Topic 3 Periodicity SL
Topic 3 Periodicity SL
Topic 3 Periodicity SL
IB CHEMISTRY SL
Syllabus objectives
3.1 Periodic table
Understandings:
• The periodic table is arranged into four blocks associated with the four sub-
levels—s, p, d, and f.
• The periodic table consists of groups (vertical columns) and periods (horizontal
rows).
• The period number (n) is the outer energy level that is occupied by electrons.
• The number of the principal energy level and the number of the valence electrons
in an atom can be deduced from its position on the periodic table.
• The periodic table shows the positions of metals, non-metals and metalloids.
Applications and skills:
• Deduction of the electron configuration of an atom from the element’s position
on the periodic table, and vice versa.
Guidance:
• The terms alkali metals, halogens, noble gases, transition metals, lanthanoids and
actinoids should be known.
• The group numbering scheme from group 1 to group 18, as recommended by
IUPAC, should be used.
3.2 Periodic trends
Understandings:
• Vertical and horizontal trends in the periodic table exist for atomic radius, ionic
radius, ionization energy, electron affinity and electronegativity.
• Trends in metallic and non-metallic behaviour are due to the trends above.
• Oxides change from basic through amphoteric to acidic across a period.
Applications and skills:
• Prediction and explanation of the metallic and non-metallic behaviour of an
element based on its position in the periodic table.
• Discussion of the similarities and differences in the properties of elements in the
same group, with reference to alkali metals (group 1) and halogens (group 17).
• Construction of equations to explain the pH changes for reactions of Na2O, MgO,
P4O10, and the oxides of nitrogen and sulfur with water.
Guidance:
• Only examples of general trends across periods and down groups are required.
• For ionization energy the discontinuities in the increase across a period should be
covered.
• Group trends should include the treatment of the reactions of alkali metals with
water, alkali metals with halogens and halogens with halide ions.
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Syllabus checklist
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Describe the trend in melting
point across a period (periods
2 and 3) in the periodic table
Describe the trend in metallic
character down a group and
across a period in the periodic
table
State the changes in acid-base
character for the period 3
oxides
Write equations for the
reactions of Na2O, MgO,
P4O10, and the oxides of
nitrogen and sulfur with
water
Write equations for the
reactions of the group 1
metals with water
Describe the trends in the
group 1 metals (melting point,
ionisation energy,
electronegativity, reactivity,
metallic character)
Describe the trends in the
group 17 elements (boiling
point, ionisation energy,
electronegativity, reactivity)
Write equations for the
reactions of the group 17
elements with group 1 metals
Write equations for the
displacement reactions of
group 17 elements with halide
ions
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Introduction to the periodic table
• Elements in the periodic table are arranged in groups and periods.
• A group is a vertical column in the periodic table.
• Elements in the same group have the same number of electrons in the outer energy
level (same number of valence electrons).
• A period is a horizontal row.
• Elements in the same period have the same number of occupied main energy levels.
• Elements on the periodic table are arranged in order of increasing atomic number.
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Electron configurations and the periodic table
• The electron configuration of an element can be deduced from its position on the
periodic table and vice-versa.
• The periodic table is divided into blocks (s, p, d, f).
• The block in which an element is located tells us which sub-level is in the process of
being filled.
Example:
• The electron configuration of Li is 1s2 2s1
• Lithium is an s-block element in group 1 and period 2.
• Li has 2 occupied energy levels with the valence shell (n=2) containing 1 electron in
the 2s sub-level.
Exercise:
Deduce the group number and period number of Ca, S and Kr from their positions in the
periodic table.
Ca group: period:
S group: period:
Kr group: period:
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Electron shielding
• Electron shielding occurs when the inner (shielding) electrons shield the outer
(valence) electrons from the full attraction of the nucleus.
• The valence electron(s) require less energy to remove than the inner electrons.
• Electron shielding remains constant across a period (left to right) because the
number of shielding electrons is the same across a period.
• Electron shielding increases down a group because the number of shielding electrons
increase down a group.
Zeff = Z – S
Z is the atomic number
S is the number of shielding electrons
Exercise: Determine the effective nuclear charge for the above atom (potassium).
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Atomic radius
• The atomic radius (van der Waals radius) is measured as half the distance between
neighboring nuclei.
• Atomic and ionic radii values can be found in section 9 of the data booklet.
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Trends in ionic radius
• Ionic radius increases down a group because of the increasing number of occupied
energy levels.
• Ionic radius decreases across a period for positive ions.
• It then increases as we get to the negative ions and then decreases again.
• The first four positive ions have two occupied energy levels and the negative ions
have three occupied energy levels, therefore, the ionic radius increases.
• All six ions are isoelectronic (have the same electron configuration).
• The number of protons increases but the number of electrons remains the same.
• The attraction between the nucleus and electrons increases, which causes the ionic
radius to decrease.
• The same trend can be seen for the ions P3- to Ca2+.
P3- > S2- > Cl- > K+ > Ca2+
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Positive ions (cations)
Sodium atom (160 × 10-12 m) Sodium ion (102 × 10-12 m)
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6
• Negative ions are bigger than their parent atoms.
• Negative ions have more electrons than protons which results in a decreased
attraction between the nucleus and electrons.
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Exercises:
1. State and explain the trend in atomic radius down a group.
3. State and explain which is smaller, the lithium atom or the lithium ion (Li+).
4. State and explain which is bigger, the fluorine atom or the fluoride ion (F-).
5. Arrange the following in order of increasing atomic radius (smallest first): Cl, Si, Na.
Explain your reasoning.
6. Arrange the following in order of increasing radius: Mg2+, Na+, O2-, F-, N3-, Al3+.
Explain your reasoning.
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Ionisation energy
• The first ionisation energy of an element is the energy required to remove one mole
of electrons from one mole of gaseous atoms to form one mole of gaseous ions.
X(g) → X+(g) + e-
• First ionisation energies are a measure of the attraction between the nucleus and
the outermost electrons.
Across a period:
Ionisation energy increases across a period (left to right).
1. As nuclear charge increases across a period, the electrostatic attraction between the
nucleus and valence electrons increases.
2. Atomic radius decreases across a period – valence electrons are closer to the nucleus
which results in a stronger attraction between the nucleus and the valence
electrons.
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Discontinuities in ionisation energy across a period (Be to B and Mg to Al)
N – O and P – S
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Exercises:
1. Outline what is meant by first ionisation energy.
4. Explain the reason for the decrease in ionisation energy between Mg and Al.
5. Explain the reason for the decrease in ionisation energy between P and S.
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Electronegativity
• Electronegativity is a measure of the ability of an atom to attract a bonding pair of
electrons.
• Electronegativity is measured on a relative scale called the Pauling scale which
assigns fluorine a value of 4.0 and francium a value of 0.7
• Electronegativity values of elements can be found in section 8 of the IB data booklet.
• Electronegativity increases from left to right across a period for two reasons; the
increase in nuclear charge and the decrease in atomic radius.
• Electronegativity decreases down a group because of increasing atomic radius
(bonding electrons are further from the attraction of the nucleus).
Exercises:
1. Define electronegativity.
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Electron affinity
• The first electron affinity is the energy released when one mole of electrons is added
to one mole of gaseous atoms to form one mole of 1- ions.
X(g) + e- → X-(g)
• The second electron affinity corresponds to the addition of one mole of electrons to
one mole of gaseous 1- ions.
X-(g) + e- → X2-(g)
Exercises:
1. Define first electron affinity.
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Melting point
• Melting point depends on the type of bonding (covalent, ionic or metallic) and
structure (ionic lattice, molecular covalent, giant covalent, or metallic structures).
• Melting point increases across a period as the strength of the metallic bond
increases.
• It reaches a peak at carbon and silicon, both of which have giant covalent structures.
• Melting points then decrease for elements that have simple molecular structures
with weak intermolecular forces.
Exercises:
1. What are two factors that determine the melting point of an element?
2. Describe and explain the general trend in melting point in the metals in periods 2
and 3.
3. Explain the reason for the peak in melting point in C (carbon) and Si (silicon).
4. Describe and explain the trend in melting point for the elements after C and Si in
periods 2 and 3.
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Metallic character
• The metallic character of an element can be defined as how easily an atom loses
electrons.
• Metals tend to lose their outer electrons to form positive ions and non-metals tend
to gain electrons to form negative ions.
• Metallic character decreases as you move from left to right across a period in the
periodic table; increasing nuclear charge and decreasing atomic radius across a
period means the outer electrons are held more tightly.
• Metallic character increases down a group in the periodic table as the outer
electrons become easier to remove as the atomic radius increases.
Exercises:
2. Describe and explain the trend in metallic character across a period and down a
group.
Formula and state Na2O(s) MgO(s) Al2O3(s) SiO2(s) P4O10(s)/ SO3(l)/ Cl2O7(l)/
at room P4O6(s) SO2(g) Cl2O(g)
temperature
Acid–base Basic Amphoteric
Acidic
Character
Exercises:
1. Describe and explain the trend in the bonding of the oxides across period 3.
3. Write equations for the reactions of Na2O, MgO, SO3, P4O10 and NO2 with water.
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Chemical properties of group 1 and group 17 elements
• The chemical properties of an element are determined by its electron configuration.
• Elements of the same group have similar chemical properties as they have the same
number of electrons in their outer shells.
Exercises:
1. Explain why the alkali metals are stored in oil.
2. Which of the 3 alkali metals have a density of less than 1 gcm-3 (which float on
water)?
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3. Describe and explain the trend in melting point down group 1.
5. Write a balanced chemical equation, complete with state symbols for the reaction of
potassium and water.
6. What pH would you expect the resulting solution to be? Explain your answer.
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Reaction with group 1 metals
• The halogens react with group 1 metals to form ionic compounds. The halogen atom
gains one electron from the group 1 metal to form a halide ion (X-)
• The resulting ions both have the electron configuration of a noble gas.
2Na(s) + Cl2(g) → 2NaCl(s)
Exercises:
2. Describe the change in state of the group 17 elements down the group (under
standard conditions).
4. Describe and explain the reactivity of the halogens down group 17.
5. Write a balanced symbol equation for the reaction of potassium and bromine.
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