1 Powerplant Installation and Intakes - PPT

Gas turbine engines
Gas turbine engines
Chapter 1: Powerplant Installation & Intakes
Dr. Tran Tien Anh

Ho Chi Minh city University of Technology (HCMUT)
[email protected]
2020/04/06 Dr. Tran Tien Anh@HCMUT 1
Contents
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Powerplant installation
1.3 Subsonic aircraft
1.3.1 Turbojet and turbofan engines
1.3.1.1 Wing installation
1.3.1.2 Fuselage installation
1.3.1.3 Combined wing and tail installation (three engines)
1.3.1.4 Combined fuselage and tail installation
1.3.2 Turboprop installation
Contents
1.4 Supersonic aircraft

1.4.1 Civil transports
1.4.2 Military aircraft
1.5 Air intakes or inlets
1.6 Subsonic intakes
1.6.1 Inlet performance
1.6.2 Performance parameters
1.6.2.1 Isentropic efficiency (ηd)
1.6.2.2 Stagnation-pressure ratio (rd)
1.6.3 Turboprop inlets
Dr. Tran Tien Anh@HCMUT 1

Gas turbine engines
Contents
1.7 Supersonic intakes

1.7.1 Review of gas dynamic relations for normal and oblique shocks
1.7.1.1 Normal shock waves
1.7.1.2 Oblique shock waves
1.7.2 External compression intake (inlet)
1.7.3 Internal compression inlet (intake)
1.7.4 Mixed compression intakes
1.8 Matching between intake and engine

1.9 Case study
Examples 1.1~1.7
Problems P1.1~P1.14
1.1 Introduction
• All air breathing engines installed in an aircraft must be provided with an air intake
and a ducting system (which is also known as an inlet or diffuser) to diffuse the air
from free stream velocity to a lower velocity acceptable for further processing by
other engine components [1].
• The inlet component is designed to capture the exact amount of air required to
accomplish the diffusion with maximum static pressure rise and minimum total
pressure loss, to deliver the air with tolerable flow distortion (as uniform as possible),
and to contribute the least possible external drag to the system.
• For a gas turbine engine (turbojet, turbofan, and turboprop), the airflow entering
subsonic compressors or fans must be of low Mach number, of the order 0.4-0.5 or
less, even if the aircraft speed is supersonic.
• For a ramjet also, the inlet reduces the speed to a subsonic value to have a subsonic
combustion. Thus the entrance duct usually acts as a diffuser.
1.1 Introduction
• Inlets may be classified as

① Subsonic or supersonic
② Fixed or variable geometry
• The intake geometry and performance are closely related to the method
of power plant installation. The position of the power plant must not
affect the efficiency of the air intake.
• In the following sections, the different methods of powerplant installation
will be first discussed for both civil and military aircraft; next subsonic and
supersonic intakes will be analyzed.

Gas turbine engines
1.2 Powerplant installation

• Powerplant installation is sometimes referred to as propulsion-airframe integration.
• It is the process of locating the powerplants and designating their installation to meet
many operating requirements while minimizing drag and weight penalties [2].
• The installation of the engines influences aircraft safety, structural weight, flutter, drag,
control, maximum lift, performance and reliability of engine, maintainability, and
aircraft growth potential.
• Powerplant installation influences the design of the air-inlet system, the exhaust system
(which will be discussed in Chapter 11), the cooling arrangement, and the mounting
structure.
• These elements are largely the responsibility of the airframe manufacturer. However,
the engine manufacturer is also involved as the engine data must be available to the
airframe manufacturer to design a suitable installation.
• Hereafter, powerplant installation will be discussed for both subsonic and supersonic
aircraft.

• Powerplant installations for both civil and military aircraft are similar as long as
their flight speeds are subsonic or transonic.
• However, for supersonic aircraft there are great differences in the installation
methods of civil and military aircraft, as will be described later on.
• Turbojet and turbofan engines have the same methods for installation, while
turboprops employ other methods.

• Although most present-day transport aircraft (passenger or cargo) are powered by
turbofan engines, turbojet engines still have small avenues. The following forms
are frequently seen for turbojet and turbofan engines:
① Wing installation (even number of engines: 2, 4, 6, or 8)
② Fuselage (2 or 4 engines)
③ Wing and tail combination (3 engines)
④ Fuselage and tail combination (3 engines)

Gas turbine engines

1.3.1.1 Wing installation
• Three forms for powerplants installed in the wings, namely,

① Buried in the wing (2 or 4 engines)
② Pod installation (2, 4, 6, or 8 engines)
③ Above the wing (2 or 4 engines)

1.3.1.1 Wing installation : Buried wing installation
• The first type of wing installation, “buried in the wing,” is found in early
aircraft such as the De Haviland Comet 4 and the Hawker Siddeley Nimrod.
• In both aircraft, four engines are buried in the wing root (Figure 1.1a and b).
The B-2’s four General Electric F118-GE-110 non-afterburning turbofans are
buried in the wings, with two engines clustered together inboard on each wing
(Figure 1.1c).
• The intakes of the B-2 aircraft have a zigzag lip to scatter radar reflections, and
there is a zigzag slot just before each intake to act as a “boundary layer
splitter,” breaking up the stagnant turbulent airflow that tends to collect on
the surface of an aircraft.

(a) Buried wing installation

Gas turbine engines

(b) Nimrod aircraft as a typical buried wing installation


(c) B-2 aircraft


1.3.1.1 Wing installation: Buried wing installation
This method of installation has the following advantages:

① Minimum parasite drag and probably the minimum weight
② Minimum yawing moment in case of engine failure, which counteracts the asymmetric
thrust, allowing the pilot to maintain a straight level flight easily
However, it has the following disadvantages:

① It poses a threat to the wing structure in the case of the failure of a turbine blade or disk.
② Very difficult to maximize the inlet efficiency.
③ If a larger diameter engine is desired in a later version of the airplane, the entire wing
may have to be redesigned.
④ Difficult accessibility for maintenance and repair.
⑤ It eliminates the flap in the region of the engine exhaust, therefore reducing the
maximum lift coefficient CLMAX [2].

Gas turbine engines

1.3.1.1 Wing installation: Pod installation
• The second type of wing installation is the “pod installation,” whereby engines are
attached to the wings via pylons (Figure 1.2a and b).
• Most engines nowadays have a pod installation; either two or four engines are found in
the following aircraft: Boeing 707, 737, 747, 757, 767, 777, MD-11, 787; Airbus A 300,
320, 330, 340, 350, and 380; and Antonov An-148.
• Six engines power the Antonov An-225, while eight P&W TF33 turbofan engines power
the B-52.

(a) General aircraft/engine layout.

(b) Airbus A340-600 Egypt Air airliner.


Gas turbine engines

(c) Close view of pod.

(d) Antonov An-225.

This type of engine installation has the following advantages:

① It minimizes the risk of wing structural damage in case of
blade/disk failure.
② It is simple to obtain high ram recovery in the inlet since the
angle of attack at the inlet is minimized and no wakes are
ingested.
③ Engine maintenance and replacement is easy.

Gas turbine engines

However, it has the following disadvantages:

① For low-wing aircraft like the Boeing 737, the engines are mounted close to ground
and so tend to suck dirt, pebbles, rocks, snow, and so on, into the inlet. This is
known as foreign object damage (FOD) which may cause serious damage to the
engine blades.
② The high temperature and high dynamic pressure of the exhaust impinging on the
flap increases flap loads and weight, and may require titanium structure, which is
more expensive.
③ Pylon-wing interference affects the local velocities near the wing's leading edge,
thus increasing the drag and reducing the maximum lift coefficient. (However, this
drawback can be remedied by choosing the nacelle locations sufficiently forward
and low with respect to the wing as shown in Figure 1.3.)


1.3.1.1 Wing installation: Above the wing
• Engines installed “above the wing” represent the third type of wing installation. This can
be found on sea planes like the A-40 Albatros, which is powered by two Soloviev D-
30KPV engines of 117.7 kN thrust each plus two Klimov RD-60K booster engines of 24.5
kN thrust (Figure 1.4) and on conventional aircraft like the Antonov An-74TK-200 aircraft,
powered by two turbofan engines D-36, series 3-A, mounted over the wing.

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(a) Typical layout

(b) Three views for A-40 Albatros aircraft


This type of installation has the following advantages:

① It prevents (or greatly reduces) foreign object ingestion into the engines from the surface
of a runway during takeoff and landing.
② It prevents water ingestion into the engine for seaplanes during takeoff and landing.
③ It improves wing lift due to the blowing over of the wing upper surface and inboard flaps
by engine streams.
④ It reduces noise level at the terrain due to screening engine streams by the wing, which
complies with the increasingly stringent civilian aviation noise regulations.

Gas turbine engines

As at present and in the future, increasingly stringent civilian aviation noise

regulations will require the design and manufacture of extremely quiet commercial
aircraft.
Also, the large fan diameters of modern engines with increasingly higher BPRs
pose significant packaging and aircraft installation challenges.
The design approach that addresses both of these challenges is to mount the
engines above the wing.
In addition to allowing the performance trend toward large diameters and high
BPR-turbofan engines to continue, this approach allows the wing to shield much of
the engine noise from people on the ground.

As described in [2], fuselage installation (which is sometimes identified as aft-engine arrangements)

is most suitable for small aircraft, in which it is difficult to install engines under the wing and maintain
adequate wing-nacelle and nacelle ground clearances.
Same as wing, pod installation to engine mounting is used. Engine pods are mounted on struts to
allow an air gap between the pod and the fuselage (and also in wing installation).
Thus, there is a minimum of aerodynamic interference with the smooth flow of air over the structure
adjacent to the engine pod. The engines are attached to the sides of the rear fuselage with short stub
wings. Aircraft are either powered by two engines (Figure 1.5a) or four engines.
Examples of two-engine aircraft are the DC-9, MD-80, Gates Learjet Model 25, Fokker F-28, Cessna
550 Citation II, Tu-324 and 334, and Sud aviation Caravelle 12. Examples of four-engine aircraft are the
Jetstar and BAC Super VC-10 (Figure 1.5b).

(a) Two-engine fuselage installation

Gas turbine engines

(b) four-engine fuselage installation; Super VC-10


Fuselage installation has the following advantages [2]:

① Greater maximum lift coefficient and less drag due to elimination of wing-pylon
and exhaust-flap interference
② Less asymmetric yaw after engine failure as the engines are close to the fuselage
③ Lower fuselage height above the ground, which permits shorter landing gear and
air stair length

However, this installation has the following disadvantages [3]:

① The center of gravity of the empty airplane is moved aft, well behind the center of gravity of the
payload. Thus a greater center of gravity range is required, which leads to difficult balance
problems and larger tail.
② On wet runway, the wheels kick water and special deflectors on the landing gear may be needed to
avoid water ingestion into the engine.
③ At very high angles of attack, the nacelle wake blankets the T-tail and may cause stall, necessitating
a larger tail span.
④ Vibration and noise isolation are difficult problems.
It appears that for DC-9 size aircraft, the fuselage installation is to be slightly preferred. In general,
smaller aircraft employ the fuselage arrangement.

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Tail installation represents a center-engine installation. Only one turbofan engine

is installed in all available tail combinations with either wing or fuselage
arrangement. Examples are found in Lockheed Tristar and DC-10 aircraft. There
are four arrangements of this type of installation as seen in Figure 1.6 for center- (or
tail-) engine installation, where layout
(a) represents bifurcated inlet,
(b) represents a long inlet,
(c) represents a long tail pipe, and
(d) represents an “S” bend inlet.

Figure 1.6: Tail engine installation (DC-10) transport aircraft.

(a) Bifurcated inlet, (b) long inlet,

Figure 1.6: Tail engine installation (DC-10) transport aircraft.

(c) long tail pipe, and (d) “S” bend inlet.

Gas turbine engines

Each possibility entails compromises of weight, inlet-total pressure loss, inlet-flow

distortion drag, thrust reverser effectiveness, and maintenance accessibilities.
The two usually used are the S-bend and the long-inlet configurations. Both
installation methods have the following advantages:
① Mounted very far aft so a ruptured turbine blade or disc will not impact on the basic
tail structure.
② High thrust reverser without interfering with control surface effectiveness. This is
achieved by shaping and tilting the cascades used to reverse the flow.

But both arrangements also have the following disadvantages:

① Large inlet losses due to the long length of intake
② Difficult accessibility for maintenance and repair
The S-bend has lower engine location and uses the engine exhaust to replace part of
the fuselage boat-tail (saving drag) but has several disadvantages; namely, a distortion
risk, a drag from fairing out the inlet, and the serious drawback of cutting a huge hole in
the upper fuselage structure.
The long (or straight-through) inlet has the engine mounted on the fin, which has an
ideal aerodynamic inlet free of distortion, but does have an increase in fin structural
weight to support the engine. Figure 1.7 illustrates a typical wing and tail installation.

Figure 1.7: Wing and tail installation

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1.3.1.4 Combined fuselage and tail installation
Examples of this type of installation are the Boeing 727 aircraft, Tu-154 and Yak-42D. A
typical layout for this configuration is shown in Figure 1.8.
Figure 1.8: Fuselage and tail installation.

Turboprop (or turbo-propeller) engines, however, have limited options. The propeller
requirements always place the engine in one of the following positions:
① Installation in the wing
② Installation in the fuselage, either at the nose or empennage of the aircraft for a single-
engine aircraft
③ Horizontal tail installation
Most present day turboprops are wing-mounted engines on either passenger or cargo
transports. Either puller or pusher turboprops may be installed in the wing. Typical wing
installation of the puller type is shown in Figure 1.9. Examples of wing installation are the
DeHavilland DHC-8 Commuter airplane powered by two PW120 puller engines, the Fokker
F-27 powered by two RR Dart puller engines, and the Beech Starship powered by two PT6A-
67A pusher engines (Figure 1.10). In some aircraft, a pair of counter-rotating propellers is
installed to each engine. Antonov An-70 is an example of an aircraft powered by four engines.

A small aircraft may be powered by a single turboprop engine fitted to its nose (Figure
1.11).
Nose-mounted turboprop engines may have two “counter-rotating” propellers. An example
of this type of aircraft is the Westland Wyvern TF MK2 long-distance ship airplane,
developed for the Royal navy in 1944. This was the last fixed-wing aircraft at the Westland
Company, and it was the first ship airplane in the world equipped with the turboprop engines
having contra rotating propellers (Figure 1.12).
Another engine fitted with a turboprop engine having contra rotating propellers in the tail
was the XB-42, which allowed the wing to have a clean unfettered design (Figure 1.13).
The Antonov AN-180 medium turboprop airliner (around 175 passengers) is powered by
two turboprop engines attached to the tips of the horizontal tail and each has contra rotating
propellers (Figure 1.14).

Gas turbine engines

Figure 1.9: Puller turboprop engines installed to wing


Figure 1.10: Starship aircraft powered by two PT6A-67A pusher engines.

Figure 1.11: Nose-mounted turboprop engine


Gas turbine engines

Figure 1.12: Contra-rotating propeller of a turboprop (nose installation).

Figure 1.13: Contra-rotating propeller of a turboprop (empennage installation).

Figure 1.14: Turboprop engines mounted in the horizontal tail.


Gas turbine engines
Supersonic aircraft are mostly military ones. There were a few supersonic civil aircraft,
including the Anglo-French Concorde (powered by turbojet engines) and the Russian Tu-
144 (powered by turbofan engines). Concorde was retired on April 10, 2003, while the Tu-
144 was retired on July 1, 1983. All the remaining supersonic aircraft are military ones.

The engines of the two civil supersonic transports (SST) are installed in the wing.
Concorde is powered by four Rolls Royce/SNECMA Olympus 593 turbojets (Figure 1.15),
while the Tu-144 is powered by four turbofan engines. All engines are installed onto the
lower surface and aft part of the wing. The engine nacelle is flush to wing surface and has a
rectangular inlet (Figure 1.16).

Figure 1.15: Concorde aircraft

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Gas turbine engines





Figure 1.16: Inlet of Olympus 593 engine of the Concorde.


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Tupolev TU-144

Most, if not all, military aircraft are powered by fuselage installation engines. Turbojet or
turbofan engines are installed at the aft end of the fuselage. Fighters powered by a single
engine may have a single intake (Figure 1.17) or divided intakes (Figure 1.18). Nose intake
involves the use of either a short duct as in the case of the F-86 or a long duct as in the case
of the F-8 and F-16. Nose intake enjoys good characteristics through a wide range of angle of
attack and sideslip.
It is free from aerodynamic interference effects-such as flow separation-from other parts of
the aircraft. Perhaps the largest drawback of the nose inlet, however, is that neither guns nor
radar can be mounted in the front of the fuselage.
Moreover, the long internal duct leading from the inlet to the engine generates excessive
friction and thus has relatively high pressure losses. In addition, interference between the duct
and the pilot's cockpit may be encountered. For this reason, divided intake is often used
where the inlets are located at the roots of aircraft wings.

Another type of nose inlet is the chin inlet employed on the F-8 airplane, which has many
of the advantages of the simple nose inlet but leaves space in the front of the fuselage for
radar or guns, and has a somewhat shorter internal duct. Care should be taken in such a
design to avoid a separated or unsteady flow entering the inlet from the nose of the aircraft.
The proximity of the inlet to the ground introduces a possible risk of foreign-object ingestion,
and, obviously, the nose wheel must be located behind the inlet. The chin inlet, however, is
employed on the General Dynamics F-16.
Twin-engine fighters mostly have wing-root inlet installation, examples being the F-15;
Figure 1.19, and F-101. Inlets located in this manner offer several advantages. Among these
are short, light, internal flow ducts, avoidance of fuselage boundary layer air ingestion, and
freedom to mount guns and radar in the nose of the aircraft. Further, no interference between
the cockpit and internal ducting is encountered in this arrangement.
Different types of inlet will be discussed later on. A unique wing installation is found in the
SR-71 aircraft (Figure 1.20).

Gas turbine engines

Figure 1.17: Nose intake for a single engine fuselage-mounted engine.

Figure 1.18: Divided intake for a single engine fuselage-mounted engine.


Figure 1.19: Fighter F-15

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Figure 1.20: General arrangement of the SR-71 aircraft (NASA TM 104330).
1.5 Air intakes or inlets

The intake is the first part of all air breathing propulsion systems. Both of the words
“intake” and “inlet” are used alternatively.
Intake is used in Britain while inlet is used in the United States. The air-intake duct is
designed and manufactured by the airframe manufacturer and not by the engine manufacturer.
Both manufacturers cooperate in testing air intakes.
An aircraft will require one or more intakes to capture (collect) the atmospheric air
(working fluid) at free-stream Mach number, sometimes changing its direction of flow, and
supplying this flow to the engine with as little distortion as possible, to ensure smooth running
and efficient propulsion.
Moreover, the intake has to achieve all this with minimum disturbance to the external flow
around the aircraft and thus minimum external drag. So, for a successful operation of the
engine within the desired flight envelope, engine-intake compatibility is essential. Subsonic
inlets in modern-day aircraft contain noise-absorbing materials to cope with international
acoustics limitations [4].
Subsonic intakes are found in the turbojet or turbofan engines powering most of the
current civil transports (commercial and cargo aircraft). Examples of these engines are the
JT8, JT9, PW 4000 series, RB211, Trent series, and the V2500. All these engines power
many of the Boeing and Airbus aircraft transports. The surface of the inlet is a continuous
smooth curve, whose very front (most upstream portion) is called the inlet lip.
A subsonic aircraft has an intake with a relatively thick lip. Concerning turboprop engines,
the intakes are much complicated by the propeller and gear box at the inlet to the engine.
Subsonic inlets have fixed geometry, although inlets for some high-BPR turbofan engines
are designed with blow-in-doors. These doors are spring-loaded parts installed in the
perimeter of the inlet duct designed to deliver additional air to the aero-engine during takeoff
and climb conditions, as this is when the highest thrust is needed and the aircraft speed is
low [5]. The most common type of subsonic intake is the pitot intake.

Gas turbine engines
This type of intake makes the fullest use of ram due to forward speed, and suffers the
minimum loss of ram pressure with changes of aircraft altitude [4]. However, as sonic speed
is approached, the efficiency of this type of air intake begins to fall because of the formation
of a shock wave at the intake lip. Pitot intake consists of a simple forward entry hole with a
cowl lip. The three major types of pitot intakes as shown in Figure 1.21 are
① Podded intakes
② Integrated intakes
③ Flush intakes
Figure 1.21: Types of pitot subsonic intakes:

(a) podded pitot,
(b) integrated pitot, and
(c) flush pitot
Podded intake is common in transport aircraft (civil or military). Examples of

commercial aircraft with this intake are Boeing 707, 767, 777, 787 and Airbus A330, 340,
350, and 380. The B-52 is an example of a military aircraft with this intake. The integrated
intake is used in combat (military) aircraft, an example being the British Aerospace Harrier.
For integrated intakes, the internal flow problems are of dominant concern, due to (1)
the duct being longer, usually containing bends and shape changes, and (2) the presence of
aircraft surface ahead of the intake, wetted by the internal flow [6].
The flush intake is usually used in missiles since it can be more readily accommodated
into those airframes.

Gas turbine engines

For typical podded intakes, the friction losses are insignificant while the flow separation is of prime importance. The
internal flow has the shortest and most direct route possible to the engine and its pressure recovery is almost 100% [6].
From an aerodynamic point of view, the flow in the intake resembles the flow in a duct. The duct “captures” a certain
stream tube of air, thus dividing the air stream into an internal flow and an external flow. The external flow preserves the
good aerodynamics of the airframe, while the internal flow feeds the engine. The flow characteristics in podded intakes
are illustrated in Figure 1.22 for four flow conditions.
a) In ground run, case (a), there will be no effective free-stream velocity, which will result in a large induced flow
capture area causing the streamlines to converge into the intake area. The ratio between the upstream capture area to
the inlet area approaches infinite. The stream tube has a bell-shape pattern.
b) During climb, case (b), the free stream velocity will be lower than the intake velocity due to the high mass-flow rates
required. This will also result in a larger entry stream tube area than the intake area (a convergent stream-tube
pattern).
c) At high-speed cruise, case (c), (M=0.85) the entry-stream tube will be smaller than the intake area and diffusion will
take place partially outside the intake and partially inside the intake, and hence the air velocity will attain lower
values in the intake with a small resultant rise in pressure (15%).
d) At top speed, case (d), (higher than cruise [M=0.95]), the high-pressure gradient on the intake lip can cause
separation and an unstable flow into the intake.
Figure 1.22: Flow characteristics of podded intakes: (a) ground run, (b) climb, (c) high-speed cruise, and (d) top speed.

Depending on the flight speed and the mass flow demanded by the engine, the inlet may
have to operate with a wide range of incident stream conditions. Figure 1.23 shows the
performance of subsonic intake during two typical subsonic conditions, namely takeoff
(Figure 1.23a) and cruise (Figure 1.23b).

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Figure 1.23: Subsonic inlet during (a) takeoff and (b) cruise

For each operating condition, three plots are given in Figure 1.23. The first illustrates the
stream tube, while the second depicts the pressure and speed variation, and the third is a
temperature entropy diagram. The flow-in intake is identified by three states: far upstream,
which is denoted as (∞), at the duct entry, denoted as (1), and at the engine face, denoted as
(2). The flow outside the engine (from state ∞ to 1) is an isentropic one, where no losses are
associated with the total temperature and pressure. For high speed or cruise condition
(Figure 1.23a), the stream tube will have a divergent shape and following conditions can be
stated:
u1  u  , P1  P , P01  P0 , , T01  T0 
During low-speed high-thrust operation (e.g., during takeoff and climb), Figure 1.23b,
the same engine will demand more mass flow and the air stream upstream the intake will
be accelerated. The stream tube will have a converging shape and the following conditions
will be satisfied:
u1  u  , P1  P , P01  P0  , T01  T0 

For both cases of takeoff and cruise, there will be internal diffusion
within the intake up to the engine face. The static pressure will rise
and the air speed will be reduced. The total pressure will also
decrease due to skin friction while the total temperature will remain
unchanged as the flow through the diffuser is adiabatic. Thus, for
both takeoff and cruise conditions
P2  P1, P02  P0, u2  u1
Since the inlet speed to the engine (compressor/fan) should be

nearly constant for different operating conditions, then
 P   P 
 2    2 
 P1   P1 cruise
takeoff

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Two parameters will be discussed here:

① Isentropic efficiency (ηd)
② Stagnation-pressure ratio (rd)

1.6.2.1 Isentropic efficiency (ηd)
The isentropic efficiency of the intake ηd is a static-to-total efficiency and as previously
defined in Chapters 3 through 7, it is a measure for the losses from the far upstream
conditions to the engine face. The efficiency is then expressed by the following relation
(refer to Figure 1.23a): h  h T02s  T T02s / T   1
d  02s  
h02  h T02  T T02 / T   1
To 2 T0   1 2
since  1 M
T T 2
 1/ 
d 
P02 / P  1
[(  1) / 2]M 2
 /  1
P02    1 2 
 1  d M   (1.2)
P    

Modern jet transports may cruise with values of the pressure recovery of 97%-98%.
Supersonic aircraft with well-designed, practical inlet and internal flow systems may have
pressure recoveries of 85% or more for Mach numbers in the 2.0-2.5 range.
Stagnation-pressure ratio is defined as the ratio between the average total pressure of the
air entering the engine to that of the free-stream air, or
P02
rd 
P0
 /  1
P02 P P  
 02 0x  rd 1    1 M 2  (1.3)
Pa P0 P  2 
 

Gas turbine engines

From Equations 1.2 and 1.3 and
 
r  1    1 M 2   1
 1/ 
d  2  (1.4)
d   
   1  2
 M
 2  
Moreover, the pressure recovery can be expressed as
 /  1
 
 1  d   1 M 2 
P   
rd  02   
P0   1 2  (1.5)
 1 M 
  

Thus, if the isentropic efficiency is known, the pressure recovery can be obtained from
Equation 1.5, while if the pressure recovery is known, the diffuser efficiency can be
determined from Equation 1.4.
However, since the flow upstream of the intake is isentropic, then all the losses are
encountered inside the intake, or from state (1) to state (2). In some cases, the efficiency is
defined for the internal part of diffuser . In this case, the diffuser efficiency is defined as
h02s  h1 T02s  T1 T02s / T1   1
 1/   1/
d 
P02
/ P1  1

P
02
/ P1  1
d   
T01 / T1   1  1 2
 1/ 
h02  h1 T02  T1 P01
/ P1  1 M1
2
 /  1
 
 P02   1      1 M 2 
   1

(1.5b)
 P1  
d
2

The intake for turboprop engines is very complicated due to the bulk gearbox. However,
an aerodynamically efficient turboprop intake can be achieved by use of a ducted spinner [9]
as shown in Figure 1.25.
Improvement of intake performance is achieved by choosing a large entry area. In
addition, minimum cylindrical roots are encased in fairings of low thickness/chord, which
form the structural members supporting the spinner cowl [6].
The efficiency of the intake, defined as the ratio between the difference between the static
pressure at the engine face and the free stream value to the dynamic pressure, is plotted
versus the ratio between the capture area and the duct entry.

Gas turbine engines

Figure 1.25: Efficiency of inlets of turboprop engine. (From Seddon, J. and Goldsmith, E.L., Intake Aerodynamics,
AIAA Education Series, 1989, p. 11.)
The design of inlet systems for supersonic aircraft is a highly complex matter involving
engineering trade-offs between efficiency, complexity, weight, and cost. A typical
supersonic intake is made up of a supersonic diffuser, in which the flow is decelerated by a
combination of shocks, diffuse compression, and a subsonic diffuser, which reduces the
Mach number from high subsonic value after the last shock to the value acceptable to the
engine [10]. Subsonic intakes that have thick lips are quite unsuitable for supersonic
speeds.
The reason is that a normal shock wave ahead of the intake is generated, which will
yield a very sharp static pressure rise without change of flow direction and a
correspondingly big velocity reduction. The adiabatic efficiency of compression through a
normal shock wave is very low as compared with oblique shocks. At Mach 2.0 in the
stratosphere adiabatic efficiency would be about 80% or less for normal shock waves,
whereas its value will be about 95% or even more for an intake designed for oblique
shocks.
Flight at supersonic speeds complicates the diffuser design for the following
reasons [10]:
① The existence of shock waves, which lead to large decrease in stagnation
pressure even in the absence of viscous effects.
② The large variation in capture stream tube area between subsonic and
supersonic flight for a given engine, as much as a factor of four between
M∞=1 and M∞=3.
③ As M∞ increases, the inlet compression ratio becomes a larger fraction of the
overall cycle compression ratios and as a result the specific thrust becomes
more sensitive to diffuser pressure ratio.
④ It must operate efficiently both during the subsonic flight phases (takeoff,
climb and subsonic cruise) and at supersonic design speed.

Gas turbine engines

Generally supersonic intake may be classified as
① Axisymmetric or two-dimensional (Figure 1.26).
Axisymmetric intakes use an axisymmetric central cone to shock the flow down to subsonic speeds. The two-
dimensional inlets have rectangular cross-sections as found in the F-14 and F-15 fighter aircraft.
② Variable-or fixed-geometry (Figure 1.27).
For variable-geometry axisymmetric intakes, the central cone may move fore and aft to adjust the intake area.
Alternatively, the inlet area is adjusted in the case of the rectangular section through hinged flaps (or ramps) that may
change its angles. For flight at Mach numbers much beyond 1.6, variable-geometry features must be incorporated in the
inlet to achieve high inlet pressure recoveries together with low external drag. The General Dynamics F-111 airplane has
a quarter-round inlet equipped with a translating center body or spike. The inlet is bounded on the top by the wing and on
one side by the fuselage. An installation of this type is often referred to as an “armpit” inlet. The spike automatically
translates fore and aft as the Mach number changes. The throat area of the inlet also varies with the Mach number. This is
accomplished by the expansion and contraction of the rear part of the spike.
③ Internal, external, or mixed-compression (Figure 1.28)
As shown in Figure 1.28, the set of shocks situated between the forebody and intake lip are identified as external
shocks, while those found between the nose lip and the intake throat are called internal shocks. Some intakes have one
type of shock, either external or internal, and are given that name, while others have both types and are denoted as mixed
compression intakes.
Figure 1.26: Axisymmetric and two-dimensional supersonic intakes.

Figure 1.26: Axisymmetric and two-dimensional supersonic intakes.

Gas turbine engines
Figure 1.27: Variable-and fixed-geometry supersonic intakes.
Figure 1.28: External and internal compression supersonic intake.
Figure 1.29: Intakes for military aircraft:

(a) F5D-1 Sky lancer,
(b) MIG-25,
(c) F-104,
(d) F-89,
(e) MIG-FMI
(f) F-16-A.

Gas turbine engines
A constant-area (or fixed-geometry) intake may be either axisymmetric or two

dimensional. The supersonic pitot intake is a constant cross-sectional area intake similar to
the subsonic pitot intake, but it requires a sharp lip for the shock wave attachment. This will
substantially reduce intake drag compared with that of the subsonic rounded-edged lip
operating at the same Mach number. Sharp edges unfortunately result in poor pressure
recovery at low Mach numbers. However, this design presents a very simple solution for
supersonic intakes. Variable-geometry intakes may involve the use of a translating center
body, a variable-geometry center body, and a cowl with a variable lip angle, variable ramp
angles and/or a variable throat area. Using variable-geometry inlets requires the use of
sensors, which add complexity and weight to the inlet.
The use of axisymmetric or 2-D inlets is dependent on the method of engine installation
on the aircraft, the cruise Mach number, and the type of the aircraft (i.e., military or civil), as
clearly illustrated in Figures 1.15 and 1.21.

1.7.1.1 Normal shock waves
For a normal shock wave, denoting the conditions upstream and downstream the shock by
subscripts (1) and (2), respectively, the following relations give the downstream Mach
number, static temperature and pressure ratios, density ratio, and total pressure ratio across
the shock:
(  1)M 12  2
M 22 
2 M 12  (  1) (1.6)
T2  2    1   2  2    1 
       M 1   
 (  1)M 1    1     1     1 
2
T1 (1.7)
P2   2  2 
P1
 1    
 M 1  1 
   1 
 (1.8)
 
2  (  1)M 1  2 
  2
1  2  (  1)M 1 
(1.9)
P02  (  1)M 2   / 1  2     1 

(1/  1)
 1    M 12   
P01  2  (  1)M 12       1 
   1   (1.10)

The shown oblique shock, Figure 1.30 has a shock angle βand a deflection angle δ.
Oblique shock can be treated as a normal shock having an upstream Mach number
M1n=M1sinβ and a tangential component M1t=M1*cosβ. The tangential velocity components
upstream and downstream the shocks are equal. From References 11 and 12, the following
relations are given:
tan  

2 cot  M 12 sin 2   1 
 
(1.11a)
(  1)M 12  2 M 12 sin 2   1
For γ=7/4, then

M 12 sin 2  2 cot 
tan   5 (1.11b)
10  M 12(7  5 cos 2 )
(  1)M 12 sin2   2 (1.12a)

M 22 sin2 (   ) 
2 M 12 sin2   (  1)

Gas turbine engines

Figure 1.30: Nomenclature of oblique shock wave.

External compression intakes complete the supersonic diffusion process outside the
covered portion of the inlet where the flow is decelerated through a combination of oblique
shocks (single, double, triple, or multiple). These oblique shocks are followed by a normal
shock wave that changes the flow from supersonic to subsonic. Both the normal shock wave
and the throat are ideally located at the cowl lip. The supersonic diffuser is followed by a
subsonic diffuser, which reduces the Mach number from high subsonic value after the last
shock to the value acceptable to the engine. The simplest form of staged compression is the
single oblique shock, produced by a single-angled wedge or cone projecting forward of the
duct, followed by a normal shock as illustrated in Figure 1.31.
The intake in this case is referred to as a two-shock intake. With a wedge, the flow after the
oblique shock wave is at a constant Mach number and is parallel to the wedge surface. With a
cone, the flow behind the conical shock is itself conical; the Mach number is constant along
rays from the apex and varies along streamline. Forebody intake is frequently used for
“external compression intake of wedge or cone form” [6].

Figure 1.31: Single oblique shock external compression intake.


Gas turbine engines

The capture area (Ac) for supersonic intakes is defined as the area enclosed by the
leading edge, or “highlight,” of the intake cowl, including the cross-sectional area of
the forebody in that plane. The maximum flow ratio is achieved when the boundary
of the free stream tube (A∞) arrives undisturbed at the lip. This means
A
 1.0
Ac
This condition is identified as the full flow [6] or the critical flow [5]. This
condition depends on the Mach number, angle of the forebody, and the position of
the tip. In this case, the shock angle θ is equal to the angle subtended by lip at the
apex of the body and corresponds to the maximum possible flow through the intake
(Figure 1.32).

Figure 1.32: Types of flow in an external compression intake.


This is the design point for constant area intake and the goal of the variable area
intake as to stay at that condition over the flight operating range. At Mach numbers
(or speeds) below the value of the critical (design) value described earlier, the mass
flow is less than that at the critical condition, and the normal shock wave occurs in
front of the cowl lip, and this case is identified as subcritical. It is to be noticed here
that A
 1.0
Ac
Moreover, the outer drag of the intake becomes very large and smaller pressure
recovery is obtained. If the air speed is greater than the design value, then the oblique
shock will impinge inside the cowl lip and the normal shock will move to the
diverging section. This type of operation is referred to as the supercritical operation.

Gas turbine engines

The two-shock intake is only moderately good at Mach 2.0 and unlikely to be adequate at
higher Mach numbers [4]. The principle of breaking down an external shock system can be
extended to any desired number of stages. The next step is the three-shock intake, whereby two
oblique shocks are followed by a normal shock, where the double-wedge and double-cone are
the archetypal forms (Figure 1.33).
Figure 1.33: Three shocks for double-cone (or double-wedge) geometry.


Continuing the process of breaking down the external shock system,
three or more oblique shocks may be used ahead of the normal shock.
For a system of (n-1) oblique shocks, the pressure recovery factor will
be P02 P02 P03 P04 P0n  P0n 
    
P0  P01 P02 P03 P0n 1  P0n 1 normal shock
Two remarks are to be made here:
① As the number of oblique shocks increases, the pressure recovery
factor increases.
② Up to Mach 2, equal deflections of the successive wedge angles
give the best results, while for higher Mach numbers, the first
deflection angle needs to be the smallest and the last the largest [4].

Extending the principle of multi-shock compression to its limit leads to the concept of
isentropic compression, in which a smoothly contoured forebody produces an infinitely large
number of infinitely weak oblique shocks (Figure 1.34). In this case the supersonic stream is
compressed with no losses in the total pressure.
Figure 1.34: Isotropic compression supersonic inlet.


Gas turbine engines

1.7.3 Internal compression inlet (intake)
The internal compression inlet locates all the shocks within the covered passage way (Figure
1.36). The terminal shock wave is also a normal one, which is located near or at the throat.
A principal difference between internal and external compression intakes is that with internal
compression, since the system is enclosed, oblique shocks are reflected from an opposite wall,
which have to be considered. The simplest form is a three-shock system. The single-wedge turns
the flow toward the opposite wall. The oblique shock is reflected from the opposite wall and the
flow passing the reflected shock is restored to an axial direction.
Figure 1.36: Internal compression supersonic intake.


1.7.4 Mixed compression intakes
These inlets use a combined external and internal compression system (Figure
1.28). Currently, all the supersonic intakes are of the mixed compression type.
Figure 1.28: External and internal compression supersonic intake.
1.8 Matching between intake and engine
As other engine modules, the intake is designed for certain operating conditions.
However, the aircraft operates through a flight envelope containing an enormous
variety of operating conditions. Therefore the intake has to cope with these
different situations. This is accomplished by different capabilities for ingesting
extra air quantity in some cases (takeoff) and dumping unneeded air through
bleeding in other cases. Some engines, particularly supersonic ones, are fitted with
variable-geometry intakes. The engine control unit (ECU) controls both air and
fuel flow into the engine that fulfill the requirements of different operating
conditions.

Gas turbine engines
1.9 Case study

The turbo ramjet engine previously described in Chapter 7is analyzed here. The
geometry of the intake for the turbojet engine operating at low supersonic speeds
(up to Mach number 2.0) is shown in Figure 1.40.Two designs are examined: four
oblique shocks and eight oblique shocks. In both cases, a normal shock wave
exists downstream the oblique shocks.
Figure 1.40: Intake geometry.

1.9 Case study

The design point of the turbojet intake is given in the following table:
The following table presents the shock characteristics as well as the Mach number and
speed downstream four successive shocks.
The pressure recovery factor for the four oblique shocks is 91.57% and the intake
efficiency is 94.41%. The static pressure, temperature, and density variation along the
diffuser is plotted in Figure 1.41. The Mach number, speed, and overall total pressure ratio
are plotted along the diffuser in Figure 1.42.
1.9 Case study
Figure 1.41: Static pressure and temperature as well as density distribution for a four-oblique-shock case.

Gas turbine engines
1.9 Case study
Figure 1.42: Mach number, speed, and total pressure ratio distribution for a four-oblique-shock case
1.9 Case study

The following table presents the shock wave characteristics for the 10 oblique shock case.
Pressure recovery for the eight oblique shocks case is 97.37% while the intake efficiency is
98.29%. The static pressure, temperature, and density variation along the diffuser is plotted
in Figure 1.43. The Mach number, speed, and overall total pressure ratio are plotted along
the diffuser in Figure 1.44.
1.9 Case study
Figure 1.43: Static temperature and pressure as well as density distribution for an eight-oblique-shock case.

Gas turbine engines
1.9 Case study
Figure 1.44 Mach number, speed, and total pressure ratio distribution for an eight-oblique-shock case
1.9 Case study

From both cases, it can be seen that increasing the number of shocks increases the
effectiveness of the intake, and consequently the pressure recovery and adiabatic efficiency
of the intake. Ultimately, by a continuous increase of the number of oblique shocks, there
will be no need for the normal shock and the case of isentropic diffuser will be reached.
The intake is of the variable-geometry type. A simplified layout for the actuation system
is shown in Figure 1.45.
1.9 Case study
Figure 1.45: Actuation system for the variable geometry four-oblique-shock intake.

Gas turbine engines
Examples 1.1~1.7
Problems P1.1~P1.14

1 Powerplant Installation and Intakes - PPT

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Gas turbine engines

Gas turbine engines

Chapter 1: Powerplant Installation & Intakes

Dr. Tran Tien Anh

2020/04/06 Dr. Tran Tien Anh@HCMUT 1

1.3.2 Turboprop installation

2020/04/06 Dr. Tran Tien Anh@HCMUT 2

1.4 Supersonic aircraft

1.6.3 Turboprop inlets

2020/04/06 Dr. Tran Tien Anh@HCMUT 3

Dr. Tran Tien Anh@HCMUT 1

1.7 Supersonic intakes

1.8 Matching between intake and engine

2020/04/06 Dr. Tran Tien Anh@HCMUT 5

• Inlets may be classified as

2020/04/06 Dr. Tran Tien Anh@HCMUT 6

Dr. Tran Tien Anh@HCMUT 2

1.2 Powerplant installation

2020/04/06 Dr. Tran Tien Anh@HCMUT 7

1.3 Subsonic aircraft

2020/04/06 Dr. Tran Tien Anh@HCMUT 8

1.3 Subsonic aircraft

2020/04/06 Dr. Tran Tien Anh@HCMUT 9

Dr. Tran Tien Anh@HCMUT 3

1.3 Subsonic aircraft

• Three forms for powerplants installed in the wings, namely,

2020/04/06 Dr. Tran Tien Anh@HCMUT 10

1.3 Subsonic aircraft

2020/04/06 Dr. Tran Tien Anh@HCMUT 11

1.3 Subsonic aircraft

(a) Buried wing installation

2020/04/06 Dr. Tran Tien Anh@HCMUT 12

Dr. Tran Tien Anh@HCMUT 4

1.3 Subsonic aircraft

(b) Nimrod aircraft as a typical buried wing installation

1.3 Subsonic aircraft

(c) B-2 aircraft

1.3 Subsonic aircraft

This method of installation has the following advantages:

However, it has the following disadvantages:

2020/04/06 Dr. Tran Tien Anh@HCMUT 15

Dr. Tran Tien Anh@HCMUT 5

1.3 Subsonic aircraft

2020/04/06 Dr. Tran Tien Anh@HCMUT 16

1.3 Subsonic aircraft

(a) General aircraft/engine layout.

2020/04/06 Dr. Tran Tien Anh@HCMUT 17

1.3 Subsonic aircraft

(b) Airbus A340-600 Egypt Air airliner.

Dr. Tran Tien Anh@HCMUT 6

1.3 Subsonic aircraft

(c) Close view of pod.

2020/04/06 Dr. Tran Tien Anh@HCMUT 19

1.3 Subsonic aircraft

(d) Antonov An-225.

2020/04/06 Dr. Tran Tien Anh@HCMUT 20

1.3 Subsonic aircraft

This type of engine installation has the following advantages: