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Chapter 21
Transformers
At the end of this chapter you should be able to:
• understand the principle of operation of a transformer
• understand the term ‘rating’ of a transformer
• use V1 /V2 = N1 /N2 = I2 /I1 in calculations on transformers
• construct a transformer no-load phasor diagram and calculate magnetising and core loss components of the
no-load current
• state the e.m.f. equation for a transformer E = 4.44 f
m N and use it in calculations
• construct a transformer on-load phasor diagram for an inductive circuit assuming the volt drop in the windings
is negligible
• describe transformer construction
• derive the equivalent resistance, reactance and impedance referred to the primary of a transformer
• understand voltage regulation
• describe losses in transformers and calculate efficiency
• appreciate the concept of resistance matching and how it may be achieved
• perform calculations using R1 = (N1 /N2 )2 RL
• describe an auto transformer, its advantages/disadvantages and uses
• describe an isolating transformer, stating uses
• describe a three-phase transformer
• describe current and voltage transformers

21.1 Introduction Transformers range in size from the miniature units

used in electronic applications to the large power
A transformer is a device which uses the phenomenon transformers used in power stations; the principle of
of mutual induction (see Chapter 9) to change the values operation is the same for each.
of alternating voltages and currents. In fact, one of the A transformer is represented in Fig. 21.1(a) as con-
main advantages of a.c. transmission and distribution sisting of two electrical circuits linked by a common
is the ease with which an alternating voltage can be ferromagnetic core. One coil is termed the primary
increased or decreased by transformers. winding which is connected to the supply of electric-
Losses in transformers are generally low and thus ity, and the other the secondary winding, which may
efficiency is high. Being static they have a long life and be connected to a load. A circuit diagram symbol for a
are very stable. transformer is shown in Fig. 21.1(b).
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328 Electrical and Electronic Principles and Technology

Flux Φ

l1 l2

Primary Secondary
A.c. V winding winding V2
1 Load
supply N1 turns N2 turns

Ferromagnetic core
(a) (b)

Figure 21.1

21.2 Transformer principle of Combining equations (1) and (2) gives:

operation V1 N1 I2
= = (3)
V2 N2 I1
When the secondary is an open-circuit and an alternating
voltage V1 is applied to the primary winding, a small The rating of a transformer is stated in terms of the volt-
current — called the no-load current I0 — flows, which amperes that it can transform without overheating. With
sets up a magnetic flux in the core. This alternating reference to Fig. 21.1(a), the transformer rating is either
flux links with both primary and secondary coils and V1 I1 or V2 I2 , where I2 is the full-load secondary current.
induces in them e.m.f.’s of E1 and E2 respectively by
mutual induction. Problem 1. A transformer has 500 primary turns
The induced e.m.f. E in a coil of N turns is given by and 3000 secondary turns. If the primary voltage is
E = −N(d
/dt) volts, where d
dt is the rate of change of 240 V, determine the secondary voltage, assuming
flux. In an ideal transformer, the rate of change of flux an ideal transformer.
is the same for both primary and secondary and thus
E1 /N1 = E2 /N2 i.e. the induced e.m.f. per turn is
For an ideal transformer, voltage ratio = turns ratio i.e.
constant.
Assuming no losses, E1 = V1 and E2 = V2 V1 N1 240 500
= hence =
V2 N2 V2 3000
V1 V2 V1 N1
Hence = or = (1) Thus secondary voltage
N1 N2 V2 N2
(240)(3000)
V2 = = 1440 V or 1.44 kV
(V1 /V2 ) is called the voltage ratio and (N1 /N2 ) the turns 500
ratio, or the ‘transformation ratio’ of the transformer.
If N2 is less than N1 then V2 is less than V1 and the Problem 2. An ideal transformer with a turns
device is termed a step-down transformer. If N2 is ratio of 2:7 is fed from a 240 V supply. Determine
greater then N1 then V2 is greater than V1 and the device its output voltage.
is termed a step-up transformer.
When a load is connected across the secondary wind-
A turns ratio of 2:7 means that the transformer has
ing, a current I2 flows. In an ideal transformer losses are
2 turns on the primary for every 7 turns on the secondary
neglected and a transformer is considered to be 100 per
(i.e. a step-up transformer); thus (N1 /N2 ) = (2/7).
cent efficient. Hence input power = output power, or
For an ideal transformer, (N1 /N2 ) = (V1 /V2 ) hence
V1 I1 = V2 I2 i.e. in an ideal transformer, the primary
(2/7) = (240/V2 ). Thus the secondary voltage
Section 3

and secondary ampere-turns are equal

(240)(7)
V2 = = 840 V
V1 I2 2
Thus = (2)
V2 I1
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Transformers 329

Problem 3. An ideal transformer has a turns ratio Problem 6. A 5 kVA single-phase transformer has
of 8:1 and the primary current is 3 A when it is a turns ratio of 10:1 and is fed from a 2.5 kV supply.
supplied at 240 V. Calculate the secondary voltage Neglecting losses, determine (a) the full-load
and current. secondary current, (b) the minimum load resistance
which can be connected across the secondary
winding to give full load kVA, (c) the primary
A turns ratio of 8:1 means (N1 /N2 ) = (1/8) i.e. a step- current at full load kVA.
down transformer.
   
N1
=
V1
or secondary voltage (a) N1 /N2 = 10/1 and V1 = 2.5 kV = 2500 V.
N2 V2    
    N1 V1
N1 1 Since = , secondary voltage
V2 = V1 = 240 = 30 volts N2 V2
N2 8
   
    N2 1
N1 I2 V2 = V1 = 2500 = 250 V
Also, = hence secondary current N1 10
N2 I1
    The transformer rating in volt-amperes = V2 I2 (at
N1 8 full load) i.e. 5000 = 250I2
I2 = I1 =3 = 24 A
N2 1 Hence full load secondary current,
I2 = (5000/ 250) = 20 A.
Problem 4. An ideal transformer, connected to a (b) Minimum value of load resistance,
240 V mains, supplies a 12 V, 150 W lamp.    
V2 250
Calculate the transformer turns ratio and the current RL = = = 12.5 .
taken from the supply. V1 20
   
N1 I2
(c) = from which primary current
V1 = 240 V, V2 = 12 V, I2 = (P/V2 ) = (150/12) = 12.5 A. N2 I1
   
N1 V1 240 N1 1
Turns ratio = = = = 20 I1 = I2 = 20 = 2A
N2 V2 12 N2 10
   
V1 I2
= , from which,
V2 I1 Now try the following exercise
   
V2 12
I1 = I2 = 12.5
V1 240 Exercise 117 Further problems on the
Hence current taken from the supply, transformer principle of
operation
12.5
I1 = = 0.625 A 1. A transformer has 600 primary turns con-
20
nected to a 1.5 kV supply. Determine the
Problem 5. A 12  resistor is connected across number of secondary turns for a 240 V output
the secondary winding of an ideal transformer voltage, assuming no losses. [96]
whose secondary voltage is 120 V. Determine the
primary voltage if the supply current is 4 A. 2. An ideal transformer with a turns ratio of 2:9
is fed from a 220 V supply. Determine its
output voltage. [990 V]
Secondary current I2 = (V2 /R2 ) = (120/12) = 10 A.
(V1 /V2 ) = (I2 /I1 ), from which the primary voltage 3. A transformer has 800 primary turns and
Section 3

    2000 secondary turns. If the primary volt-

I2 10
V1 = V2 = 120 = 300 volts age is 160 V, determine the secondary voltage
I1 4
assuming an ideal transformer. [400 V]
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330 Electrical and Electronic Principles and Technology

the primary winding takes a small no-load current I0

4. An ideal transformer with a turns ratio of 3:8 and since, with losses neglected, the primary winding
has an output voltage of 640 V. Determine its is a pure inductor, this current lags the applied voltage
input voltage. [240 V] V1 by 90◦ . In the phasor diagram assuming no losses,
5. An ideal transformer has a turns ratio of shown in Fig. 21.2(a), current I0 produces the flux and
12:1 and is supplied at 192 V. Calculate the is drawn in phase with the flux. The primary induced
secondary voltage. [16 V] e.m.f. E1 is in phase opposition to V1 (by Lenz’s law)
and is shown 180◦ out of phase with V1 and equal in
6. A transformer primary winding connected magnitude. The secondary induced e.m.f. is shown for
across a 415 V supply has 750 turns. Deter- a 2:1 turns ratio transformer.
mine how many turns must be wound on A no-load phasor diagram for a practical transformer
the secondary side if an output of 1.66 kV is is shown in Fig. 21.2(b). If current flows then losses
required. [3000 turns] will occur. When losses are considered then the no-load
7. An ideal transformer has a turns ratio of current I0 is the phasor sum of two components — (i) IM ,
15:1 and is supplied at 180 V when the pri- the magnetising component, in phase with the flux,
mary current is 4 A. Calculate the secondary and (ii) IC , the core loss component (supplying the
hysteresis and eddy current losses). From Fig. 21.2(b):
voltage and current. [12 V, 60 A] 
8. A step-down transformer having a turns ratio No-load current, I0 = IM 2 + I 2 where
C
of 20:1 has a primary voltage of 4 kV and a IM = I0 sin φ0 and IC = I0 cos φ0 .
load of 10 kW. Neglecting losses, calculate Power factor on no-load = cos φ0 = (IC /I0 ).
the value of the secondary current. [50 A] The total core losses (i.e. iron losses) = V1 I0 cos φ0
9. A transformer has a primary to secondary
turns ratio of 1:15. Calculate the primary Problem 7. A 2400 V/400 V single-phase
voltage necessary to supply a 240 V load. If transformer takes a no-load current of 0.5 A and the
the load current is 3 A determine the primary core loss is 400 W. Determine the values of the
current. Neglect any losses. [16 V, 45 A] magnetising and core loss components of the
no-load current. Draw to scale the no-load phasor
10. A 10 kVA, single-phase transformer has a
diagram for the transformer.
turns ratio of 12:1 and is supplied from a
2.4 kV supply. Neglecting losses, determine
(a) the full load secondary current, (b) the V1 = 2400 V, V2 = 400 V and I0 = 0.5 A Core loss (i.e.
minimum value of load resistance which can iron loss) = 400 = V1 I0 cos φ0 .
be connected across the secondary winding
without the kVA rating being exceeded, and i.e. 400 = (2400)(0.5) cos φ0
(c) the primary current. 400
Hence cos φ0 = = 0.3333
[(a) 50 A (b) 4  (c) 4.17 A] (2400)(0.5)
11. A 20  resistance is connected across the φ0 = cos−1 0.3333 = 70.53◦
secondary winding of a single-phase power
transformer whose secondary voltage is The no-load phasor diagram is shown in Fig. 21.3
150 V. Calculate the primary voltage and Magnetising component,
the turns ratio if the supply current is 5 A, IM = I0 sin φ0 = 0.5 sin 70.53◦ = 0.471 A.
neglecting losses. [225 V, 3:2] Core loss component, IC = I0 cos φ0 = 0.5 cos 70.53◦
= 0.167 A

Problem 8. A transformer takes a current of 0.8 A

21.3 Transformer no-load phasor
when its primary is connected to a 240 volt, 50 Hz
diagram
Section 3

supply, the secondary being on open circuit. If the

power absorbed is 72 watts, determine (a) the iron
The core flux is common to both primary and sec- loss current, (b) the power factor on no-load, and
ondary windings in a transformer and is thus taken as (c) the magnetising current.
the reference phasor in a phasor diagram. On no-load
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Transformers 331

Figure 21.2

Now try the following exercise

Exercise 118 Further problems on the no-

load phasor diagram
1. A 500 V/100 V, single-phase transformer takes
a full load primary current of 4 A. Neglecting
losses, determine (a) the full load secondary
current, and (b) the rating of the transformer.
[(a) 20 A (b) 2 kVA]
2. A 3300 V/440 V, single-phase transformer
takes a no-load current of 0.8 A and the iron
loss is 500 W. Draw the no-load phasor dia-
gram and determine the values of the magnetis-
ing and core loss components of the no-load
current. [0.786 A, 0.152 A]
3. A transformer takes a current of 1 A when its
Figure 21.3
primary is connected to a 300 V, 50 Hz sup-
I0 = 0.8 A and V = 240 V ply, the secondary being on open-circuit. If
the power absorbed is 120 watts, calculate
(a) Power absorbed = total core loss = 72 = V1 I0 cos φ0 . (a) the iron loss current, (b) the power factor
Hence 72 = 240I0 cos φ0 and iron loss current, on no-load, and (c) the magnetising current.
Ic = I0 cos φ0 = 72/240 = 0.30 A [(a) 0.40 A (b) 0.40 (c) 0.917 A]
(b) Power factor at no load,
IC 0.3
cos φ0 = = = 0.375
I0 0.8
21.4 E.m.f. equation of a transformer
(c) From the right-angled triangle in Fig. 21.2(b)
and using Pythagoras’ theorem, I02 = IC2 + IM
2 from
The magnetic flux
set up in the core of a transformer
Section 3

which, magnetising current,

when an alternating voltage is applied to its primary
  winding is also alternating and is sinusoidal.
IM = I02 − IC2 = 0.82 − 0.32 = 0.74 A
Let
m be the maximum value of the flux and f be
the frequency of the supply. The time for 1 cycle of the
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332 Electrical and Electronic Principles and Technology

alternating flux is the periodic time T , where T = (1/f ) V 1 N1

(b) From equation (3), = from which, primary
seconds V 2 N2
The flux rises sinusoidally from zero to its max- turns,
imum value in (1/4) cycle, and the time for (1/4)    
V1 4000
cycle is (1/4f ) seconds. Hence the average rate of N1 = (N2 ) = (100) = 2000 turns
change of flux = (
m /(1/4f )) = 4 f
m Wb/s, and since V2 200
1 Wb/s = 1 volt, the average e.m.f. induced in each
turn = 4 f
m volts. As the flux
varies sinusoidally, (c) From equation (5), E2 = 4.44 f
m N2 from which,
then a sinusoidal e.m.f. will be induced in each turn of maximum flux,
both primary and secondary windings.
For a sine wave, E
m =
r.m.s. value 4.44 fN2
form factor =
average value 200
= (assuming E2 = V2 )
= 1.11 (see Chapter 14) (4.44)(50)(100)

Hence r.m.s. value = form factor × average value = = 9.01 × 10−3 Wb or 9.01 mWb
1.11 × average value Thus r.m.s. e.m.f. induced in
each turn [Alternatively, equation (4) could have been used,
where
= 1.11 × 4 f
m volts
= 4.44 f
m volts E1 = 4.44 f
m N1 from which,
Therefore, r.m.s. value of e.m.f. induced in primary, 4000
m = (assuming E1 = V1 )
(4.44)(50)(2000)
E1 = 4.44 f m N1 volts (4)
= 9.01 mWb as above]
and r.m.s. value of e.m.f. induced in secondary,
E2 = 4.44 f m N2 volts (5) Problem 10. A single-phase, 50 Hz transformer
has 25 primary turns and 300 secondary turns. The
Dividing equation (4) by equation (5) gives: cross-sectional area of the core is 300 cm2 . When
   
E1 N1 the primary winding is connected to a 250 V supply,
= determine (a) the maximum value of the flux
E2 N2
density in the core, and (b) the voltage induced in
as previously obtained in Section 21.2 the secondary winding.

Problem 9. A 100 kVA, 4000 V/200 V, 50 Hz

single-phase transformer has 100 secondary turns. (a) From equation (4),
Determine (a) the primary and secondary current, e.m.f. E1 = 4.44 f
m N1 volts
(b) the number of primary turns, and (c) the i.e. 250 = 4.44(50)
m (25) from which, maximum
maximum value of the flux. flux density,

V1 = 4000 V, V2 = 200 V, f = 50 Hz, N2 = 100 turns 250

m = Wb = 0.04505 Wb
(4.44)(50)(25)
(a) Transformer rating = V1 I1 = V2 I2 = 1 00 000 VA
Hence primary current, However,
m = Bm × A, where Bm = maximum
1 00 000 1 00 000 flux density in the core and A = cross-sectional
I1 = = = 25 A area of the core (see Chapter 7). Hence
V1 4000
Bm × 300 × 10−4 = 0.04505 from which,
Section 3

and secondary current,

0.04505
maximum flux density, Bm =
1 00 000 1 00 000 300 × 10−4
I2 = = = 500 A
V2 200 = 1.50 T
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Transformers 333
 
V1 N1 N2 Now try the following exercise
(b) = from which, V2 = V1 i.e. voltage
V2 N2 N1
induced in the secondary winding,
  Exercise 119 Further problems on the
300
V2 = (250) = 3000 V or 3 kV transformer e.m.f. equation
25
1. A 60 kVA, 1600 V/100 V, 50 Hz, single-phase
Problem 11. A single-phase 500 V/100 V, 50 Hz transformer has 50 secondary windings. Cal-
transformer has a maximum core flux density of culate (a) the primary and secondary current,
1.5 T and an effective core cross-sectional area of (b) the number of primary turns, and (c) the
50 cm2 . Determine the number of primary and maximum value of the flux.
secondary turns. [(a) 37.5 A, 600 A (b) 800 (c) 9.0 mWb]

2. A single-phase, 50 Hz transformer has 40 pri-

The e.m.f. equation for a transformer is E = 4.44 f
m N mary turns and 520 secondary turns. The
and maximum flux,
m = B × A = (1.5)(50 × 10−4 ) = cross-sectional area of the core is 270 cm 2 .
75 × 10−4 Wb When the primary winding is connected to a
Since E1 = 4.44 f
m N1 then primary turns, 300 volt supply, determine (a) the maximum
E1 500 value of flux density in the core, and (b) the
N1 = =
4.44 f
m (4.44)(50)(75 × 10−4 ) voltage induced in the secondary winding.
= 300 turns [(a) 1.25 T (b) 3.90 kV]

Since E2 = 4.4 f
m N2 then secondary turns, 3. A single-phase 800 V/100 V, 50 Hz trans-
E2 100 former has a maximum core flux density of
N2 = = 1.294 T and an effective cross-sectional area
4.44 f
m (4.44)(50)(75 × 10−4 )
of 60 cm2 . Calculate the number of turns on
= 60 turns the primary and secondary windings.
[464, 58]
Problem 12. A 4500 V/225 V, 50 Hz single-phase
transformer is to have an approximate e.m.f. per
4. A 3.3 kV/110 V, 50 Hz, single-phase trans-
turn of 15 V and operate with a maximum flux of
former is to have an approximate e.m.f. per
1.4 T. Calculate (a) the number of primary and
turn of 22 V and operate with a maximum
secondary turns and (b) the cross-sectional area of
flux of 1.25 T. Calculate (a) the number of
the core.
primary and secondary turns, and (b) the
cross-sectional area of the core.
E1 E2
(a) E.m.f. per turn = = = 15 [(a) 150, 5 (b) 792.8 cm2 ]
N1 N2
E1 4500
Hence primary turns, N1 = = = 300
15 15
E2 255
and secondary turns, N2 = = = 15
15 15 21.5 Transformer on-load phasor
(b) E.m.f. E1 = 4.44 f
m N1 from which, diagram
E1 4500

m = = = 0.0676 Wb If the voltage drop in the windings of a transformer
4.44fN1 (4.44)(50)(300)
are assumed negligible, then the terminal voltage V2
Now flux,
m = Bm × A, where A is the cross- is the same as the induced e.m.f. E2 in the secondary.
sectional area of the core, Similarly, V1 = E1 . Assuming an equal number of turns
    on primary and secondary windings, then E1 = E2 , and
Section 3

m 0.0676
hence area, A= = let the load have a lagging phase angle φ2 .
Bm 1.4
In the phasor diagram of Fig. 21.4, current I2 lags
= 0.0483 m2 or 483 cm2 V2 by angle φ2 . When a load is connected across the
secondary winding a current I2 flows in the secondary
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334 Electrical and Electronic Principles and Technology

Figure 21.4

winding. The resulting secondary e.m.f. acts so as to

tend to reduce the core flux. However this does not hap-
Figure 21.5
pen since reduction of the core flux reduces E1 , hence
a reflected increase in primary current I1 occurs which
provides a restoring m.m.f. Hence at all loads, primary If the power factor on no-load is 0.20, then cos φ0 = 0.2
and secondary m.m.f.’s are equal, but in opposition, and and φ0 = cos−1 0.2 = 78.5◦ .
the core flux remains constant. I1 is sometimes called In the phasor diagram shown in Fig. 21.5, I2 = 100 A
the ‘balancing’ current and is equal, but in the opposite is shown at an angle of φ = 31.8◦ to V2 and I1 = 40 A is
direction, to current I2 as shown in Fig. 21.4. I0 , shown shown in anti-phase to I2 .
at a phase angle φ0 to V1 , is the no-load current of the The no-load current I0 = 5 A is shown at an angle of
transformer (see Section 21.3) φ0 = 78.5◦ to V1 . Current I1 is the phasor sum of I1
The phasor sum of I1 and I0 gives the supply current and I0 , and by drawing to scale, I1 = 44 A and angle
I1 and the phase angle between V1 and I1 is shown as φ1 . φ1 = 37◦ .
By calculation,
Problem 13. A single-phase transformer has
2000 turns on the primary and 800 turns on the I1 cos φ1 = 0a + 0b
secondary. Its no-load current is 5 A at a power
factor of 0.20 lagging. Assuming the volt drop in = I0 cos φ0 + I1 cos φ2
the windings is negligible, determine the primary
current and power factor when the secondary = (5)(0.2) + (40)(0.85)
current is 100 A at a power factor of 0.85 lagging. = 35.0 A
and I1 sin φ1 = 0c + 0d
Let I1 be the component of the primary current which
provides the restoring m.m.f. Then = I0 sin φ0 + I1 sin φ2

I1 N1 = I2 N2 = (5) sin 78.5◦ + (40) sin 31.8◦

i.e. I1 (2000) = (100)(800) = 25.98 A
(100)(800)
from which, I1 = √
2000 Hence the magnitude of I1 = 35.02 + 25.982 =
Section 3

= 40 A 43.59 A and tan φ1 = (25.98/35.0) from which,

φ1 = tan−1 (25.98/35.0) = 36.59◦ . Hence the power
If the power factor of the secondary is 0.85, then factor of the primary = cos φ1 = cos 36.59◦ = 0.80.
cos φ2 = 0.85, from which, φ2 = cos−1 0.85 = 31.8◦ .
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Transformers 335

Now try the following exercise laminated silicon steel or stalloy, the lamina-
tions reducing eddy currents and the silicon steel
keeping hysteresis loss to a minimum.
Exercise 120 A further problem on the
transformer on-load Large power transformers are used in the main
distribution system and in industrial supply
1. A single-phase transformer has 2400 turns on circuits. Small power transformers have many
the primary and 600 turns on the secondary. applications, examples including welding and
Its no-load current is 4 A at a power factor of rectifier supplies, domestic bell circuits, imported
0.25 lagging. Assuming the volt drop in the washing machines, and so on.
windings is negligible, calculate the primary
current and power factor when the secondary (iii) For audio frequency (a.f.) transformers, rated
current is 80 A at a power factor of 0.8 lagging. from a few mVA to no more than 20 VA, and oper-
[23.26 A, 0.73] ating at frequencies up to about 15 kHz, the small
core is also made of laminated silicon steel. A typ-
ical application of a.f. transformers is in an audio
amplifier system.
(iv) Radio frequency (r.f.) transformers, operating
in the MHz frequency region have either an air
21.6 Transformer construction core, a ferrite core or a dust core. Ferrite is a
ceramic material having magnetic properties sim-
(i) There are broadly two types of single-phase ilar to silicon steel, but having a high resistivity.
double-wound transformer constructions — the Dust cores consist of fine particles of carbonyl
core type and the shell type, as shown in iron or permalloy (i.e. nickel and iron), each par-
Fig. 21.6. The low and high voltage windings are ticle of which is insulated from its neighbour.
wound as shown to reduce leakage flux. Applications of r.f. transformers are found in radio
and television receivers.
(v) Transformer windings are usually of enamel-
insulated copper or aluminium.
(vi) Cooling is achieved by air in small transformers
and oil in large transformers.

21.7 Equivalent circuit of a

transformer

Figure 21.7 shows an equivalent circuit of a transformer.

R1 and R2 represent the resistances of the primary and
secondary windings and X1 and X2 represent the reac-
tances of the primary and secondary windings, due to
leakage flux.
The core losses due to hysteresis and eddy currents are
allowed for by resistance R which takes a current IC , the
core loss component of the primary current. Reactance
X takes the magnetising component Im . In a simplified
equivalent circuit shown in Fig. 21.8, R and X are omit-
Figure 21.6 ted since the no-load current I0 is normally only about
Section 3

3–5 per cent of the full load primary current.

(ii) For power transformers, rated possibly at sev- It is often convenient to assume that all of the
eral MVA and operating at a frequency of 50 Hz resistance and reactance as being on one side of the
in Great Britain, the core material used is usually transformer. Resistance R2 in Fig. 21.8 can be replaced
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336 Electrical and Electronic Principles and Technology

Figure 21.7

Figure 21.8

by inserting an additional resistance R2 in the primary The equivalent impedance Ze of the primary and sec-
circuit such that the power absorbed in R2 when carry- ondary windings referred to the primary is given by
ing the primary current is equal to that in R2 due to the 
secondary current, i.e. Ze = R2e + Xe2 (8)

I12 R2 = I22 R2 If φe is the phase angle between I1 and the volt drop
 2  2 I1 Ze then
 I2 V1
from which, R 2 = R2 = R2 Re
I1 V2 cos φe = (9)
Ze
Then the total equivalent resistance in the primary cir- The simplified equivalent circuit of a transformer is
cuit Re is equal to the primary and secondary resistances shown in Fig. 21.9.
of the actual transformer.
Hence Re = R1 + R2
Problem 14. A transformer has 600 primary turns
 2 and 150 secondary turns. The primary and
V1 secondary resistances are 0.25  and 0.01 
i.e. Re = R1 + R2 (6)
V2 respectively and the corresponding leakage
reactances are 1.0  and 0.04  respectively.
By similar reasoning, the equivalent reactance in the Determine (a) the equivalent resistance referred to
Section 3

primary circuit is given by Xe = X1 + X2 the primary winding, (b) the equivalent reactance
referred to the primary winding, (c) the equivalent
 2 impedance referred to the primary winding, and
V1 (d) the phase angle of the impedance.
i.e. Xe = X1 + X2 (7)
V2
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Transformers 337

Figure 21.9

(a) From equation (6), equivalent resistance

 2 (a) the equivalent resistance, reactance and
V1 impedance referred to the primary winding,
Re = R1 + R2
V2 and (b) the phase angle of the impedance.
  [(a) 0.92 , 3.0 , 3.14  (b) 72.95◦ ]
600 2
i.e. Re = 0.25 + 0.01
150
N1 V1
= 0.41  since = 21.8 Regulation of a transformer
N2 V2
(b) From equation (7), equivalent reactance, When the secondary of a transformer is loaded, the
 2 secondary terminal voltage, V2 , falls. As the power
V1
Xe = X1 + X2 factor decreases, this voltage drop increases. This is
V2 called the regulation of the transformer and it is usu-
 
600 2 ally expressed as a percentage of the secondary no-load
i.e. Xe = 1.0 + 0.04 = 1.64  voltage, E2 . For full-load conditions:
150  
E2 − V2
(c) From equation (8), equivalent impedance, Regulation = × 100% (10)
  E2
Ze = Re2 + Xe2 = 0.412 + 1.642 = 1.69  The fall in voltage, (E2 − V2 ), is caused by the resistance
and reactance of the windings. Typical values of voltage
(d) From equation (9), regulation are about 3% in small transformers and about
Re 0.41 1% in large transformers.
cos φe = =
Ze 1.69 Problem 15. A 5 kVA, 200 V/400 V, single-phase
0.41
Hence φe = cos−1 = 75.96◦ transformer has a secondary terminal voltage of
1.69 387.6 volts when loaded. Determine the regulation
of the transformer.

Now try the following exercise From equation (10):

⎛ ⎞
No load secondary voltage −
⎜ terminal voltage on load ⎟
Exercise 121 A further problem on the regulation = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ no load secondary voltage ⎠ × 100%
equivalent circuit of a
transformer  
400 − 387.6
1. A transformer has 1200 primary turns and 200 = × 100%
400
secondary turns. The primary and secondary  
Section 3

12.4
resistance’s are 0.2  and 0.02  respectively = × 100%
and the corresponding leakage reactance’s 400
are 1.2  and 0.05  respectively. Calculate = 3.1%
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338 Electrical and Electronic Principles and Technology

resistance. If R1 and R2 are the primary and sec-

Problem 16. The open circuit voltage of a
ondary winding resistances then the total copper
transformer is 240 V. A tap changing device is set to
loss is I12 R1 + I22 R2
operate when the percentage regulation drops
below 2.5%. Determine the load voltage at which (b) Iron losses are constant for a given value of fre-
the mechanism operates. quency and flux density and are of two types —
hysteresis loss and eddy current loss.

⎛ ⎞ (i) Hysteresis loss is the heating of the core

No load secondary voltage − as a result of the internal molecular struc-
⎜ terminal voltage on load ⎟
Regulation = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ no load secondary voltage ⎠×100%
ture reversals which occur as the magnetic
flux alternates. The loss is proportional to the
area of the hysteresis loop and thus low loss
  nickel iron alloys are used for the core since
240 − V2
Hence 2.5 = × 100% their hysteresis loops have small areas.(See
240 Chapter 7)

(2.5)(240) (ii) Eddy current loss is the heating of the core

∴ = 240 − V2 due to e.m.f.’s being induced not only in the
100
transformer windings but also in the core.
i.e. 6 = 240 − V2 These induced e.m.f.’s set up circulating cur-
rents, called eddy currents. Owing to the
from which, load voltage, V2 = 240 − 6 = 234 volts low resistance of the core, eddy currents
can be quite considerable and can cause a
large power loss and excessive heating of the
Now try the following exercise core. Eddy current losses can be reduced by
increasing the resistivity of the core mate-
rial or, more usually, by laminating the core
Exercise 122 Further problems on (i.e. splitting it into layers or leaves) when
regulation very thin layers of insulating material can
1. A 6 kVA, 100 V/500 V, single-phase trans- be inserted between each pair of laminations.
former has a secondary terminal voltage of This increases the resistance of the eddy cur-
487.5 volts when loaded. Determine the reg- rent path, and reduces the value of the eddy
ulation of the transformer. [2.5%] current.

Transformer efficiency,
2. A transformer has an open circuit voltage
of 110 volts. A tap-changing device operates output power input power − losses
η= =
when the regulation falls below 3%. Calcu- input power input power
late the load voltage at which the tap-changer
operates. [106.7 volts]
losses
i.e. η=1− (11)
input power
and is usually expressed as a percentage. It is not
uncommon for power transformers to have efficiencies
21.9 Transformer losses and of between 95% and 98%
efficiency Output power = V2 I2 cosφ2
Total losses = copper loss + iron losses,
There are broadly two sources of losses in transformers and input power = output power + losses
Section 3

on load, these being copper losses and iron losses.

Problem 17. A 200 kVA rated transformer has a
(a) Copper losses are variable and result in a heating full-load copper loss of 1.5 kW and an iron loss of
of the conductors, due to the fact that they possess
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Transformers 339

1 kW. Determine the transformer efficiency at full power factor of the load is 0.85, determine the
load and 0.85 power factor. efficiency of the transformer (a) on full load, and
(b) on half load.
output power
Efficiency, η =
input power (a) Rating = 400 kVA = V1 I1 = V2 I2 . Hence primary
current,
input power − losses
=
input power 400 × 103 400 × 103
I1 = = = 80 A
V1 5000
losses
=1−
input power and secondary current,

Full-load output power = VI cos φ = (200)(0.85) 400 × 103 400 × 103

I2 = = = 1250 A
= 170 kW. V2 320
Total losses = 1.5 + 1.0 = 2.5 kW
Input power = output power + losses Total copper loss = I12 R1 + I22 R2 ,
= 170 + 2.5 = 172.5 kW. (where R1 = 0.5  and R2 = 0.001 )
 
2.5 = (80)2 (0.5) + (1250)2 (0.001)
Hence efficiency = 1 − = 1 − 0.01449
172.5 = 3200 + 1562.5 = 4762.5 watts
= 0.9855 or 98.55%
On full load, total loss = copper loss + iron loss
Problem 18. Determine the efficiency of the = 4762.5+2500 = 7262.5 W = 7.2625 kW
transformer in Problem 17 at half full-load and 0.85
power factor. Total output power on full load

= V2 I2 cos φ2 = (400×103 )(0.85) = 340 kW

Half full-load power output = (1/2)(200)(0.85) = 85 kW.
Copper loss (or I 2 R loss) is proportional to current Input power = output power + losses
squared. Hence the copper loss at half full-load is: = 340 kW + 7.2625 kW
 1 2
= 347.2625 kW
2 (1500) = 375 W
Iron loss = 1000 W (constant)  
losses
Total losses = 375 + 1000 = 1375 W or 1.375 kW. Efficiency, η = 1 − × 100%
input power
Input power at half full-load  
= output power at half full-load + losses = 1−
7.2625
× 100%
= 85 + 1.375 = 86.375 kW. Hence 347.2625
losses = 97.91%
efficiency = 1 −
input power (b) Since the copper loss varies as the square of
 
1.375 the current, then total copper loss on half
= 1−  2
86.375 load = 4762.5 × 21 = 1190.625 W. Hence total
= 1 − 0.01592 loss on half load = 1190.625 + 2500 = 3690.625 W
or 3.691 kW.  
= 0.9841 or 98.41% Output power on half full load = 21 (340)
= 170 kW.
Problem 19. A 400 kVA transformer has a Input power on half full load
Section 3

primary winding resistance of 0.5  and a = output power + losses

secondary winding resistance of 0.001 . The iron
loss is 2.5 kW and the primary and secondary = 170 kW + 3.691 kW
voltages are 5 kV and 320 V respectively. If the
= 173.691 kW
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340 Electrical and Electronic Principles and Technology

Hence efficiency at half full load,

  The secondary winding provides a full load
losses current of 30 A at a power factor of 0.8 lag-
η= 1− × 100%
input power ging. Neglecting losses, find (a) the rating of
  the transformer, (b) the power supplied to the
3.691
= 1− × 100% = 97.87% load, (c) the primary current.
173.691
[(a) 2.7 kVA (b) 2.16 kW (c) 5 A]

2. A single-phase transformer is rated at 40 kVA.

Maximum efficiency The transformer has full-load copper losses of
It may be shown that the efficiency of a transformer 800 W and iron losses of 500 W. Determine
is a maximum when the variable copper loss (i.e. the transformer efficiency at full load and 0.8
I12 R1 + I22 R2 ) is equal to the constant iron losses. power factor. [96.10%]

Problem 20. A 500 kVA transformer has a full 3. Determine the efficiency of the transformer
load copper loss of 4 kW and an iron loss of 2.5 kW. in problem 2 at half full-load and 0.8 power
Determine (a) the output kVA at which the factor. [95.81%]
efficiency of the transformer is a maximum, and
(b) the maximum efficiency, assuming the power 4. A 100 kVA, 2000 V/400 V, 50 Hz, single-
factor of the load is 0.75 phase transformer has an iron loss of 600 W
and a full-load copper loss of 1600 W. Calcu-
(a) Let x be the fraction of full load kVA at which late its efficiency for a load of 60 kW at 0.8
the efficiency is a maximum. The corresponding power factor. [97.56%]
total copper loss = (4 kW)(x 2 ). At maximum effi-
ciency, copper loss = iron loss.√Hence 4x 2 = 2.5
5. Determine the efficiency of a 15 kVA trans-
from which x 2 = 2.5/4 and x = 2.5/4 = 0.791.
former for the following conditions:
Hence the output kVA at maximum efficiency (i) full-load, unity power factor
= 0.791 × 500 = 395.5 kVA. (ii) 0.8 full-load, unity power factor
(b) Total loss at maximum efficiency (iii) half full-load, 0.8 power factor
= 2 × 2.5 = 5 kW Assume that iron losses are 200 W and
Output power = 395.5 kVA × p.f. the full-load copper loss is 300 W.
= 395.5 × 0.75 = 296.625 kW [(a) 96.77% (ii) 96.84% (iii) 95.62%]
Input power = output power + losses
= 296.625 + 5 = 301.625 kW 6. A 300 kVA transformer has a primary winding
Maximum efficiency, resistance of 0.4  and a secondary winding
  resistance of 0.0015 . The iron loss is 2 kW
losses and the primary and secondary voltages are
η= 1− × 100%
input power 4 kV and 200 V respectively. If the power fac-
  tor of the load is 0.78, determine the efficiency
5
= 1− × 100% = 98.34% of the transformer (a) on full load, and (b) on
301.625
half load. [(a) 96.84% (b) 97.17%]

Now try the following exercise 7. A 250 kVA transformer has a full load copper
loss of 3 kW and an iron loss of 2 kW. Calcu-
late (a) the output kVA at which the efficiency
Exercise 123 Further problems on losses
of the transformer is a maximum, and (b)
Section 3

and efficiency
the maximum efficiency, assuming the power
1. A single-phase transformer has a voltage ratio factor of the load is 0.80.
of 6:1 and the h.v. winding is supplied at 540 V. [(a) 204.1 kVA (b) 97.61%]
Downloaded from www.schoolnetwork.io

Transformers 341
 2
21.10 Resistance matching N1
i.e. R1 = RL
N2
Varying a load resistance to be equal, or almost equal, to Hence by varying the value of the turns ratio, the
the source internal resistance is called matching. Exam- equivalent input resistance of a transformer can be
ples where resistance matching is important include ‘matched’ to the internal resistance of a load to achieve
coupling an aerial to a transmitter or receiver, or in maximum power transfer.
coupling a loudspeaker to an amplifier, where cou-
pling transformers may be used to give maximum power
Problem 21. A transformer having a turns ratio of
transfer.
4:1 supplies a load of resistance 100 . Determine
With d.c. generators or secondary cells, the internal
the equivalent input resistance of the transformer.
resistance is usually very small. In such cases, if an
attempt is made to make the load resistance as small as
the source internal resistance, overloading of the source From above, the equivalent input resistance,
results.
 
A method of achieving maximum power trans- N1 2
fer between a source and a load (see Section 13.9, R1 = RL
N2
page 200), is to adjust the value of the load resistance to  2
‘match’ the source internal resistance. A transformer 4
= (100) = 1600 
may be used as a resistance matching device by 1
connecting it between the load and the source.
The reason why a transformer can be used for this is Problem 22. The output stage of an amplifier has
shown below. With reference to Fig. 21.10: an output resistance of 112 . Calculate the
V2 V1 optimum turns ratio of a transformer which would
RL = and R1 = match a load resistance of 7  to the output
I2 I1
resistance of the amplifier.

The circuit is shown in Fig. 21.11.

Figure 21.10

For an ideal transformer,

  Figure 21.11
N1
V1 = V2
N2
  The equivalent input resistance, R1 of the transformer
N2 needs to be 112  for maximum power transfer.
and I1 = I2
N1  2
N1
Thus the equivalent input resistance R1 of the trans- R1 = RL
former is given by: N2
   2
N1 N1 R1 112
V2 Hence = = = 16
V1 N2 N2 RL 7
R1 = =   √
I1 N2 N1
Section 3

I2 i.e. = 16 = 4
N1 N2
 2    2
N1 V2 N1 Hence the optimum turns ratio is 4:1
= = RL
N2 I2 N2
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342 Electrical and Electronic Principles and Technology

(b) For an ideal transformer

Problem 23. Determine the optimum value of
load resistance for maximum power transfer if the V1 I2
load is connected to an amplifier of output =
V2 I1
resistance 150  through a transformer with a turns
ratio of 5:1 from which,
   
V1 220
The equivalent input resistance R1 of the transformer I2 = I1 = 10 = 1.25 A
V2 1760
needs to be 150  for maximum power transfer.
 2 Power dissipated in load resistor RL ,
N1
R1 = RL
N2 P = I22 RL = (1.25)2 (1.28 × 103 )
 
N2 2 = 2000 watts or 2 kW
from which, RL = R1
N1
 1 2 Problem 25. An a.c. source of 24 V and internal
= 150 5 = 6 
resistance 15 k is matched to a load by a 25:1 ideal
transformer. Determine (a) the value of the load
Problem 24. A single-phase, 220 V/1760 V ideal resistance and (b) the power dissipated in the load.
transformer is supplied from a 220 V source
through a cable of resistance 2 . If the load across
the secondary winding is 1.28 k determine (a) the The circuit diagram is shown in Fig. 21.13
primary current flowing and (b) the power
dissipated in the load resistor.

The circuit diagram is shown in Fig. 21.12

Figure 21.13

(a) For maximum power transfer R1 needs to be equal

Figure 21.12
to 15 k.
 2
(a) Turns ratio N1
R1 = RL
        N2
N1 V1 220 1
= = = from which, load resistance,
N2 V2 1760 8
 2  2
Equivalent input resistance of the transformer. N2 1
RL = R1 = (15 000) = 24 
N1 25
 2  2
N1 1
R1 = RL = (1.28 × 103 ) = 20  (b) The total input resistance when the source is con-
N2 8
nected to the matching transformer is RIN + R1 i.e.
Total input resistance, 15 k + 15 k = 30 k.
Primary current,
RIN = R + R1 = 2 + 20 = 22 
Section 3

V 24
Primary current, I1 = = = 0.8 mA
30 000 30 000
V1 220 N1 /N2 = I2 /I1 from which, I2 = I1 (N1 /N2 ) =
I1 = = = 10 A
RIN 22 (0.8 × 10−3 )(25/1) = 20 × 10−3 A.
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Transformers 343

Power dissipated in the load RL ,

P = I22 RL = (20 × 10−3 )2 (24)

= 9600 × 10−6 W = 9.6 mW

Now try the following exercise

Figure 21.14

Exercise 124 Further problems on

transformer. The latter shows that the secondary is actu-
resistance matching
ally part of the primary, the current in the secondary
1. A transformer having a turns ratio of 8:1 sup- being (I2 − I1 ). Since the current is less in this section,
plies a load of resistance 50 . Determine the the cross-sectional area of the winding can be reduced,
equivalent input resistance of the transformer. which reduces the amount of material necessary.
[3.2 k] Figure 21.15 shows the circuit diagram symbol for
an auto transformer.
2. What ratio of transformer turns is required to
make a load of resistance 30  appear to have
a resistance of 270 ? [3:1]
3. Determine the optimum value of load resis-
tance for maximum power transfer if the load Figure 21.15
is connected to an amplifier of output resis-
tance 147  through a transformer with a turns
ratio of 7:2. [12 ] Problem 26. A single-phase auto transformer has
a voltage ratio 320 V:250 V and supplies a load of
4. A single-phase, 240 V/2880 V ideal trans- 20 kVA at 250 V. Assuming an ideal transformer,
former is supplied from a 240 V source through determine the current in each section of the
a cable of resistance 3 . If the load across the winding.
secondary winding is 720  determine (a) the
primary current flowing and (b) the power
dissipated in the load resistance. Rating = 20 kVA = V1 I1 = V2 I2
[(a) 30 A (b) 4.5 kW] Hence primary current,

5. A load of resistance 768  is to be matched 20 × 103 20 × 103

I1 = = = 62.5 A
to an amplifier which has an effective output V1 320
resistance of 12 . Determine the turns ratio
and secondary current,
of the coupling transformer. [1:8]
6. An a.c. source of 20 V and internal resistance 20 × 103 20 × 103
I2 = = = 80 A
20 k is matched to a load by a 16:1 single- V2 250
phase transformer. Determine (a) the value of Hence current in common part of the winding
the load resistance and (b) the power dissipated = 80 − 62.5 = 17.5 A
in the load. [(a) 78.13  (b) 5 mW] The current flowing in each section of the transformer
is shown in Fig. 21.16.

21.11 Auto transformers Saving of copper in an auto

Section 3

transformer
An auto transformer is a transformer which has part
of its winding common to the primary and secondary For the same output and voltage ratio, the auto trans-
circuits. Fig. 21.14(a) shows the circuit for a double- former requires less copper than an ordinary double-
wound transformer and Fig. 21.14(b) that for an auto wound transformer. This is explained below.
Downloaded from www.schoolnetwork.io

344 Electrical and Electronic Principles and Technology

Similarly, if x = (1/4), the saving is 25 per cent, and

so on. The closer N2 is to N1 , the greater the saving in
copper.

Problem 27. Determine the saving in the volume

of copper used in an auto transformer compared
with a double-wound transformer for (a) a
200 V:150 V transformer, and (b) a 500 V:100 V
Figure 21.16 transformer.

The volume, and hence weight, of copper required

in a winding is proportional to the number of turns and
to the cross-sectional area of the wire. In turn this is (a) For a 200 V:150 V transformer,
proportional to the current to be carried, i.e. volume of V2 150
copper is proportional to NI. x= = = 0.75
Volume of copper in an auto transformer V1 200
Hence from equation (12), (volume of copper in
∝ (N1 − N2 )I1 + N2 (I2 − I1 ) auto transformer)
see Fig. 21.14(b)
= (1 − 0.75) (volume of copper in
∝ N1 I1 − N2 I1 + N2 I2 − N2 I1 double-wound transformer)
∝ N1 I1 + N2 I2 − 2N2 I1 = (0.25) (volume of copper in
∝ 2N1 I1 − 2N2 I1 (since N2 I2 = N1 I1 ) double-wound transformer)
= 25% (of copper in a
Volume of copper in a double-wound transformer
double-wound transformer)
∝ N1 I1 + N2 I2 ∝ 2N1 I1
Hence the saving is 75%
(again, since N2 I2 = N1 I1 ). Hence
(b) For a 500 V:100 V transformer,
volume of copper in
an auto transformer 2N1 I1 − 2N2 I1 V2 100
= x= = = 0.2
volume of copper in a 2N1 I1 V1 500
double-wound transformer Hence, (volume of copper in auto transformer)
2N1 I1 2N2 I1
= − = (1 − 0.2) (volume of copper in
2N1 I1 2N1 I1
double-wound transformer)
N2
=1− = (0.8) (volume in double-wound transformer)
N1
= 80% of copper in a double-wound transformer
If (N2 /N1 ) = x then
Hence the saving is 20%.
(volume of copper in an auto transformer)
= (1 − x) (volume of copper in a double-
wound transformer) (12) Now try the following exercise
If, say, x = (4/5) then (volume of copper in auto
transformer) Exercise 125 Further problems on the
auto-transformer
  (volume of copper in a
Section 3

= 1 − 45 1. A single-phase auto transformer has a volt-

double-wound transformer)
= 5 (volume in double-wound transformer)
1 age ratio of 480 V:300 V and supplies a
load of 30 kVA at 300 V. Assuming an ideal
i.e. a saving of 80%.
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Transformers 345

Uses of auto transformers

transformer, calculate the current in each sec-
tion of the winding. Auto transformers are used for reducing the volt-
[I1 = 62.5 A, I2 = 100 A, (I2 − I1 ) = 37.5 A] age when starting induction motors (see Chapter 23)
and for interconnecting systems that are operating at
2. Calculate the saving in the volume of copper approximately the same voltage.
used in an auto transformer compared with
a double-wound transformer for (a) a 300 V:
240 V transformer, and (b) a 400 V:100 V 21.12 Isolating transformers
transformer [(a) 80% (b) 25%]
Transformers not only enable current or voltage to be
transformed to some different magnitude but provide a
means of isolating electrically one part of a circuit from
Advantages of auto transformers another when there is no electrical connection between
The advantages of auto transformers over double- primary and secondary windings. An isolating trans-
wound transformers include: former is a 1:1 ratio transformer with several impor-
tant applications, including bathroom shaver-sockets,
1. a saving in cost since less copper is needed (see portable electric tools, model railways, and so on.
above)
2. less volume, hence less weight 21.13 Three-phase transformers
3. a higher efficiency, resulting from lower I 2R losses
Three-phase double-wound transformers are mainly
4. a continuously variable output voltage is achievable used in power transmission and are usually of the core
if a sliding contact is used type. They basically consist of three pairs of single-
5. a smaller percentage voltage regulation. phase windings mounted on one core, as shown in
Fig. 21.17, which gives a considerable saving in the
amount of iron used. The primary and secondary wind-
Disadvantages of auto transformers
ings in Fig. 21.17 are wound on top of each other in
The primary and secondary windings are not electri- the form of concentric cylinders, similar to that shown
cally separate, hence if an open-circuit occurs in the in Fig. 21.6(a). The windings may be with the primary
secondary winding the full primary voltage appears delta-connected and the secondary star-connected, or
across the secondary. star-delta, star-star or delta-delta, depending on its use.

Section 3

Figure 21.17
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346 Electrical and Electronic Principles and Technology

Figure 21.18

√
A delta-connection is shown in Fig. 21.18(a) and a For a star-connection, VL = 3 Vp hence, the sec-
√
star-connection in Fig. 21.18(b). ondary line voltage, VL2 = 3(240) = 416 volts.

Problem 28. A three-phase transformer has 500

Now try the following exercise
primary turns and 50 secondary turns. If the supply
voltage is 2.4 kV find the secondary line voltage on
no-load when the windings are connected Exercise 126 A further problem on the
(a) star-delta, (b) delta-star. three-phase transformer
√ 1. A three-phase transformer has 600 primary
(a) For a star-connection, VL = 3 Vp (see Chap- turns and 150 secondary turns. If the supply
ter 20). Primary phase voltage, voltage is 1.5 kV determine the secondary line
VL1 2400 voltage on no-load when the windings are
Vp = √ = √ = 1385.64 volts. connected (a) delta-star (b) star-delta.
3 3
[(a) 649.5 V (b) 216.5 V]
For a delta-connection, VL = Vp
N1 /N2 = V1 /V2 from which, secondary phase
voltage,
   
N2 50 21.14 Current transformers
Vp2 = Vp1 = (1385.64)
N1 500
For measuring currents in excess of about 100 A a cur-
= 138.6 volts
rent transformer is normally used. With a d.c. moving-
(b) For a delta-connection, VL = Vp hence, primary coil ammeter the current required to give full scale
phase voltage Vp1 = 2.4 kV = 2400 volts. Sec- deflection is very small — typically a few milliamperes.
Section 3

ondary phase voltage, When larger currents are to be measured a shunt resistor
    is added to the circuit (see Chapter 10). However, even
N2 50
Vp2 = Vp1 = (2400) = 240 volts with shunt resistors added it is not possible to measure
N1 500 very large currents. When a.c. is being measured a shunt
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Transformers 347

Figure 21.20

Problem 29. A current transformer has a single

turn on the primary winding and a secondary
winding of 60 turns. The secondary winding is
connected to an ammeter with a resistance of
0.15 . The resistance of the secondary winding is
Figure 21.19 0.25 . If the current in the primary winding is
300 A, determine (a) the reading on the ammeter,
cannot be used since the proportion of the current which (b) the potential difference across the ammeter and
flows in the meter will depend on its impedance, which (c) the total load (in VA) on the secondary.
varies with frequency.
In a double-wound transformer:
(a) Reading on the ammeter,
I1 N2
=
I2 N1    
N1 1
from which, I2 = I1 = 300 = 5 A.
  N2 60
N2
secondary current I2 = I1
N1
(b) P.d. across the ammeter = I2 RA , (where RA is the
In current transformers the primary usually consists of ammeter resistance) = (5)(0.15) = 0.75 volts.
one or two turns whilst the secondary can have sev-
eral hundred turns. A typical arrangement is shown in (c) Total resistance of secondary circuit
Fig. 21.19. = 0.15 + 0.25 = 0.40 .
If, for example, the primary has 2 turns and the Induced e.m.f. in secondary = (5)(0.40) = 2.0 V.
secondary 200 turns, then if the primary current is 500 A, Total load on secondary = (2.0)(5) = 10 VA.
   
N2 2
secondary current, I2 = I1 = (500)
N1 200 Now try the following exercises
=5A
Exercise 127 A further problem on the
Current transformers isolate the ammeter from the main
current transformer
circuit and allow the use of a standard range of ammeters
giving full-scale deflections of 1 A, 2 A or 5 A. 1. A current transformer has two turns on the pri-
For very large currents the transformer core can be mary winding and a secondary winding of 260
mounted around the conductor or bus-bar. Thus the turns. The secondary winding is connected to
primary then has just one turn. an ammeter with a resistance of 0.2 . The
It is very important to short-circuit the secondary wind- resistance of the secondary winding is 0.3 .
ing before removing the ammeter. This is because if If the current in the primary winding is 650 A,
current is flowing in the primary, dangerously high volt- determine (a) the reading on the ammeter,
Section 3

ages could be induced in the secondary should it be (b) the potential difference across the ammeter,
open-circuited. and (c) the total load in VA on the secondary.
Current transformer circuit diagram symbols are shown [(a) 5 A (b) 1 V (c) 7.5 VA]
in Fig. 21.20.
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348 Electrical and Electronic Principles and Technology

21.15 Voltage transformers 5. How is a transformer rated?

For measuring voltages in excess of about 500 V it is 6. Briefly describe the principle of operation of
often safer to use a voltage transformer. These are nor- a transformer
mal double-wound transformers with a large number
7. Draw a phasor diagram for an ideal trans-
of turns on the primary, which is connected to a high
former on no-load
voltage supply, and a small number of turns on the
secondary. A typical arrangement is shown in Fig. 21.21. 8. State the e.m.f. equation for a transformer
9. Draw an on-load phasor diagram for an ideal
transformer with an inductive load
10. Name two types of transformer construction
11. What core material is normally used for
power transformers
12. Name three core materials used in r.f. trans-
formers
13. State a typical application for (a) a.f. trans-
formers (b) r.f. transformers
Figure 21.21
14. How is cooling achieved in transformers?
Since
15. State the expressions for equivalent resistance
V1 N1
= and reactance of a transformer, referred to the
V2 N2 primary
the secondary voltage,
16. Define regulation of a transformer
V1 N 2
V2 = 17. Name two sources of loss in a transformer
V1
Thus if the arrangement in Fig. 21.21 has 4000 pri- 18. What is hysteresis loss? How is it minimised
mary turns and 20 secondary turns then for a voltage of in a transformer?
22 kV on the primary, the voltage on the secondary, 19. What are eddy currents? How may they be
   
N2 20 reduced in transformers?
V2 = V1 = (22 000) = 110 volts
N1 4000 20. How is efficiency of a transformer calculated?
21. What is the condition for maximum efficiency
Now try the following exercises of a transformer?
22. What does ‘resistance matching’ mean?
Exercise 128 Short answer questions
23. State a practical application where matching
on transformers
would be used
1. What is a transformer?
24. Derive a formula for the equivalent resis-
2. Explain briefly how a voltage is induced in tance of a transformer having a turns ratio
the secondary winding of a transformer of N1 :N2 and load resistance RL
3. Draw the circuit diagram symbol for a trans- 25. What is an auto transformer?
Section 3

former
26. State three advantages and one disadvan-
4. State the relationship between turns and volt- tage of an auto transformer compared with
age ratios for a transformer a double-wound transformer
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Transformers 349

27. In what applications are auto transformers 3. A step-up transformer has a turns ratio of
used? 10. If the output current is 5 A, the input
current is:
28. What is an isolating transformer? Give two
applications (a) 50 A (b) 5 A
(c) 2.5 A (d) 0.5 A
29. Describe briefly the construction of a three-
phase transformer 4. A 440 V/110 V transformer has 1000 turns on
30. For what reason are current transformers the primary winding. The number of turns on
used? the secondary is:
(a) 550 (b) 250
31. Describe how a current transformer operates
(c) 4000 (d) 25
32. For what reason are voltage transformers
used? 5. An advantage of an auto-transformer is that:
33. Describe how a voltage transformer operates (a) it gives a high step-up ratio
(b) iron losses are reduced
(c) copper loss is reduced
(d) it reduces capacitance between turns
Exercise 129 Multi-choice questions on
transformers
(Answers on page 399) 6. A 1 kV/250 V transformer has 500 turns on
the secondary winding. The number of turns
1. The e.m.f. equation of a transformer of sec-
on the primary is:
ondary turns N2 , magnetic flux density Bm ,
magnetic area of core a, and operating at (a) 2000 (b) 125
frequency f is given by: (c) 1000 (d) 250
(a) E2 = 4.44N2 Bm a f volts 7. The core of a transformer is laminated to:
N2 Bm f (a) limit hysteresis loss
(b) E2 = 4.44 volts
a (b) reduce the inductance of the windings
N2 Bm f (c) reduce the effects of eddy current loss
(c) E2 = volts (d) prevent eddy currents from occurring
a
(d) E2 = 1.11N2 Bm a f volts
8. The power input to a mains transformer is
2. In the auto-transformer shown in Fig. 21.22, 200 W. If the primary current is 2.5 A, the sec-
the current in section PQ is: ondary voltage is 2 V and assuming no losses
(a) 3.3 A (b) 1.7 A (c) 5 A (d) 1.6 A in the transformer, the turns ratio is:
1.7A
(a) 40:1 step down (b) 40:1 step up
(c) 80:1 step down (d) 80:1 step up

9. A transformer has 800 primary turns and 100

secondary turns. To obtain 40 V from the sec-
3.3 A
ondary winding the voltage applied to the
V1 p primary winding must be:
(a) 5 V (b) 320 V
V2 (c) 2.5 V (d) 20 V

A 100 kVA, 250 V/10 kV, single-phase trans-

Section 3

Q former has a full-load copper loss of 800 W

and an iron loss of 500 W. The primary wind-
Figure 21.22 ing contains 120 turns. For the statements in
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350 Electrical and Electronic Principles and Technology

questions 10 to 16, select the correct answer 18. An ideal transformer has a turns ratio of
from the following list: 1:5 and is supplied at 200 V when the pri-
(a) 81.3 kW (b) 800 W (c) 97.32% mary current is 3 A. Which of the following
(d) 80 kW (e) 3 (f) 4800 statements is false?
(g) 1.3 kW (h) 98.40% (i) 100 kW (a) The turns ratio indicates a step-up trans-
(j) 98.28% (k) 200 W (l) 101.3 kW former
(m) 96.38% (n) 400 W (b) The secondary voltage is 40 V
10. The total full-load losses (c) The secondary current is 15 A
(d) The transformer rating is 0.6 kVA
11. The full-load output power at 0.8 power (e) The secondary voltage is 1 kV
factor (f) The secondary current is 0.6 A
12. The full-load input power at 0.8 power factor
19. Iron losses in a transformer are due to:
13. The full-load efficiency at 0.8 power factor (a) eddy currents only
(b) flux leakage
14. The half full-load copper loss
(c) both eddy current and hysteresis losses
15. The transformer efficiency at half full-load, (d) the resistance of the primary and sec-
0.8 power factor ondary windings
16. The number of secondary winding turns 20. A load is to be matched to an amplifier having
17. Which of the following statements is false? an effective internal resistance of 10  via
(a) In an ideal transformer, the volts per turn a coupling transformer having a turns ratio
are constant for a given value of primary of 1:10. The value of the load resistance for
voltage maximum power transfer is:
(b) In a single-phase transformer, the hys- (a) 100  (b) 1 k
teresis loss is proportional to frequency (c) 100 m (d) 1 m
(c) A transformer whose secondary current
is greater than the primary current is a
step-up transformer
(d) In transformers, eddy current loss is
reduced by laminating the core
Section 3
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Revision Test 6

This revision test covers the material contained in Chapters 20 to 21. The marks for each question are shown in
brackets at the end of each question.

1. Three identical coils each of resistance 40  and 5. Determine the percentage regulation of an 8 kVA,
inductive reactance 30  are connected (i) in star, 100 V/200 V, single phase transformer when its
and (ii) in delta to a 400 V, three-phase supply. Cal- secondary terminal voltage is 194 V when loaded.
culate for each connection (a) the line and phase (3)
voltages, (b) the phase and line currents, and (c) the
total power dissipated. (12) 6. A 500 kVA rated transformer has a full-load copper
loss of 4 kW and an iron loss of 3 kW. Determine
2. Two wattmeters are connected to measure the input the transformer efficiency (a) at full load and 0.80
power to a balanced three-phase load by the two- power factor, and (b) at half full load and 0.80 power
wattmeter method. If the instrument readings are factor. (10)
10 kW and 6 kW, determine (a) the total power
input, and (b) the load power factor. (5) 7. Determine the optimum value of load resistance for
3. An ideal transformer connected to a 250 V mains, maximum power transfer if the load is connected
supplies a 25 V, 200 W lamp. Calculate the trans- to an amplifier of output resistance 288  through
former turns ratio and the current taken from the a transformer with a turns ratio 6:1 (3)
supply. (5)
8. A single-phase auto transformer has a voltage ratio
4. A 200 kVA, 8000 V/320 V, 50 Hz single phase of 250 V:200 V and supplies a load of 15 kVA at
transformer has 120 secondary turns. Determine 200 V. Assuming an ideal transformer, determine
(a) the primary and secondary currents, (b) the num- the current in each section of the winding. (3)
ber of primary turns, and (c) the maximum value of
flux. (9)

Section 3