The cathode ray oscilloscope

This versatile instrument was developed by Brown in 1897 from the cathode ray tube. It has
many uses, including voltage measurement, observation of wave forms, frequency
comparison and time measurement.

The oscilloscope cathode ray tube (CRT) is a vacuum tube that creates and deflects
an electron beam to form a graphical image representing the electrical properties of a circuit.

An oscilloscope (Figure 1) is used to test electrical devices by displaying a graph of

the voltage between two points in a circuit over time. The CRT (Figure 2) displays this
graph. Similar CRTs are used in radar systems, televisions, and computer monitors.

A glass tube contains and encloses the oscilloscope CRT in a vacuum. The base of the
tube plugs into the oscilloscope, while the other end flares to a large flat area that serves as
the screen. An electron gun inside produces an electron beam that passes through two sets
of deflection plates before hitting the fluorescent screen to create an image.
This device operates by creating and accelerating a beam of electrons with an
electric field. Another electric field between the deflection plates directs the beam to the
desired location of the display. Finally, the fluorescent screen converts the energy of the
electron beam into slowly emitted visible photons.
Four main parts make up the oscilloscope CRT: bulb, electron gun, deflection plates, and
fluorescent screen.

Bulb. The bulb encloses and holds the components of the CRT in a vacuum. It is a glass tube
shaped roughly like a flashlight (Figure 3). On one end of the tube is the base that plugs into
the oscilloscope and contains the leads that supply current to the components inside. The
other end is bell shaped and serves as the display, which is approximately 4 inches wide and 3
inches tall.
The bulb keeps the space around the CRT free of particles of dust and air and holds
down each of the components of the CRT.

Electron Gun. The electron gun creates the electron beam and adjusts the intensity and
width of the beam moving to the screen. It is located next to the base of the CRT and consists
of five major parts: heater, cathode, control grid, focusing anode, and accelerating anode
(Figure 3).
The heater, a rod of metal, is supplied an electric current and converts it to heat. As
the heater increases in temperature, the cathode heats up and its electrons are given enough
thermal energy to escape their molecular bonds. The cathode serves as the source of the
electron beam and is held at a negative voltage potential. The negatively charged control grid
has variable voltage and pushes some electrons back into the cathode, thus controlling the

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intensity of the beam and brightness of the image on the display. The focusing anode controls
the width of the electron beam and the positively charged accelerating anode creates the
electric field needed to accelerate electrons from the cathode to the screen. The control grid,
focusing anode, and accelerating anode have holes in their centers to allow the electron beam
to pass through freely.

Deflection Plates. The deflection plates are simply pairs of oppositely charged metal plates.
There are two sets of deflection plates: vertical and horizontal (Figure 3). Each set of plates is
parallel and located at the neck of the tube. The vertical deflection plates lie horizontally but
control the vertical position of the beam. The horizontal plates are positioned at right angles
to the vertical plates and control the horizontal position of the beam. External electric circuits
are used to control and change the amount of charge on these plates and the electric field
between them.
The electron beam passes between each pair of plates, and is attracted to the positively
charged side and repelled by the negatively charged side. In this way, the plates control the
path of the electron beam and where the beam hits the screen.

Fluorescent Screen. The fluorescent screen is the display on the bulb. The most common
material used on the display is phosphorous, and it is painted on the inside of the bulb.
Electrons emerging from the deflection plates strike the screen and the phosphorous
converts the energy in the electron beam into photons of visible light. This results in a spot of
light on the display, with brightness proportional to the intensity of the beam.
The element on the screen is also phosphorescent, meaning that it emits energy as
light gradually instead of instantaneously. This allows us to see lines on the screen instead of
a moving dot. This line is maintained by rapid, repetitive tracing.

Operating Description

The four parts of the oscilloscope CRT are designed to create and direct an electron beam to a
screen to form an image. The oscilloscope links to a circuit that directly connects to the
vertical deflection plates while the horizontal plates have linearly increasing charge to form a
plot of the circuit voltage over time.
In an operating cycle, the heater gives electrons in the cathode enough energy
to escape. The electrons are attracted to the accelerating anode and pulled through a control
grid that regulates the number of electrons in the beam, a focusing anode that controls the
width of the beam, and the accelerating anode itself. The vertical and horizontal deflection
plates create electric fields that bend the beam of electrons. The electrons finally hit the
fluorescent screen, which absorbs the energy from the electron beam and emits it in the form
of light to display an image at the end of the glass

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tube.

Below mentioned figure is a simplified diagram of a cathode ray oscilloscope.

cathode (C) Y plates Electron beam

X plates
Focussing anode (A1)

vacuum

grid (G)

+5 kV
Fluorescent screen
Accelerating anode (A2) Figure 1

At the centre of the instrument is a highly evacuated cathode ray tube with the following
features:
(a) a heated cathode C to produce a beam of electrons - a typical beam current is of the
order of 0.1 mA;
(b) a grid G to control the brightness of the beam;
(c) an accelerating anode A2 - a typical potential difference between A2 and the cathode
would be about +1000 V;
(d) a pair of plates Y1 and Y2 to deflect the beam in the vertical direction;
(e) a pair of plates X1 and X2 to deflect the beam in the horizontal direction;
(f) a fluorescent screen F on which the beam of electrons falls - in many modern
oscilloscopes this is coated with zinc sulphide, which emits a blue glow when electrons
collide with it, while there are other coatings that glow for some seconds after the beam has
passed so enabling transient events to be seen more clearly;

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(g) a graphite coating to shield the beam from external electric fields and to provide a return
path for the electrons (see below);
(h) a mumetal screen which surrounds the tube and shields it from stray magnetic fields.

The focusing and accelerating systems are connected at different points along a resistor
chain. Focusing is achieved by varying the voltage applied between the two anodes A1 and
A2.

Since secondary electrons are emitted from the screen when the electron beam hits it, the
phosphor coating of the screen and the inner graphite layer of the tube are both earthed to
prevent a large build-up of static charge on the tube.

In the double beam oscilloscope there are two Y plates with an earthed plate between them
to split the beam into two. Two traces are then observed on the screen. This can be most
useful when comparing phase differences or making lapsed time measurements.
The deflection system
The beam may be moved 'manually' in the X- and Y-directions by applying a d.c. or a.c.
voltage to the X- and Y-plates. Alternatively it can be moved using the time base system.

right right right

The time base circuit applies a saw-tooth
waveform to the X-plates, as shown in
Figure 2. The beam is moved from the left-
hand side of the screen to the right during
the time that the voltage rises to a
maximum, and then is returned rapidly to
the left as the voltage returns to zero. This
fly-back time should be as short as left left left
possible.
Figure 2

The rise time is usually between 1 s and 1 s for most oscilloscopes used in schools, but
time base speeds of many seconds or of fractions of a microsecond can be obtained on
more elaborate instruments.

If a voltage is now applied to the Y-inputs, the variation of this voltage with time may be
displayed on the screen. Some such variations are shown in Figure 3, together with the
effect of various alterations of time base speed or input frequency.

Cathode ray oscilloscope traces

Figure 3 shows the appearance of the oscilloscope screen when a variety of different signals
are applied to the Y-plates. The following diagram shows you various patterns that can be
made on the screen with two different inputs

d.c. input a.c. input 4

The speed of the time base will change what we see on the screen even if the input signal
is kept the same. The following four diagrams show this.

d.c. input with the time base off d.c. input with the time base on

a.c. input with a slow time base a.c. input with a fast time base

Because the deflection of the spot depends on the voltage connected to the Y plates the
CR0 can be used as an accurate voltmeter. The oscilloscope is also used in hospitals to
look at heartbeat or brain waves, as computer monitors, radar screens and is also the
basis of the television receiver.

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The cathode ray tube screen showing various inputs

(a) time base off (the small circles have been added to help you see the spot)

no input no input – spot adjusted left d.c input lower plate positive

d.c input upper plate positive d.c input upper plate more positive a.c input

(b) time base on

no input d.c input – upper plate positive d.c input – lower plate positive

low frequency a.c input high frequency a.c. input a.c input with a diode

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large amplitude a.c input small amplitude a.c input voice or music

a.c. input with a slow time base a.c. input with a fast time base

a.c input large Y gain a.c input small Y gain

full wave rectification

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Measurements with the cathode ray oscilloscope
The primary uses of the cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO) are to measure voltage, to measure
frequency and to measure phase.

(i) Measuring voltage

Because of its effectively infinite resistance, the CRO makes an excellent voltmeter. It has a
relatively low sensitivity, but this can be improved by the use of an internal voltage amplifier.

The oscilloscope must first be calibrated by connecting a d.c. source of known e.m.f. to the
Y-plates and measuring the deflection of the spot on the screen. This should be repeated for
a range of values, so that the linearity of the deflection may be checked. The known e.m.f. is
then connected and its value found from the deflection produced.
Most oscilloscopes have a previously calibrated screen giving the deflection sensitivity in
volts per cm or volts per scale division. In this case a calibration by a d.c. source may be
considered unnecessary.

(ii) Measuring frequency

Using the calibrated time base the input signal of unknown frequency may be 'frozen', and its
frequency found directly by comparison with the scale divisions.
Alternatively the internal time base may be switched off and a signal of known frequency
applied to the X-input. If the signal of unknown frequency is applied to the Y-input, Lissajous
figures are formed on the screen. Analysis of the peaks on the two axes enables the
unknown frequency to be found.

(iii) Measuring phase

The internal time base is switched off as above and two signals are applied as before. The
frequency of the known signal is adjusted until it is the same as that of the unknown signal.
An ellipse will then be formed on the screen and the angle of the ellipse will denote the
phase difference between the two signals
We can see this in Figure 4. y
Let  be the phase difference between the two signals yo
and let the signal applied to the x plates be x = x0sin(t) y1 = yosin
and that applied to the y plates be y = yo sin (t+)).

But when x = 0, sin(t) = 0, giving t = 0.

At this point y = y1 = yo sin , and hence  may be x
found.
Examples of the traces for two particular phase
Figure 4
differences are shown in Figure 5.

y y
yo y1 = yosin yo

y1 = yosin

x x
=0

Figure 5  = 90 = /2
o c

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AF sine and square wave generator

The block diagram of an AF sine-square wave generator is as shown in the Fig

As per our previous discussion, Wien bridge oscillator is the heart of an AF sine-square wave
generator. Depending upon the position of switch, we get output as square wave output or
sine wave output. The Wien bridge oscillator generates a sine wave. Depending upon the
position of switch, it is switched to either circuit. In the square wave generation section, the
output of the Wien bridge oscillator is fed to square wave shaper circuit which uses schmitt
trigger circuit. The attenuators in both the sections are used to control output signal level.
Before attenuation, the signal level is made very high using sine wave amplifier and square
wave amplifier.

Function generator:

The function generator is an instrument which generates different types of waveforms The
frequency of these wave forms can be vane over wide range. le most required common
waveforms are sine wave, sawtooth wave, triangular wave, square wave. These various
outputs of the generator are available simultaneously. We may require square wave for
testing linearity measurements in audio system. At the same time, we may require sawtooth
output to drive horizontal deflection amplifier of an oscilloscope which gives visual display of
the measurements. The purpose of providing simultaneous waves is filled by the function
generator.

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The frequency controlled voltage is used to regulate two current sources namely upper
current source and lower current source. The upper current source supplies constant current
to an integrator. The output voltage of integrator then increases linearly with time. If the
current, charging the capacitor increases or decreases, the slope of output voltage increases
or decreases respectively. Hence this controls frequency. The voltage comparator
multivibrator circuit changes the state of the network when the output voltage of integrator
equals the maximum predetermined upper level. Because of this change in state, the upper
current source is removed and the lower current source is switched ON. This lower current
source supplies opposite current to the integrator circuit.

The output of integrator decreases linearly with time. When this output voltage equals
maximum predetermined upper level on negative side, the voltage comparator multivibrator
again changes the condition of the network by switching OFF the lower current source and
switching ON the upper current source. The output voltage of the integrator has triangular
waveform. The frequency of this triangular waveform is determined by the magnitudes of the
currents supplied by upper current source and lower current source. To get square wave, the
output of the integrator is passed through comparator. The voltage comparator delivers
square wave output voltage of same frequency as that of input triangular waveform. The sine
wave is derived from triangular wave. The triangular wave is synthesized into sine wave
using diode resistance network. In this shaper circuit, the slope of triangular wave is changed
as its amplitude changes. This results in a sine wave with less than 1% distortion. The two
output amplifiers provide two simultaneous, individually selected outputs of any of the
waveform functions.

The function of signal generators is to supply signals of known amplitude and known
frequency. The signal generators are used to supply signal levels at very low levels for the
testing of receivers. But it is very difficult to measure and calibrate a signal at a very low
level. Thus attenuators are used in function generators. It is a device which reduces power
level of a signal by fixed amount.

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