator identifies the specific device on that network may be identified by one, two, or three of the last three octets
IP Address Classes
IP addresses are divided into 5 classes, each of which is designated with the alphabetic letters A to E. Class D addresses are used for multicasting. Class E addresses are reserved for testing & some mysterious future use.
IP Address Classes
32 bit address represented as 8 bit dotted decimals different class addresses reserve different amounts of bits for the network and host portions of the address Network & Host Representation By IP Address Class
Class
Class A Class B Class C Network
Octet1
Network Network
Octet2
Host Network Network
Octet3
Host Host Network
Octet4
Host Host Host
IP Address Classes
The 5 IP classes are split up based on the value in the 1st octet:
Number of Hosts
The maximum number of hosts vary for each class. Class A has 16,777,214 available hosts (224 2) Class B has 65,534 available hosts (216 2) Class C has 254 available hosts (28 2)
The first address in each network is reserved for the network address and the
last address is reserved for the broadcast address.
Address Layout
D E
There is a shortage of available IPv4 addresses in many areas of the planet. Unequal distribution of available IPv4 addresses during the last decade Europe and South America, even if they have been allocated a sufficient number of IPv4 addresses, are going to face the same problem by the time new terminals will join the Internet. Some examples are: 3rd generation mobile phones, electronics devises, sensors, home appliances, transportation vehicles, airplanes, etc.
RFC2460 Internet Protocol Version 6 Specifications notes that Authentication and Encapsulation Security Payload SP extensions headers should be supported by the IPv6 hosts
The use of the above headers is not compulsory. Similar functionality is supported from IPv4 Security
The avoidance of NAT/PAT in the IPv6 world improve the e2e security in data transfers. Security in the IPv6 networks is questionable not because of the protocol limitations but due to administrators inexperience. IPv6 protocols, techniques and transition mechanisms may arise security problems in the future.
An IPv6 end systems may automatically create its IPv6 address based on its MAC address and the route advertisement. MAC address is always the same and thus the suffix of the IPv6 address remains the same. RFC3041 Privacy Extensions tries to sort this out allowing hosts to change IPv6 address while connected
The use of IP-based authentication may become tricky. DoS attacks are more difficult to be traced.
New hardware/software is designed to switch IPv6 packets as fast as IPv4 traffic Obsolete hardware or software could impose performance penalties to IPv6 traffic compared to IPv4 traffic.
The use of tunnels is gradually minimized in the networks leading to more efficient and stable routing topologies. More and more dual stack applications are designed to use IPv6 before fall back to IPv4. Problems may arise if the IPv6 connectivity is broken. QoS Support in IPv6 header Two header fields; Traffic Class (8-bit) and Flow Label (20-bit) The QoS provisioning means much more than few bits at the IP4/6 packet headers, such as service provisioning, monitoring and SLA/SLS verification, admission control and policy enforcement, etc.
Latest operating systems support IPv6 protocols, most of them by default. Network equipment vendors support all the IPv6 functionality that is needed for a typical network. Large scale IPv6 deployments have become a reality. IPv6 services are offered in the telecommunication market.
more IP addresses!
for billions of new users (Japan, China, India,) for billions of new devices (mobile phones, cars, appliances,) for always-on access (cable, xDSL, ethernet-to-the-home,) for applications that are difficult, expensive, or impossible to operate through NATs (IP telephony, peer-to-peer gaming, home servers,) to phase out NATs to improve the robustness, security, performance, and manageability of the Internet
VersionIndicates the format of the IP header. This field = 4 for IPv4 Header Length-The length of the internet header in 32 bit words, and thus points to the beginning of data. Type of Service-An indication of the abstract parameters of the quality of service desired for the packet. Length-The total length of the datagram, measured in octets, includinginternet header and data. Identification-A value assigned by the sender to aid in reassembling the fragments of a datagram. FlagsVarious control flags. FragOffset-Field indicating where in the datagram this fragment belongs. It is measured in units of 64 bits. Time to LiveField indicating the maximum time the datagram is allowed to remain in the internet system. Protocol-Field indicating the next level protocol used in the data portion of the internet datagram. HDR Checksum-A checksum on the header only. Since some header fields are modified (e.g., time to live), this is recomputed and verified at each point that the internet header is processed. Source Address32 bit IPv4 source address. Destination Address32 bit IPv4 destination address. OptionsA variable length grouping of zero or more option values. Padding-This variable length field ensures the internet header ends on a 32 bit boundary. The padding is zero.
Version4-bit Internet Protocol version number = 6. Traffic Class-8-bit traffic class field. Flow Label-20-bit flow label. Payload Length-16-bit unsigned integer. Length of the IPv6 payload, i.e., the rest of the packet following the IPv6 header, in octets. Next Header8-bit selector. Identifies the type of header immediately following the IPv6 header. Uses the same values as the IPv4 Protocol field [RFC-1700 et seq.]. Hop Limit-8-bit unsigned integer. Decremented by 1 by each node that forwards the packet. The packet is discarded if Hop Limit is decremented to zero. Source Address128-bit address of the originator of the packet. Destination Address128-bit address of the intended recipient of the packet (possibly not the ultimate recipient, if a Routing header is present)
Source Address"
Destination Address"
shaded elds have no equivalent in the" other version" IPv6 header is twice as long (40 bytes) as" IPv4 header without options (20 bytes)"
Examples:
FEDC:BA98:7654:3210:FEDC:BA98:7654:3210 1080:0:0:0:8:800:200C:417A
Compressed Form
x:x::x:x The use of "::" indicates one or more groups of 16 bits of zeros. The "::" can only appear once in an address.
Examples:
1080:0:0:0:8:800:200C:417A = 1080::8:800:200C:417A 0:0:0:0:0:0:0:1 = ::1
Mixed Form
x:x:x:x:x:x:d.d.d.d xsare the hexadecimal values of the six high-order 16-bit pieces of the address. dsare the decimal values of the four low-order 8-bit pieces of the address (standard IPv4 representation).
Examples:
0:0:0:0:0:0:13.1.68.3 0:0:0:0:0:FFFF:129.144.52.38
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