THE VIRUSES

INTRODUCTION:
After discussing the characteristics and classification of viruses including the
processes of replication and the laboratory techniques in studying viruses, we will be
discussing each specific virus , the family they belong, the diseases it caused and the
transmission.

OBJECTIVES:
At the end of the topic, the students will be able to:
A. discus the different family of viruses and their genuses;
B. explain the mode of transmission;
C. identify the primary, secondary and intermediate hosts;
D. state the diseases caused the virus;
E. explain sequelae; and
F. discuss the prions.

PRETEST: Identification.
A. Identify the virus family that the following diseases belong:
_______________ 1. Dengue
_______________ 2. Swimming pool conjunctivitis
_______________ 3. Chicken pox
_______________ 4. Small pox
_______________ 5. Mumps
_______________ 6. German mesles
_______________ 7. Measles
_______________ 8. Ebola
_______________ 9. Common cold
_______________ 10. Flu
_______________ 11. Rabies

B. Give the other word for:

_______________ 12. Chicken pox
_______________ 13. German measles
_______________ 14. Shingles
_______________ 15. The vaccine consist of live viruses treated in such a way that
they will give NO harm within the host. 

A. Class I:DOUBLE-STRANDED DNA VIRUSES (dsDNA):

1. Adenoviridae family - genus Mastadenovirus; naked icosahedral viruses;
Adenovirus has 49 distinct sero type (6 sub genera A to F)
Half of all adenovirus infections are asymptomatic ; 10% causes all
pneumonia; 5-15% all gastroenteritis viruses causes upper resp. tract
infections, acute resp. distress, epidemic keratoconjunctivitis, acute
hemorrhagic cystitis(urinary bladder), pharyngoconjunctival fever affect any
time, any age
adenovirus serotype 14 (rare) but cause severe, sometimes fatal acute resp.
disease (ARD), had an outbreak in 4 states from 2006-2007:New York (1
infant); Oregon, Texas, Washington(140 people)
Adenovirus is shed:
a. in secretions from the eyes and resp. tract
b. Viral shedding in stool and urine can occur for days after the disease has
disappeared
viruses are spread by: aerosols, fomites, the oral-fecal route, & personal contact
Most infections are mild & requires NO specific treatment
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Oral vaccine 1971 until 1999; and new vaccine in development

GOOD INFECTION CONTROL MEASURES: to prevent adenovirus infection like
conjunctivitis (eyes pink and sore) – Swimming pool conjunctivitis (sore eyes)
Adequate chlorination of swimming pools
Adenovirus type 40 & 41 – called enteric adenoviruses
- cause epidemics of gastroenteritis in young children
- DIARRHEA but less vomiting and fever occur than w/ rotavirus infections
- worldwide endemic and number of cases increased during warmer months
- can be identified but NOT serotyped by EIA
- commercial antigen detection kits are available
- can be isolated in human embryonic kidney and many continuous cell lines
- have characteristic CPE w/ swollen cells in grapelike clusters
- isolates can be identified by FA & EIA
-serotyping - - hemagglutination inhibition or serum neutralization

2.Herpesviridae – ds DNA; herpes viruses, icosahedral capsid, an amorphous (no

definite form or shape) integument (cover or enveloping layer)
- has latency and lifelong persistence in their host
- has stimuli that can activate the virus: (causing lesions to reappear)
a. caffeine
b. stress
c. sunlight
- 8 species of HHV (Human herpes virus):
- Herpes simplex virus type 1 – also known as human herpes type 1(HHV-1)
- HHV-2
- HHV-3 or Varicella-zoster virus (VZV)
- HHV-4 or Epstein-Barr virus (EBV)
- HHV-5 or Cytomegalovirus (CMV)
- HHV-6 or Roseolo virus (Child)
- HHV-7 or Roseolo virus (later age)
- HHV-8 or Kaposi sarcoma herpes virus

Additional herpes viruses infect only primates (human beings, apes & monkeys)
EXCEPT herpes B virus w/c has produced fatal infections in researchers and other
handling primates

Herpes simplex viruses HHV 1– most HSV infections are asymptomatic

Classification of HSV infections:
Primary (first or initial infection)
Recurrent (reactivation of latent virus)
Spread of infection:
Contact w/ contaminated secretions – lesions usually occur on mucous
membrane after an incubation period of 2-11 days; most infectious during the
early days of primary infection
Virus infected cells usually in the base of lesions
Can be transmitted from older lesions and asymptomatic patients
HSV infections cause a wide spectrum of clinical manifestations:
Oral herpes – NOT exclusively caused by HSV-1; incubation period 2 days –
2 weeks; primary infection is asymptomatic; but when apparent (rarely
seen) ,in the intraoral mucosal vesicles (blisters) or ulcerations in the
buccal (mouth) mucosa, posterior pharynx, gingival & palatal mucosae; may
appear as acute pharyngitis young adults
Most commonly, HHV-1 affects upper part of the body, but can cause genital
herpes
Recurrent or reactivation – occur on the border of the lips and skin
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A prodrome (premonitory or warning or sign) of burning or pain followed by

vesicles, ulcers, and crusted lesions

Genital herpes – usually caused by HSV-2, 1/3 by HSV-1

Manifestations in female as vesicles on the mucosa of the labia, vagina or
both; cervical & vulvular involvement NOT UNCOMMON
In male – the shaft, glans (a conical), and prepuce (similar fold) of the penis
are commonly affected; Urethra is involved in both sexes.

Human herpesvirus 2 (HHV-2): A herpes virus that causes genital herpes,

characterized by sores in the area of the genitalia. Genital herpes is a
sexually transmitted disease (STD) (https://www.medicinenet.com ›
definition). Genital herpes infection can double the risk of sexual
transmission of HIV

Neonatal herpes – transferred by an HSV infected mother; less common but

has 60% mortality, most commonly transmitted during vaginal delivery (more
severe, HSV-2 is involved); lesser risk if by Cesarean section or
suppressive anti-viral therapy at delivery; most neonates are infected by
mothers shedding virus during primary infection asymptomatically
HSV encephalitis – rare but devastating w/ a mortality of 70%; a leading
cause of fatal sporadic(irregular) encephalitis;associated w/
immunocompromised patients; survival improved due to intravenous (IV)
treatment
Ocular herpes – conjunctivitis, swelling of the eyelids associated w/ vesicles;
ulceration or even perforation of the cornea; HSV is the most common cause
of corneal infection in USA

Dx is by antigen detection or viral isolation; confirmatory, CSF assayed by PCR

- in culture, HSV replicate rapidly, CPE can be seen w/in 24 hours
- isolation – in numerous cell lines of human embryonic lung, rabbit kidney, HEp-2,&
A549
- HSV most frequently isolated virus in clinical virology
- in ELVIS (Enzyme-linked virus inducible system) test – a gene for enzyme β-
galactosidase linked to a virus induce promoter inserted to baby hamster kidney
cells; detection by addition of reagent w/c is cleaved by the enzyme produced in virus
infected cells - - resulting a color change detectable w/ the aid of the microscope
- FDA (Food & Drug Administration) approved type- specific assays that
differentiate antibody response to HSV:
a. EIA
b. strip Immunoblot

Varicella-zoster virus HHV 3–genus Varicellovirus; spreads by droplet inhalation

or direct contact w/ infectious lesions
2 clinical manifestations of VZV virus:
Varicella – chicken pox – primary infection
- highly contagious
- clinically apparent unlike other herpes viruses that are asymptomatic -
commonly appears in childhood w/ mild febrile illness, rash, and
vesicular lesions
- lesion usually appears first on the head and trunk then spread to the
limb
- lesions dry, crust over and heal in 1 to 2 weeks
- painful oral mucosal lesions may develop in adults
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Figure The chicken pox

Zoster – shingles; Herpes zoster is the clinical manifestation due to

reactivation of VZV, usually occurs in adults (Sequelae).
Sequelae - a condition which is the consequence of a previous disease or injury.

- approx. 1 in 3 adults develop herpes zoster in their lifetime

- virus remains latent in the dorsal root or cranial nerve ganglia after primary
infection
- virus becomes reactivated, travels down the nerve, and causes zoster
- w/ rash, then vesicular lesions associated w/ prolonged disabling pain that can
remain for months long after vesicular lesions disappear
- culture of fresh lesions (vesicles)
- use of fluorescent-labeled monoclonal antibodies against VZV
- VZV cultured on human embryonic lung or Vero cells (monkey kidney cell line)
- cytopathic changes may NOT appear for 3-7 days
Attenuated vaccine to prevent chicken pox
Attenuated vaccine for shingles –“ Zostavax”
90% of adults have antibody to VZV

 attenuated vaccine consists of live, whole bacterial cells or viral particles that are
treated in such a way that they have reduced virulence within the host .

Figure Smallpox versus chicken pox

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Figure The distribution of rash for diagnosis

EBV – HHV 4, from the genus Lymphocryptovirus causes infectious

mononucleosis (Kissing Disease)
Signs & symptoms: sore throat, fever, lymphadenopthy, splenomegaly, body
malaise
-Complication of EBV are spleenic hemorrhage and rupture, hepatitis,
thrombocytopenia purpura w/ hemolytic anemia, Reye’s syndrome, encephalitis,
% neurologic syndromes
Reye's (Reye) syndrome - a rare but serious condition that causes swelling in
the liver and brain. Reye's syndrome most often affects children and teenagers
recovering from a viral infection, most commonly the cold, flu or chickenpox.
(15 Aug 2020, mayo clinic). . In most cases, aspirin has been used to treat their
symptoms, so aspirin may trigger Reye's syndrome. In Reye's syndrome, a
child's blood sugar level typically drops while the levels of ammonia and
acidity in his or her blood rise. At the same time, the liver may swell and
develop fatty deposits. Swelling may also occur in the brain, which can cause
seizures, convulsions or loss of consciousness (15 Aug 2020).
Purpura – a purplish discoloration that appears under the skin caused by bleeding
underneath; small spot like petechiae
-EBV can be recovered from the oropharynx of symptomatic healthy person
who can transmit virus via saliva
-incubation period , 2 wks-2months
-infection in the young are asymptomatic
-some cancers are also associated w/ EBV including Burkitt lymphoma,
Hodgkin disease & nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC)
-Burkitt lymphoma –is a malignant disease of the lymphoid tissue (common in
African children)
- EBV is an infectious agent in transplant recipients by developing-cell
lymphoproliferative disorder or lymphoma
- EBV viral culture requires human B lymphocytes (w/c is beyond
capabilities of most clinical virology lab.

EBV often done w/ serologic tests:

1. anti-VCA ( antibodies against viral capsid antigen; IgM to VCA’s w/in 4
weeks; IgG appears in the acute stage and will persist for life at lower titer
2. Anti-EA (IgG antibody to early antigen; antibody cannot be detected after
6 months
3. Anti-EA/D (antibody to early antigen, diffuse) –antibodies cannot be
detected after 6 months; appear in acute phase - - result: current or recent infection- -
Patients often have elevated IgG and IgA anti-EA/D
4. Anti-EA/R (antibody to early antigen, restricted) – appear in the acute
phase and disappear soon after anti-EA/D but can persist for up to 2 years and for
life for some patients.
Anti-EA/R IgG antibody is elevated in patients w/ Burkitt lymphoma (diffuse lymphoid
proliferation w/”starry sky” pattern; w/ B-cell lymphoma)
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5. Anti-EBNA – (antibody to the EBV nuclear antigen); antibodies appear

about 1 month after infection, w/ titers peaking in 6-12 months
-antibodies to sheep and horse RBC
- EIA or latex agglutination (commercial) - - result false+ , patient who
have had infectious mononucleosis , low level of antibody

HHV-5 , CMV genus – a typical herpes virus, replicates only in human cells much
more slowly than HSV, or VZV; spread by close contact w/ infected person
-most adult has antibody against CMV; but those who lived in overcrowded living
condition may acquire CMV at early age
- virus is shed in saliva, tears, urine, stool, and breast milk
- transmitted sexually via semen and cervical and vaginal secretions
- through blood & blood products
- CMV , the most common congenital infection in US
- CMV infection are asymptomatic but congenital infection and in
immunocompromised person are symptomatic and can be serious

Symptomatic congenital infection characteristics:

a. Petechiae
b. Hepatosplenomegally
c. Microcephally

Dx – isolation in cell culture is better than serology ; virus from normally sterile body
fluids such as: buffy coat of blood, internal fluid, tissue
Viral antigenemia test

Human herpesvirus 6 – in genus Roseolovirus (w/ 2 variants); childhood disease

roseola (called roseola infantum, or sixth disease or exanthem subitum)
- called sixth disease because the human herpesvirus (HHV) type 6 most
often causes the illness. Less frequently, it can also be due to HHV type 7
or another virus(16 Nov 2020); affected infant until less than 6 years old
-virus persists in the salivary glands
- roseola rash is more pink-red, while measles rash is more red-brown.
-isolated from stool specimen
-isolation of virus w/ lymphocyte culture (not practical routine Dx)
-means of transmission : inhalation of respiratory droplets
-do NOT have +IgM until about 5 days. IgG appear several days later

Human herpes virus 7 – in genus Roseolovirus w/ HHV-6;

-occur later in life
- first isolated from peripheral blood monocytes of patients in 1989
-PCR detect virus

HHV 8 – in genus Rhadinovirus; can be detected in all forms of Kaposi sarcoma

including AIDS-related and post transplantation
-KSHV–Kaposi sarcoma-associated herpes virus, or HHV8
- has a role in the development of primary effusion lymphoma & multicentric
Castleman disease
Effusion - escape of fluid or smell into a body cavity.
-men who have sex w/ men (MSM) seem to be more susceptible than
heterosexual
- cannot be recovered in cell cultures
- PCR less so than immunologic assay
Kaposi's sarcoma (KS) is the most common cancer in HIV-infected untreated
individuals.
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3.Papillomaviridae – genus Papillomavirus; Papillomas or wart

- cervical
- transmitted sexually known as genital type (high risk
- infect cutaneous or mucosal type
- genital wart formation ( or condylomata acuminate)
- Pap s smear to look for koilocytes
- Koilocytes –cells w/ perinuclear clearing w/ an increase in density of
surrounding rim of cytoplasm
- PCR – DNA in endocervical cells, HPV type?
- 1/3 of college-age women are infected w/ HPV
- quadrivalent vaccine since 2006 (9-26 years old)

4. Poxviridae –genus Orthopoxvirus; vaccinia virus (small pox), monkey pox, cow
pox, etc
-poxviruses, large viruses ; 225 -450 nm length, 140 – 260 nm width
- brick shape, ds DNA genome
a. Variola virus – causes small pox
- Edward Jenner – vaccination to small pox, 1796
- produce rash w/ fever; incubation – 10 – 17 days
- febrile w/ oral lesion

b. Monkey pox virus in primates (1958) – introduced by rodents (Africa)

Less severe in human than small pox
Low mortality rate

B. SINGLE-STRANDED DNA VIRUSES

1. PARVOVIRIDAE – Naked ssDNA, smallest of the DNA viruses, 22 – 26 nm
diameter
Parvovirus B19 – principal pathogen, genus Erythrovirus; Asymptomatic to
potentially Fatal
EI, erythema infectiosum or 5th disease – a prodrome of fever, headache,
malaise & myalgia w/ resp. and gastrointestinal symptoms (nausea, vomiting)
Prodromal phase lasts few days after w/c rashes often appears like “slapped
cheek” spreading to the trunk and limbs

a. b.
The Journal of Pediatrics
Figure a. Human parvovirus B19; b. Multiple bullae associated with human parvovirus B19

Affects mostly children ,7 – 18 months, lasts in 2 weeks, can recur after

heat & sunlight exposure
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Adults experience arthralgia, arthritis or both, may appear w/o prodrome or

rash stage
Parvovirus B19 viremia can cause transient aplastic crisis, a self-limited
erythropoietic arrest; erythroid precursor cell contain a receptor for the
virus - - -allowing viral infection & replication; decrease in RBC production in
the bone marrow;
The disease can be severe w/c includes: viremia, thrombocytopenia,
granulocytopenia, pancytopenia, flu-like symptoms & congestive heart failure;
w/in a week reticulocytosis occur - - patient recovers
Pancytopenia - lower-than-normal number of red and white blood cells
and platelets in the blood. Pancytopenia occurs when there is a problem
with the blood-forming stem cells in the bone marrow.
Parvovirus creates risk for blood donors and fetuses
In 2005, virus was named human bocavirus (HBoV) causing upper & lower
resp. tract illnesses closely related to bovine (cow) parvovirus & canine
minute virus
Shed in high quantity in stool
HBoV infection – highest during winter, detected less frequently
parvovirus B19 only infects humans, a person cannot get the virus from a dog
or cat. Also, dogs and cats cannot get parvovirus B19 from an infected person. Pet
dogs and cats can get infected with other parvoviruses that do not infect humans

C. DOUBLE-STRANDED RNA VIRUSES

1. Reoviridae
a. Rotavirus –genus, naked virus, 75 nm diameter w/ 2 protein layers
surrounding the capsid
Most common cause of viral gastroenteritis in infants & children, a major
cause of mortality & failure to thrive (to grow vigorously)
Caused estimated 611, 000 deaths per year worldwide Outbreaks , winter in
the temperate zone & year-round in the tropics
Rotavirus spread by oral-fecal route, incubation period, 1-4 days
Sudden onset – vomiting, diarrhea, fever, ( cause dehydration);sometimes
abdominal pain & respiratory symptoms
Replicates in the epithelial cells in the tips of the microvilli of the small
intestine
Shed in large quantities in stool, can be isolated only w/ special procedures
ELISA, Enzyme-linkedimmunosorbent Assay and Latex agglutination
tests detects the viral antigens in fecal material
Rapid membrane-bound colorimetric tests
Electron microscopy exam of stool samples (NOT very sensitive)
In 2006, human-bovine rotavirus vaccine (Rota Teq. Merck & Co., Inc)

b.Colorado Tick Fever Virus – Coltivirus, genus – causes dengue –like

infection in western US & Canada; 80 nm spherical w/ 2 outer shells
containing 12 RNA segments
- NOT a reportable infection, but may be one of the most common transmitted
diseases by ticks in US
c. Arbovirus – virus transmitted by arthropods, as ticks and mosquitoes
- vector – Dermacentor andersoni; has many hosts:
a. deer b. squirrel c. rabbit

Infected patients develop:

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a. photophobia b. fever c. myalgia d. arthralgia

e. chills
- arthralgia – pain in one or more joints
- similar to dengue, patient can also have biphasic fever w/ a rash; children
may experience hemorrhagic fever
- NO commercially produced lab test available, BUT recombinant
immunoassay were developed

D.SINGLE-STRANDED RNA VIRUSES

1. Arenaviridae (-ssRNA)
a. Arenaviruses –got the name from “arena” meaning “ sand”; more than
20 arena named; 2 groups:
a.1. Old World a.2. New World
-New World Arenaviruses – more extensive group include:    a.Tacaribe
b. Guanarito c.Junin d. Machupo
- Old World includes lymphocytic choriomeningitis (LCM)
b. Junin virus causes Argentine hemorrhagic fever
c. Machupo virus from out break in Bolivia, 1963
d. Lassa virus in Africa, 1969 – well known,
- most exposed develop asymptomatic infection but some experience fever,
headache, pharyngitis, myalgia, diarrhea& vomiting;
- some developed pleural effusions (flow of fluid), hypotension & hemorrhage
- community acquired by contact w/ excretions from multimammate rat
Mastomys natalensis, shed virus lifetime once infected
- inhaled or through breaks in the skin
- lassa virus – present in throat secretion
- can be transmitted person to person; through sexual contact; nosocomially
- effectively treated w/ ribavirin
- arena viruses infect rodents and humans (ZOONOTIC transmission) – shed
in urine, feces & saliva
-Mus musculus mice – carry the LCM
- Pet hamsters – also reservoirs
- Human became infected when aerosolized virus or come in contact w/
fomites
- LCM virus causes an influenza-like illness, 25% develop meningitis
- CNS involvement – seizures, encephalopathy
2. Bunyaviridae – (-ss RNA) genus Orthobunyavirus, Phlebovirus, Nairovirus,
classified as arboviruses – commonly cause hemorrhagic fever, or encephalitis
a. replicate initially in the GUT of the arthropod vectors, in the saliva,
transmitted by feeding on the blood of the vertebrate host, including human
b. after few day, asymptomatic viremia, fever
c. Rift Valley fever virus - targets brain (encephalitis) & liver (hepatitis)
d. La Crosse (LACV) & California encephalitis viruses; serology test not
offered in most lab because of very low mortality (1%); La Crosse (LAC) encephalitis
is a mosquito-borne virus that was first described in La Crosse, Wisconsin in 1963.
Since then, it has been reported in several Midwestern and Mid-Atlantic states.
e. Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever (CCHF) – targets vascular endothelium
& liver, cause high mortality; begin w/ fever, myalgia, arthralgia, photophobia;
develop mental status changes ranging from confusion & agitation to depression and
drowsiness; petechiae and ecchymoses can form on mucosal surfaces and skin;
30% of patients die; others after 10 days of illness recover, affected mostly children;
frequently refered as “summer flu” or “summer cold”
ecchymoses – escape of blood into the tissues from ruptured blood vessels;
may bleed from the bowel, nose & gums; a discoloration of the skin resulting from
bleeding underneath, typically caused by bruising
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f. genus - Hanta virus hanta viruses infect arthropod hosts; rodent borne
viruses; Hantaan virus, Seoul virus, Puumala virus, Dobrava virus - - will
cause hemorrhagic fever w/ renal syndrome (HFRS); endemic in Asia
&Europe w/ exception of Seoul virus
HPS – Hanta virus pulmonary syndrome; fever, chills, myalgia,
hypotensive shock , pulmonary edema, tachycardia, hypoxia
g. SNV – sin nombre (no Name) virus – by inhaling mouse urine, saliva
and feces , NO person-to-person transmission (Leptospirosis - an infectious
bacterial disease that occurs in rodents, dogs, and other mammals and can be
transmitted to humans)

3.Calciviridae (+ssRNA) – has 4 genera (Sapoviruses SaVs,Noroviruses NoVs,

Lagovirus, & Vesivirus)
- SaVs & NoVs – cause gastroenteritis
Sapporo virus, Norwalk virus, rabbit hemorrhagic disease virus, & feline (cat)
calcivirus
NoVs – small, ssRNA, round , 27-30 nm diameter
Sapoviruses – small, 30- in 35nm diameter, diarrheagenic viruses, cup-
shaped, discovered in Sapporo, Japan, 1977

4.Coronaviridae (+ssRNA)- genus Coronavirus – enveloped helical viruses w/

ssRNA , club-shaped projection on the surface, 15% of cold-like infection in adults,
higher in children; fragile & difficult to culture; blood in the stool
Coronaviruses:
 SARS-CoV, the virus that caused SARS, which was first identified in 2003
 MERS-CoV, the virus that caused Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS),
which was first identified in 2012
 SARS-CoV-2, the virus that causes COVID-19, which was first identified in
2019

- resp. disease pandemic in Hongkong, 2002, 6-month period, infection

spread in 26 countries rapidly
- characterized by high fever & pneumonia, resp. distress syndrome
-ultimately named SARS, severe acute respiratory syndrome
- IF & EIA tests
- NO vaccine available until 2020
- from civet- cat to human, pangolin, bat, SARS-CoV-2 ??
- 2 species of bats from Rocky Mountain , US:
a. Eptesicus fuscus b.Myotis occultus
- affected by SARS:
a. digestive tract c. spleen e. lymph nodes
b. urogenital tract d. CNS f. bone marrow g. heart
- SARS test:
a. ELISA – Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay
b. electron microscopy
c. (RT)-PCR –Reverse Transcriptase- PCR
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Figure 1 Components of SARS-CoV-2 and HIV

-SARS-CoV-2 (2019), Wuhan corona virus, 2019 novel corona virus

a. the virus is spread via the respiratory route, primarily by droplets and
contact with contaminated surfaces and fomites, as well as by aerosol formation
during invasive respiratory procedures; 2) the airborne route is still controversial; and
3) that those infected can spread the virus without necessarily developing COVID-19
(ie, asymptomatic). With the number of SARS-CoV-2 infections increasing globally,
the possibility of co-infections and/or co-morbidities is becoming more concerning.
Co-infection with Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) is one such example of
polyparasitism of interest.
b.  first published case of SARS-CoV-2/HIV co-infection was a 61-year-old
man from Wuhan who was confirmed to have SARS-CoV-2 in January 2020 and
had diabetes and HIV infection as comorbidities
c. Hospital Clinic Barcelona in Barcelona, Spain treated five patients with HIV
and SARS-CoV-2 co-infection in March 2020, and a university hospital in Madrid
reported 51 cases by April 30, 2020.

types of COVID-19 tests available

At this time, there are 3 types of tests that have been authorized by the U.S. Food
and Drug Administration (FDA) for the detection of COVID-19. 
 Rapid antigen tests, also known as point-of care tests.
 Molecular tests, also known as nucleic acid amplifiction, genetic, RNA or PCR
tests.
 Antibody tests, also known as serology tests.
 Rapid antigen tests are immunoassays that require respiratory specimens
(typically nasopharyngeal or nasal swab) from the patient because SARS-
CoV-2 is a respiratory virus. Once collected, samples are placed in an
extraction buffer or reagent and tested for the presence of SARS-CoV-2-
specific antigens.   
 Rapid antigen tests tell us if a patient is actively infected with SARS-CoV-2.
They detect the presence of virus-specific proteins, called antigens, from
patient specimens. As of Aug. 18, 2020, the FDA has issued Emergency Use
Authorization (EUA) for 3 rapid antigen tests. All of these detect SARS-CoV-2
nucleocapsid protein (N) antigens. Results are produced quickly, generally
within 15 minutes, and can be performed near the place and time of patient
care (as opposed to a separate laboratory setting). If the viral antigen is
 49

detected, it indicates that the virus is present.

5. Filoviridae (-ssRNA) – genera: a. Marburgvirus b. Ebolavirus (Zaire

strain, 1976): EBO-Z, EBO-S (Sudan strain), EBO-R(Reston), 1990
Tai Forest (Ivory Coast) ebolavirus, and Bundibugyo ebolavirus(14 Jan 2021)
Bats are likely a natural reservoir for the Ebola virus, but little is known
about how the virus evolves in bats (18 Aug 2020)

Ebola- rarely cause human infection, but cause high mortality

Lake Victoria Marburg virus hemorrhagic fever – first outbreak
7 Yugoslav died in unknown infection, they all worked in vaccine-producing
facilities
Recent outbreaks: Angola (2005), Uganda (2007), Netherlands by Ugandan
importation (2008)
(EBOV) Ebola virus named after the Ebola River where the infection
emerged in 1976, from a patient w/ a bloody nose in the hospital where it was
transmitted nosocomially and direct contact. Nuns in the hospital
continuously reused syringes w/o sterilizing them
People most at risk are those who care for infected people, such as aid
workers, or those who handle their blood or body fluid, such as hospital
workers, laboratory workers and family members
 having sex with an infected person without using a condom – studies show
traces of Ebola may remain in semen many months after recovery
 handling or eating raw or undercooked "bushmeat"(wild animals that
have been killed for food)
EBO-R – unusual in 1989; monkeys imported to Reston, Virginia, from the
Philippines experienced an epidemic (third type). 4 Workers develop
antibodies in that animal facility but did NOT develop the disease (EBO-R)
Symptoms of Ebola; fever, chills, myalgia; anorexia (4-16 days), then develop
sore throat, abdominal pain, diarrhea , vomiting, bleed from injection site and
GIT
Dx by PCR, IF, viral culture

6. FLAVIVIRIDAE– zoonotic arbovirus

Influenza-like, encephalitis, dengue virus, yellow fever
Dengue virus- dengue fever DF, dengue hemorrhagic fever, DHF- - Aedes
aegypti; DF has 4 sero types
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Yellow fever virus –asymptomatic infection; 4 days acute infection w/ fever,

myalgia, backache, headache, anorexia, nausea, vomiting , -- jaundice,
bleeding from the mouth, nose eyes, stomach, kidney failure

different transmission cycles for the yellow fever virus:

a. Sylvatic cycle – yellow fever maintained in the monkey and
transmitted by mosquitoes
b. Urban cycle – infected mosquito A. aegypti transmit the infection to
people
c. Intermediate cycle – human , monkey & mosquitoes are reservoirs;
mosquitoes can transfer the virus from monkey to man and from man to
monkey
Mosquitoes – vectors for high morbidity
SLE, St. Louie encephalitis (US) – Culex mosquitoes biting birds
WNV, West Nile Virus – fever , headache, fatigue, occasional skin rash on
the trunk, swollen lymph glands, eye pain
Culex, a large group of mosquitoes also known as common house
mosquitoes, are the principal vectors that spread the viruses that
cause West Nile fever, St. Louis encephalitis, and Japanese
encephalitis, as well as viral diseases of birds and horses.

7. Orthomyxoviridae (+ssRNA)–genus Influenza virus A, Infl. B, Infl. C

- originate as zoonotic infection carried by species of birds & mammals
- Influenza season – May to October – southern hemisphere
November to April – Northern hemisphere
- Influenza A – the most crucial health problems worldwide; pandemic of 1918
& 1919, killed 20M and 50M people w/ 500, 000 were Americans but for past 80
years people only reacted to the threat but NOT to vanquish (subdue, eliminate) it
-Influenza viruses – enveloped, type A & B have 8 segments of ssRNA;
major surface antigens are hemagglutinin (H) and neuraminidase (N)
- H antigen bind to host cells cleaves budding viruses from infected cells
-there are 16 H antigens (H1 to H16): Human infections occur w/ H1, H2&
H3
- there are 9 N antigens, human infections usually occur w/ N1 & N2
-inflenza’s persistence is its antigenic variation due to antigenic drift
- antigenic drifts occur each year caused by RNA replication errors of the
virus; occur in 3 types of influenza , A, B, C
- drift is a minor change in antigenic structure as mutations accumulate

2 mechanisms of antigenic shift:

a. first, reassortment of the eight ssRNA strands of 2 separate influenza
strains
influenza viruses swap gene segments
- ex. pigs have receptors for both avian and human influenza viruses as
well as swine influenza viruses – - - reassortment occurs when the genome of
both influenza viruses mixed into a single virion, resulting into a new strain of
influenza virus
b. second, adaptive mutation – a novel virus slowly adjusts and becomes
transmissible from a mammalian (including human) host. Shifts result in novel strains
of the influenza virus, so the human population is likely to have little or NO historic
exposure or resistance to the new strain, w/c generally increases the risk of
pandemics. Antigenic shift is only associated w/ influenza A.

3 major shifts occurred during 20th century:

Influenza A (H1N1) appeared in 1918-1919 –Spanish flu
 51

Influenza A (H2N2) appeared 1957-1958 – resulted in pandemic influenza,

Asian flu
Influenza A (H3N2) in 1968, pandemic, Hongkong flu
The dominant strains of influenza A since 1977 were: a) Influenza A (H1N1)
and influenza A (H3N2)
Influenza A (H5N1) – 1998 outbreak, Avian flu , poultry in Hongkong; 18
humans acquired disease in contact w/ the birds; 6 died;
H5N1 – highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) virus NOT transmitted
from birds to human but some were infected during poultry outbreaks, incidence of
human diseases was low but mortality was high; dissemination of influenza A (H5N1)
throughout Asia due to migrating birds from Turkey, Greece, Italy, German, Iraq, Iran,
Nigeria, etc.
Novel H1N1infection has flu-like symptoms : fever, cough, sore throat, body
aches, headaches, chills, fatigue - - swine flu vaccine, Sep 2009, adjuvant
(preventive)
Influenza B – less common
Influenza C – cause mild respiratory illness in humans; enveloped, genome
has only seven ssRNA segments, lacking gene that codes for neuraminidase as
in influenza A, less reassortment occur, less prone to major changes in infectivity
-Influenza virus spread by aerosols
-Viruses attack the ciliated epithelial cells lining the respiratory tract
causing necrosis and sloughing of cells
- incubation; 1-4 days; ill for 7 days, convalescence 2 weeks – lead to viral
pneumonia; complication is secondary bacterial pneumonia
- rapid onset of malaise, fever, myalgia, nonproductive cough
Influenza is a viral infection that attacks your respiratory system — your nose,
throat and lungs. Influenza is commonly called the flu, but it's not the same as
stomach "flu" viruses that cause diarrhea and vomiting (19 Dec 2020)

Specimen: Nasopharyngeal swab, washes, or aspirates – best specimens

-Flocked swabs collect significantly more epithelial swabs than rayon swabs
-specimen should NEVER be frozen
- commercial rapid kit for 30 minutes, CLIA- waived
- kit can detect influenza A & Infl. B but NOT distinguish bet. Them
- in resp. infection, influenza can be detected by DFA (Direct Fluorescent
Antibody), EIA, & optical Immunoassay
- influenza grow in amniotic activity of embryonated chicken eggs and various
mammalian cell culture lines like PMK, MDCK (Madin-Darby canine kidney) cells.
This influenza- infected culture cells adsorb RBC (+ result)

Figure positive DFA

 
Flocked swabs mark the newest evolution of single-use specimen collection
devices. Flocking refers to a process of applying (multi length fibers) — called
flocking - to an adhesive-coated surface to provide for enhanced sample collection.
All flocked swabs have definite advantages for many applications (26 Aug 2013).
 52

Figure Flocked swabs

Antiviral drugs amantadine and rimantadine – can prevent influenza infection or

reduce severity of symptoms; administered w/in 48 hours of onset
-newer antivirals, neuraminidase inhibitors
-Zanamivir (Relensa) & oseltamivir (Tamiflu) are more expensive than
amantidine

8. Paramyxoviridae (-ssRNA)– genera Morbillivirus, Paramyxovirus, Pneumovirus,

Rubulavirus (major classification of Paramyxovirinae)
a. Rubulavirus (mumps, parainfluenza virus)
Parainfluenza viruses (PIV) – has 4 types, PIVs-1 to PIVs-4; enveloped
helical RNA viruses w/ 2 surface antigens: a,1) hemagglutinin-
neuraminidase (HN) antigen - - the viral adhesion molecule
a.2 Fusion (F) antigen - - fusion of the virus to the cell and of one infected
cell and to another infected cell
PIVs-1 &PIVs-3 – belong to paramyxovirus
PIVs-2 & PIVs-4 – genus Rubulavirus
PIVs – major cause of resp. disease :
PIVs-1 & PIVs-2 – most serious illness in young children – 2 to 4 years old
PIV-1 – the primary cause of croup (laryngotraceobronchitis) in children
PIV-3 –causes bronchiolitis and pneumonia in infants; is second to resp.
syncytial (multinucleated) virus
PIV-4 – mild resp. tract infection
PIVs spread thru aerosols, rhinitis, pharyngitis,. . .
Specimen: viral culture – aspirated secretions, & nasopharyngeal washes,
taken early; kept cold, inoculated into PMK or LLC-MK2 cells
Virus identified by hemadsorption, IF, EIA techniques
Aerosolized ribavirin to treat infection
NO vaccine available
b. Morbilivirus (measles)
c. Henipavirus (Hendra and Nipah viruses)
d. Pneumovirus (Respiratory Syncytial Virus)
e. Metapneumovirus (Metapneumovirus)
a. Mumps virus – genus Rubulavirus; enveloped ssRNA virus w/HN and F
antigens; spread by droplets of infected saliva; swelling of the parotid
glands and other glands as testes, ovaries, pancreas
Vaccine available
SPECIMEN:-Mumps virus can be isolated from infected saliva and swabs
rubbed over the Stensen’s duct from 9 days before onset of symptoms until 8 days
after parotitis appears
from urine; CSF
 53

IF, EIA methods

Stensen's duct - a duct that drains saliva from the parotid gland into the mouth,
at the area of the upper cheeks. The submandibular glands are found on both sides,
just under and deep to the jaw, towards the back of the mouth. This gland produces
roughly 70% of the saliva in our mouth.

b. Measles (Rubeola) Virus – genus Morbillivirus; enveloped virus; found in the

temperate zone; epidemics occur during winter and spring
-Highly contagious, spreads by aerosol
Initial replication takes place in the mucosal cells of the respiratory tract;
measles then replicates in the local lymph nodes and spreads
systematically
Virus circulates in the T & B cells and monocytes until the lungs, gut, bile,
duct, bladder, skin & lymphatic organs
Incubation – 7-10 days ; abrupt onset w/ symptoms of sneezing, runny nose
and cough, red eyes, rapidly rising fever
2-3 days, a maculo-papular – rash appear on the head and trunk

Koplik’s spot –lesions on the oral mucosa consisting of irregular red

spots w/ a bluish-white speck on the center, generally appear 2-3 days
before the rash
Complications – otitis, pneumonia, encephalitis
Progressive highly fatal form of encephalitis
Vaccine – attenuated
-virus grows on PMK
-EIA,IF, serologic Dx IgM

c. Respiratoty Syncytial virus, RSV- genus Pneumovirus; common infants

Cause croup (edema, inflammation w/ obstruction of the larynx, trachea) ,
bronchitis, bronchiolitis, interstitial pneumonia
- specimen - nasopharyngeal swabs, washes; kept cold but NOT frozen
-grows in epithelial cell lines, PMK & human diploid fetal cells; CPE
- DFA or EIA, IF
- Ribavirin therapy
Croup - an infection of the upper airway, which obstructs breathing and causes a
characteristic barking cough. The cough and other signs and symptoms of croup
are the result of swelling around the voice box (larynx), windpipe (trachea) and
bronchial tubes (bronchi) (11 Apr 2019).

d. Human Metapneumovirus (hMPV) – in children w/ virus negative culture

-similar symptoms caused by respiratory syncytial virus, influenza virus,
parainfluenza virus: fever, nonproductive cough, sore throat, wheezing congestion,
shortness of breath , and lethargy
-hMPV - usually occur in winter but outbreaks in summer; avian
metapneumovirus; grow in cell culture lines such as tertiary monkey kidney & A549
cell lines
- specimen: from nostrils swab placed in a transport media & transported on
ice to the lab. For culture & molecular analysis
e. Hendra virus (HeV: Australia), Nipah (NiV: Asia) - -
sRNA ;paramyxovirus, (subfamily – Paramyxovirinae)
- Genus Pteropus (flying foxes)
- transmission – saliva
-immunization (usually same as Measles and Rubella (MMR)
 54

9. Picornaviridae (+ ssRNA) - one of the largest families of viruses; 230 members;

nonenveloped RNA viruses; 30-nm icosahedral capsid which infect vertebrates
including mammals and birds

-4 genera w/ human clinical significance: a) Enterovirus b)Rhinovirus

                    c) Hepatovirus d) Parechovirus
a. Hepatovirus – includes hepatitis A virus
b. Enteroviruses :- small, naked viruses, causing fever of unknown origin,
aseptic meningitis, paralysis, sepsis-like illness, myopericarditis, pleurodynia,
conjunctivitis, exanthemas, pharyngitis, pneumonia
a. Polioviruses 1 through 3
b. Coxsackieviruses A1 through 23
c. Coxsackieviruses B1 through 6
d.Enteroviruses 68 through 72
e. Echoviruses 1 through 32
f. Parechovirus 1-4
- Enteroviruses – have been implicated in the early onset of diabetes,
cardiomyopathy &fetal malformation
- more prevalent in areas w/ poverty, overcrowding, poor hygiene, poor
sanitation
- spread via aerosol, fecal-oral routes, fomites
- portal of entry mouth thru alimentary canal
- replicate initially in the lymphoid tissue of the pharynx and gut
- Viremia – result in the virus spreading to the spinal cord, heart & skin
- Enterovirus infection often cause mild nausea, diarrhea EXCEPT in
neonates
c. poliovirus – infect the nervous system and cause paralysis; oral polio
vaccine (attenuated 3 poliovirus serotypes)
d. Hand, foot-and-mouth disease virus (HFMD) - contagious viral illness most
common in infants and young children; adults can also develop the illness if they
have exposure to the virus, most likely asymptomatic.
symptoms can include:
 sores in the mouth fever
 an itchy rash on the hands, feet, or both flu-like symptoms
Cause of HFMD:
Enterovirus viruses cause HFMD. According to the CDCTrusted Source, the viruses
that most commonly cause the illness include:
 Coxsackievirus A16 - most common cause of HFMD in the United States.
 Coxsackievirus A6: People who contract this virus may experience more
severe symptoms.
 Enterovirus 71 (EV-A71)- most common cause of HFMD in East and
Southeast Asia.
Complications – the risk from HFMD is low.
The largest risk is dehydration. The CDCTrusted Source also identify the following
rare complications:
 loss of fingernails or toenails
 encephalitis or polio-like paralysis
 viral meningitis, also called aseptic meningitis
d. Human rhinoviruses (HRVs) were first discovered in the 1950s in an
effort to identify the etiology of the common cold; most common viral
infectious agent in humans and is the predominant cause of the common
cold. Rhinovirus infection proliferates in temperatures of 33–35 °C, the
temperatures found in the nose. Rhinoviruses belong to the genus
Enterovirus
 55

Figure Hand, foot and mouth disease (Picornaviridae)

Figure Picornavirus

Figure Measles Figure Mumps

 56

10. Togaviridae (+ssRNA) – Rubella virus ( German measles)

- small enveloped, via respiratory route; replicates in nasopharnyx; enters
blood stream caused sustained viremia; Third Disease
- Pink macules and papules on the face

Figure Rubella (German measles)Togaviridae, ssRNA

11. Rhabdoviridae (-ssRNA) – Baltimore class V; enveloped, helical nucleocapsid,

- “Rhabdos” Greek word for rod; Rabies
- infect plants are rod with rounded ends while those infecting animals are
rods with bullet shapes ends
- has wide host range, Rabies is endemic in wild mammalian species
- in the laboratory (cultures), found that birds can be infected and even insect
- shed through saliva in a damaged skin to neurons; spread to the Central NS
- anti-rabies vaccine are incorporated in food baits oin others drooped by the
helicopters in the wild
- rabies , normally absent in UK, and maintained, animal species are required
to be in quarantine for a period on entry to UK.

Figure positive DFA, rabies

 rabies antibody used for the dFA test is primarily directed against the nucleoprotein
(antigen) of the virus 

Examples of rhabdoviruses:
b. Vesiculovirus – vesicle (blister); mammalas and fish are hosts;
disease is vesicular stomatitis virus
c. Lyssavirus – “Lyssa” Greek word for rage, fury,canine madness;
mammals are hosts; disease is Rabies virus
d. Novirhabdovirus – non-virion protein; fish are hosts; disease is
Infectious hematopoietic necrosis virus
e. Nucleorhabdovirus – replication cycle includes a nuclear phase; hosts
are plants and insects; disease example: potato yellow dwarf virus
 57

E. REVERSE TRANSCRIBING
1. Retroviridae –“ Retro” Latin for backwards; enveloped; +ssRNA , Baltimore
class VI; contain 2 copies of the genome; virus RNA contain molecules of host
cell RNA (tRNA) that were packaged during the assembly and called PBS (primer
binding site)
- Hosts: animals, birds and other vertebrate animals
- Diseases:
a. Immunodeficiency diseases: HIV-1, HIV-2
b. Leukemias
c. Solid tumors
2. Hepadnaviridae – Baltimore Class VII , dsDNA transcribed +RNA; enveloped,
icosahedral, DNA partly single stranded
-Hosts:humans and other mammals; birds like gray heron
-Cause disease of the liver (hepatitis) as hepatitis B virus (HBV)
- virus are in blood and semen of infected individual
-Mode of transmission is parallel to HIV; ex. Vertical transmission
-Hepa virion roughly spherical

Virus Evolution – generation of genome variants with majority do not survive

- Viral genome variants arise as a result of mutations, recombination,
reassortment of genome segment and acquisition of cell genes
- for a virus, the niche might be a new host species or the presence of anti-
viral drug and a variant may proliferate in that niche as a new virus strain.
  - niche includes more than what an organism eats or where it lives or the role
of an organism in a community

VIRUS VACCINES:
1. Live Attenuated Vaccine - contain mutant strain of a virus that has been
derived from wild-type virulent strain
-virulence must have been attenuated means little or No virulence
- most attenuated virus strains have been derived by “hit and miss”
procedures such as repeated passage of wild-type virus in cells unrelated to
normal host
-advantage:
a. there are increasing amounts of virus antigen in the body as the virus
replicates
b. a wide-ranging immune response is induced that involves B cells, CD4
T cells and CD8 T cells
- CD8-positive T cells are a critical subpopulation of MHC class I-
restricted T cell and are mediators of adaptive immunity. They include
cytotoxic T cells, which are important for killing cancerous or virally infected
cells, and CD8-positive suppressor T cells, which restrain certain types of
immune response
MHC -Major histocompatibility complex

2. Inactivated or killed - virus vaccines are made by mass-producing the

virulent virus and then inactivating the infectivity, usually by treatment with a
chemical such as β-propriolactone, ethylene oxide, or formaldehyde.
- it lies in finding the combination of chemical concentration and reaction time
that completely inactivates the virus, but leaves the antigen sufficiently
unchanged that they can still stimulate protective immune response.
 58

- Jonas Salk – polio virus ; after treatment with formaldehyde, the inactivated
virions ( a mixture of three-serotypes of polio virus) are adsorbed onto an
adjuvant consisting of Aluminum hydroxide or Aluminum phosphate.
- adjuvant enhances the immunogenicity of the vaccine
- adjuvant is an ingredient used in some vaccines that helps create a
stronger immune response in people receiving the vaccine. In other
words, adjuvants help vaccines work better.

3. Virion subunit vaccines – contain purified components of virions.

- infectivity of influenza virions is inactivated with formaldehyde or β-
propriolactone, then virion envelopes are removed with a detergent, such as
Triton X-100 that releases glycoproteins, which form aggregates of “H”
“cartwheels” and “N” rosettes. Purified by centrifugation in a sucrose gradient
then materials from three influenza virus strains are combined to form
vaccine
- for protection, the sub unit vaccine are preferred over the inactivated
vaccines because they cause fewer side effects esp. in children
- subunit vaccines induces poorer immune responses , so two doses are
necessary to provide adequate immunity
- ex. influenza vaccine – contain the hemagglutinin (H) and Neuraminidase
(N) surface glycoproteins

4. Live Recombinant Virus Vaccines – a recombinant vaccinia virus

engineered to contain the gene for the rabies virus G protein has been used
to vaccinate wild animals against rabies

MASS PRODUCTION OF VIRUSES FOR VACCINES:

-Requires large quantities of virions, for most viruses are produced in cell
cultures
- John Enders (1949) demonstrated that poliovirus can be grown in primary
monkey cell culture. This led to mass-production of polio virus for the Salk and Sabin
vaccine.
- POLIO SABIN (oral) vaccine OPV is a magnesium chloride stabilized
preparation of live attenuated polio viruses of the Sabin strains type 1 (LS-c,
2ab), type 2 (P712, Ch, 2ab) and type 3 (Leon 12ab). 
- inactivated poliovirus vaccine (IPV) or Salk vaccine, was developed in
the early 1950s by American physician Jonas Salk. This vaccine contains killed virus
and is given by injection. The large-scale use of IPV began in February 1954, when
it was administered to American schoolchildren.
- it was subsequently found out that some monkey cell cultures used for
vaccine production had been harboring viruses like simian virus 40
- Simian virus 40 (SV40) is a monkey virus that was administered to human
populations by contaminated vaccines 
- Vero Cells from African green monkey kidney
- Diploid cell lines – MRC 5 , developed by Medical Research Council , UK
from human lung fibroblast; W1-38, Winstar Institute, US
- Hapliod cell lines from tumors (may contaminate cancer cells)
- Most cells are grown on surfaces of parallel plates (Cell Culture)
 59

POSTTEST: Identification.
A. Identify the virus family that the following diseases belong:
_______________ 1. Dengue
_______________ 2. Swimming pool conjunctivitis
_______________ 3. Chicken pox
_______________ 4. Small pox
_______________ 5. Mumps
_______________ 6. German mesles
_______________ 7. Measles
_______________ 8. Ebola
_______________ 9. Common cold
_______________ 10. Flu
_______________ 11. Rabies

B. Give the other word for:

_______________ 12. Chicken pox
_______________ 13. German measles
_______________ 14. Shingles
_______________ 15. The vaccine consist of live viruses treated in such a way that
they will give NO harm within the host. 

II. PRIONS ( pree-on)(20th century diseases)

PRIONS (Infectious Protein), not virus but infectious disease in man and
animals
-causative agents are protein molecules from within the cells of the host;
-NO nucleic acid associated, protein only
- very long incubation periods, many years
 60

PRION Diseases:
1. Scrapie (sheep)
2. Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE)
3. Sporadic Creutzfeldt-jacob disease (human) , CJD
4. Variant Creutzfeldt-jacob disease (human)

Prion diseases are known as TSE, transmissible spongiform encephalopathies;

-spongiform refers to development of holes in the brain (like sponge)
-transmissible means that causative agent is infectious; transmitted to same
species or other species

Signs of prions diseases:

1. Dementia;
2. Loss of coordination;
3. Gradually deteriorates;
4. Death

BSE – (mad cow disease); onset in UK, 20th century; its human transmission as
variant CJD

Scrapie – disease of sheep and goats (in Britain and parts of Europe);
-many affected animals scrape against hard objects such as fence posts;
many grind their teeth, stumble and fall and die.
- in 1930, scrapie can be transmitted from sheep to sheep by injection of brain
tissue; found in wild deers
- disease spread, (outbreak, 1986) by feeding meat and bone (internal
organs) meal to cattle as a protein supplement
- Offal - the entrails and internal organs of an animal used as food.
- cattle appear healthy but incubating BSE with large quantities of misfolded
proteins in the brains and spinal cords; other species affected are domestic cats, big
cats (puma, tiger)
- live cattle and large quantities of meat and bone exported from UK in the
early days of outbreak, BSE in many countries

Kuru and vCJD – normally acquired by ingesting prions

-Kuru – source of prions was human brain tissue; occurred in areas of New
Guinea where it was a custom to eat tissue from relatives who have died.
-vCJD – (first case UK, 1995);with the death of young man, Stephen
Churchill; Characteristics as a new disease:
a. relatively young age of the victims;
b. relatively short duration of disease;
c. distinct pathological changes in the brain;
d. presence of infective prion in the spleen, lymph nodes, tonsils
- vCJD transmitted thru blood transfusion rather than ingestion

Ricin a highly toxic protein obtained from the pressed seeds of the castor-oil
plant. Ricin works by getting inside the cells of a person's body and preventing
the cells from making the proteins they need. Without the proteins, cells die.
Eventually this is harmful to the whole body, and death may occur. Effects of ricin
poisoning depend on whether ricin was inhaled, ingested, or injected.

Prions: the danger of biochemical weapons. Prions are unprecedented infectious

pathogens that cause a group of fatal neurodegenerative diseases by a novel
mechanism. They are transmissible particles that are devoid of nucleic acid
Ricin has already been used as a weapon 
 61

ANSWER KEY:
1. Flaviviridae
2. Adenoviridae
3. Herpeviridae
4. Poxviridae
5. Paramyxoviridae
6. Paramyxoviridae
7. Paramyxoviridae
8. Filoviridae
9. Picornaviridae
10. Orthomyxoviridae
11. Rhabdoviridae
12. Varicella Zoster Virus
13. Rubella
14. Herpes Zoster
15. Attenuated vaccine

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