Module 3

B.
Tech: Engineering Physics
S.Bharadwaj
November 6, 2021
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2
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Contents
1 Dielectrics 5
1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2 Energy Stored in uniform Electric field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.3 Gauss law in dielectrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.4 Local field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.4.1 Clausius Mossotti Relation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.5 Measurement of Dielectric constant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.6 Dielectric loss and Dielectric relaxation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.7 Frequency dependence of total polarizability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.8 Electronic Polarization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.9 Ionic Polaribility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.10 Orientational Polarizability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.11 Ferroelectrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.12 Multiple Choice Question . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.13 Questions in dielectrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
B
1.14 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .S. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2 Magnetic materials 27
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.2 Fundamental definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.2.1 Relation between B ~ and H;~ χ and µ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.2.2 Origin of magnetization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.2.3 Orbital magnetic moment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.2.4 Spin magnetic moment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.2.5 Bohr magneton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.3 Classification of magnetic materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.3.1 Diamagnetic materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.3.2 Paramagnetic materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.3.3 Ferromagnetic materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.3.4 Ferrimagnetic materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.3.5 Antiferromagnetic materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.4 Weiss theory of ferromagnetism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.5 Domain theory of ferromagnetism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.6 Hysteresis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.7 Soft and hard magnetic materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.8 Eddy current losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.9 Ferrites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
3
4 CONTENTS
2.10 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
2.11 Multiple choice question . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.12 Questions in magnetic materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
2.13 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3 Superconductivity 53
3.1 Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.2 Properties of Superconductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.2.1 Zero electrical resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.2.2 Persistent Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.2.3 Critical temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.2.4 Critical magnetic field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.2.5 Critical Current density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.2.6 Meissner effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.2.7 London Penetration Depth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.2.8 Flux Quantation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.2.9 Entropy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.2.10 Heat Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.2.11 Isotope effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3.3 Meissner effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3.4 Type I and II superconductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
3.5 BCS theory:qualitative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
3.6 High temperature superconductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
3.6.1 Josephson effects applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
3.7 Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3.8 Multiple Choice Question . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
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Chapter 1
Dielectrics
1.1 Introduction
Dielectrics are basically insulating materials with resistivity values in the range of 106
ohm-m to 1016 ohm-m. The dielectric substances have the ability to polarize in which
presence of electric static field exists for longer period of time. The electrical insulator
for any engineering material is required as it prevents leakage of charges in devices play-
ing important role in electronic applications.Materials such as capacitors, ferroelectrics,
antiferroelectrics, piezoelectrics and ferrites comes under the umbrella of dielectric ma-
terials. Dielectric materials can withstand high voltages and conduction phenomenon
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Figure 1.1: Dielectric material
5
6 CHAPTER 1. DIELECTRICS
is associated with ionic motion through hopping of charges. The dielectric material of
either polar or non polar nature. In non-polar materialss, molecules which are diatomic
in nature with positive charge surrounded by negative charge in terms of electron. In
absence of any applied field, the centres coincide with each other. Under the influence
of any applied field, the centres displaces by a distance and the system is said to be
polarized. Polar molecules are composed with either molecules or two atoms having
dipole moment is zero under absence of external field. Dipole moment is defined as
the product of one of the charge (q) and seperation of charges δx. In the presence of
the applied field, molecules tend to orient themselves in the direction of field such that
material have resultant dipole moment. The resultant dipole moment per unit volume
in material is said to be polarization.
Dielectric constant of any dielectric can be defined as ratio of capacitance of a parallel
plate capacitor with and without dielectric.It can be expressed in terms of permittivity
and it is dimensional less. The Permittivity of free space has the value.
C
r = = (1.1)
C0 0
0 = 8.85 × 1012 F arad.m−1
r = 0 × r
The dielectric constant can be expressed also interms of electric flux density (D) for
applied electric field (E). Electric flux density (D) is proportional to electric applied field
(E) and represents the number of lines of force passing unit area perpendicular
to field. The equation can be written as
D = (0 r E) (1.2)
If polarization(P) of the dielectric material under the influence of electric field (E) then
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flux density (D) is resultant of flux density with resultant polarization in the material.
We can rewrite the equation using the above equation as
D = 0 E + P (1.3)
(0 r E) = 0 E + P
P = E × (r − 1) 0 (1.4)
Polarization (P) is defined as dipole moment per unit volume. The equation can be
written as P = Vp . Ratio’s of polarizability to applied electric field is given as suscep-
tibility. Susceptibility is given by the equation
P
χ= (1.5)
0 E
For understanding the material response of any engineering applications, we need to
understand the susceptibility nature of material which has permittivity nature in any
dieletric. The inter-relationship can be written as
P = E × (r − 1) 0
χ0 E = E × (r − 1) 0
χ = r − 1 (1.6)
1.2. ENERGY STORED IN UNIFORM ELECTRIC FIELD 7
Figure 1.2: Relationship between D, E and P
Therefore, to understand any dielectric nature of any material, we need to find the
capacitance (C) of the material with capacitance of free space C0 . The capactiance of
free space for area (A) with thickness ’t’ of slab between the plates or distance between
the plates is calculated as
0 A
C0 = (1.7)
t
1.2 Energy Stored in uniform Electric field

SB, it will experience some effect or
If Dielectric material is present in the electric field
force. With applied field, polarization causes displacement of positive and negative
charges causing a shift in dipole moment. If ’q’ is the magnitude of charge with ’dl’ as
displacement, the change in dipole moment is dp~ = q dl.
~
The force (F) acting on the charge due to the electric field (E) is F = qE. The work
done by the force through displacement ’dl’ is
dW = Force × displacement
⇒ dW = q E × dl
⇒ dW = E × dp (1.8)
This work is stored as electrostatic energy of the dielectric and the energy changes in
the internal energy of the molecule. We know that polarization vector is
p~
P~ =
V
p~ = P~ V
~ =
dp ~ )V
(dP (1.9)
Using Equation (1.1) and (1.2), we have
dW = E ~ )
~ V (dP (1.10)
Further, we know that
P ~ − 0 E
= D ~
P ~ ~
= r 0 E − 0 E
P = ~
(r − 1) 0 E
dP ~
= (r − 1) 0 (dE) (1.11)
Using 1.4 in 1.3, we have
dW = E ~
~ V (r − 1) 0 dE
Z
W = dw
Z
W = (E.V )(r − 1)0 (dE)
1
W = (r − 1)0 E 2 (1.12)
2
The above equation (1.5) is due to polarization is ratio of work done per unit volume.
Total energy density of the dielectric is sum of energy in free space and energy density
due to polarization.
1 1
U = (r − 1)0 E 2 + 0 E 2
2 2
1
U = r 0 E 2 (1.13)
2
B stored per unit volume in dielectric in electric
The above equation represents theSenergy
field.
1.3 Gauss law in dielectrics

“Gauss law states that the surface integral of the normal components of electric field
1
over any closed surface is equal to times the total charge enclosed by the surface.”
ε0
q
E0 = (1.14)
0 A
Here E0 is the electric field at any point at any Gaussian Surface. ’q’ is the free charge
on both the capacitor.
When dielectric is introduced between the capacitor and electric field is applied then the
electric field, then the electric field induces charge on the dielectric surface. The charges
produce their own field within the dielectric and oppose the electric applied field (E0 ).
If the charge ’q’ is the induced charge on the dielectric surface then effective charges
within the Gaussian surface us (q − q0 ). If ’E’ is the resultant field within the dielectric
then the Gauss law can be written as
q − q0
I
E.dA = . (1.15)
0
1.3. GAUSS LAW IN DIELECTRICS 9
Figure 1.3: Gauss law in Dielectrics
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~
However, we know that E ~ = E0 . Using this we can rewrite equation (1.14) as E =
r
q0
. Comparing above equations, we have
0 r A
q0 q q0
= −
0 r A 0 A 0 A
q0
⇒ q − q0 = (1.16)
r
The above equation suggests that q is less than that of q0 . the charge induced is equal
to zero when dielectric constant is zero which is case of absence of dielectrics. using the
above equation,
I
q0
E.dA =
r , 0
I
⇒ r 0 E.dA = q0
I
⇒ E.dA = q0
I
⇒ D dA = q0 (1.17)
Here ’D’ is the displacement vector and above equation is Gauss law valid in the presence
of dielectric. The surface integral of electric displacement vector over a closed surface
is equal to the free charge enclosed with the surface. As electric displacement ’D’ is
connected with free charge, so the effect of the induced charged.
1.4 Local field

The electric field which dipole experience in a medium is called local field or internal
field. This field is different from the externally applied field (Eo ). A dielectric consists
of large number of molecules. if a molecule attains an induced electric moment (P~ )
which would be equal to the product of polarizability of the molecule and intensity
of the applied electric field. In an state, there are several polarized molecules with
dipole moment (P~ ). These molecules in surroundings with dipole moment(P~ ) impose
an internal field on the molecule. Therefore there exists a net effective field which is
equal to sum of the external field and internal field. Imagine a small spherical cavity of
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Figure 1.4: Local Field
radius (R) with centre at the dipole chosen for consideration. The dipole experiences
following conditions for the applied field.
1. Field E1 produced by changes on the specimen.
2. Field E2 arising from dipoles inside the sphere which depends on the symmetry
for cubic E2 = 0.
3. The field E3 is due to polarization of charges on the surface of a cavity (fictitious

cut out of the specimen with consideration as reference atom as centre). This is
often referred as Lorentz cavity field.
1.4. LOCAL FIELD 11
To calculate E3 , consider a enlarge view of the spherical cavity. Let θ be the polar angle
referred to the polarization direction. The surface charge density on the cavity is then
(−P cos θ).
If ’ds’ is the area on the surface element, the charge element os the area of the surface
element with normal component of polarization. This is equals to (−P cos θ) ds. A test
charege ’q’ is placed at the centre of cavity experiencing force. The equation for force
is written as
1 q1 q2
dF =
4πo r2
1 q1 (−P ) cos θ
dF = (1.18)
4πo r2
The resulting electric field at the centre is
dF
dE3 =
q
1 (−P ) cos θds
dE3 = (1.19)
4πo r2
Here electric field can be resolved into two components. One along the direction of P
and another one is perpendicular components which cancels out each other. The sum
of all such components for the whole surface is given as
1 (−P ) cos θ cos θ
dE3 = ds (1.20)
4πo r2
The surface area element ’ds’ can be represented as
ds = (2π r)sinθ(rdθ)
ds = SB
(2π r2 )sinθ(dθ) (1.21)
Substituting in Equation (1.14) we have,
1 (−P ) cos θ2
dE3 = ds
4πo r2
P (−(2π r2 )sinθ(dθ)) cos θ2
dE3 = ds
4πo r2
−P
I
dE3 = cos2 θ (sinθdθ)
2o
To evaluate we use
cosθ = Z
−sinθ dθ = dZ
Using the above evaluation we have
−P
I
dE3 = Z 2 dZ
2o
P Z3
E3 =
2o 3
P
E3 = (1.22)
3o
Writing for total electric field for which E0 , E1 ,E2 = 0 acts on same line. Therefore
E − 0, E1 , can be represented as ’E’ . The Total equation becomes
P
El = E+ (1.23)
3o
1.4.1 Clausius Mossotti Relation

In case of non-polar dielectric molecule do not possess permanent dipole moment. An
external applied field induces a dipole moment ’P’ proportional to the local electric field
El . The polarizability of the molecule is given ’α’ and ’N’ is the number of unit volume
of dielectric. The relation given for dipole moment is given as
P = N α El (1.24)
using the Equation of local field in the above equation, we have
P
P = N α (E + )
3o
Nα
⇒ P (1 − ) = N αE (1.25)
3o
Here we need to substitute the relation P = o E (r − 1) in the above equation. solving,
we have
Nα
o E (r − 1)(1 − ) = N αE
3o
r − 1 Nα
SB ⇒
r + 2
=
3o
(1.26)
1.5 Measurement of Dielectric constant

Measurement of dielectric constant can be done by calculating the value of capacitance
for the unknown sample and then ratio it with value of capacitance for free space.
Consider ’C0 ’ is the value of the capacitance in free space between the plates. When the
dielectric is introduced in the circuit between the plates, the capacitance increases to a
new value ’C’. The ratio of capacitance with dielectric to the capacitance with vacuum
between the plates is dielectric constant.
Figure 1.5: Dielectric Set up

1.6. DIELECTRIC LOSS AND DIELECTRIC RELAXATION 13
C
κ= (1.27)
C0
A simple circuit arrangement could be useful in explaining the measure of capacitance
or dielectric constant. Using a simplified circuit, we measure the capacitance using
the resonance phenomenon. A RF oscillator is used to determine the frequency by
inductor(L) and Capacitor (Cs ). The equation for the frequency can be written as
1
f= √ (1.28)
2π LC
The apparatus containing cell with a set up of parallel plate. The cell is connected to
variable capacitor (Cs ). The digital frequency meter measures frequency through RF
oscillator which couples it together. Then a series of step for measurement of dielectric
constant.
1. In the absence of dielectric cell, determine the value of capacitance using RF

oscillator.
2. Connect the dielectric cell (parallel plate: Air medium) to the cell. The frequency
in the RF oscillator decreases. Oscillator (f0 ) resonates at new frequency for which
new capacitance value is obtained.
3. Difference in the above two steps gives value of (C0 ).
4. Insert the dielectric in parallel plate for which new resonance frequency (f) is
obtained. SB
5. Evaluate new capacitance (C) with dielectric between the plates.
6. calculate dielectric constant using Equation
C
κ=
C0
1.6 Dielectric loss and Dielectric relaxation

The permittivity value of any dielectric depends on the variable external elements like
frequency applied, temperature and humidity, pressure etc. Out of these components,
frequency dependence is most important as some dielectric works as capacitor or insu-
lator under applied alternating field. In A.C field, electric field [E = Eo eiωt ] varies with
time sinusoidally (orientations of dipoles or electric displacement). This implies, polar-
izability becomes independent on time thus therfore permittivity is complex quantity.
The permittivity is now described as
∗ = 0r − j 00 (i) (1.29)
Both the quantities varies with the applied a.c. frequency.

Figure 1.6: Dielectric relaxation and loss
Dielectric loss
When a dielctric is kept under the applied field among the plates, the dielectric possess
finite conductivity or resistivity values. The dielectric samples contains resistivity nature
and show displacement field (D) with a phase difference w.r.t field. The displacement
field (D) is given by the relation:
D = Do ej(ωt−δ)
D = o + P~
D = o E + o (r − 1)E (1.30)
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The relative permittivity r consists of two components (a) Real component (b) Imagi-
nary components. The above equation for displacement can be written as :
D = o E + o (r − 1)E
−→ D = o E + o (0r − j 00r (i) − 1)E
−→ D = o (0r − j00r (i))E
−→ Do ej(ω t−δ) = o (0r − j00r (i))Eo ejωt
−→ Do ej(ω t) e(−δj) = o −→ (0r − j00r (i))Eo ejωt
−→ Do e(−jδ) = o (0r − j00r (i))Eo
Do (−jδ)
⇒ e = o (0r − j00r (i))
Eo
Do
⇒ 0r = cos δ (1.31)
Eo
Do
⇒ 00r = sin δ (1.32)
Eo
00r
tan δ = (1.33)
0r
The factor tanδ is referred as loss tangent. if its value of energy that is dissipated in the
dielectric sample, under the influence of field. The dielectric power loss is given under
1.7. FREQUENCY DEPENDENCE OF TOTAL POLARIZABILITY 15
the applied a.c voltage is given as
Dielectric loss = ωo o 0r V 2 tanδ (1.34)
This loss results in absorbing the energy and sample is thermally excited resulting func-
tion with dependence on temperature. In polar dielectrics, the polarization begin when
the voltage is applied for which dipoles tend to orient along the field orientation. The
build up of charges or polarization in the dielectrics takes place over a period of time
with in short cycle, attaining a equilibrium value. When the field is not switch off,
then the charges or polarization will not be instantaneous be zero. There is a delay for
certain time as dipoles undergoes rotation. This creates dependence of polarization as
function of time and dipolar substance which has two terms in its equation. The first
term is a initial value of polarization P(t) and second term five rise to relaxation. This
relaxation is responsible for the loss variation in dielectric for frequency. Here, it should
be remembered for Pα is polarization after lapse of time and ’n’ is the relaxation time for
the particular polarization process. The change in polarization with time is described
as
t
P (t) = Pα (1 − e− n ) (1.35)
The variation of P with frequency under the applied field is given as

χ 1 0
P = χ 0 0 + E
1 + jωτ
χ1 0
⇒ P = χa E, where χa = χ0 0 + (1.36)
1 + jωτ
Now writing for Permittivity in terms of loss we have

∗ 0 χ 1 0 χ1 ωτ
− 1 = 0 χ 0 + −j (1.37)
1 + ω 2 τ 2 SB 1 + ω 2 τ 2
Real part of permittivity is written as:

0 χ1
0a = 0 χ0 + (1.38)
1 + ω2 τ 2
Imaginary part of Permittivity is written as:

0 χ1 ωτ
00a = (1.39)
1 + ω2 τ 2
1.7 Frequency dependence of total polarizability

The dielectrics without any field applied have positive charge at centre and negative
charge distributed all around. The dielectrics is balanced electrically and sample is said
to be stable state. At this point, there is no dipole moment. But when material is
subjected to applied field, the imbalances occurs takes place such that displacement of
charges causing polarization.
The total polarizability for any state is given as
αT = αd + αi + αe + αs
2 2
e2 e2

µ 1 1
αT = + + + (1.40)
3KT ω M m ωo e2 m
The above equation is applied on the sample for which under the variation of total
polarization on application of electric field. The polarization as a function of time is
given as
−t
P (t) = P 1 − exp (1.41)
n
Here ’n’ is the relaxation time taken for a polarization process to reach 63 percentage
of its maximum value. The relaxation time varies for sample to sample for different
applications. These relaxation times varies for sample further dependent on different
polarization mechanisms. The four basic mechanisms are space charge, Ionic polar-
ization, Orientation polarization and electronic polarization .
Electronic Polarization is essential for samples when instant voltage is applied. The
polarization (electronic) is rapid in nature existing in all frequencies (∼
= 1015 Hz) and
process during cycle of the applied voltage. Ionic polarization is slower than electronic
polarization in which applied field displaces (mobility of charges) the heaiver ions. The
ionic polarization occurs at lower frequency (1013 Hz) requires some time as ions initially
do not respond to the field very quickly. Orientational polarization takes longer pe-
riod to respond to the applied field. The Polarization (orientational) occurs at very low
frequencies (MHz range) and responds to any applied field in micro to nano seconds.
The graph shows the response for a sample for all frequencies. As the frequency in-
creases, space-charge, orientational and ionic becomes inoperative at different points in
frequency. This information is often useful for material design to be operated at various
frequencies.
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Figure 1.7: polarization for different types
1.8 Electronic Polarization

Electronic polarization is due to displacement of the negative electron cloud with respect
to nucleus. When an external field, the distribution of charges leads to development of
dipole moment, through out the material. The nucleus and electron cloud will tend to
move in opposite direction by a distance (R) due to force developed among the charges.
After some time, an equilibrium is established between the nucleus and electron at
1.9. IONIC POLARIBILITY 17
distance (X).Along the field direction, the applied force on the nucleus is (ZeE). consider
the electron cloud to be in two regions:
1. Inside a sphere of radius ’x’
2. other one between two spherical surface of radii of ’x’ and ’R’.
In according to gauss theorem, the charges in the second region does not exert a force
−Zex3
on the nucleus. The negative charges inthe sphere of radius ’x’ exerting force of
R3
on the nucleus.Applying coulomb’s law, the force between the negative charges and the
nucleus for a sphere of radius ’x’ is given as
F = ZeE (1.42)
using the above equation, we have

ZeX 3
 
Ze
1  R3 
F =  
4π0  X2 
ZeX 3
 
Ze
1  R3 
ZeE =  
4π0  X2 

1 ZeX
E =
4π0 R3
4π0 R3 E

= ZeX (1.43)
Writing for dipole moment(µe )

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µe = ZeX
4π0 R3 E

µe = (1.44)
Writing electronic polarizability (αe )

µe
αe =
E
= 4π0 R3

αe (1.45)
Now relating polarizability with permittivity and electric field, we have
0 (r − 1)E = N αe E
N 4π0 R3

0 (r − 1) = (1.46)
1.9 Ionic Polaribility

The ionic polarizability is primarly due to displacement of anions and cations in opposite
direction to each other under the applied field in a ionic solid. If x1 and x2 are the
distances moved by ions in either direction, the dipole moment per unit cell is
µ = e(x1 + x2 ) (1.47)
Restoring force come in the play due to displacements under the conditions is
F1 = K1 x1
F2 = K2 x2
Here K1 and K2 are force constants for ions with mass ’m’ and ’M’ under the applied
field (E). The equations are rewritten as
F1 eE F1 eE
x1 = = , and x2 = = (1.48)
K1 mω02 K2 M ω02
Total displacement (x) is written as summation of displacements of x1 and x2 .
eE eE
x = x1 + x2 = +
mω02 M ω02

eE 1 1
= + (1.49)
ω02 m M
The dipole moment (µ) is then calculated as
2
e E 1 1
µ = e(x1 + x2 ) = + (1.50)
ω02 m M
Writing Ionic polarizability (αi )
e2

µe 1 1
αi = = + (1.51)
E ω02 m M
Here ω0 is the natural resonance for ionic molecule which could ne in infra-red region in
case of NaCl(∼= 1013 rad−1 = ω)
SB
Frequency dependence of(αi ) The frequency dependence of αi is similar as per case
of electronic polarizability. The ionic polarizability will be more complex in nature. The
real part (αi0 ) and imaginary part of permittivity (αi00 ) exhibits similar feature. The only
shift in the natural resonance (ω0 ) values (both maxima and minima) which displaces
towards infrared region.
1.10 Orientational Polarizability

Polar dielectrics exhibits dipolar polarizability even in the absence of external electric
field. In the presence of applied field, the dipoles tends to align along the direction of
applied field. When the molecule of dipole moment µ is exposed to an external applied
~ ·E
field, it acquires a potential energy µ ~ = µ E cos θ. Here θ is the angle between the
field direction and the dipole. Using Boltzmann distribution, probability that the dipole
making an angle along the applied field E is given as

µE cos θ
exp (1.52)
KT
The number of dipoles having their axis in these regions is between (θ) and (θ + dθ) is
given by
µE cos θ
n θ dθ = A(2π) sin θ dθ exp (1.53)
KT
1.10. ORIENTATIONAL POLARIZABILITY 19
Here A is the constant. The polarization is then equated for number of dipoles per unit
volume ’N’ can be written as Pd = N µ ~ . The equation can be written as

Rπ µE cos θ
0
µ cos θ 2 sin θdθ.exp
KT
Pd = N (1.54)
Rπ µE cos θ
0
2π sin θdθ.exp
KT
µE
now consider cos θ = x and = a. Substituting in above equation we have
KT
R 1+
x dx exp[ax]
Pd = N µ R−1
1+
−1
dx exp[ax]
Z +1
d
= Nµ ln dx
da −1

d a −a
d
= Nµ ln e − e − ln a
da da

1
= N µ coth a −
a
P0 = N µL(a) (1.55)
For a particle, we assume a ∼

= 10−4 and L(a) = a3 , we have equation as
SB

µE
P0 = N µ
3KT
2
µ E
using µ
~ =
3KT
P0 = Nµ
~ (1.56)
Here µ
~ represents average dipole moment in the direction of applied field. The dipolar
polarizability is written as
2
µ
~ µ
αd = = (1.57)
E 3KT
The Frequency dependence for dipolar polarizability αd for relaxation time τ is given as
α0
αd = (1.58)
1 − jωτ
2
µ
here α0 =
3KT
The dipolar polarizability remains generally constant at lower frequencies. It begins to

fall rapidly at ω = 2π
τ . Here ω is the relaxation frequency and generally lies in microwave
region. For Liquids, relaxation time is around τ ∼ = 10−11 s.
1.11 Ferroelectrics
Few dielectrics show dipole moment even in the absence of any external applied field. A
very few dielectrics exhibits spontaneous polarization; a nature observed from the curve
of polarization versus electric field. The characteristics of dielectrics gives a unique
nomenclature as Ferroelectrics. Phenomenon which permits spontaneous polarization
for special structures is known as ferro electricity. These ferroelectric substances possess
very high value of permittivity and dependent on Curie temperature. Some of the well
know materials used in different applications of ferroelectrics are BaTiO3 ,LiNbO3 and
ADP (NH4 H2 PO4 ).
Ferroelectrics materials exhibits hysteresis under the influence of electric field. If the
polarization increases in the electric field reaching saturated value, then corresponding
value is said as Spontaneous polarization (Ps ). When the Applied field is with
drawn slowly on the sample i.e., E = 0, then the amount of polarization left is referred
as Remnant Polarization (Pr ). The amount of energy in dipole when there is no
external applied field. To remove this energy or change the direction of dipole, a field
must be applied oppositely on the sample. The applied field is known as Coercive field
(Ec ). These parameters of energy are useful in designing a device such as transducers,
SB
Figure 1.8: Hysterisis in ferroelectrics
sensors, etc. The parameters depends on the intimate relationship between the prop-
erties of the ferroelectric and arrangement of crystal structure (atomic arrangement).
Certain ferroelectric materials show characteristic nature such as Piezoelectricity
and pyroelectricity.
1.12. MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTION 21
BaTiO3 , one of the most popular materials in ferroelectrics can be used as example
for explaining the structure. Barium ions are at the corners and oxygen atoms are on
the faces with titanium ion at the centre; which is in the octahedral voids. These fer-
roelectrics possess electric polarization under the absence of the applied field with in
definite temperature range. The variation is observed in the value of Ps with tempera-
ture could be explained using BaTiO3 .Under the absence of field, the centers of gravity
do not coincide the positive and negative charges causing spontaneous polarization. The
Curie temperature of the BaTiO3 is around 120◦ C. Above the Curie temperature, the
BaTiO3 , the centers of gravity coincide resulting zero dipole moment. Under the Curie-
Weiss law, dielectric constant estimated under the influence of temperature is given
as:
C
ε= for (T > Tc ) (1.59)
T − TC
Ordinary dielectric materials have linear relationship between the applied electric field.
For ferroelectrics, the non-linear relationship is exhibited as a hysteresis loop under
the action of alternating applied electric field (see ).
1.12 Multiple Choice Question

1. Dielectric constant for water is
(a) 20 (b) 40
(c) 60 (d) 80
[D]
2. Polarization in simple voltaic cell is prevented B

S by
(a) Mechanical Methods (b) Electro-Chemical methods
(c) Chemical methods (d) All the methods
[D]
3. Total surface polarization charge in a dielectric medium is given by...

(a) qk (b) -qk
(c) q/k (d) -q/k
[C]
4. Electric field intensity E, polarisation vector P and electric displacement vector D

are related with each other as
(a) D=-E + P (b) D=E − P
(c) D=E + P (d) D=-E − P
[C]
5. What is the process of producing electric dipoles inside the dielectric by an external
electric field?
(a) Polarization (b) Magnetization
(c) Suspectibility (d) Magnetic moment
[A]
6. Which of the following easily adapt itself to store electrical energy?

(a) Passive dielectric (b) Superconductor
(c) Active dielectric (d) Polar molecules
[C]
7. For any dielectric material, there is a maximum electric field that the material can
withstand without breaking down and lsing its insulating quantity. This field is
called the
(a) Dielectric strength (b) Dielectric constant
(c) Polarization (d) None
[B]
8. As the temperature of a ferrolectric exceeds a certain, its ferroelectric properties

vanish and it becomes an ordinary polar dielectric. This temperature is called
(a) Absolute temperature (b) Curie temperature
(c) Thermal temperature (d) Critical temperature
[B]
9. All dielectric substances, when kept in an external electrical field, are equivalent
to a large number of tiny electric dipoles situated in ..
(a) Air (b) Solid
(c) gas (d) Vacuum
[D]
10. How does ionic polarisation occur?

(a) Splitting of ions SB (b) Passing magnetic field
(c) Displacement of cations and anions (d) Never occurs
[C]
11. Which of the following polarisations is very rapid?

(a) Electronic polarisation (b) Ionic polarisation
(c) Space charge polarisation (d) Orientation polarisation
[A]
12. Which of the following is the slowest polarisation method?

[C]
13. Which of the following breakdowns occur at a higher temperature?

(a) Avalanche breakdown (b) Thermal breakdown
(c) Electrochemical breakdown (d) Dielectric breakdown
[B]
14. Which of the following materials exhibit Ferro-electricity?

(a) Iron (b) platinum

(c) Hydrogen (d) Rochelle Salt
[D]
15. Dipoles are created when dielectric is placed in .....

(a) Magnetic field (b) Electric field
(c) Vacuum (d) Inert Environment
[B]
16. The dipole is most stable when the angle between the dipole and the field is
(a) 0 ° (b) 45 °
(c) 90 ° (d) 180 °
[A]
17. Polarization is defined as the dipole moment....

(a) per unit length (b) per unit area
(c) per unit volume (d) per unit time
[C]
18. The four types of polarization are Electronic Polarization, Ionic Polarization,
Space-charge polarization and..
(a) Magnetic Polarization (b) Electric Polarization
(c) Orientational Polarization (d) Potential Polarization
[C]
SB is used to develop a net dipole

19. In which category of polarization Electric field
moment in dipolar substances?
[D]
20. Which category of polarizability strongly depends on Temperature and frequency?

[D]
21. The frequency for electronic polarization lies in which region of the electromagnetic
spectrum?
(a) microwave (b) Infrared
(c) Visible (d) ultravoilet
[D]
22. Polarization in Ferroelectric materials is

(a) permanent (b) Spiked
(c) Linear (d) reversible
[D]
23. Dielectrics which show spontaneous polarization are called as

(a) Pyroelectric (b) Piezoelectric
(c) Ferroelectric (d) Centrosymmetric
[C]
24. The dielectric constant of a ferroelectric material changes with...
(a) Frequency (b) Temperature
(c) Pressure (d) Wavelength
[B]
25. Symmetry of BaTiO3 in ferroelectric form is
(a) Cubic (b) Tetragonal
(c) trigonal Bipyramidal (d) Octahedron
[B]
26. Piezoelectric effect is when materials produce electric charges when..
(a) Voltage is applied (b) Mechanical stress is applied
(c) Electric field is applied (d) Magnetic field is applied
[B]
27. Piezoelectricity is shown by substances which are
(a) Polar (b) Non-polar
(c) Symmetric (d) Asymmetric
[D]
28. For polar dieelctrics, since the polarization is caused mainly bu the orientation of
SB its polarization will be dependent on
tis permanent dipolar molecules,
(a) Pressure (b) Temperature
(c) Area (d) Volume
[B]
29. All the dielectric substances, when kept in an external electric field, are equivalent
to a large number of tiny electric dipoles, situated in
(a) Air (b) Solid
(c) Gas (d) Vacuum
[D]
30. Mica us used as dielectric in condensers because
(a) Its dielectric strength is large (b) its dielectric constant is low
(c) Its is mechanically low (d) High dielectric constant in thin sheets
[D]
31. In certain pyroelectric crystals, one can reverse the direction of polarization by
applying a sufficiently intense external field. Such crystals are called...
(a) Ferrielectric (b) Ferroelectric
(c) Peizoelectric (d) None
[B]
1.13. QUESTIONS IN DIELECTRICS 25
32. Under the action of an electric field, the centres of the electron and the nucleo in
the atoms of the molecules get displaced in opposite directions. This process of
including dipoles is called
(a) Atomic polarization (b) Electronic polarization
(c) Orientation polarization (d) Interfacial polarization
[B]
1.13 Questions in dielectrics

1. Explain the behaviour of dielectric under the statics electric fields.
2. Derive a relation between Polarization (P), the external field (E) and displacement
vector (D).
3. Distinguish betwee electronic, ionic and orientation polarization and discuss the
effect of temperature on each of them.
4. Define dielectric susceptibility and polarizability of a dielectric and derive the
relation among them.
5. Explain the term internal field. Derive an expresson for internal field in the case
of one dimensional array of atoms in dielectric solids.
6. Derive Clausius Mosotti equation ?
7. Explain the origin of piezoelectric effect and inverse piezoelectric effect?
8. Explain the phenomenon of ferroelectricity with particular reference to barium
titanate? SB
9. How does the dielectric constant of a ferroelectric vary with temperature?
”r
10. Write short notes on dielectric loss tan δ = 0r
11. Explain and obtain the expression for each terms:

Space Charge polarization
Ionic polarization
Orientational polarization
Electronic polarization
1.14 Problems
SB
Chapter 2
Magnetic materials
2.1 Introduction
Since discovery of lode stone as magnetic material, various application in terms of Com-
pass, inductors, transfomers, ferrites, antenna’s, loudspeakers (amplifiers), floppy disks,
magnetic sensors and transducers, magnetic memories, magnets as speaker or receiver.
Most of them made in engineering application made up of permanent magnets. Selection
of magnetic material is based on the application which requires specific permeability or
susceptibility. Permeability nature describes the material ability to allow the magnetic
lines of force in to it where as susceptibility value indicates how much material responds
to the external magnetic field. Classification of magnetic materials are based on perme-
ability and susceptibility values for different applications. Majority Ferromagnetic and
ferrimagnetic materials find their way in majority of application. The diamagnetic along
with paramagnetic material are used as insulation S B
materials from magnetic field. Mag-
netic materials are now found their way in effective use of treatment of hyperthermia or
MRI applications.
2.2 Fundamental definitions

Magnetic field strength The magnetic field strength (H) at any point in a magnetic
field is the force experienced by a unit north pole placed at the point. Its unit is Am−1 .
Magnetic dipole It is an object that generates a magnetic field that is considered to

originate from two opposite poles as in the case of a bar magnet.
Magnetic dipole moment (~ pm ) is the product of the magnetic pole strength and
the length of the magnet. In case of magnetic moments produced by loops of current,
the magnetic dipole moment is given by
~
p~m = I · A (2.1)
~ is the area vector
where I is the magnitude of current in the current carrying loop and A
~
of the current loop. The magnitude of A is the area enclosed by the current carrying
loop with its direction being that of the thumb when the fingers of the right hand curl
around in the direction of the current.
27
28 CHAPTER 2. MAGNETIC MATERIALS
It can be also defined as product of the magnetic pole strength and the length of the
magnetic. The equation can be written as
p~m = m l
If a magnetic is suspended in a magnetic field, it experiences a certain force or torque

by which it will rotate coming to rest at some point. The torque experienced by magnet
is cross product between the magnetic flux density and magnetic moment.The equation
is written as
τ = p~m × B
Its unit is A · m2 .
Magnetization (M ~ ) is the magnetic moment per unit volume developed inside a solid.
−1
Its unit is Am . It is indiced by an applied magnetic field. Thus, one can write
~
M ~
∝ H
~
M = χH~ (2.2)
Magnetic susceptibility (χ) is the ratio of the intensity of magnetization (M ) to

the intensity of the applied magnetic field (H). It does not have a unit.
M
χ= (2.3)
H
The dipoles in a substance always align themselves in the direction or opposite to the
applied field. The susceptibility of the substance is a tensor and in general depends not
only on the material but also upon the direction along which χ is measured. (It varies
SB
with direction inside anisotropic substances) 1
Magnetic induction or flux density (B) ~ in any material is schematically repre-

sented by the number of magnetic lines of force passing perpendicular to a unit area.
Its unit is W b m−2 or Tesla (T ). It is the net magnetic field inside a substance arising
out of the applied field (H) and the fields due to the magnetic dipole moments inside
the material.
~ = µ0 (H
B ~ +M~) (2.4)
Magnetic field intensity (H) ~ is the ratio between the magnetic induction (B)
~ to
−1
the permeability (µ) of the medium. Its unit is Am .
~
~ =B
H (2.5)
µ
Magnetic permeability or absolute permeability (µ) is the ratio of the magnetic

induction (B) to the intensity of the applied magnetic field (H).
B
µ= (2.6)
H
1 Note that in Eq. 2.6 and 2.3 the ratio of the magnitudes of the fields are taken whereas in Eq. 2.5
and 2.2 the vector fields are used.

2.2. FUNDAMENTAL DEFINITIONS 29
Relative permeability (µr ) of a substance is defined as the ratio of its absolute

permeability (mu) to the permeability of free space.
µ
µr = (2.7)
µ0
2.2.1 ~ and H;
Relation between B ~ χ and µ
We start with Eq. 2.4 .
~
B = ~ +M
µ0 (H ~)
= ~ + χH)
µ0 (H ~ using Eq. 2.2
= ~
µ0 (1 + χ)H (2.8)
= ~
µH (2.9)
µ = µ0 (1 + χ)
µ
µr = = (1 + χ)
µ0
2.2.2 Origin of magnetization

The source of magnetic fields are currents, that is, moving charges. A moving charge
is equivalent to a current. A circular current loop produces a dipolar magnetic field.
The magnetic properties of solids arise out of the motion of electrons in atoms. The
magnetic dipole moments arise from three sources:
1. Orbital motion of electrons: The motion of electrons in orbits around the
nucleus of an atom is equivalent to a current loop. This current loop produces a
magnetic field like a bar magnet.
SB
2. Electron spin: The spin of electrons about their own axis gives rise to a magnetic
moment called the spin magnetic moment.
3. Nuclear spin: The nucleus of an atom spinning about its own axis gives rise
to a magnetic moment. The contribution of the nuclear spin is ∼ 10−3 times the
electron spin and is therefore usually neglected.
2.2.3 Orbital magnetic moment

Consider an electron of charge −e and mass me revolving around a positively charged
nucleus with an angular speed ω in a circular orbit of radius r. Such an orbital motion
of the electron is equivalent to a current loop. This electron crosses a point in the orbit
ω/(2π) times per second. The current in the loop is therefore given by
ω
(−e) ωe
I= 2π =− (2.10)
1 2π
The area of the loop is given by A = πr2 .
The magnitude of the magnetic dipole moment is therefore given by
h ωe i eωr2 eme ωr2 eL
πr2 = −

p= − =− =− (2.11)
2π 2 2me 2me
where L is the angular momentum of the electron.
2.2.4 Spin magnetic moment

The magnitude of the spin magnetic moment of an electron is given by
eS
ps = − (2.12)
2me
1
where S = s~ is the spin angular momentum, s = ± being the spin quantum number.
2
2.2.5 Bohr magneton

Accoding to quantum mechanics the orbital angular momentum is quantized and is
given by L = n~; n = 1, 2, 3, . . . . The orbital magnetic moment of an electron will be
quantized and its magnitude, by Eq. (2.11) is
en~ enh
pL = − =− ; n = 1, 2, 3, . . . (2.13)
2me 4πme
An electron in the Bohr orbit (ground state) is characterized by n = 1. The orbital

magnetic moment for such an electron is
eh
µB = − = 9.274 × 10−24 A · m2 (2.14)
4πme
It is the smallest magnetic moment contributed by the orbital angular momentum and
is known as the Bohr magneton.
2.3 B
Classification ofSmagnetic materials
Based on the magnitude an sign of relative permeability, magnetic materials are classified
as
1. Diamagnetic materials: µr < 1 (equivalently χ < 0)
2. Paramagnetic materials: µr > 1 (equivalently χ > 0)
3. Ferromagnetic materials: µr 1 (equivalently χ 0)
Based on the basis of magnetic dipole moments, magnetic materials are classified into
two broad groups
1. Materials without permanent magnetic dipole moments.
2. Materials with permanent magnetic dipole moments. This group is further divided
into four groups
(a) Paramagnetic materials

(b) Ferromagnetic materials
(c) Antiferromagnetic materials
(d) Ferrimagnetic materials
2.3. CLASSIFICATION OF MAGNETIC MATERIALS 31
Figure 2.1: Classification of Magnetic materials
2.3.1 Diamagnetic materials

Diamagnetic materials exhibit negative susceptibility (χ < 0). From Eq. 2.2 it is clear
that the magnetization, and therefore, the magnetic dipoles are opposite to the direction
of applied magnetic field. A majority of the metals, inert gases and organic compounds
exhibit diamagnetism. These substances have paired electrons in the outermost shell. If
a diamagnetic material is kept in the non-uniform magnetic field, it experience a small
force towards smaller fields due to presence of closed shell/subshell in a material. Mostly
covalent or ionic materials exhibits diamagnetic property.
SB
Susceptibility These substances acquire a feeble magnetism in a direction opposite
to the applied magnetic field. The magnetic susceptibility is small (∼ −10−6 ) and is
practically independent of temperature.
Magnetic flux These substances are repelled by the magnetic field. The induced
dipole moments oppose the applied field inside the substance and therefore the flux of
magnetic field lines inside the materials is reduced.
Variation of the magnetic field The magnetization changes linearly with the ap-
plied magnetic field.
Although, generally diamagnetic materials do not have any significant engineering ap-
plications, superconductors exhibit perfect diamagnetism, that is, their susceptibility is
χdia = −1. Such strong diamagnetism is used to make frictionless bearings leading to a
levitation effect as known in terms as Messiner effect.
Langevin’s theory of diamagnetism

For certain dipoles, magnetic moments within the atom cancels out resulting net effective
magnetic moment zero. If atom experiences a magnetic field, a minority current is
produced due to internally induction . Len’s law suggests that these currents which
oppose the increasing filed, results in diamagnetic behaviour. The is a result of induced
magentic moment of the atoms opposite the applied magnetic field. Conduction of
electrons in normal metals also contributes to diamagnetism.
Consider a electron moving in a orbit in an atom,is equivalent to a current loop. If the
atom is placed under the influence of magnetic field(H), precession of the orbits changes.
Due to this super position of the precessional current over the normal current occurs
in absence of field leading to additional current. The magnetic moment µ for area (A)
within the current loop is given as µ = i × A.
In absence of field, magnetic moments due to atoms with electron is zero due to random
orientations cancelling out each other field due to infinite loops. But under the applied
field the balance is restored in some areas for which residual magnetic moment have
coexistence. With negative charge electrons, magnetic moment direction will be opposite
and obviously have negative susceptibility which becomes characteristics
Consider a electron of mass (m) moving in the orbit of radius (r). For angular frequency
ω0 of the orbital motion of electron in an atom, the effect of centripetal force is equal
to electrostatic force resulting the equation:
e2
m ω02 ρ =
ρ2
Once the field (H) is applied, the frequency is changed to new angular frequency ω and
Lorentz force effect is felt on the moving electron in electromagnetic field. The resultant
equation is written as:
F = Ee + (e ν × H) (2.15)
e2
m ω2 ρ = − (e ν × H) (2.16)
ρ2
2
2 eH e
ω + ω− = 0 (2.17)
m B 3
Smρ
Solving the quadratic equation, we obtain
2 ! 21
e2

eH 1 eH
ω=− ± +4 (2.18)
2m 2 m mρ3
Considering a case
e2

eH
4
m mρ3
Then the equation is modified as
eH e2
ω = − ±
2m mρ3
e2 eH
ω = ± 3
− (2.19)
mρ 2m
The equation can be written suing precession frequency ωp as
eH
ω = ±ω0 −
2m
eH
where ωp =
2m
ω = ±ω0 − ωp (2.20)
The presence of magnetic field alters ω0 −→ ω. The sign ± indicates the magnetic
moments parallel to B are slowed down and anti parallel moments are accelerated.
2.3.2 Paramagnetic materials

Paramagnetic materials exhibits positive susceptibility (χ > 0). From Eq. 2.2 it is
clear that the magnetization, and therefore, the magnetic dipoles are in the direction
of applied magnetic field. Substances with unpaired electrons in the outermost shell
exhibit paramagnetism. If a paramagnetic material is kept in the non-uniform magnetic
field, it experience a greater force when compared with diamagnetic material.
Examples: Magnesium, Liquid Oxygen, chromium, platinum, CuCl, solutions of iron
salts.
Susceptibility These substances acquire a feeble magnetism in the direction of the ap-
plied magnetic field. The magnetic susceptibility is small (∼ 10−6 ) and is inversely pro-
portional to the absolute temperature. This dependence on temperature is the Curie’s
law of paramagnetism.
C
χpara = (2.21)
T
Magnetic flux These substances are feebly attracted towards regions of stronger
magnetic field. The induced dipole moments are along the applied field and therefore
strengthen the magnetic flux inside the substance.
Variation of the magnetic field The magnetization changes linearly with the ap-
plied magnetic field when the applied field is not very strong.
SB
Langevin’s theory of paramagnetism
Consider a paramagnetic system having permanent dipole momentµ placed in the mag-
netic field, the dipoles tend to orient themselves in the direction of field. The thermal
agitation disturbs the normal alignment and dipoles align in different angles with each
other. The potential energy of the dipole moment placed in a magnetic field is given as
4 U = −µ. H = −µ H cos θ (2.22)
The statistical mechanics gives the probability that an atom is in any state have pro-
portional to exponential factor of potential energy i.e., exp [−4U/(kB T )], also known
as Boltzmann factor for absolute temperature (T). The equation is written for number
of particles lying within the solid angle dω within the cones of semi-angles θ + dθ can
be written as
µ H cos θ
dn = A exp dω (2.23)
kB T
The solid angle dω = 2 π sin θ dθ with A which is a constant. The total number of
molecules ’n’ in the gas can be computed as
Zπ
µ H cos θ
n = 2πA exp 2 π sin θ dθ (2.24)
kB T
0
µH
Let us consider x = cos θ and α = , by substituting these and solving the equations
kB T
we get
Z −1
2πA α 4πA
n = −2π eαx dx = e − e−α = sinh α (2.25)
+1 α α
The parallel component to the magnetic dipole moment is µ cos θ. The perpendicular
components µ sin θ gets cancelled out due to the symmetry. Magnetization of the system
can be calculated as
Z π
M = µ cos θ dn
0
Z π
= µ cos θ 2 π A exp [α cos θ] sin θ dθ
0
Z −1
= −2πAµ x eαx dx (where x = cos θ)
1
−1
eαx

= −2πAµ (αx − 1)
α2 1
e + e−α eα − e−α
α
= −2πAµ −
α α2

2µ π n 2 sinh α
= − 2 cosh α −
4 π sinh α α

1
= µ n coth α −
α
= µ n L (α) (2.26)
SB and written as:
Here L(α) is called Langevin function

1
L (α) = coth α −
α
The value of L(α) at different (α) values decides the magnetic moment and at origin
α
it is nearly a straight line. For small values L(α ∼
= ). Substituting and obtaining we
3
have,
α
M = µn
3
µ2 n H

µH
= where α =
3kT kT
The susceptibility can be obtained as
M µ2 n C
χpara = = = (2.27)
H 3kT T
2.3.3 Ferromagnetic materials

Ferromagnetic material dipoles are align in one direction. If any small magnetic field is
applied, the large value is produced. Ferromagnetic material has positive susceptibility
Figure 2.2: Curie temperature Variation in magnetic materials
with permanent dipole moment showing non linear behaviour in magnetic field attaining
saturation. These type of magnetic materials have two distinct regions before (Ferromag-
netic) and after (Paramagnetic) at Curie temperature exhibiting different properties.
Examples: Iron,Cobalt, Nickel, Gadolinium, Dysprosium etc..
Susceptibility Susceptibility for ferromagnetic materials above the Curie tempera-

ture is given by the equation below. The ’C’ isSthe B Curie constant which depends
on the material characteristics, ’T’ is the measured temperature and Tc is the Curie
temperature.
C
χpara = (2.28)
T − TC
Magnetic flux In the magnetic field, the flux is a measure of ability to pass/absorb
number of magnetic lines of force through an area. When the applied field is zero,
the material shows a value in terms of flux density. When applied field is increased
in a particular direction ,maximum value of flux density is referred as saturated flux
density (Bsat ). The direction of applied is very important as field can be revered.
With reverse field is applied up to a point, the flux density becomes zero. This nature
is useful in studying and designing various applications. These substances are attracted
towards regions of stronger magnetic field. The induced dipole moments are along the
applied field and therefore strengthen the magnetic flux inside the substance.
Variation of the magnetic field Dipoles responds to the magnetic field and they
aligned parallel to each other. This response is seen even in the absence of magnetic field.
The material shows broad curve showing Hysteresis nature.The nature of hysteresis
curve can be understood in the further topics. The Ferromagnetic materials have high
values of spontaneous magnetization with high corecivity and retentivity.
2.3.4 Ferrimagnetic materials

Ferrimagnetic material such as ferrites have dipoles aligned parallel to each other but
there is variation of magnitude which is positive value. This enables them to have
magnetization even in the absence of magnetic field and nature of it comes with ordering
of dipole. They have properties of ferrimagnetic materials below Curie temperature and
above Curie temperature, TC , they have properties for paramagnetic materials.
Examples: Ferrous ferrite F e3 O4 .
Susceptibility The Susceptibility for ferrimagnetic material is positive and relation

is given below. Here ’C’ is the Curie constant for temperature of measured sample (T)
which is greater than Neel temperature TN .
C
χpara = (2.29)
T − TC
Magnetic flux These substances are feebly attracted towards regions of stronger mag-
netic field increasing the saturation flux density. The induced dipole moments are along
the applied field and therefore strengthen and increasing the magnetic flux .
Variation of the magnetic field The magnetization changes non linearly with the
applied magnetic field when the applied field.
2.3.5 Antiferromagnetic materials

Antiferromagnetic materials have small positive value of susceptibility with some dipoles
SB This results in cancellation of each other magne-
aligned in antiparallel to each other.
tization effect produced by dipoles. They do not possess magnetization value in the
absence of magnetic field.The presence of anti parallel alignment of dipole is due to
ordering based on quantum effects which are associated with the mechanical forces.
Examples: NiO,MnO,M nF2 etc....
Susceptibility Above the Neel temperature TN , the material behaves like paramag-
netic and antiferromagnetism occurs below Neel temperature. The susceptibility for
antiferromagnetic materials is given the equation below. Here temperature of measured
sample (T) is greater than TN .
C
χantiferro = (2.30)
T + TC
Magnetic flux These substances are not freely attracted and diverse nature towards
regions of stronger magnetic field. The induced dipole moments are along the applied
field and therefore weakens but have positive flux density or the magnetic flux inside
the substance.
Variation of the magnetic field The response of the anti-ferromagnetic material is

very weak but positive value under the influence of magnetic field. These resultant flux
density is slightly increases under the applied magnetic field.
2.4. WEISS THEORY OF FERROMAGNETISM 37
2.4 Weiss theory of ferromagnetism

The spontaneous magnetization is the main cause of ferromagnetism where magnetic
moment of adjecent atoms align with each other in a pattern. Weiss theory explains
the reason behind magnetization in ferro-magnetism using spin-spin exchange or spin
waves.
SB
Figure 2.3: Domain comparision
According to Weiss, in domains, the interaction between atomic dipoles leads to sponta-
neous magnetization. The interactions produces internal molecular field 0 Hm
0
for which
spin align themselves with ordered nature. It indicates that Internal molecular field
is proportional to magnetization (M) explaining the magnetic interaction between the
magnetic dipole moment. Weiss postulated for effective field as
Hef f = H + γ M (2.31)
Here γ is the Weiss constant or molecular field constant.

The possibility of magnetism using above equation with quantum mechanical theories
of paramagnetism. Consider a system with ’N’ spins per cubic meter giving rise to a
magnetic moment of one Bohr magneton. The magnetization of any such system is
given by equation

µ0 µ B Hef f
M = N µ B tanh
kB T

µ0 µ B (H + γ M )
M = N µ B tanh
kB T
M = N µ B tanh [α]
where
µ0 µ B (H + γ M )
α =
kB T
At high temperatures, the square bracket terms tends to unity. As tanhα ∼

= α for
α <<< 1, we can rewrite as
N µ0 µ2B

M = [H + γM ] (2.32)
kB T
N γµ0 µ2B N µ0 µ2B

⇒M 1− = H
kB T kB T
The susceptibility can be expressed as ratio of magnetization to magnetic field. The

equation can be expressed as:
SB
N µ0 µ2B

M kB
χ = = (2.33)
N γµ0 µ2B

H
T−
kB
N µ0 µ2B

Assuming C = and θ = γC, we can rewrite the above equattion as
kB

C
χ= (2.34)
T −θ
The above equation is known as Curie Wiess law. we can also find a similar way to
find and solve for T >> θ. Variation of χ−1 versus temperature for paramagnetic or
ferromagnetic showing a nature similar to paramagnetic materials. The slope determines
1
the curve and θ can be measured. The γ can be measured is larger due to magnetic
C
interaction. The forces among the dipoles in ferromagnetic material cannot be explained
classical and quantum approach is needed to understand. This could be explained in
terms of wave nature of electrons and wave mechanics and often referred as exchange
forces. The Curie Wiess law do not hold good for T < θ for which susceptibility becomes
negative; and for T = 0 χ becomes infinite. This indicates at H = 0, M is non vanishing.
2.5. DOMAIN THEORY OF FERROMAGNETISM 39
That means:

µ0 µB γM
M = N µB tanh
kB T

M µ0 µB γM
= tanh
N µB kB T
M
= tanh [α]
Ms
where
µ0 µB γM
α =
kB T
Ms = N µB
Here Ms show maximum saturation magnetization value indicating that ’N’ number of
dipole moment are contributing by aligning parallel in the magnetic field. Equating the
terms by comparing with and without presence of magnetic field, we have
M µ0 µB γM
= tanh [α] ≈ α = (2.35)
Ms kB T
For H = 0 we can compare this equation the with equation from (2.32) to obtain
M Tα
= . (2.36)
Ms θ
M
From above must satisfy the hyperbolic function with respect to tangential term
Ms
Tα
in above equations and is a stright line. As the procedure is experimented their,
M
θ
Tα SB
one can plot versus . The possible scenario shows the behaviour of the material
Ms θ
under different conditions.
M
1. At T < θ, the curves intersect and ratio of has positive value. This shows
Ms
presence of magnetization.
M
2. At T = θ ; = α; a line observed which is tangent to tanhα.
Ms
M
3. At T < θ, the intersection is observed at origin for which = 0, indicating
Ms
vanishing nature of spontaneous magnetization.
2.5 Domain theory of ferromagnetism

Domains concept can be understood on the basis of thermodynamic conditions. Ther-
modynamic conditions for solids will be based of the configuration of minimum free
energy (F = U − T S). With high degree of crystalline nature in magnetic ordering for
which the entropy can be neglected such that entire focus is on the internal energy. The
total internal energy is contributed from different aspects:
1. Magnetostatic energy or Magnetic field energy or exchange energy
2. Anistropy energy
3. domain wall energy or Bloch wall energy
4. Magnetostriction energy
Figure 2.4: Domain comparision
Magnetostatic energy
The energy interacts with dipoles and aligns them in according to the interaction or
exchange (magnetic field) energy. The single domain established by exhcange energy
have free energy due to magnetic poles formed on the surface. The energy is equal to:
SB 1 H 2 dV
Z
8π
Energy is equal to amount of work done or potential energy in assembling the atomic
magnetics. The net magnetic energy is reduced to half as domains which are magnetized
are opposite orientated. Division of domains further reduces the magnetic energy which
has less energy forming another domains with boundaries called Bloch wall. Thermo-
dynamic can be used to understand the principle of minimum energy. The free energy
(F = U − T S) is stable at minimum configuration. This equation suggests higher or-
der at lower temperature with less entropy. With domains increasing,the field energy
conspicuously reduced with spatial extension of field is smaller. This includes the some
energy requires formation of new domains. With number of domains increases, the net
magnetic energy becomes zero .
Anistropy energy
The ferromagnetic materials have easy and hard direction of magnetization. It is ability
of magnetic material to get magnetized in a particular direction. The direction of
magnetic is material is important as it plays important role in deciding basic properties
like saturation magnetization. Same saturation magnetization of a particular material
can be produced for lower field in easy direction and higher with stronger field in hard
direction. The difference or excess energy required to magnetize a material compared
with easy direction is called as crystalline Anisotropy energy.
2.6. HYSTERESIS 41
Bloch wall energy or Domain wall energy

The boundary of domain with spin up and spin down showing clear demarcation of
two regions. The transition of direction is not sudden but gradual change of domain
in different direction in a certain area or several atomic planes. The entire region the
transition of these domains extended over planes is called Bloch wall.The variation
of Bloch wall width depends of interaction energy.The Bloch wall is considered to be
thick if total change of spin direction is distributed over several spins. The influence of
anisotropy varies by which it restricts the thickness of Bloch wall. The thickness of the
Bloch wall is compromise between the influence of exchange energy and anisotropy.
Magnetostrictive energy
Magnetostriction, a phenomenon in a specimen which is magnetized and undergo change
in dimension. The lateral expansions or deformations takes place along one direction
under the influence of magnetic field. Due to this, the domains shrink or expands in
direction for which work will be done as restoring forces which are elastic . The work
done by the magnetic field against the restoring forces is the energy contributed as
magnetostriction or magnetoelastic energy.
2.6 Hysteresis
The Hysteresis is showing trends for leading, lagging and leading characteristic nature
of the magnetic flux density (B) or magnetization (M) under the influence of magnetic
field (H). It is a variation of non-linear behaviour of closed loop observed between flux
density (Magnetization) with magnetic field(H). The Units of flux density is B is taken
as Wb.m−2 or for magnetization M is taken as emu.gm−1 . The Units for magnetic
field is either in Oe or AT.m−1 . SB
Figure 2.5: Hystersis In magnetic material
A polycrystalline material generally consists of number of grains. The size of grains

are influenced by preparation technique which is heated above Curie temperature and
cooled down to room temperature. The grains consists of domains and size of grain is an
indication of number of domains. If a grain size is small then domain size is equivalent
to grain size. If grain size is large, then there are number of domains in it. When
this polycrystalline material is subjected to small change in magnetic field, it results in
large value in flux density. For further increase in magnetic field, the small change in
direction of domain is observed suggesting small rise in flux or saturation nature in the
sample. This state is known as saturation magnetization.From that point which is
completely magnetized state, by reversing the applied field, we take the sample journey
towards de-magnetized state. At a point when there is no applied field (H = 0), the
value of magnetic flux represents the amount of energy present in a state. This energy
is called residual magnetism or remanence. Taking it from no field to maximum
negative field (-H), between a set of points of applied field, the residual magnetism
slowly reduces to zero. The point where residual magnetism or remanence drops to zero
is called coercivity. The process of magnetising and then de-magnetising in a closed
loop under the influence of field is Hysteresis.
When the domains are subjected to external magnetic field, they align in the direction of
field. The order-ness of the alignment results in increase in magnetization. The domains
which are already slowly increases their area or size. This growth under the magnetic
field is affected by imperfection, impurities or secondary phases. The domain wall over-
comes these obstacles to have rotation which also produces energy (converted in form of
heat). This energy is observed as jerk in the energy curve also known as Barkhausen
effect. When the applied field increases, the continuous process of rotation or shrinking
of domains which are not parallel to applied field, occurs increasing the magnetization.
Up to certain point reversal of domains is possible with removal of applied field. After
certain point, pinning of domains takes place beginning the indicating the beginning
of saturation nature. At saturation B
S point, the size of domain will not increase and en-
tire specimen acts like single domain. Their is no further rise in magnetization at this
moment and this point is called as saturation magnetization.
If the field is decreased, domain begins to grow. Even when field is zero, the specimen
having of value of magnetization know as remanence or retentivity. Here the specimen
do not regain the original positioning of domain structure before magnetization state. To
remove remanence, the negative field (opposite direction) is applied and the specimen
have magnetization zero. This opposite field is called as coercive field or coercivity
(Hc ). At this point, the material regain its original domain structure which was earlier
observed before magnetization process. On further increasing the negative field, the
domain begins to aligh in the similar way as decribe above but in opposite direction
towards single domain. It reaches a lowest value of magnetization where no further
decrease in magnetization is not possible. If we change the field direction, again the
specimen will take a journey. This journey or path taken by specimen of closed loop
in which leading,lagging and leading the magnetization nature with magnetic field is
Hysteresis curve.
In Ferromagnetic material, residual magnetism is due to revolving nature of domains

which are aligned in ordered way. Energy require to change this direction some time
appears as heat during the magnetization cycle. This heat is known as hysteresis
loss.
2.7. SOFT AND HARD MAGNETIC MATERIALS 43
2.7 Soft and hard magnetic materials
Depending on the nature of application, magnetic material is used. The magnetic ma-
terial is divided in to two types: soft and hard magnetic material. In the domain theory
and hysteresis, the process of magnetization for which orientation of domain with growth
and shrinking is observed. The domains are able to move easily then less resistance is
observed with lower values of corecivity and remanance. This type of magnetic material
where domains are easily move their direction is called soft magnetic materials. If the
resistance is large for domain wall then corecive force is large for which the magnetic
material is put in to category of hard magnetic material.
SB
Figure 2.6: Soft and Hard materials
In hard magnetic materials, domains are immobilized by certain imperfections or pre-

cipitation of any non-magnetic materials. These defects pay important role in leading to
hysteresis loss or advantages interms of mechanical hardness, increased electrical resistiv-
ity. High resistivity tends to reduce eddy current losses. Hard or permanent magnetics
materials are able to retain their fields in even when field is removed. This nature of this
type of magnetic materials helps in retaining the magnetic field even when magnetic field
is removed. The low permeability with large magnetising force are primary conditions
at attain saturation magnetization of the magnetic material. Hard magnetic materials
are characterized by relatively large area of hysteresis loop or square shape loop. They
have large corecivity value with large area under curve.
In soft magnetic materials, the permeability is very high with low coercive force. These
materials can be magnetized and demagnetized very easily can used in alternating mag-
netic field application such as transformer cores, magnetic switching and magnetic am-
plifier. Soft magnetic materials ascends steeply in the magnetization curve as they have
high permeabilities and posses curve shape.
2.8 Eddy current losses

An eddy current is like a whirlpool of current which is generated in the induced sys-
tem.By Lenz’s law, the, swirling current creates a magnetic field in conductor opposing
any change in conductor. The electrons revolve in plane perpendicular to magnetic field.
So eddy current have tendency to oppose any change causing energy to be released or
lost. In order words, eddy current produces heat through energy which is in form of
kinetic energy. There are some practical applications .
Figure 2.7: Eddy Currents in Ferrites
2.9 Ferrites
Ferrites are mixed iron ceramics having brittle, black/grey in colour and have strong
magnetic properties. They have defined magnetic transition temperatures at Curie
temperature (TC ) also refereed as S
B
Neel temperature.The dipoles are aligned antiparallel
but resultant magnitude of flux density is non-zero and having a moderate value. If a
dipoles are influenced by external magnetic field, then flux density increases to large
value increasing magnetization.
Structure:
Ferrites with simple spinel structure as formula M2+ Fe3+ 2−
2 O4 . There are 32 oxygen
atoms with 16 trivalent iron ions and 8 divalent iron ions. In the spinel structure state,
the oxygen are closed packed in face centered lattice (FCC) in to which interstices of
which the metal ions are distributed.
The A sites are occupied by 4 nearest oxygen centres are connecting forming the tetra-
hedron structure in the unit cell and are called tetrahedral sites. The B sites with 6
oxygen ions with connecting oxygen centres forming a octahedron and are called octa-
hedral sites. That means there are 8 ions Fe2+ (tetrahedral sites), 16 ions Fe3+
(octahedral sites) and 32 oxygen ions O2− . In one spinel ferrite molecule, 2 octahe-
dral sites and one 1 tetrahedral sites are present. So in an unit cell of ferrite, there are
64 tetrahedral sites, 32 octahedral sites and 32 oxygen ions.
In the normal spinel structure such as ZnF e2 O4 , divalent ions occupy A sites and
trivalent ions occupy B sites. But in inverse spinel state such as magnetite, 8 trivalent
ions (F e+++ ) occupy A sites and other 8 trivalent ions (F e+++ ) occupy B sites. The
remaining divalent ions occupy F e++ occupy B sites. In case of Nickle ferrite, divalent
2.10. APPLICATIONS 45
Figure 2.8: Strcuture of Ferrite
ions occupy half of the B sites and trivalent ions share B and A sites in several possible
combinations.
The nature of hysteresis decides which whether is soft magnetic or hard magnetic ma-
terial. The general substitution replacing M is done using different ions such as Fe2+ ,
Co2+ ,Ni2+ ,Zn2+ ,Cu2+ ,Mg2+ ,Mn2+ , etc. The presence of other ions can be used to
provide the unpaired electron spins resulting variation in net magnetic moment of the
structure. The magnetic moment of a ferrite is equated to difference in the moments of
individual A and B sites.
Properties:
SB
∼ 107−10 Ω.m resulting in low eddy losses even at high

Ferrites have high resistivity =
frequency. Ferrites are widely used to increase flux linkage in core / inductance devices
/ transformers. Prerequisites of high induction / permeability with high resistivity with
moderate saturation magnetization are desirable properties for ferrites.
2.10 Applications
1. Primary used as temporary magnetic materials under the applied fields in many
applications.
2. Ferrites are used as thermal sensing materials in refrigerators, air conditioners,

electric ovens etc.
3. Magnetostrictive property is utilized in ultrasonic wave production.
4. Insulating nature of ferrite is used in electric motors, flat rings in speakers/amplifiers

in radios or correction magnets in television.
5. Used in inductors or induction cores or transformers due to high resistive and good
magnetic properties.
6. Used in television as deflection yokes, cores in line output transformers in television

sets, antennas for medium and long wave broadcasting.
7. Used in automatic control system, frequency modulation, switching, filtering and

storing signals in communication devices.
8. Certain application in biomedical application such as treatment of Hyperthermia

using nanomagnetic particles.
9. used in electromagnetic absorption devices emitting from electromagnetic devices.
Figure 2.9: Application of Ferrites
2.11 Multiple choice question

1.
SB
What will happen with magnetic materials is kept in an external magnetic field
(a) They will move (b) Develop magnetic lines of force
(c) create a permanent magnetic moment (d) Unaffected
[C]
2. What is the name of the continuous curve in the magnetic field, the tangent of
which gives the direction of magnetic intensity ?
(a) Magnetic lines of force (b) Magnetic lines of induction
(c) Magnetic force (d) Magnetic dipole moment
[A]
3. What is the name of the magnetic lines which forms a closed path ?
(a) Magnetic lines of force (b) Magnetic force between two poles
(c) Magnetic field (d) Magnetic lines of induction
[D]
4. Which of the following is a weak magnet ?

(a) Ferromagnetic material (b) Antiferromagnetic
(c) Paramagnetic (d) Diamagnetic
[D]
5. When does a paramagnetic material become diamagnetic material?

(a) At critical temperature (b) Above critical temperature
(c) Below critical temperature (d) Never
[C]
6. If a material is ferromagnetic, what shall be the value of suspectibility

(a) Negative (b) Small and Positive
(c) Large and Positive (d) Insufficient infomation
[C]
7. The phenomenon of perfect diamagnetism is called

(a) Superconductivity (b) Diamagnetic Effect
(c) Zero Kelvin Effect (d) Meissner Effect
[D]
8. At high temperature a Ferro magnet becomes

(a) Diamagnetic (b) Paramagnetic
(c) hard ferromagnet (d) Soft Ferromagnet
[B]
9. When a ferromagnetic rod is placed in a solenoid with current, what happens to

the rod
(a) Retentivity increases (b) Coercivity Increases
(c) Permanently Magnetized (d) None
[C]
SB
10. Which of the following conditions are desired in the core of an electromagnet
(a) High permeability and High retentivity (b) Low permeability and High retentivity
(c) Low permeability and Low retentivity (d) High permeability and Low retentivity
[D]
11. In which of the following the magnetic moments align themselves parallel to each
other?
[A]
12. Which of the following is a strong magnet ?

[A]
13. Which of the following exhibits spontaneous magnetisation?

[A]
14. When does a ferromagnetic material become paramagnetic material?

(a) At Curie temperature (b) Below Curie temperature
(c) Above Curie temperature (d) Never
[C]
15. How is the magnetic field, B, related to Magnetization, M ?

(a) B ∝ M (b) B ∝ 1/M
(c) B ∝ M 2 (d) B ∝ M 3
[A]
16. If the relative permeability of material lies between zero and one, the material is
(c) Ferromagnetic (d) Antiferromagnetic
[A]
17. If the relative permeability of material lies between 1 and 20, the material is
[B]
18. If the relative permeability of material lies between 100 and above , the material
is
SB [C]
19. Core of electromagnets are made up of

[C]
20. Permeable substance is one which is a

(a) Good conductor (b) Bad conductor
(c) Strong Magnet (d) Through which the magnetic lines of force can pass very easily
[D]
21. Magnetic field exits around

(a) iron particles (b) Copper plate
(c) Aluminium sheet (d) Moving charges
[D]
22. Ferrites are ...... materials

(a) Ferrimagnetic (b) Paramagnetic
[A]
23. A material which is slightly repelled by a magnetic field is known as

[A]
24. The ratio of intensity of magnetization to the magnetisation force is known as

(a) Flux density (b) Suspectibility
(c) relative permeability (d) None
[C]
25. Reciprocal of permeability is

(a) reluctivity (b) Susceptibility
(c) permittivity (d) Conductance
[A]
26. Retentivity is a property of material which is useful for the construction of

(a) Permanent magnets (b) transformers
(c) Non-magnetic substance (d) Electromagnets
[A]
27. Hysteresis loop in case of magnetically hard materials is more in shape as compared
to magnetically soft materials
(a) Circular (b) Triangle
(c) Rectangular (d) None
[C]
SB
28. How does the magnetic compass needle behave in a magnetic field ?
(a) Right angle to magnetic field (b) Circular rotation
(c) It assures a position following a line of magnetic flux (d) None
[C]
29. Attraction capacity of electromagnetic will increase if the ...

(a) Core length increases (b) Core area increases
(c) Flux density decreases (d) Flux density increases
[D]
30. Magnetism of a magnet can be destroyed by

(a) heating (b) hammering
(c) inductive action (d) All the above
[D]
31. If ’p’ is the magnetic moment of a bar magnet in a magnetic field, than maximum
value of the torque is
(a) pB cos θ (b) p cos θ
(c) 180° (d) pB
[D]
32. Since the induced magnetic moments in a diamagnetic substance in a magnetic

field oppose the applied field, the diamagnetic susceptibility is
(a) Negative (b) Small positive value
(c) Zero (d) Large positive value
[A]
33. All materials have

(a) Paramagnetic property (b) Diamagnetic property
(c) Ferromagnetic property (d) Ferrimagnetic property
[B]
34. Sure test of magnetism is

(a) Attraction (b) Repulsion
(c) Both (d) None
[C]
35. The magnetic elements of Earth magnetic field are

(a) Dip and magnetic induction (b) total flux and declination
(c) Horizontal intensity (d) Horizontal intensity, declination and dip
[D]
36. A magnetic needle when kept in a non-uniform magnetic field experience

(a) A force but not a torque (b) A torque but not a force
(c) Neither a force nor a torque (d) Both a force and a torque
[D]
SB
2.12 Questions in magnetic materials
1. Explain terms in detail:
Magnetic flux density (B)
Magnetic field strength (H)
Magnetization (M)
Susceptibility
Magnetic dipole moment
Permeabilty
2. Explain magnetic flux density (B), magnetic field strength (H) and magnetization
(M). How are they related to each other?
3. How do you distinguish between diamagnetic, paramagnetic,ferrimagnetism, an-

tiferromagnetism and ferromagnetic materials on the basis of magnetic dipoles of
the atoms?
4. What are domain?
5. Explain the significance of Curie temperature for a ferromagnetic materials?

2.13. PROBLEMS 51
6. State the Curie law of paramagnetism?
7. Explain ferromagnetic hystersis on the basis of domains?
8. What are soft and hard magnetic materials? Give their characterisitics properties
and applications?
9. Compare and contrast ferromagnetism and ferrimagnetism?
2.13 Problems
Problem 2.1 A magnetic material has a magnetization of 2350 A/m and produces a
flux density of 0.0035 Wb/m2 . Calculate magnetizing force and relative permeability of
the material. (µo = 12.57 × 10−7 H/m)
Solution 2.1 Magnetizing force (H) is given as
B 0.0035W b/m2
H= −M = − 2350A/m =
µo 12.57 × 10−7 H/m
Relative permeability is given as
B 0.0035W b/m2
µr = = − 2350A/m = .....
µo H 12.57 × 10−7 H/m × .........A/m
Problem 2.2 Diamagnetic Al2 O3 is subjected an external magnetic field(H) of 105

SB in Al2 O3 (χ = −5 × 105 )
A/m. Evaluate magnetization and magnetic flux density
Solution 2.2
M = χH = −5 × 10−5 × 105 = ..........
Magnetic flux density:
B = µo (H + M ) =
Problem 2.3 Find the relative permeability of the ferromagnetic materials if a mag-
netic field of strength(H) 220 A/m produces magnetization(M) of 3300 A/m in it.
Solution 2.3 Permeability is given by relation
M 3300
µr = (1 + χ) = 1 + =1+ =
H 220
Problem 2.4 Area of a hysteresis loop drawn between B and H is 100 m2 . Each unit
space along the vertical axis represent 0.01 weber/m2 and each unit space along the
horizontal axis represents 40 A/m.Determine the hystersis loss per cycle.
Solution 2.4 Hystersis loss per cycle= Area of the hysteresis loop × Value of unit
length along B-axis × Value of unit length along H-axis.
Hystersis loss per cycle = 100 × 0.01 × 40 =
Problem 2.5 A magnetic field 104 produces a magnetic induction of 4π weber/m2 in

an iron rod. Compute the suspectibility.
Solution 2.5
B
µr = =1+χ
µo H
B
χ = −1
µo H
4π
χ = −1
4π × 10−7 × 104
χ = ............
SB
Chapter 3
Superconductivity
Superconductivity is a set of physical properties observed in certain materials where

electrical resistance vanishes and magnetic flux fields are expelled from the material.
Any material exhibiting these properties is a superconductor. In theory, this allows
electrical energy to be transferred between two points with perfect efficiency, losing
nothing to heat.
For an example, if mercury is cooled below 4.1 K, it loses all electric resistance. This
discovery of superconductivity by H. Kammerlingh Onnes in 1911 was followed by the
observation of other metals which exhibit zero resistivity below a certain critical temper-
ature. The fact that the resistance is zero has been demonstrated by sustaining currents
in superconducting lead rings for many years with no measurable reduction. An induced
current in an ordinary metal ring would decay rapidly from the dissipation of ordinary
resistance, but superconducting rings had exhibited a decay constant of over a billion
years. SB
3.1 Definition
A superconductor is a perfect conductor of electricity; it carries direct current with
100% efficiency because no energy is dissipated by resistive heating. Once induced in
a superconducting loop, direct current can flow undiminished forever. Superconductors
lose all resistance to the flow of direct electrical current and nearly all resistance to the
flow of alternating current when cooled below a critical temperature, which is different
for each superconducting material.
3.2 Properties of Superconductors

3.2.1 Zero electrical resistance
The first characteristic property of a super conductor is its electrical resistance. The
electrical resistance of the super conductor is zero below a transition temperature. This
property of zero electrical resistance is known as defining property of a superconductor.
The variation of electrical resistivity of a normal conducting metal and a superconducting
metal as a function of temperature is shown in figure below:
53
54 CHAPTER 3. SUPERCONDUCTIVITY
Figure 3.1: Effect of resistance on Temperature
3.2.2 Persistent Current

A steady current which flows through a superconducting ring without any decrease in its
strength as long as the material is in superconducting state is called persistent current.
The current persists even after the removal of the magnetic field.
3.2.3 Critical temperature

The critical temperature (Tc), or the temperature under which a material acts as a
superconductor, is an essential concern. For most materials, it is between absolute zero
and 10 Kelvin, that is, between -273 Celsius and -263 Celsius, too cold to be of any
practical use. SB
3.2.4 Critical magnetic field

Below the transition temperature of a material, its superconductivity can be destroyed
by the application of a strong magnetic field. The minimum magnetic field strength re-
quired to destroy the superconducting property at any temperature is known as critical
magnetic field (Hc). The critical magnetic field (Hc) depends upon the temperature of
the superconducting material. The relation between critical magnetic field and temper-
ature is given by
2
T
Hc = Ho 1 −
Tc
where Ho is the critical magnetic field at absoulte zero temperature, Tc is supercon-
ducting transition temperature of a material, T is the temperature below Tc of the
superconducting material.
3.2.5 Critical Current density

The critical magnetic field is required to destroy superconductivity need not be neces-
sarly applied externally. An electric current flowing through the superconduting material
itself may produce magnetic field of requisite strength. If a superconducting ring carries
3.2. PROPERTIES OF SUPERCONDUCTORS 55
a current (I), it gives rise to its own magnetic field. As the current increases to critical
value, Ic , and the assoicated magnetic field increases to Hc and the superconditivity
decreases. The maximum current density at which the superconductivity disappears is
called the critical current denssity.
The application of very high electrical current to superconducting material destroys its
superconducting property. The critical current ic required to destroy the superconduct-
ing property is given by
Ic = 2πrHc
where ’r’ is the radius.
3.2.6 Meissner effect

Please check next section.....Why don’t you turn the page.....
3.2.7 London Penetration Depth

Arising in the theoretical and experimental investigations of superconductivity are two
characteristic lengths, the London penetration depth and the coherence length. The
London penetration depth refers to the exponentially decaying magnetic field at the
interior surface of a superconductor. It is related to the density of superconducting
electrons in the material. When a magnetic field is applied to a superconductor, the
applied field does not drop to zero at the surface but decreases in exponentially as per
formula
−x
H(x) = H(0). exp λ
Here x is the distance from the surface and λ is the London penetration depth. It is an
effective length at which magnetic field penetrates the superconductivity.
SB
3.2.8 Flux Quantation
A closed superconducting loop can enclose magnetic flux only in integral multiples of
the fundamental quantum of flux. The magnetic flux enclosed by a superconducting
ring is given
nh
φ= = nφo
2e
Some times φo is called fluxon and its values is 2.07 ×1015 weber.
3.2.9 Entropy
Entropy is a measure of disorder of a state or system.In superconductors, entropy de-
creases linearly upto a critical temperature and more below the the critical temperature.
This indicates that superconductivity is more ordered than normal state.
3.2.10 Heat Capacity

Due to the energy gap, the specific heat of the superconductor is suppressed strongly
at low temperatures, there being no thermal excitations left. However before reaching
the transition temperature, the specific heat of the superconductor becomes even higher
than of the normal conductor.
Figure 3.2: Entropy effect on superconductivity
The onset of superconductivity is accompanied by abrupt changes in various physical

properties, which is the hallmark of a phase transition. For example, the electronic heat
capacity is proportional to the temperature in the normal (non-superconducting) regime.
At the superconducting transition, it suffers a discontinuous jump and thereafter ceases
−b
to be linear. At low temperatures, it varies instead as exp T for some constant, b. This
exponential behavior is one of the pieces of evidence for the existence of the energy
gap. The specific heat of a normally conducting metal is composed of a lattice part and
electronic part. The electronic contribution part decreases is given
SBCv = exp
−b.Tc
T
3.2.11 Isotope effect

It was observed that the critical temperature(Tc) decreases with increasing isotopic mass
(M) and is given be the relation
Tc ∝ M −b
where ’b’ is a constant and equal to half. The phenomenonon decrease of critical temper-
ature with increasing atomic mass is called isotope effect. Change in the isotopic mass
does not change the electronic structure and dependence of the transition temperature
on the isotropic mass suggests involvement of electron-lattice interaction.
3.3 Meissner effect

When a material makes the transition from the normal to superconducting state, it
actively excludes magnetic fields from its interior; this is called the Meissner effect.
This constraint to zero magnetic field inside a superconductor is distinct from the perfect
diamagnetism which would arise from its zero electrical resistance. Zero resistance would
imply that if you tried to magnetize a superconductor, current loops would be generated
to exactly cancel the imposed field (Lenz’s law). But if the material already had a steady
magnetic field through it when it was cooled trough the superconducting transition, the
3.4. TYPE I AND II SUPERCONDUCTORS 57
Figure 3.3: Meissner Effect in conductors. a) Magnetic field penetrating the specimen
b) Magnetic field exclusion from the specimen which is Meissner effect.
magnetic field would be expected to remain. If there were no change in the applied
magnetic field, there would be no generated voltage (Faraday’s law) to drive currents,
even in a perfect conductor. Hence the active exclusion of magnetic field must be
considered to be an effect distinct from just zero resistance. A mixed state Meissner
effect occurs with Type II materials.
One of the theoretical explanations of the Meissner effect comes from the London equa-
tion. It shows that the magnetic field decays exponentially inside the superconductor
over a distance of 20-40 nm. It is described in terms of a parameter called the London
penetration depth.
The exclusion of the magnetic field from a superconductor takes place regardless of
whether the sample becomes superconducting before or after the external magnetic field
is applied. In the steady state, the external magnetic field is cancelled in the interior of
the superconductor by opposing magnetic fields produced by a steady screening current
that flows on the surface of the superconductor. SB
It is important to recognise that the exclusion of the magnetic field from inside a su-
perconductor cannot be predicted by applying Maxwell’s equations to a material that
has zero electrical resistance. We shall refer to a material that has zero resistance but
does not exhibit the Meissner effect as a perfect conductor, and we shall show that a
superconductor has additional properties besides those that can be predicted from its
zero resistance.
Consider first the behaviour of a perfect conductor. We showed in the previous sub-
section that the flux enclosed by a continuous path through zero resistance material -a
perfect conductor – remains constant, and this must be true for any path within the
material, whatever its size or orientation. he magnetic field throughout the material
must remain constant, that is, δB/δt = 0.
3.4 Type I and II superconductors

The difference between type I and type II superconductors can be found in their magnetic
behaviour. A type I superconductor keeps out the whole magnetic field until a critical
applied field Hc reached. Above that field a type I superconductor is no longer in its
superconductiong state.
A type II superconductor will only keep the whole magnetic field out until a first critical
field Hc1 is reached. Then vortices start to appear. A vortex is a magnetic flux quantum
that penetrates the superconductor. Where the vortex appears the superconducting
order parameter drops to zero. In this region the metal is no longer a superconductor.
Around the vortex a current starts to circulate. Even though the vortices have formed,
the rest of the metal stays superconducting. If the field is increased to the second critical
field Hc2 the metal stops to be superconducting. Hc2 is usually a lot bigger than Hc that’s
why type II superconductors are typically used for superconducting magnets. Type II
Figure 3.4: Type I and Type II superconductivity
superconductors are the most technologically useful because the second critical field can
be quite high, enabling high field electromagnets to be made out of superconducting
wire. ires made from say niobium-tin (Nb3Sn) have a Bc2 as high as 24.5 Tesla- in
practice it is lower. This makes them
SB useful for applications requiring high magnetic
fields, such as Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) machines. The advantage of using
superconducting electromagnets is that the current only has to be applied once to the
wires, which are then formed into a closed loop and allow the current (and field) to
persist indefinitely- as long as the superconductor stays below the critical temperature.
That is, the external power supply can be switched off. As a comparison, the strongest
permanent magnets today may be able to produce a field close to 1 Tesla. However, it
is possible to obtain up to 24.5 Tesla from a niobium–tin superconductor.
3.5 BCS theory:qualitative

According to classical physics, part of the resistance of a metal is due to collisions be-
tween free electrons and the crystal lattice’s vibrations, known as phonons. In addition,
part of the resistance is due to scattering of electrons from impurities or defects in the
conductor.
The central feature of the BCS theory is that two electrons in the superconductor are
able to form a bound pair called a Cooper pair if they somehow experience an attrac-
tive interaction between them. This notion at first sight seems counterintuitive since
electrons normally repel one another because of their like charges.
An electron passes through the lattice and the positive ions are attracted to it, causing
a distortion in their nominal positions. The second electron (the Cooper pair partner)
comes along and is attracted by the displaced ions. Note that this second electron can
3.5. BCS THEORY:QUALITATIVE 59
only be attracted to the lattice distortion if it comes close enough before the ions have
had a chance to return to their equilibrium positions. The net effect is a weak delayed
attractive force between the two electrons.
Figure 3.5: BCS behaviour in material
From the BCS theory, the total linear momentum of a Cooper pair must be zero. This
means that they travel in opposite directions as shown in Figure 8. In addition, the
nominal separation between the Cooper pair (called the coherence length) ranges from
hundreds to thousands of ions separating them! This is quite a large distance and has
been represented incorrectly in many textbooks on this subject. If electrons in a Cooper
pair were too close, such as a couple of atomic spacings apart; the electrostatic (coulomb)
repulsion will be much larger than the attraction from the lattice deformation and so
they will repel each other. Thus there will be no superconductivity. A current flowing in
the superconductor just shifts the total moment slightly from zero so that, on average,
one electron in a cooper pair has a slightly larger momentum magnitude that its pair.
They do, however, still travel in opposite directions.
SB
The interaction between a Cooper pair is transient. Each electron in the pair goes on
to form a Cooper pair with other electrons, and this process continues with the newly
formed Cooper pair so that each electron goes on to form a Cooper pair with other
electrons. The end result is that each electron in the solid is attracted to every other
electron forming a large network of interactions. Causing just one of these electrons
to collide and scatter from atoms in the lattice means the whole network of electrons
must be made to collide into the lattice, which is energetically too costly. The collective
behaviour of all the electrons in the solid prevents any further collisions with the lattice.
Nature prefers situations that spend a minimum of energy. In this case, the minimum
energy situation is to have no collisions with the lattice. A small amount of energy is
needed to destroy the superconducting state and make it normal. This energy is called
the energy gap.
Although a classical description of Cooper pairs has been given here, the formal treat-
ment from the BCS theory is quantum mechanical. The electrons have wave-like be-
haviour and are described by a wave function that extends throughout the solid and
overlaps with other electron wave functions. As a result, the whole network of electrons
behaves line one wave function so that their collective motion is coherent.
In addition to having a linear momentum, each electron behaves as if it is spinning. This
property, surprisingly, is called spin. This does not mean that the electron is actually
spinning, but behaves as though it is spinning. The requirement from the BCS theory
is that spins of a Cooper pair be in opposite directions.
3.6 High temperature superconductors

It has long been a dream of scientists working in the field of superconductivity to find a
material that becomes a superconductor at room temperature. A discovery of this type
will revolutionize every aspect of modern day technology such as power transmission
and storage, communication, transport and even the type of computers we make.
Critical temperatures as high as 135 K have been achieved. Whilst this is not room
temperature, it has made experiments on superconductivity accessible to more people
since these need only be cooled by liquid nitrogen (with a boiling point of liquid nitrogen
is 77 K), which is cheap and readily available.
The nominal distance between cooper pairs (coherence length) in these superconductors
can be as short as one or two atomic spacings. As a result, the coulomb repulsion force
will generally dominate at these distances causing electrons to be repelled rather than
coupled. For this reason, it is widely accepted that Cooper pairs, in these materials,
are not caused by a lattice deformation, but may be associated with the type of mag-
netism present (known as antiferromagnetism) in the copper oxide layers. So high–Tc
superconductors cannot be explained by the BCS theory since that mainly deals with
a lattice deformation mediating the coupling of electron pairs. The research continues
into the actual mechanism responsible for superconductivity in these materials.
3.6.1 Josephson effects applications

Devices based upon the characteristics of a Josephson junction are valuable in high speed
circuits. Josephson junctions can be designed to switch in times of a few picoseconds.
Their low power dissipation makes them useful in high-density computer circuits where
resistive heating limits the applicability of conventional switches. Parallel Josephson
junctions are used in SQUID devices SBfor the detection of minute magnetic fields.
Two superconductors separated by a thin insulating layer can experience tunneling of
Cooper pairs of electrons through the junction. The Cooper pairs on each side of the
junction can be represented by a wavefunction similar to a free particle wavefunction. In
the DC Josephson effect, a current proportional to the phase difference of the wavefunc-
tions can flow in the junction in the absence of a voltage. In the AC Josephson effect, a
Josephson junction will oscillate with a characteristic frequency which is proportional to
the voltage across the junction. Since frequencies can be measured with great accuracy,
a Josephson junction device has become the standard measure of voltage.
The wavefunction which describes a Cooper pair of electrons in a superconductor is an
exponential like the free particle wavefunction. In fact, all the Cooper pairs in a super-
conductor can be described by a single wavefunction in the absence of a current because
all the pairs have the same phase - they are said to be ”phase coherent” (Clarke). If
two superconductors are separated by a thin insulating layer, then quantum mechanical
tunneling can occur for the Cooper pairs without breaking up the pairs. Clarke envi-
sions this condition as the wavefuntions for Cooper pairs on each side of the junction
penetrating into the insulating region and ”locking together” in phase. Under these
conditions, a current will flow through the junction in the absence of an applied voltage
(the DC Josephson effect).
When a DC voltage is applied to a Josephson junction, an oscillation of frequency
2eOV
fjoshep =
h
3.7. QUESTIONS 61
Figure 3.6: Josephson effects in materials
occurs at the junction. Since this relationship of voltage to frequency involves only
fundamental constants and since frequency can be measured with extreme accuracy, the
Josephson junction has become the standard voltage measurement.
Josephson junction standards can yield voltages with accuracies of one part in 1010 .
NIST has produced a chip with 19000 series junctions to measure voltages on the order
of 10 volts with this accuracy.
3.7 Questions
1. Define of super conductivity and super conductors.
2. What is transition temperature? SB

3. Mention any four property charges that occur in super conductor (or) what are
the properties of a superconductor.
4. What is Meissner effect?
5. What are the properties of High TC superconductors?
6. What are the applications of superconductors?
7. What is magnetic levitation?
8. Distinguish between type –I and II superconductors.
9. Define cooper pairs?
10. What is Josephson Effect.
11. is superconductivity related to magnetism?
12. How to arrive at the highest temperature superconductivity?
13. Why do various superconductors have different Tc ?
14. Explain BCS theory with Key note of Cooper pairs?

15. How is Josephson tunneling different from single particle tunneling?

16. What is the significane of critical temperature, critical magnetic field and critical
current density for super conductors?
17. What do you mean by perfect diamagnetism of a superconductor?
18. How does a supercondctor differe from a normal conductor?
19. Describe the application of Superconductor in various fields?
3.8 Multiple Choice Question

1. In superconductivity the conductivity of a material becomes
(a) Zero (b) Finite
(c) Infinite (d) No relation
[C]
2. In superconductivity, the electrical resistance of material becomes
(a) Zero (b) Finite
(c) Infinite (d) No relation
[A]
3. The temperature at which conductivity of a material becomes infinite is called....
temperature
(a) Critical (b) Absolute
(c) Mean (d) Crystallization
SB [A]
4. In superconductors, the Fermi energy level is....... ground state and excited state
(a) Below (b) Above
(c) between (d) Not related
[C]
5. The superconducting state is perfectly............ magnetic in nature.
(a) Ferro (b) Ferri
(c) Dia (d) Para
[C]
6. Which of the following are the properties of superconductors?
(a) Diamagnetic (b) Zero resistivity
(c) Infinite conductivity (d) All the listed options
[D]
7. The minimum amount of current passed through the body of superconductor in
order to destroy the superconductivity is called..... current
(a) induced (b) critical
(c) Hall (d) Eddy
[B]
8. The energy required to break a cooper pair is......of the energy gap of supercon-
ductor.
(a) Twice (b) Equal
(c) Half (d) One fourth
[B]
9. The magnetic lines of force cannot penetrate the body of a superconductor, a
phenomenon is known as
(a) Isotopic effect (b) Copper effect
(c) Meisnner effect (d) London theory
[C]
SB

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B.

Tech: Engineering Physics

Figure 1.1: Dielectric material

Figure 1.2: Relationship between D, E and P

1.2 Energy Stored in uniform Electric field

Using Equation (1.1) and (1.2), we have

Further, we know that

Using 1.4 in 1.3, we have

1.3 Gauss law in dielectrics

Figure 1.3: Gauss law in Dielectrics

1.4 Local field

Figure 1.4: Local Field

1. Field E1 produced by changes on the specimen.

3. The field E3 is due to polarization of charges on the surface of a cavity (fictitious

1.4.1 Clausius Mossotti Relation

using the Equation of local field in the above equation, we have

1.5 Measurement of Dielectric constant

Figure 1.5: Dielectric Set up

1. In the absence of dielectric cell, determine the value of capacitance using RF

3. Difference in the above two steps gives value of (C0 ).

6. calculate dielectric constant using Equation

1.6 Dielectric loss and Dielectric relaxation

∗ = 0r − j 00 (i) (1.29)

Both the quantities varies with the applied a.c. frequency.

Figure 1.6: Dielectric relaxation and loss

the applied a.c voltage is given as

Dielectric loss = ωo o 0r V 2 tanδ (1.34)

1.7 Frequency dependence of total polarizability

Figure 1.7: polarization for different types

1.8 Electronic Polarization

using the above equation, we have

Writing for dipole moment(µe )

Writing electronic polarizability (αe )

Now relating polarizability with permittivity and electric field, we have

1.9 Ionic Polaribility

1.10 Orientational Polarizability

For a particle, we assume a ∼

The dipolar polarizability remains generally constant at lower frequencies. It begins to

Figure 1.8: Hysterisis in ferroelectrics

1.12 Multiple Choice Question

2. Polarization in simple voltaic cell is prevented B

3. Total surface polarization charge in a dielectric medium is given by...

4. Electric field intensity E, polarisation vector P and electric displacement vector D

6. Which of the following easily adapt itself to store electrical energy?

8. As the temperature of a ferrolectric exceeds a certain, its ferroelectric properties

10. How does ionic polarisation occur?

11. Which of the following polarisations is very rapid?

12. Which of the following is the slowest polarisation method?

13. Which of the following breakdowns occur at a higher temperature?

14. Which of the following materials exhibit Ferro-electricity?

(a) Iron (b) platinum

15. Dipoles are created when dielectric is placed in .....

17. Polarization is defined as the dipole moment....

SB is used to develop a net dipole

20. Which category of polarizability strongly depends on Temperature and frequency?

22. Polarization in Ferroelectric materials is

23. Dielectrics which show spontaneous polarization are called as

1.13 Questions in dielectrics

11. Explain and obtain the expression for each terms:

∗ = 0r − j 00 (i) (1.29)

Dielectric loss = ωo o 0r V 2 tanδ (1.34)

3. Ferromagnetic materials: µr 1 (equivalently χ 0)