Appl Biochem Biotechnol (2014) 172:2143–2159

DOI 10.1007/s12010-013-0661-9

Enzymatic Trends of Fructooligosaccharides

Production by Microorganisms

Mohd Anis Ganaie & Agbaje Lateef & Uma Shanker Gupta

Received: 16 December 2012 / Accepted: 28 November 2013 /

Published online: 14 December 2013
# Springer Science+Business Media New York 2013

Abstract Fructooligosaccharides are influential prebiotics that affect various physiological

functions in such a way that they promote positive impact to health. They occur naturally in
many fruits and vegetables in trace amounts. However, they are mainly produced commer-
cially by the reaction of microbial enzymes with di- or polysaccharides, such as sucrose or
inulin as a substrate. For maximum production of fructooligosaccharides on an industrial level,
development of more enzymes with high activity and stability is required. This has attracted
the attention of biotechnologists and microbiologists worldwide. This study aims to discuss the
new trends in the production of fructooligosaccharide and its effect on numerous health
qualities through which it creates great demand in the sugar market.

Keywords Prebiotic . Fructooligosaccharides . Inulin . Microorganisms . Fructosyltransferase .

Immobilisation

Introduction

Enzymes produced by microorganisms have been antecedently used for making essential
foods, such as cheese, bread, wine, beer, etc. The design of food products for health benefit
is now relatively becoming a popular trend which helps in disease prevention, treatment, and
general well-being [1, 2]. The advancement of these functional foods led to the development of
many biotechnological and pharmacological companies. Among them, fructooligosaccharides
(FOS) create great demand in global food market and are generally recognised as safe (GRAS)

M. A. Ganaie (*) : U. S. Gupta

Microbial Technology Laboratory, Department of Zoology, Dr. Harisingh Gour University,
Sagar, MP 470003, India
e-mail: [email protected]

Mohd. Anis. Ganaie

e-mail: [email protected]

A. Lateef
Department of Pure and Applied Biology, Ladoke Akintola University of Technology,
PMB 4000 Ogbomoso, Nigeria
2144 Appl Biochem Biotechnol (2014) 172:2143–2159

from the Food and Drug Administration, USA. The synthetic process of FOS was first
performed in 1980 in Japan by Meija Seika Kaisha Limited under the trade name Meioligo.
Later on, other countries like France, the USA, Indonesia, Korea and China starts its produc-
tion at tremendous rate. These countries sold FOS under different trade names, such as
Actlight (Beghin-Meiji Industries France), Nutraflora (USA) and Meioligo (Meiji Seika
Kaisha Limited Japan).
FOS contain several distinguishing qualities because of its usage as ingredient combi-
nation which make it most plentiful as an alternative sweetener in the food market. It is
water soluble and one third as sweet as sucrose [3]. However, its viscosity and thermal
stability is higher than that of sucrose. Its stability lies in a pH range of 4.0–7.0 and can be
refrigerated for a period of 1 year. Moreover, it provides high moisture-retaining capacity,
preventing excessive drying and low water interacting activity which is convenient in
controlling microbial contamination [4]. The problem with consuming carbohydrates,
such as sucrose, is that many bacteria feeds in the mouth such as Streptococcus mutans,
Lactobacillus acidophilus, etc., forming insoluble β-glucans that serve as matrix for
plaque formation which causes dental cavities [5]. For this evasion, FOS is presently used
as non-cariogenic sugar substitutes in confectionary, gums, drinks, etc. Considering the
β-configurations of anomeric carbon, C 2 in the fructose monomers, FOS become
nondigestible by human digestive enzymes which are mostly specific for α-glycosidic
bonds and hence are not utilised as energy source in the body [6]. FOS acts as a prebiotic
food, because it is fed by many Bifidobacteria and Lactobacillus sp. which are resistant to
acidic pH but is harmful to those bacteria which are foes of colon like Clostridium sp. FOS
decreases not only the level of triglycerides, serum, cholesterol and lipid but also increases
absorption of prominent ions like Ca2+ and Mg2+ [7]. Hypotriglyceridemia occurs because
of a decrease in hepatic synthesis of triglycerides, and hypercholesterolemia results in
antagonistic effect of short-chain fatty acids especially propionate on cholesterol metab-
olism [8]. It has also been found that FOS has no effect on blood glucose level of type 2
diabetes patients due to short-chain fatty acids produced by saccharolytic fermentation [9].
Structurally, FOS are short-chain oligomers of monosaccharide units containing kestose
(GF2), nystose (GF3) and 1-β-fructofuranosyl nystose (GF4) in which fructosyl units (F) are
bound by β(2→1) position of sucrose with the last one attached to a terminal glucose (G)
moiety. Depending on the type of linkage between the monosaccharide units, several studies
also showed production of neo-FOS in which fructosyl units are bound at β(2–6) position of
sucrose forming neokestose and 6-kestose, respectively (Fig. 1) [10–12].
Synthesis of FOS is a two-stage process in which enzyme is cultivated in the foremost stage
and susequently the required enzyme is used for biotrasnsformation process to yield FOS
under controlled conditions [13, 14]. The enzymes employed for FOS production are
fructosyltransferase (FTase; 2.4.1.9), β-fructofuranosidase (FFase; 3.2.1.26) and endoinulinase
(3.2.1.7). FTase possess transfructosylating activity, act on sucrose by cleaving β-1,2 linkages
and transferring the fructosyl group to an acceptor molecule such as sucrose and FOS thereby
releasing glucose as a by-product [15–17].

GFn þ GFn →GFnþ1 þ GFn−1 n ¼ 1−3

where GF is sucrose and n is number of fructosyl units.

In case of FFase, it possesses hydrolytic activity in low sucrose concentration and
transfructosylating activity on high sucrose concentration [18]. However, the endoinulinase
undertakes distinct quality; it acts randomly and hydrolyse internal linkages of inulin (GF)n
to yield FOS [16, 19].
Appl Biochem Biotechnol (2014) 172:2143–2159 2145

CH2OH
H OH
H
OH H CH2OH
OH H OH CH2OH
H H CH2OH
H OH
OH H H O H O H2
CH2OHO OH H H OH C
O HO H HOH2C HHO O H
H OH OH H OHH H O
CH2OH HO HO CH2OH H
HHO OH H
H O HH H CH2OH Glucose H OH H HO OH H
H HOH C O O OH
OH H 2 O HHO
OH H O
Sucrose + + O
HO OH2C H HO O
H HO HHO HOH C
H H CH2 2
-fructofuranosidase CH2 O OH H HHO
CH2OH O
O OH H OH H CH2
H HO
CH2OH O OH H
HHO O HOH2C CH2OH
H CH2OH OH H OH
HHO
OH H H
CH2OH
OH H
Sucrose 6-Kestose Neokestose
1-Kestose

Fig. 1 Structure of FOS formation of various linkages

Screening and Optimisation of FTase and FFase Producing Microorganisms for the Production
of FOS

Screening and selection of microorganisms for enzymatic biotransformation of sucrose to FOS

has been investigated from the last three decades. Nearly about 30 microorganisms have been
accounted for transfructosylating activity but only a few of them have been exploited for the
production of FOS at industrial level (Table 1). Microbial strains such as species of Aspergillus
niger (ATCC 26011), Aspergillus japonicus (ATCC 20236), Aspergillus oryzae (CFR 202) and
Aureobasidium pullulans (CFR 77) have immense characteristics for commercial status
regarding transformation of sucrose to FOS [13, 19–21]. The foremost attempt of screening
was performed by Sangeetha et al. [7] which selected six microorganisms for
transfructosylating activity. Among them, A. pullulans CFR 77, A. oryzae CFR 202 and
Aspergillus flavus executed high transfructosylating activity resulting to higher yield of
FOS; whereas A. niger, Penicillium citrinum and Mucor miehei did not give satisfactory yield.
Using extracellular FTase from these microbial sources, the maximum FOS formation was
evaluated at 44 % (w/w) by Aureobasidum pullulans, 25 % (w/w) by A. oryzae and 27 % (w/w)
by A. flavus from sucrose 55 % (w/v) in enzyme–substrate reaction. However, when their
intracellular enzymes were employed on the same substrate concentration, FOS yield was
elevated up to 55 % (w/w) by A. pullulans, 50 % (w/w) by A. oryzae and 48 % (w/w) by
A. flavus, respectively.
FOS producing enzymes are exuded both by extracellular as well as intracellular by various
microorganisms. For emancipating intracellular enzyme, utrasonication was performed by Lateef
et al. [21] which yielded 59 % of FOS from the cells A. pullulans CFR 77. Studies carried out by
Fernandez et al. [18] screened 17 different strains of filamentous fungi grown in batch cultures to
compare their abilities for the production of FFase. Among them, A. oryzae IPT-301, A. niger
ATCC 20611 and strain IPT-615 showed high FTase activity of more than 12,500 U/l using 22
factorial experimental design on pH and temperature variables. The investigated pH vvalues
2146 Appl Biochem Biotechnol (2014) 172:2143–2159

Table 1 List of reported

microorganisms possessing Name of microorganism Reference
transfructosylating activity for
FOS formation Arthrobacter sp. [83]
Arthrobacter globiformis IFO-3062 [84]
Aspergillus aculeatus [85]
Aspergillus flavus CFR 203 [7]
Aspergillus foetidus St-0194 [86]
Aspergillus japonicus ATCC 20236 [29]
Aspergillus niger [55]
A. niger ATCC 20611 [87]
Aspergillus sp. N74 [88]
Aspergillus oryzae CFR 202 [7]
A. flavus NFCC 2364 [2]
Aspergillus terreus NFCCI 2347 [2]
Fusarium solani NFCCI 2315 [2]
A. pullulans DSM 2404 [89]
A. pullulans ATCC 20524 [20]
A. pullulans KFCC 10524 [90]
A. pullulans [80]
A. pullulans CCY 27-1-94 [91]
A. pullulans ATCC 9348 [79]
A. pullulans KFCC10254 [92]
A. pullulans KFCC10524 [17]
A. pullulans CFR 77 [7]
A. pullulans 20524 [3]
Bacillus cereus [24]
Bacillus macerans EG-6 [93]
B. macerans EG-7 [26]
Bacillus subtilis [94]
Candida sp. LEB-13 [56]
Cryptococcus sp. LEB-V2 [56]
Penicillium citrinum [95]
P. citrinum [96]
Penicillium expansum MUM 02.14 [97]
Pencillium islandicum MTCC 4926 [2]
Penicillium purpurogenum [33]
Penicillium rugulosum [28]
Penicillium spinolosum [98]
Rhizopus stolonifer LAU 07 [99]
Rhodotorula sp. LEB 10 [100]
Saccharomyces cerevisiae [101]
Scopulariopsis brevicaulis [102]
Sporotrichum thermophile ATCC 28811 [103]
Streptococcus salivarius 25975 [58]
Xanthophyllomyces dendrorhous 269 [104]
Zymomonas mobilis ATCC 10988 [105]
Appl Biochem Biotechnol (2014) 172:2143–2159 2147

influenced both transfructosylating activity (Ut) and hydrolytic activity (Uh), whereas no signif-
icant difference of Ut and Uh was observed at a temperature of 40 and 50 °C, respectively. In
another study, research contributed by Maugeri and Hernalsteens [22] obtained 495 yeast strains
from fruits and flowers of Brazilian tropical forests. Of these isolated strains, only Candida sp.
LEB-13, Rhodoturula sp. LEB-U5, Cryptococcus sp. LEB-V2 and Rhodotorula sp. substantiate
for FOS formation. The data evaluated after qualitative and quantitative analysis culminate 45 %
(w/w) of FOS from Rhodotorula sp. LEB-V10 in 48 h of reaction time while the other three strains
credited FOS yield below 40 %.
Furthermore, a bacterium isolated from infected sugar cane identified as Bacillus cereus was
used for production of FTase. The extracellular FTase from this bacterium gave high enzyme
yield of 37.40 U/ml in submerged fermentation when grown on 16 % (w/v) sucrose and also
harvested FTase yield of 29.1 U/g in solid-state fermentation (SSF) [23]. Recently, experiments
performed by Ganaie et al. [2] observed seven new molds viz. A. flavus NFCCI 2364, A. niger
(SI), A. flavus (NFCCI 2785), Pencillium islandicum (MTCC 4926), Aspergillus terreus
(NFCCI 2347) and Fusarium solani (NFCCI 2315) from 20 screened microorganisms.
Among these seven investigated isolates, A. flavus (NFCCI 2364) proved to be potent producer
holding remarkable yield of FOS 63.4 % (w/v) in 24 h of enzyme substrate reaction.
Investigations carried out by Yoshikawa et al. [24] have observed five types of FFase
(I, II, III, IV and V) secreted by cell wall of A. pullulans DSM 2404 while grown on sucrose-
containing medium. The crude extract at 1st, 2nd and 3rd days were applied to anion exchange
chromatography, and result of peaks indicate that FFase I was intensive in the 1st day of
culture while FFase (II–V) show much expression on the 2nd and 3rd days of culture. Ut was
found maximum to FFase I and was considered FOS producing period while as Uh was found
highest to FFase IV regarded as FOS degrading period. In the 1st day, only FFase I was
expressed in culture media and large amount of FOS and glucose were accumulated. As the
glucose was completely consumed, FFase II–V were expressed on days 2nd and 3rd, indicat-
ing that these FFase were repressed by glucose.
Preliminary investigations of screening occasionally lead to poor yield of FOS, but
optimisation of culture composition and reaction parameters is exhibited to increase conver-
sion competence of sucrose to FOS. As such interactions influenced Ut of the enzyme,
Sangeetha et al. [7] initially harvested 25 % (w/v) of FOS by A. oryzae CFR 202, but this
yield was subsequently intensified up to 58 % (w/w) using response surface methodology
(RSM). The combined action evaluated by Plackett–Burman and Doehlert experimental shell
design persuaded the production of FOS in both stages [25]. A crude FTase from Bacillus
macerans EG-7 reduced lag period from 25 h to 30 min by addition of ammonium nitrate at
10 mM which enhanced enzyme activity by 15-fold [26]. A newly isolated strain, TIT-90076
identified as A. japonicus produced FFase with high titres of FTase possessing high
transfructosylating activity. The optimal conditions for the enzymatic transfructosylating
reaction occurred at pH 5.0 and temperature of 55 °C. Sucrose, the best energy carbon source
and yeast extract, the best nitrogen source were used for enzyme production. Addition of
MgSO4·7H2O and K2HPO4 changed the morphology of the fungal growth from filamentous to
pellet form. However, these salts did not affect FFase production [27]. An investigation was
carried out by optimising two reaction parameters, pH and temperature for FOS formation by
Pencillium rugulosum at sucrose concentration of 775 g/l. The best results were obtained at
temperature of 55 °C and pH 5.5 with yield conversion of FOS 83.8 % (w/w) [28]. Other
studies, such as those carried out by Ganaie et al. [29], culminate pH 6.0 which is most
appropriate for production of FTase in A. flavus (NFCCI 2364). The sensitivity of hydrogen
ion concentration in cultivation medium which alters growth and enzyme activity of microor-
ganism attributed to the fact that many fungal strains have their acidic pH optima in submerged
2148 Appl Biochem Biotechnol (2014) 172:2143–2159

condition [30, 31]. The accumulation of FTase in submerged fermentation is intensely affected
by constituents of several ingredients especially employment of several carbon and nitrogen
sources. The results of these carbon sources, such as maltose, corn starch, fructose, glucose and
sorbitol were used for observing growth and FTase production in A. foetidus TIT-90076 [27].
By applying such energy sources, the microbial growth was imparted besides the indigent
production yield of FTase. Furthermore, their experiment deduced sucrose as a sole carbon
source both for growth and production of FTase enzyme. Survey carried out by FTase
production demonstrates sucrose as most influential sole carbon source which are rapidly
taken by microorganism instead of using polysaccharides which are broken down slowly
during fermentation process [32]. The optimal concentration of sucrose as sole carbon source
usually ranged from 10 to 25 % (w/v), and below this concentration, large portion of sucrose is
used for growth of microbial cells. However, as presented above, this concentration results in
higher enzyme induction and also more amount of sucrose in cultivation media decreases
oxygen transfer rate because of the increase in viscosity [29]. In addition to carbon and
nitrogen sources, other studied variables that affect FTase production include agitation, time
of cultivation, fermentation temperature, aeration rates, addition of different mineral salts and
supplement of some amino acids. Studies carried out by Ganaie et al. [29] also concluded
200 rpm as the most suitable rpm for formation of rounded pellets and those above whereby
pellet size decreases because of shear stress and abrasive forces. Addition of amino acids like
lucine had slight inductive effect on extracellular FTase production by Pencillium
purpurogenum, where as histidine and lucine had slight inductive effect on intracellular
FTase production [33]. Organic salts such as K2HPO4 depicted cell growth and buffering
reagent and usually ranges from 4 to 5 g/l [13]. However, other microelements such as
MgSO4·7H2O, NaNO3, KH2PO4·NH4Cl and NaCl are used from 2 to 3 g/l [2, 7, 33].
During the synthesis of FOS, one sucrose molecule acts as donor and another as a recipient.
The liberation of a large number of glucose molecules acts as a competitive inhibitor thus
preventing FOS formation. A mixed enzyme has been employed to eliminate glucose by
glucose oxidase. The conversion of glucose to gluconic acid in the reaction mixture was
further precipitated to calcium gluconate [34]. This system increases productivity of FOS at
more than 90 % (w/w). Sometimes addition of additives like glucose isomerase causes
structural change in certain compounds leading to increase the production of particular
compound. A crude enzyme FFase from A. pullulans DSM 2404 was reported to yield
62 % (w/w) of FOS, but addition of commercial glucose isomerase increased its yield to
69 % (w/w) [24].

Production of FTase by SSF

SSF is a process in which microorganisms are grown on solid substrate except free water. SSF
is comparably similar to other microbiological processes like compositing, ensiling, etc., and it
holds tremendous output in food industries for production of enzymes in controlled manner to
harvest required products [35]. This process is advantageous in terms of volumetric produc-
tivity, low capital cost, energy consumption and less chance of contamination. However, its
main drawback is mass and energy transport, moisture, temperature, cell growth and control-
ling pH [36]. The FOS-producing enzymes are continuously increased due to change in
fermentation systems which lead to increased product formation. Many interesting studies have
been practised on different value-added products to increase FOS yield in low cost, when SSF
conditions were established.
Many agricultural by-products like cereal bran, corn products, sugarcane bagasse, cassava
bagasse (tippi), coffee and tea were used for FTase production of A. oryzae CFR 202 [37]. By
Appl Biochem Biotechnol (2014) 172:2143–2159 2149

using these products, the selected fungus showed plentiful growth when cultivated on cereal
bran, rice bran, wheat bran, oat bran, corn germ and corn meal. Coffee and tea by-products
showed maximum growth on spent coffee and spent tea, but least growth on coffee husk and
coffee pulp. However, FOS production was carried out by incubating 2.5 ml FTase of A. oryzae
CFR 202 cultivated on these by-products with 7.5 ml of sucrose 60 % (w/v). The highest yield was
observed in rice bran, corn germ and wheat bran, at nearly 51 % (w/w).
Critical analysis of literature claimed by many authors indicate that most strains are usually
effective for production of FTase in submerged fermentation (SmF) as compared with SSF.
However, an outstanding work, performed by Mussatto et al. [38], maximises the production
of FOS under SSF by 23 central composite design. Fermentation was carried out using coffee
silverskin as solid matrix moistened with 60, 70 and 80 % with 240 g/l of sucrose. The
moisture content did not influence FOS productivity, but temperature at 26–30 °C and
inoculum rate of 2×107 spores/g dry matter increased the yield of FOS to 208 g/l with a
productivity of 10.44 g l−1 h−1 and FFase to 64.12 U/ml with productivity of 4.0 U ml−1 h−1.
This work was remarkable from the industrial view point to increase both FOS and FFase in a
simultaneous manner.
More recently, Lateef et al. [39] reported a local isolate of A. niger for the production of
FTase in both submerged and solid substrate media. Maximum enzyme activity of 24.49 U/ml
was obtained in SmF after 48 h of fermentation in chemically defined medium, while
maximum enzyme activities of 20.77 and 27.77 U/g were obtained in SSF using ripe plantain
peel and kola nut pod, respectively. The enzyme was used to prepare FOS, with the maximum
yield of 33.24 % FOS, consisting of kestose and nystose produced by FTase of kola nut pod
fermentation. In a similar study, there have been reports of production of FTase by a strain of
Rhizopus stolonifer LAU 07 in cassava-based media [40]. The authors reported high titers of
enzyme of more than 20 U/g when 5–15 % inoculum sizes were used with minimal
supplementation of cassava peels with yeast extract, while maximum FTase yield of 32.87
U/ml was obtained after 96 h of fermentation in cassava steep liquor which was not supple-
mented with any nutrient. The FTase yielded 34 % of FOS (1-kestose (GF2); nystose (GF3))
using 60 % (w/v) sucrose as the substrate. R. stolonifer LAU 07 also possessed antioxidant
quality when some agricultural waste products like cocoa pod husk, cassava peel and palm
kernel cake were practised for the production of FTase [35]. The protein content of these
fermented substrates was increased whereas crude fat and fibre components of the substrates
were decreased, respectively. Cassava peel contains higher concentration of cyanogenic
glycoside which makes it unfit for animal consumption. Its cyanide concentration was reduced
(1.39 %) due to the fermentation process.

Production of FOS by Inulin

Inulin (C6H10O5)n, a heteropolysaccharide of plant origin consists of a linear chain of β-2,

1-linked polyfructose units ending with a glucose residue through sucrose-type linkage at the
reducing end (Fig. 2). It is a reserve carbohydrate of many plants and vegetables. However, its
abundance is seen in roots and tubers of dahlia, chicory and Jerusalem artichoke [41]. Inulin is
a potent substrate both for the production of high fructose syrups like inulobiose (F2)
inulotriose (F3) inulotetrose (F4) and FOS (GF)2–5 [42–44]. The obvious candidate of these
oligosaccharides are performed by inulinase enzymes and usually these enzymes are classified
as exo-and endo-acting based on cleavage of β-2,1 linkage in inulin. Exoinulinases (EC
3.2.1.80) cleave β-2,1 linkages sequentially starting from the non-reducing end of inulin and
split off terminal fructosyl units, releasing fructose with a molecule of glucose, whereas
endoinulinase (EC 3.2.1.7) act randomly and hydrolyse internal linkages of inulin to yield
2150 Appl Biochem Biotechnol (2014) 172:2143–2159

CH2OH
O H
HOH2C H O
F H
G
H HO OH H
O
H
H2C
OH H H OH

CH2OH O
O

F
H HO
H
CH2
OH H
n
CH2OH O
O
F Beta- 2-1 fructosyl fructose bond
H HO
H
CH2OH
OH H

Inulin (GFn)

Fig. 2 Structure of inulin

FOS. Fructose is considered as a safe alternative sweetener as compared to sucrose because it

has beneficial effects in diabetic patients, increases the iron absorption in children, and has a
higher sweetening capacity [6, 42]. Most of the world’s population use edible parts of plants
containing inulin. However, plants did not contain sufficient amount of inulin to be exploited
for commercial purpose. For this, microorganisms are the preferred source of inulinase
production in sufficient amounts [43]. Many microorganisms have been extensively reported
for the production of inulinase but moulds are regarded as preferential candidates for inulinase
activity due to their thermal stability up to 60 °C which makes enzyme unaltered despite high
temperature and less chance of contamination. Filamentous fungi such as Aspergillus sp. [45],
Penicillium sp. [46] and yeast Kluyveromyces sp. [47] are high inulinase producers. From
bacteria, Bacillus sp. [48], Pseudomonas sp. [49] and Streptomyces sp. [50] have been reported
as high-yielding inulinase strains [51].
Both FOS and inulin are prebiotics as they are non-digestible food ingredient because of the
β configuration of anomeric carbon (C2) in their fructose monomers makes them to be
resistant to hydrolysis. Many plants, e.g. Jerusalem artichoke, chicory roots and dahlia tubers
contain high content of inulin, and various methods have been applied for extraction of
inulooligosaccharides [51]. Implementation of two methods, simple diffusion and wet milling
were carried out for inulin extraction from Jerusalem artichoke [52]. The inulinase practiced
was used from A. niger and two crude enzyme solutions A and B were obtained. For A
enzyme solution, the medium contained 3 % Jerusalem artichoke powder, 0.23 % NH4NO3,
0.37 % (NH4)2HPO4, 0.1 % K2HPO4, 0.05 MgSO4, and 0.15 % peptone. For B enzyme
solution, the medium contained 3 % fibruline-long chain (98.5 % inulin with average DP=20),
1.5 % peptone and Czapeck salts. The pH of both culture mediums was adjusted to 5–5.5 and
the resultant hydrolysis yield after 60 min was 50.6 % and 6.07 mg fructose/ml from (A)
enzyme solution and from (B) solution it was 50.2 % hydrolysis yield and 6.02 mg fructose/ml
from enzyme in 90 min.
Appl Biochem Biotechnol (2014) 172:2143–2159 2151

Production of FOS from inulin in batch process has been carried out by Pseudomonas sp.
using soluble and immobilised endoinulinase. Inulin was completely hydrolysed and yields
FOS 72 % and 83 % respectively, under optimal conditions. The product composition was
considerably affected by inulin concentration and enzyme form. The enzyme reactor was
successfully run for 28 days at 55 °C achieving a yield of 82 % without any significant loss of
enzyme activity [53]. An experimental factorial design has been developed for FOS production
from Kluyveromyces marxianus var bulgaricus. The studied variables were temperature, pH,
sucrose and enzyme concentration, respectively. The amount of FOS production was 50.2 g/l
by stirred reactor and 44 g/l by packed bed reactor by using immobilised enzyme [54].

Purification and characterisation of microbial FTase and FFase

Purification is a prominent aspect to deduce factual characteristic of an enzyme. Most

investigations have been carried out in respect of screening and optimisation process. But
only few of their FTase or FFase have been purified and characterised (Table 2). An A. niger
isolated from sugar cane field harvested both extracellular and intracellular FTase enzyme. The
supernatant of 900 ml contains 6,600 units of transfructosylase activity while 118 ml from
150 g wet mycelia contain 2,924 units of transfructosylase activity; 900 ml of extracellular
enzyme were fractionated with ammonium sulphate (80 % saturation) and precipitate obtained
after centrifugation were sequentially dialysed against deonised water and 0.5 M citrate/
phosphate buffer, pH 6.0. The dialysates were further purified by DEAE-cellulose and
CM-cellulose column chromatography. Purification of FTase led 138 fold by Ut and 88 fold
by Uh. The ratio of Ut/Uh of crude intracellular FTase was 5, corresponding to extracellular
FTase of 4 respectively. However, purified Ut/Uh ratio of extracellular FTase was elevated upto
6 which revealed that impeding factors were removed during purification process [55].
Several agricultural by-products like cereal bran, corn products, sugarcane bagasse,
cassava bagasse (tippi), coffee and tea processing for FTase production by A. oryzae CFR
202 [37]. The enzyme source from SSF using wheat bran was purified 107-fold by
ammonium sulphate precipitation (30–80 %), DEAE cellulose chromatography and
Sephadex G-200 chromatography. The molecular mass of the purified FTase was
116.3 kDa by sodium dodecyl sulphate–polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis
(SDS-PAGE) and the enzyme was stable at 30 and 40 °C holding 91 % of its activity
after 2 h of incubation. Above this temperature enzyme loses its stability by 80 % and its
optimum for FTase activity was found at 60 °C. However, its pH was stable over 5–7 and
100 % activity was retained at pH 7. The optimum pH for FTase activity was studied 6,
whereas 84 and 77 % activity were retained at pH 5 and 7, respectively.
Study executed by Hernalsteens and Maugeri [56] use extracellular enzyme from cells of
Rhodotorula sp. LEB-V10 and partitioned by centrifugation at 5 °C (4,000×g) for 10 min. The
enzyme was recovered by ethanol precipitation, and the precipitate was recovered by centri-
fugation by adding ethanol to the final concentration of 70 % (0.4 °C) in 50 mM sodium
acetate buffer (pH 4.5) further stored at −18 °C. Two-step ethanol fractionation at 95 and 70 %
to cell-free supernatant was also carried out and enzyme-rich precipitate were again collected
by centrifugation. Nearly about 75 % of the Ut and 40 % of Uh was recovered with 70 %
ethanol, however two step fractionation leads recovery of 25 % of Ut with purification factor of
2. The native-PAGE analysis showed only single band of protein after purification equivalent
to 140–150 kDa. However, SDS-PAGE with 7.5 % polyacrylamide gel revealed two bands 77
and 124 kDa representing that the native enzyme exists as a dimer. Both FTase and FFase
activities were stable at temperature of 66 °C while FFase show stability at pH 4.0 and FTase at
pH 5.0, respectively. The yield of FOS synthesis from purified enzyme was 48 % (w/w) from
 2152

Table 2 Characteristic features of FOS producing purified enzymes from various microorganisms

Microorganism Enzyme Molecular Optimum pH Stability pH Optimum Stability Reference

weight (kDa) temperature (°C) temperature (°C)

Aureobasidium pullulans (C-23) Fructosyltransferase 190 5.0 2.5–12.0 55 30–70 [106]

A. pullulans (CFR77) Fructosyltransferase 147 and 170 5.0 3.5–10 55 30–70 [57]
A. pullulans (DSM 2404) β-fructofuranosidase 430 5.0 6.0–10.0 50 30–60 [89]
Aspergillus niger (AS0023) Fructosyltransferase 81–168 5.8 4.5–11.0 50 30–50 [107]
A. niger Fructosyltransferase – 5.5–6.5 5.5–6.5 50 Not Reported [55]
Aspergillus oryzae β-fructofuranosidase 89 6.0 5–9 40 Up to 40 [71]
A. oryzae CFR 202 Fructosyltransferase 116.3 6.0 5–7 60 40 [37]
Rhodotorula dairensis β-fructofuranosidase 172 5.0 3-7 55 55–60 [108]
Cryptococcus sp. LEB-V2 Fructofuranosidase 90 and 130 4.0 4.5 65 60 [23]
Bacillus macerans EG-6 Fructosyltransferase 66 5.0 5.0–7.0 50 20–50 [93]
Streptococcus salivarius ATCC 25975 Fructosyltransferase 125.4 6.0 Not reported 37 Not reported [58]
Appl Biochem Biotechnol (2014) 172:2143–2159
Appl Biochem Biotechnol (2014) 172:2143–2159 2153

50 % (w/v) of sucrose. However, there was no addition of FOS when amount of enzyme was
increased and reaction by-products like glucose and fructose were lessened.
An intracellular FTase obtained by wet milling from A. pullulans CFR 77 produced 59 % of
FOS after 9 h of reaction time. The enzyme source was precipitated by gradual fraction of
ammonium sulphate from 0 to 30 %, 30 to 60 % and finally 60 to 80 %. After analytical
polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, the purified enzyme revealed two bands 147 and 170 kDa.
The molecular markers used were carbonic anhydrase (29,000), ovalbumin (egg albumin,
45,000), bovine albumin (66,000), phosphorylase b (97,400) and alcohol dehydrogenase
(150,000). The specific activity of the final purified material was 42 U/mg proteins,
representing a purification factor of 79.44 and yield of 43 % [57].
A recombinant FTase of Streptococcus salvarius 25975 expressed in Escherichia coli
resulted in electrophoretically homogeneous band with specific activity of 58 U/mg of
proteins. This fraction represented only 0.2 % of total protein and 3 % of original activity of
purification factor 35-fold. The enzyme was purified by electrophoretic homogeneity after a
combination of adsorption ion exchange and gel filtration chromatography. The purified
enzyme showed maximum activity in presence of Ca2+ but was inhabited by metal ions like
Cu2+, Zn2+, Hg2+ and Fe2+ at pH 6.0 and temperature of 37 °C [58].
Synthesis of neo-FOS (neokestose and neonystose) from extracellular purified FFase of
yeast Xanthophyllomyces dendrorhous (ATCC-MYA-131) was accomplished by Linde et al.
[12]. The purified protein (20 μg) treated with peptide-N-glycosidase F and SDS-
polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE; 8 % polyacrylamide) deduce enzyme as a
glycoprotein with content of 59–67 % N-linked carbohydrate. The molecular mass was
estimated at 160 kDa with overall yield of 18 % and Coomassie-stained SDS-PAGE hydrolase
activity with an overall yield of 10 %. Production of FOS was much higher 120 g/l at 70 °C
than below temperatures. The ratio of Ut/Uh activity was 2.7 times higher at 60–70 °C than
40–50 °C. Neokestose was the predominant product formed by Xanthophyllomyces.

Cloning and Functional Analysis of FTase Gene for the Production of FOS

Production of FOS by microbial process leads to cloning of genes encoding FTase to obtain
microorganisms more profitable and reliable for better improvement of yield. Industrial
Microbiology and Biotechnology have made advancement regarding recombinant DNA
technology for characterisation of new FTase genes and enzymes so as to express similar or
dissimilar proteins [36, 59]. The availability of genome sequences of some microorganisms,
especially Aspergillus can provide an important contribution for understanding production of
enzymes and metabolites [60]. Aspergillus genes are more homogenous, with size ranging
from 1.6 to 2.2 kb and encoding enzymes of about 600 amino acids. However, bacterial FTase
genes vary from 1.2 kb in Thermotoga maritime and 4.4 kb in Leuconostoc citreum producing
enzymes with 432–1,466 amino acids. FOS-related genes of plants and enzymes are about
2.0 kb and 680 amino acids, respectively [61–64].
A PCR-cloning strategy to clone A. oryzae N74 FTase gene for production of recombinant
enzyme was done by Rodriguez et al. [65]. The size of FTase was 1,630 bp size with 99 %
resemblance with other A. oryzae strains and between 1 and 68 % identities with other Aspergillus
strains. This gene encodes 525 amino acids protein with 99 % similarity with other A. oryzae
strains and between 11 and 69 % similarities with other Aspergillus strains. Eventually, tertiary
structure model of A. oryzae N74 FTase was similarly anticipated with other glycoside hydrolase
of 32 family members. The investigations carried out show elevated level of sequence conser-
vation between A. oryzae strains and initial step regarding development of FOS by industrial
sector by recombinant microorganism carrying FTase gene from A. oryzae N74.
2154 Appl Biochem Biotechnol (2014) 172:2143–2159

The purification and characterisation of FTase of Aspergillus sydowi was performed,

and further sequence of cDNA was pursued. This enzyme had molecular weight of
75 kDa, which revealed that it is different from other FTases [66]. The gene was
expressed in E. coli, Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Solanum tuberosum. Crude extracts
of recombinant microorganisms produced FOS in vitro; however, S. tuberosum produced
molecules of inulin with more than 40 units of hexose. The FTase of A. sydowi is
particularly interesting because it synthesises different products under different experi-
mental conditions. Suspensions of fungal conidia synthesise a high molecular weight
inulin. However, when the same gene was expressed in E. coli or S. cerevisae, it
produced a mixture of oligosaccharides with a low degree of polymerisation [66]. The
strategy of cloning enzyme genes in the methylotrophic yeast, Pichia pastoris, has been
reported by Trujillo et al. [67] which showed the production of FOS (1-kestose) with a
conversion efficiency of about 70 % from sucrose. The enzyme was originally obtained
as levansucrase of Glucoacetobacter. Seibel et al. [68] described the FTase as
levansucrase or inulosucrase, using the same code E.C. 2.4.1.9.
Recently, complete genomic studies through gene prediction based on homology of known
genes made possible the discovery of new genes. In the genome programme of A. oryzae
RJB4O, the gene sequence of FTase was identified [69]. In the same way, a gene encoding a
FTase of S. mutans UA159 was found within the genome sequence of this organism [70].
Two types of FFase F1 and F2 in A. oryzae KB strain were observed [71]. FI possess
transfructosylating activity which produces kestose, nystose and fructofuranosylnystose,
whereas F2 possess hydrolytic activity producing glucose and fructose. N-terminal amino
acid sequences of purified FFase performed by Automatic Edman degradation using Procis
491 protein sequencing system of F1were DYNAAPPNLST and for F2 it was YSGDLRPQ,
respectively. Investigations carried out by real reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction
using primers F1 (forward 5′-TTACACTGATCCTGACAC-3′ and reverse: 5′-ACCGAAGA
CGTTACCGGT-3′) and for F2 (forward: 5′-CTTGCGGCAGTTGCACAAGC-3′ and reverse:
5′-TACCACTGAGCCGCATAG-3′) was designed from sequencing data of A.oryzae strain.
Analysis of agarose gel, marked expression of F2 gene smaller at high sucrose concentration
than F1 gene which is higher than F2 gene in low sucrose (0.5 %) concentration contained
medium.

Production of FOS by Immobilisation

The exploitation of enzymes for large-scale production increases advancement in food indus-
try. In order to promote catalytic activity of such enzymes, behaviour and stability led by
immobilisation process changes kinetic pattern of resultant product [72]. Immobilisation of
microbial cells has been of interest for nearly 30 years, and its accomplishment of practical
application strongly rely on the properties of carrier employed by forming large number of
bonds such that each unit of carrier can immobilise large amount of enzymes if needed
[73–75]. There are various methods by which enzymes can be localised, ranging from covalent
chemical bonding to physical entrapment. However, the attractions of immobilised enzymes
from analytical standpoint are primarily their reusability, cost saving, greater efficiency and
control of their catalytic activity (e.g., potentially longer half-lives, predictable decay rates and
more efficient multi-step reactions). Immobilisation technique has been applied in the produc-
tion of FOS from the last three decades which enable economical utilisation and cost
preclusive enzyme.
An A. pullulans cell mass mixed with sodium alginate was employed by developing
spherical gel beads. About 5.2 g of beads was reacted with 55 % (w/v) of sucrose which
Appl Biochem Biotechnol (2014) 172:2143–2159 2155

culminate 56 % (w/w) of FOS formation in 42 h of reaction [76]. In a related study, many

substances such as polyurethane foam, stainless steel sponge, vegetal fibre, pumice
stones, zeolites and foam glass have been accustomed for cell immobilisation.
Vegetable fibre was investigated as the most possible immobilised carrier which effi-
ciently cultivated A. japonicus ATCC 20236. The outcome yield of FOS was obtained at
116.3 g/l conceding exalted activity of FFase activity. The media containing zeolites
gave the best results; however, cells in this media were mostly free and only meagre
amount was immobilised on the carrier. Although the fungus was remarkably
immobilised on stainless steel sponge (1.13 g/g carrier), only a smaller extent of the
fungus were found on polyurethane foam (0.48 g/g), zeolite (0.19 g/g) and pumice stones
(0.13 g/g) carrier. However, no cell adhesion was observed on foam glass [77].
Several polymers, such as polyacrylamide, gelatine, alginate and k-carrageenan have been
employed forming gel beads through needle or disk automisation system into Cacl2 solution
[78]. The feasible utility may be obtained despite reduction of both volume and weight of
beads, as formed beads contain 90–95 % water and only 10 % of solid matter. The application
of this system was to reduce both weight and volume of the required biocatalyst which
possibly pack significantly much into fixed volume bioreactor leading to potential increase
of productivity at nearly twofold. For this intention, potential improvement of bioreactor
performance was asserted by Zherebtsovn et al. [79] on the development of hydrated and
dehydrated beads to investigate kinetic characterisation of FOS by A. pullulans (ATCC 9348)
cells. The gel beads were dehydrated by placing them at −15 °C for 6–24 h to induce freeze
dehydration. The volume of beads reduced due to ice formation outside the beads which
lowered the vapour pressure and hence pull water from inside the beads. The shrinked beads
reduced bead volume by 82 % and bead weight by 85 % which were further successfully used
for the production of FOS. The FOS yield of dehydrated beads (23 %, w/w) decreased in
contrast with the hydrated beads (43 %, w/w) due to some diffusional resistance to substrate
permeation.
A successful attempt for continuous production of FOS was performed by Jung et al. [80]
with packed bed at plant-scale reactor. The reactor was designed by positioning a thousand of
needles on the bottom of a stainless steel vessel, and height-to-diameter ratio was adhered
constant (3:1) so as to form uniform radial temperature within the plant bed reactor. The
calcium alginate mixture was spilled into vessel and pressure was applied to drive the mixture
through the needles. The resulting drops entered CaCl2 solution and formed alginate beads.
The storage tank contained calcium alginate gel was slightly fluidised with air to avert crush or
breakage of bead by hydrostatic pressure within the tank. The enzyme activity was maintained
over 100 days without recharging the immobilised cells. The FOS productivity of reactor was
180 g l−1 h−1.
Recently, Ganaie et al. [81] immobilised mycelial cells of A. flavus NFCCI 2364 by two
polymers chitosan and sodium alginate for continuous production of FOS (Fig. 3). The
composition of sodium alginate and CaCl2 were optimised and best bead formation was
observed of sodium alginate 0.3 % (w/v) cross linked with CaCl2 solution 0.1 % (w/v). A
successful continuous production of FOS, averaging at 63.5 % (w/w) was observed by FTase
entrapped alginate beads for up to 7 days without much losing activity. However, FTase-
containing chitosan beads lose its efficiency after the 3rd cycle and produced FOS at an
average of 40.74 % (w/w) in three successive cycles.
FTase of A. pullulans KFCC 10524 immobilised on highly porous anion exchange resin
(Diaion HPPA 25) equilibrated with 0.1 M citrate buffer (pH 5.5) for 24 h and packed into
glass column (25×12 cm) with bed volume of ca. 50 cm3 was operated [82]. This condition
was successfully performed for continuous production of FOS 1,174 g l−1 h−1 in 30 days
2156 Appl Biochem Biotechnol (2014) 172:2143–2159

a b
Fig. 3 Morphology of FTase-entrapped alginate beads (a) and chitosan beads (b)

following 8 % loss of activity was observed. Similar study carried out by Hayashi et al. [20]
performed an outstanding procedure by immobilised FTase on salanised porous glass, and they
successfully operated immobilised enzyme column up to 30 days without loss of initial
enzyme activity. However, their system has least application regarding industrial objective
because of low sucrose concentration up to 40 % (w/v) and temperature at 30 °C favoured
chance of contamination problem in prolonged operation.

Conclusions

FOS-type prebiotics are nutritional compounds which have a wide range of applications in
human health. In order to extend the frontiers of its production, a large number of microor-
ganisms have been screened for transfructosylating activity for production of FOS. Among the
tested strains, thermostable fungi are highly favoured to harvest FOS on large scale. The
progressive movement of prominent processes like optimisation, immobilisation, purification
and ultrasonication increase the kinetic properties of transfructosylating activity to increase its
yield efficiency. Production of FTase from agricultural wastes by SSF is advantageous with
respect to simple operation and provides less chance of contamination. The strategy of using
purified cloned genes by several microorganisms leads to express new approaches for the
better improvement of FOS production.

Future Prospect

Biotechnology is a key factor in the developmental process of producing a number of foods,

seldom thought of by consumers, which are tasty, nutritious, safe, and convenient for society.
The application of bioprocess technology have enabled quantitative investigations of empirical
qualities with food grade oligosaccharides especially FOS which still holds its impact on
account of its health qualities. Many microorganisms up to date have been employed for FOS
production, but screening some novel source of microorganisms with high conversion effi-
ciency in shorter period of time remains challenging, as well as removing FOS by-products
like glucose and unreacted sucrose. The creation of transgenic microorganisms possessing
high transfructosylating activity is a key work to progress in this area, and the awareness of
additional FOS benefits and less cost production is importantly needed.
Appl Biochem Biotechnol (2014) 172:2143–2159 2157

Acknowledgments The lead author MAG is greatly thankful to the Department of Zoology, Dr. Harisingh Gour
University, Sagar (MP) India for carrying out research work and also to UGC for providing SRF UGC BSR
meritorious fellowship for financial support.

References

1. Sangeetha, P. T., Ramesh, M. N., & Prapulla, S. G. (2005). Trends in Food Science and Technology, 16,
442–457.
2. Ganaie, M. A., Gupta, U. S., & Kango, N. (2013). Journal of Molecular Catalysis B: Enzymatic, 97, 12–17.
3. Salinas, M. A., & Perotti, N. A. (2009). Journal of India Industrial Microbiology Biotechnology, 36, 39–43.
4. Crittenden, R. G., & Playne, M. J. (1996). Trends in Food Science and Technology, 7, 353–360.
5. Oku, T. (1994). Goldberg Ist ed (pp. 202–217). New York: Chapman and Hall.
6. Kaur, N., & Gupta, A. K. (2002). Journal of Biosciences, 27, 703–714.
7. Sangeetha, P. T., Ramesh, M. N., & Prapulla, S. G. (2003). Asian Journal of Microbiology Biotechnology
Environmental Sciences, 5, 313–318.
8. Hidaka, H., Eida, T., Takizawa, T., & Toshira, Y. (1986). Bifidobacteria. Microflora, 5, 37–50.
9. Mabel, M. J., Sangeetha, P. T., Platel, K., Srinavasan, K., & Prapulla, S. G. (2008). Carbohydrate Research,
343, 56–66.
10. Soo, L. J., Park, S. W., Lee, J. W., Oh, K. K., & Kim, S. W. (2005). Journal of Microbiology and
Biotechnology, 15, 1317–1322.
11. Gutierrez-Alonso, P. andez-Arrojo L.F. Plou, J.F. and andez-Lobato M.F. (2009) FEMS Yeast Research 11, 1–6
12. Linde, D., Colinas, B. R., Estevez, M., Poveda, A., Plou, F. J., & Lobato, M. F. (2012). Bioresource
Technology, 109, 123–130.
13. Sangeetha, P. T., Ramesh, M. N., & Prapulla, S. G. (2004). Process Biochemistry, 39, 755–760.
14. Dominguez, E., Nilson, M., & Hahn-Hagerdal, B. (1988). Enzyme Microbial Technology, 10,
606–610.
15. Jung, K. H., Yun, J. W., Kang, K. R., Lim, J. Y., & Lee, J. H. (1989). Enzyme Microbial Technology, 11,
491–494.
16. Yun, J. W. (1996). Enzyme Microbial Technology, 19, 107–117.
17. Antosova, M., Illeova, V., Vandakova, M., Druzkovska, A., & Polakova, M. (2008). Journal of
Biotechnology, 135, 58–63.
18. Fernandez, R. C., Ottoni, E. S., Silva, D. A., Matsubra, R. M. S., & Carter, J. M. (2007). Applied
Microbiology Biotechnology, 75, 87–93.
19. Hidaka, H., Hirayama, M., & Sumi, S. A. (1988). Agricultural and Biological Chemistry, 52, 1187–1988.
20. Hayashi, S., Nonokuchi, M., Imada, K., & Ueno, H. (1990). Journal of Industrial Microbiology,
5, 395–400.
21. Lateef, A., Oloke, J. K., & Prapulla, S. G. (2007). Enzyme Microbial Technology, 40, 1067–1070.
22. Maugeri, F., & Hernalsteens, S. (2007). Journal of Molecular Catalysis B: Enzymatic, 49, 43–49.
23. El-Beih, F. M., Abdel-Fattah, A. M., Hasanein, D. A., Mostafa, F. A., & Abdel-Fatta, A. F. (2009). Journal
of Applied Sciences Research, 5, 1132–1141.
24. Yoshikawa, J., Amachi, S., Shinoyama, H., & Fujii, T. (2007). Journal of Bioscience and Bioengineering,
103, 491–493.
25. Sangeetha, P. T., Ramesh, M. N., & Prapulla, S. G. (2005). Journal of Food Engineering, 68, 57–64.
26. Park, J. P., Bae, J. T., & Yun, J. W. (1999). Biotechnology Letters, 21, 987–990.
27. Chen, W. C., & Liu, C. H. (1996). Enzyme Microbial Technology, 18, 153–160.
28. Barthomeuf, C., & Pourrat, H. (1995). Biotechnology Letters, 17, 91l–916l.
29. Ganaie, M. A., Dehariya, K., & Gupta, U. S. (2013). Indo American Journal of Pharm Research, 3, 4138–
4148.
30. Yang, F. C., & Liau, C. B. (1998). Process Biochemistry, 33, 547–553.
31. Yang, B. K., Ha, J. Y., Jeong, S. C., Das, S., Yun, J. W., Lee, Y. S., Choi, J. W., & Song, C. H. (2000).
Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology, 10, 784–788.
32. Papagianni, M. (2007). Biotechnology Advance, 25, 244–263.
33. Dhake, A. B., & Patil, M. B. (2007). Brazilian Journal of Microbiology, 38, 194–199.
34. Sheu, D. C., Lio, P. J., Chen, S. T., Lin, C. T., & Duan, K. J. (2001). Biotechnology Letters, 23, 1499–1503.
35. Lateef, A., Oloke, J. K., Guegium Kana, E. B., Oyeniyi, S. O., Onifade, O. R., Oyeleye, A. O., Oladosu, O.
C., & Oyelami, A. O. (2008). World Journal Microbiology Biotechnology, 24, 2369–2374.
36. Maiorano, A., da Piccoli, R., Silva, E., & Rodrigues, M. F. A. (2008). Biotechnology Letters, 30, 1867–
1877.
2158 Appl Biochem Biotechnol (2014) 172:2143–2159

37. Sangeetha, P. T., Ramesh, M. N., & Prapulla, S. G. (2004). Applied Microbiology Biotechnology, 65, 530–
537.
38. Mussatto, S. I., Ballesteros, L. F., Martins, S., Maltos, D. A. F., Aguilar, C. N., & Teixeira, J. A. (2012).
Food Bioprocess Technology. doi:10.1007/s11947-012-0873-y.
39. Lateef, A., Oloke, J. K., Gueguim-Kana, E. B., & Raimi, O. R. (2012). Acta Aliments, 41, 100–117.
40. Lateef, A., & Gueguim Kana, E. B. (2012). Romanian Biotechnology Letters, 17, 7309–7316.
41. Pandey, A., Soccol, C. R., Selvakumar, P., Soccol, V. T., Krieger, N., & Fontana, J. D. (1999). Applied
Biochemistry and Biotechnology, 81, 35–52.
42. Cho, Y. J., & Yun, J. W. (2002). Process Biochemistry, 37, 1325–1331.
43. Chi, Z., Zhang, T., Liu, G., & Xue, L. (2009). Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology, 82, 211–220.
44. Ricca, E., Calabro, V., Curcio, S., & Iorio, G. (2009). Process Biochemistry, 44, 466–470.
45. Derycke, D. J., & Vandamme, E. J. (1984). Journal of Chemical Technology and Biotechnology, 34, 45–51.
46. Onodera, S., & Shiomi, N. (1988). Agricultural and Biological Chemistry, 52, 2569–2576.
47. Singh, R. S., Dhaliwal, R., & Puri, M. (2006). Process Biochemistry, 41, 1703–1707.
48. Zherebtsovn, N. A., Abramova, I. N., Shelamova, S. A., & Popova, T. N. (2003). Applied Biochemistry and
Microbiology, 39, 544–548.
49. Yun, J. W., Kim, D. H., Kim, B. W., & Song, S. K. (1999). Journal of Fermentation and Bioengineering,
84, 369–371.
50. Takahashi, N., Mizuno, F., & Takamori, K. (1985). Infection and Immunity, 47, 271–276.
51. Singh, R. S., & Singh, R. P. (2010). Food Technology Biotechnology, 48, 435–450.
52. Georgescu, L.A. and Stoica, I. (2005) The Annals of the University Dunarea de Jos of Galati – No.1.
53. Yun, J. W., Park, J. P., Song, C. H., Lee, C. Y., Kim, J. H., & Song, S. K. (2000). Bioprocess Engineering,
22, 189–194.
54. Santos, M. P., & Maugeri, F. (2007). Food Technology Biotechnology, 45, 181–186.
55. Park, Y. K., & Almeida, M. M. (1991). World Journal Microbiology and Biotechnology, 7, 331–334.
56. Hernalsteens, S., & Maugeri, F. (2010). Journal of Food Biochemistry, 34, 520–534.
57. Lateef, A., Oloke, J. K., & Prapulla, S. G. (2007). Turkish Journal of Biology, 31, 147–154.
58. Song, D. D., & Jacques, N. A. (1999). Biochemical Journal, 341, 285–291.
59. Michielse, C. B., Ram, A. F. J., Van, D., & Hondel, C. A. M. J. (2004). Current Genetics, 45, 399–403.
60. Archer, D. B., & Dyer, P. S. (2004). Current Opinion in Microbiology, 7, 499–504.
61. Liebl, W., Brem, D., & Gotschlich, A. (1998). Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology, 50, 55–64.
62. Gallagher, J., Cairns, A., & Pollock, C. (2004). Journal of Experimental Botany, 55, 557–569.
63. Kawakami, A., & Yoshida, M. (2002). Bioscience, Biotechnology, and Biochemistry, 66, 2297–2305.
64. Olivares-Illana, V., Lopez-Munguıa, A., & Olvera, C. (2003). Journal of Bacteriology, 185, 3606–3612.
65. Rodriguez, M. A., Sanchez, O. F., & Almeciga-Diaz, C. J. (2011). Molecular Biology Reports, 38, 1151–1161.
66. Heyer, A. G., & Wendenburg, R. (2001). Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 67, 363–370.
67. Trujillo, L. E., Arrieta, J. G., Dafhnis, F., Garcia, J., Valdes, Y., Tambara, M., Perez, L., & Hernandez, L.
(2001). Enzyme and Microbial Technology, 28, 139–144.
68. Seibel, J., Moraru, R., Gotze, S., Buchholz, K., Naamnieh, S., Pawlowski, A., & Hccht, H. J. (2006).
Carbohydrate Research, 341, 2335–2349.
69. Machida, M., Asai, K., Sano, M., & Tanaka, T. (2005). Nature, 438, 1157–1161.
70. Ajdie, D., McShan, W. M., McLaughlin, R. E., Savi, G., Chang, J., Carson, M. B., Primeaux, C., Tian, R.,
Kenton, S., Jia, H., Lin, S., Qian, Y., Li, S., Zhu, H., Najar, F., Lai, H., White, J., Roe, B. A., & Ferretti, J. J.
(2002). Proceedings of the National Academy Sciences of the United States of America, 99, 14435–14439.
71. Kurakake, M., Ogawa, K., Sugie, M., Takemura, A., Sugiura, K., & Komaki, T. (2008). Journal of
Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 56, 591–596.
72. Zaborsky, O. R. (1973). Immobilized Enzymes. Cleveland: CRC Press.
73. Carvalho, W., Silva, S. S., Converti, A., & Vitolo, M. (2002). Biotechnology and Bioengineering, 79, 165–169.
74. Cheetham, P. S. J., Garrett, C., & Clark, J. (1985). Biotechnology and Bioengineering, 27, 471–481.
75. Chibata, I., & Tosa, T. (1980). Trends in Biochemistry Sciences, 5, 88–90.
76. Ganaie, M. A., Pathak, L. K., & Gupta, U. S. (2011). Journal of Food Technology, 9, 91–94.
77. Mussattoa, S. I., Aguilarb, C. N., Rodriguesa, L. R., & Teixeiraa, J. A. (2009). Journal of Molecular
Catalysis B: Enzymatic, 59, 76–81.
78. Champagne, C. P., Blahuta, N., Brion, F., & Gagnon, C. (2002). Biotechnology and Bioengineering, 68,
681–688.
79. Shin, H. T., Park, K. M., Kang, K. H., Oh, D. J., Lee, S. W., Baig, S. Y., & Lee, J. H. (2004). Letters in
Applied Microbiology, 38, 176–179.
80. Jung, K. H., Bang, S. H., Oh, T. K., & Park, H. J. (2011). Biotechnology Letters, 33, 1621–1624.
81. Ganaie, M.A. Rawat, H.K. Wani, O.A. Gupta, U.S. Kango, N. (2013) Process Biochem. Article in press
82. Yun, J. W., & Song, S. K. (1996). Biotechnology and Bioprocess Engineering, 1, 18–21.
Appl Biochem Biotechnol (2014) 172:2143–2159 2159

83. Xu, Z. W., Li, Y. Q., Wang, Y. H., Yang, B., & Ning, Z. X. (2009). Food Technology Biotechnology, 47,
137–143.
84. Win, T. T., Isono, N., Kusnadi, Y., Watanabe, K., Obae, K., Ito, H., & Matsui, H. (2004). Biotechnology
Letters, 26, 499–503.
85. Ghazi, I., Fernandez-Arroja, L., Garcia-Arellano, H., Ferrer, M., Ballesteros, A., & Plou, F. J. (2007).
Journal of Biotechnology, 128, 204–211.
86. Markosyan, A. A., Adamyan, M. O., Ekazhev, Z. D., Akopyan, Z. I., & Abelyan, V. A. (2007). Applied
Biochemistry Microbiology, 43, 383–389.
87. Nishizawa, K., Nakajima, M., & Nabetani, H. (2001). Food Science and Technology Research, 7, 39–4.
88. Sanchez, O.F. Rodriguez, A.M. Silva, E. and Caicedo, L.A. (2008) Food Bioprocess Technol. DOI 10.
1007/s 11947 008 0121
89. Yoshikawa, J., Amachi, S., Shinoyama, H., & Fujii, T. (2008). Biotechnology Letters, 30, 535–539.
90. Yun, J. W., & Song, S. K. (1996). Biotechnology Bioprocess Engineering, 1, 18–21.
91. Mandlova, A., Antosova, M., Barathova, M., Polakovic, M., Stefuca, V., & Bales, V. (1999). Chemical
Papers, 53, 366–369.
92. Yun, J. W., Kim, D. H., Kim, B. W., & Song, S. K. (1999). Biotechnology Letters, 21, 987–990.
93. Park, J. P., Oh, T. K., & Yun, J. W. (2001). Process Biochemistry, 37, 471–476.
94. Babu, I. S., Ramappa, S., Mahesh, D. G., Kumari, K. S., Kumari, K. S., & Ranigaiah, G. S. (2008).
Research Journal of Microbiology, 3, 114–121.
95. Hayashi, S., Yoshiyama, T., & Shinohara, S. (2000). Biotechnology Letters, 22, 1465–1469.
96. Lim, J. S., Park, M. C., Lee, J. H., Park, S. W., & Kim, S. W. (2005). European Food Research and
Technology, 221, 639–644.
97. Prata, M. B., Mussatto, S. I., Rodrigues, L. R., & Teixeira, J. A. (2010). Biotechnology Letters,
32, 837–840.
98. Bealing, F. J., & Bacon, J. S. D. (1953). The Biochemical Journal, 53, 277–285.
99. Lateef, A., Oloke, J. K., Gueguim-Kana, E. B., Oyeniyi, S. O., Onifade, R. O., Oyeleye, A. O., & Olabiyi,
C. O. (2008). Chemical papers, 62, 635–638.
100. Hernalsteens, S., & Maugeri, F. (2008). European Food Research and Technology, 28, 213–221.
101. Straathof, A. J. J., Kieboom, A. P. G., & Van Bekkum, H. (1986). Carbohydrate Research, 146, 154–159.
102. Takeda, H., Kinoshita, S. S. K., & Sasaki, H. (1994). Journal of Fermentation and Bioengineering, 77,
386–389.
103. Katapodis, P., Kalogeris, E., Kekos, D., Macris, B. J., & Christakopoulos, P. (2004). Applications of
Microbiology Biotechnology, 63, 378–382.
104. Ning, Y., Wang, J., Chen, J., Yang, N., Jin, Z., & Xu, X. (2010). Bioresearch Technology, 101, 7472–7478.
105. Bekers, M., Laukevics, J., Upite, D., Kaminska, E., Vigants, A., Viesturs, U., Pankova, L., & Danilevics.
(2002). Process Biochemistry, 38, 701–706.
106. Lee, K. J., Choi, J. D., & Lim, J. Y. (1992). World Journal Microbiology Biotechnology, 8, 411–415.
107. Hocine, L. L., Wang, Z., Jaing, B., & Xu, S. (2000). Journal of Biotechnology, 81, 73–84.
108. Alonso, P. G. Arrojo, L. F. Plou, F. J. Lobato, and M. F. (2009) FEMS Yeast Res. 1-6.