Unit - 1 Nature of Environmental studies and Natural resource: Environmental studi s: definition, scope and importance “What is Environment? /Meaning of Environment The word environment is often conceptualized as nature that surrounds us which may comprise of physical components like land, climate, air and water ete, It is also treated as surroundings. Literally the term environment is derived from the French word ‘Environ’ which means to encircle. The word environment is the combination of two words-‘Environ’ means surrounding ‘ment’ means auctioning. Summing up the definitions we can say that Environment be defined as the immediate surrounding which supports life and sustains various human activities. The definition of environment has three parts: * Itis the immediate surroundings of an object or organisms © It Sustains life in various forms It supports various human activities Multi disciplinary in nature: Environment studies basically deals with all those components, elements and mechanisms associated with the sphere zone of environment. It studies the importance and preserving attitude of protecting environment. It deals with every issue that affects organisms. ¢ Itis essentially a multidisplinary approach that brings of our natural world and human impacts on its integrity and different aspect are dealt with a holistic approach. * It is an interdisciplinary and integrative sciences that deals with the subjects of biology, geology, chemistry, phy si engineering, sociology, health, anthropology, economics computers and philosophy to better understand about its mechanisms and working principles, 50mc Le) Cd Pe co er ete Lee eee Uh oie What is the Scope of Environment? The scope of environmental studies is broad based and it encompasses a large number of areas, topics and aspects. This can be summarized as it covers the study of natural resources- their conservation and management. The study of ecology and biodiversity with list of endangerment of species. The study of environmental pollution and its control measures,Social issues in relation to development and environment, Human population and environment. In the recent years, the scope of environmental studies has changes and expanded dramatically the world over. There are several career options have emerged in this field which are broadly categorized as © Pursue Research & development in various problems of environment ¢ Green Advocacy on implementing various acts and laws related toenvironment. ~ © Green marketing for ensuring quality of products. * Green Media awareness programme through television, radio, newspaper etc. 51¢ Environmental Consultancy and NGOs (Non government organizations) What the importance of environmental stud Today the world faces a number of environmental problems and challenges. It is ‘ming that in the last five decades have seen the development of unprecedented problems on a global scale, climate change, global warming including the extinction of species at a rapid pace, the depletion of earth’s protective ozone layer and an increase of harmful industrial chemicals into the air and water. Some of the major issues of faced by world today are as follows There is a need to study the environment thoroughly in order to understand these problems clearly and deal with them in a timely way. Environmental education makes each and every individual aware of the various environmental problems Ina nut shell, the basic and importance of the need environmental education and awareness is to sensitize the students the role of environment and iinpacts on human life with a view to preserving and sustaining it. To understand the interrelationships and interdependence between man and his environment. . To understand the mechanism, role, function and working of the environnient. iii). To understand the values and hel; Ips in protection and preservation of environment. iv). To introduce to the students the various issues and problems of the environment like global warming, pollution, loss of species and other health hazard of man in the recent world, v). To understand the long sustainability of the human with the environment. vi). To train the students and help realize in facing environmental problems in a right manner and become better citizens of the country and the world. Renewable and Non Renewable resources : ‘*°A resource isa source or supply from which benefit is being produced or it is of any substance in the environment that is useful to people is economically and technologically feasible to access and socially 52acceptable to use, Resource refers toa things or substance which has uulity that satisty the humans wants. Etymologically, separate words, re may occur unhind source refers to ate anything or substance that nd source that indi J many times, What are Renewable Resoure The resources which are used by mankind from the starting of human life, Our ancestors used these resources for lighting purposes, transportation, shelter, cooking, heating, protection from wild animals, ete, Renewable resources are also called as ‘Non-Conventional’ sources of energy. Few examples of renewable resources are sun, wind, tidal energy, forests, mountains, soil, water bodies, animals and wildlife resources, Almospheric resources and lot more. * What are non Non-Renewable Resources? The resources which cannot be easily replaced once they are destroyed are called as the Non-renewable resources. Few examples of Non-renewable resources include few species of plants and animals, minerals, fossil fuels, water, wind, land, soil, and rocks. ONatural resources and associated problems : Human population is growing day-by-day. Continuous increase in population caused an increasing demand for natural resources. Due to urban expansion, electricity need and industrialization, man started utilising natural resources at a much larger scale. Non-renewable resources are limited. They cannot be replaced easily. After some time, these resources may come to an end. It is a matter of much concern and ensures a balance between population growth and utilisation of resources. This overutilization creates many problems. In some regions there are problems of water logging due to over irrigation. In some areas, there is no sufficient water for industry and agriculture. Thus, there is need for conservation of natural resources. (A) Forest Resources and associated problems : 1.Use and over-exploitation. 2. Deforestation. 3. Timber extraction. 4. Mining and its effects on forest. 5. Dams and their effects on forests and tribal people 53important renewable resources. Forest vary in composition and diversity and can contribute substantially to the economic development of any country .Plants along with trees cover large areas, produce variety of products and provide food for living organisms, and also important to save the environment. It is estimated that about 30% of world area is covered by forest whereas 26% by pastures. Among all continents, Africa has largest forested area (33%) followed by Latin America (25%), whereas in North America forest cover is only 11%. Asia and former USSR has 14% area under forest. European countries have only 3% area under forest cover. India’s Forest Cover accounts for 20.6% of the total geographical area of the country as of 2005. © Significance’and uses of forests Forest can provide prosperity of human being and to the nations. Important uses of forest can be classified as under It has Commercial values, Ecological significance, Aesthetic values and provides Life and economy of tribal. For ecological balance 33% area should be under forest cover but our nation has only 20.6% forest cover. ™ Over exploitation of forests Forests contribute substantially to the national economy. With increasing population increased demand of fuel wood, expansion of area under urban development and industries has lead to over exploitation of forest .At present international level we are losing forest at the rate of 1.7 crore hectares annually. Overexploitation also occurs due to overgrazing and conversion of forest to pastures for domestic use. ™ Deforestation Forest are burned or cut for clearing of land for agriculture,harvesting for wood and timber , development and expansion of cities .These economic gains are short term where as long term effects of deforestation are irreversible Deforestation rate is relatively low in temperate countries than in tropics If present rate of deforestation continues we may losses 90% tropical forest in coming six decades ™ Causes of deforestation : Forest area in some developed area has expanded. However in developing countries area under 54forest is showing declining trend particularly in tropical region Main causes of deforestation are 4) Shifling cultivation or jhum cultivation b) Commercial logging (c) Need for fuel wood (d) Expansion for agribusiness (e) Development Projects and growing need for food (f) Raw materials for industrial use aaa Major effects of deforestation : Deforestation adversely and directly affects and damages the environment and living beings Major causes of deforestation are Soil erosion and Joss of soil fertility, Decrease of rain fall due to affect of hydrological cycle, Expansion of deserts, Climate change and depletion of water table, Loss of biodiversity ,flora and fauna, Environmental changes and disturbance in forest ecosystems Conservation of forest : People should be made aware of importance of forest and involved in forest conservation activities. ‘The cutting of trees in the forests for timber should be stopped., A forestation programmes should be launched, Grasslands should be regenerated, Forest conservation Act should be strictly implemented to check deforestation., Awards should be instituted for the deserving. * Case studies of forest ® Cases of Bishnois : Bishnois are considered the preserver of Environment and are followers of 29 tenets launched by Guru Jambeshwarji. They are famous for sacrifice of 363 man and women who. laid down their lives protecting the Khejri tree in Rajasthan when Maharaja ordered for felling of trees. Cases of Chipko Movement : It is a movement that was launched by the tribal women of Tehri- Garhwal District in Uttaranchal in December 1972 where by women of the district embraced the trees to prevent contractors from felling trees. = Cases of Jhum cultivation : Jhum Agriculture or shifting agriculture has destroyed large number of hectare of forest tracts in North-Eastern states and Orissa. Jhum agriculture is subsidence agriculture in which tract of forest land is cleared by cutting trees and it is used for cultivation. After few years, 55when productivity of the land decreases, cultivators abandon the land and clear next tract, As a result of this practise, combined with increasing population there is rapid deforestation as more and more cultivators clear forest to cultivate land Also, with increase in population there is cultivators are forced to return to previous tracts of land in relatively shorter durations, not allowing the land to regain its productivity Cases of Mining on forests : Mining of magnetite and soapstone have destroyed 14 ha of forest in hilly slopes of Khirakot, Kosi valley and Almora. Mining of radioactive minerals in Kerala, Tamilnadu and Karnataka are posing similar threats of deforestation. The rich forests of Western Ghats are also facing the same threat due to mining projects for excavation of copper, chromites, bauxite and magnetite. Effects of dams on forests and tribal people : India has more than 1550 large dams, the maximum being in the state of Maharashtra (more than 600), followed by Gujarat (more than 250) and Madhya Pradesh (130). The crusade against the ecological damage and deforestation caused due to Tehri dam was led by Shri. Sunder Lal Bahaguna, the leader of Chipko Movement. The cause of Sardar Sarovar Dam related issues have been taken up by the environmental activitist Medha Patkar, joined by Arundhati Ray and Baba Amte. For building big dams, large scale devastation of forests takes place which breaks the natural ecological balance of the region. (b)Water resources and associated problems : ™ Features of water resources Water resources are sources of water that are useful or potentially useful to humans. It is important because it is needed. for life to exist. Many uses of water include agricultural, industrial, household, recreational and environmental activities. Virtually all of these human uses require fresh water. Only 2.5% of water on the Earth is fresh water, and over two thirds. of this is frozen in glaciers and polar ice capsa eee Water demand eds supply in many parts of the world, and many more areas are expected to experience this imbalance in the near future.It is estimated that 70% of world- wide water use is for irrigation in agriculture. Climate change will have significant impacts on water resources around the world because of the close connections between the climate and hydrologic cycle. Due to the expanding human population competition for water is growing such that many of the worlds major aquifers are becoming depleted. Many pollutants threaten water supplies, but the most widespread, especially in underdeveloped countries, is the discharge of raw sewage into natural waters. Salt Water 98% Worte water Groundwater Rivers ond 12% Lakes #% ™ Use and over Utilization of Surface and Ground Water ° From surface rivers, lakes and ponds and its high requirements of water for irrigations of variety of Crops. The rainfall is uncertain and many areas are drought prone region. This region need to be utilized for agriculture by extensive irrifgations.As our country is essentially an agricultural based country, the crops are to be developed for the production of different types of food grains. The requirement of water varies from crop to crop. From Groundwater and Aquifers and its extensive utilization: Water that is available in the deeper layers of the 57earth is known as Groundwater, Fhe bodies that contain such water are known as Aquifers, Water from these aquifers can be drawn by digging wells and pumping water from these wells, Some of these wells can supply very large quantities of water. Insome cases, the drinking water needs of cities are completely met by the groundwater bodies. In the agriculture sector also, groundwater is supporting the growth of crops enormously in certain agricultural dominated areas. Therefore ground water table has gone down. Some of the cities and regions are facing acute ground water crisis. From Wells and storages: Wells are used to bring groundwater to the land surface by means of pumps. Wells can be deep wells and shallow wells depending upon the depth at which ground water is available. Sometimes open dug wells are used where the water table is high. In the case of deeper and hard rock aquifers, Tube wells are constructed. In such cases deep well pumps such as turbine pumps or jet pumps are used to lift water to the surface of the ground. Many of the wells and storages got contaminated by dirt pollutants. **Problems of Floods : The flood hazard itself cannot be prevented, but thorough understanding of the land conditions which are prone to a given hazard and the processes which could culminate in the damage to life and property itis possible to minimize the damage through preparedness for a particular eventuality. Flooding takes place when the river channels are unable to contain the discharge. In the tropical countries, floods are caused by various factors: Climatologically (rain), Part climatologically (coastal storm surges, estuarine interactions between stream flow and tidal conditions) and Others (failure of dams and other control works, excessive release from dams). Floods could get intensified because of basin characteristics, network characteristics, and channel characteristics, each of which has both stable (unvarying) and variable components (Table 2.1) unvarying and variable characteristics. 58* Control of floods © The structural methods include dams, reservoirs, and retarding basins, channel management and embankments. The water control methods include flood proofing and catchment modifications, Schemes of drainage and flood protection, flood forecasting, flood warning and emergency preparedness systems, flood insurance, public information and education, and food relief constitute the non-structural methods. “Problems of Drought : * Drought is lack or insufficiency of rain for an extended period that causes considerable hydrologic imbalances and consequently water shortages, stream flow reductions and depletion of groundwater levels and soil moisture. Drought is the most serious physical hazard to agriculture in nearly every part of the world.Drought not only leads to serious economic consequences but also leaves behind untold human misery. Amongall the natural disasters, drought affects largest number of people in the world. Shortage of water for even the basic needs is the main problem in the drought areas. Even the shallow rooted crops do not grow in such areas. Getting sufficient drinking water is another problem needing immediate attention in these areas. Some measures like infiltration wells, underground dams, small watersheds, are being taken up to alleviate the sufferings of the people residing in the drought prone areas. = Controlling and facings droughts: Certain advance techniques such as Cloud Seeding and Artificial Rains are also being tried with vary However, these methods are quite expensive and unpredictable in their success. Scant rains for extensive periods also lead to ecological changes. Ultimately, Government has found reasonable remedies in the form of development ig successe: of small watersheds in such areas. + Dams: Benefits and Problems: Dams are the maor structures in any reservoir from the point of view of structural importance; design details and cost, The dams are of \ 59different types depending on different criteria, Depending on the material used for construction, dams can be: masonry dams, concrete dams, earthen dams, rock fill dams, steel dams and timber dams. Based on the design, the dams can be: gravity dams, and multiple arch dams arch dams, buttress dams, Similarly, based on the purpose, the dams are known as overflow dams and non-overflow dams. Benefits of dams The water resources projects are constructed to several purposes depending on the needs of people of the area to be served. Whenever the projects are developed to supply water for different purpose, the projects are termed as multi-purpose projects. The different purposes can be: irrigation and agriculture, hydropower generation, drinking water supply, water for Industries, flood control, navigation, recreation and amusement parks and afforestation. Of all the above purposes, irrigation and agriculture occupies higher priority, as the production of necessary food grains for one billion population of the country is the primary concern to us. In order to develop the industries and other power needs, the next priority is the Hydropower development. The emphasis is increasing on the hydropower, as the natural resources for other forms of energy such as thermal, are becoming scarce. Due to rapid development of urban areas, scarcity of drinking, water has surfaced in most of the cities. Hence, the present emphasis is on bringing water to the cities from storage reservoirs. Problems of Dam The construction of dams will submerge large areas which wil adversely create loss of forests and settlements areas. The possibilities of water logging on downstream side will be the adverse effect on the environment. The collapse of dams will create massive disaster to the surrounding areas leading to life loss, property and damage to life being. 60*Conflic s over Water : Water is essential for our existence and is fast becoming scarce, Rapidly increasing population and limited water resources give rise to conflicts over water. Conflict through use : Unequal distribution of water leads to inter-state or international disputes. Examples : International conflicts : 1.Conflict over water from the Indus between India and Pakistan 2.Conflict over water from the Colorado river between Mexico and USA 3.Conflict over water from the Shatt-al-Arab between Iran and Iraq 4.Conflict over water from the Bhramaputra between India and Bangladesh National conflicts : 1.Sharing of Cauvery water between Karnataka and Tamilnadu 2.Sharing of Krishna water between Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh 3.Sharing of Siruveni water between Tamilnadu and Kerala Construction of dams or power stations : For hydroelectric power generation, dams are built across the rivers, and this initiates conflicts between the states. Conflict through pollution : Rivers are also used for industrial purposes. They act as reservoirs for supply of fresh water and also a receptor of waste water and rubbish from the industry. Water crossing borders that has been polluted by wastes from one country develops into an international conflict. Management of water conflicts : L.Concerted efforts are required to enforce laws that check these practices to control water pollution 2.1n order to overcome the problem of sharing river water in a country, the concept of interlinking of rivers has been suggested 613.Rivers should be nationalized, the National Water Authority and River Basin Authority should be given powers to ensure equitable distribution of basin water, (C) MINERAL RESOURCES : A mineral is a naturally ® What are mineral resoure Wee, representable by a chemical formula, that is usually solid and inorganic, and has a crystal structure. A mineral is a pure inorganic substance that occurs naturally in the earth’s crust. More than two-thousand minerals have been identified and most of these are inorganic, which are formed by the various combination of elements. However, a small proportion of the earth’s crust contains organic materials, consist of single elements such as gold, silver, diamond, and sulfur. occurring substa Categories of Mineral Resources Mineral resources can be divided into two major categories. Metallic Mineral Resources and Non-metallic Mineral Resources = Types of Minerals ResourcesVhere are mety A ; © metals that are hard which conduct electricity and heat with characteristics of luster or shine, Such metals are Minerals, Fore: called metallic ample Silver, Chromium, Tin, Nickel, Copper, Iron, Lead, Aluminum, Gold. and Zine "Uses of Minera The use of minerals depends upon its deposits. Some countries are tich in mineral deposits, while others have no deposits. The greatest use of minc als depends on its properties. For instance, Aluminum is light, strong and durable in nature, so it is used for aircraft, shipping, and car industries, Minerals are used in almost all industries. Gold, silver, and platinum. are used in the jewelry industry. Copper is used in coin industry and for making pipes and wire. Silicon obtained from quartz is used in the computer industry. © Development of industrial plants and machinery © — Generation of energy eg. Coal, lignite, uranium e — Inconstructing of house settlements ete * Defence equipments weapons, wars and armaments + Transportation and communication means like cable wires, electronic devices etc Medical systems, particularly in ayurveda Formation of alloys for various purposes (eg. Phosphorite) Conservation of Mineral Resources : The total volume of consumable minerals resources is just 1% of all the minerals present in the earth’s crust. However, the consumption rate is so high that these mineral resources which are nonrenewable will get exhausted very soon. Here are some of the measures to conserve minerals: ¢ Use of minerals in a planned and sustainable manner. e Recycling of metals © Use of alternative renewable substitutes. * Technology should be improved to use the low-grade ores. profitably. °resources ; Althor Environmental effects of extra nd using mine ing the area occupied for mining activity is small yet the damage to the environment on account of mining is causing grave concem. Environmental degradation resulting from mining activity in general can be briefly enumerated as follows: Air pollution with dust and gases due to drilling, blasting, mine haulage and transportation by road, and also from waste heaps: Water pollution when atomic elements and other harmful elements are present in the ore/mineral mine effluents; Modifying water regimes such as surface flow, groundwater availability and lowering down of water table: Soil erosion, soil modification with dust and salt: Noise and vibration problem in the mine and adjoining habitat including wild life: Alteration of the landform: Deforestation affecting flora and fauna; and Spoiling aesthetics with untreated waste dumps. ™ Case Studies and affected areas of India Jaduguda Mines Uranium Mine, Jharkhand exposing local people to radioactive hazards. Jharia coal mines, Jharkhand, Underground fire leading to land subsidence and forced displacements of people. Sukinda Chromite mines, Orissa, seeping of hexavalent chromium into river posing serious health hazards, Cr6+ being highly toxic and carcinogenic of ground water. (D) FOOD RESOURCES : What is Food? Food is an essential requirement for survival of life. Main components are carbohydrates, fats, proteins, minerals and vitamins.‘Types of food supply : 1. Crop plants: Mostly produce grains about 76% of the world’s food.e.g rice, wheat and maize 2. Range lands: It produces 17% of world’s food from trees and grazing animals.e.g fruits, milk and meat 3. Ocean,Fisheries ~ 7% of world’s food ™ World food problem: 1. Decreasing agricultural area: In the earth’s surface 79% water out of total area. 21% land (forest, desert, mountain and barren land) . Less % cultivated land, at the same time population explosion is high therefore world food problem arises. 2. Environmental degradation like soil erosion, water logging, water pollution, salinity affect agricultural land. 3. Urbanisation affects on agricultural land. Hence production of rice, wheat, corn and other vegetable is difficult. | Types of nutrition : 1. Nutritious nutrition : To maintain good health and disease resistant, we need large amount of carbohydrate, proteins, fats and smaller amount of micronutrients such as vitamins and minerals such as Fe, Caand iodine. Food and agricultural organisation (FAO) of United Nations estimated that on an average, the minimum calorie intake on a global state is 2500 calories/day. 2. Under nutrition : People who cannot buy enough food to meet their basic energy needs suffer from under nutrition. They receive less than 90% of this minimum dietry calorie. = Effect of under nutrition : Suffer from mental retardation and infectious diseases. 3. Mal nutrition : Besides minimum calorie intake we also need proteins, minerals, vitamins, iron and iodine. Deficiency leads to malnutrition resulting in several diseases. 65© Effect of malnutrition ; S.No Deficiency of nutrients Effects: 1. Protein Growth 2. Iron Anemia 3. lodine —-Goiter 4. Vitamin A—- Blindness India 3rd largest producer of crops, nearly 300 million Indians are still under nourished. World food summit 1996, The world food summit, 1996 has set the goal to reduce the number of under nourished and mal nourished people to just half by 2015. ™ Over grazing: It is a process of eating the forest vegetation g! 8 Pp 1B without giving a chance to regenerate. © Effects of over gr: 1. Land degradation : over grazing removing the cover of vegetation Exposed soil gets compacted soil moisture is not available OG leads to poor, dry and compacted soil. Land cannot be used for further cultivation. 2. Soil erosion :When the grasses are removed the soil becomes loose and gets eroded by the action of wind and rain fall. 3. Loss of useful species : OG affects the plant population and their regenerating capacity. OG replace the plant of high nutritive value with plant of low nutritive value. (E) ENERGY RESOURCES : ™ What is an Energy resource? Energy is the capacity to do work and is required for life processes. An energy resource is something that can produce heat, power life, move objects, or produce electricity. Matter that stores energy is called a fuel, ™ Energy Resource Types Energy resource types are different from types of energy. Energy resource types refer to the origin of the energy source itself, while 66types of energy refer to different types of potential (chemical, electrical, ele.) and kinetic (heat, sound, etc ) energy. Generally, we can break energy into two broad categories of resources - non-renewable and renewable 2 N renewable energy resources These resources have formed over millions of years of geological Processes, and we're using them faster than they can be naturally replenished. Examples include fossil fuels like coal, petroleum, and natural gas, We currently depend on non-renewables to mect most of our energy demands, extracting and combusting them primarily to generate electricity or develop fuels for transportation. While we often consider nuclear power as an alternative energy option, it is important to remember that while its carbon output is very low compared to fossil fuels, nuclear fission is still a non-renewable resource ™ Renewable energy resources Renewable energy resources are those sources of energy which can be replenished and are not depleted because of our consumption. Renewable resources include wind, solar, geothermal, hydropower, tidal, and biomass energy. Nuclear fusion also falls into this category. Typically, renewable energy resources have much lower greenhouse gas and other emissions associated with use. But if renewable energy resources are cleaner and offer a sustainable supply of energy, why have we traditionally relied so heavily on non-renewable energy resources like fossil fuels? © inexpensive * inabundant supply ¢ storable What is Alternative energy? It refers to any energy source that is an alternative to fossil fuel. These alternatives are intended to address concerns about fossil fuels, such as its high carbon dioxide emissions, an important factor in global warming, Marine energy. hydroelectric, wind, geothermal and solar power are all alternative sources of energy (f) LAND RESOURCES : * It provides food, fibre, wood, medicine and other biological materials. Soil is the mixture of inorganic materials (rocks and 67minerals) and organic materials (dead animals and plants). Top soil is classified as renewable resources. © Us s of land resources Land provide, food, wood, minerals, etc., for us Land nurtures the plants and animals that provide our food and shelter. Land is used as Watershed or reservoir, Land acts as a dust bin for most of the wastes, created by the modem society. Land is used for construction of | buildings, industri Land degradation: The Process of degradation of soil or loss of fertility of the soil. Thé pes of land degradation are (i) the soil texture and soil structures are deteriorated (ii) Loss of soil fertility, due to loss of invaluable nutrients. (iii). Increase in water logging, salinity, and alkalinity and acidity problems. (iv)Loss of economic social and biodiversity. ™ Causes of land degradation 1. Population: Land resources degraded by over population &over exploitation. 2. Urbanization: Urbanization leads to deforestation, reduces the land 3. Fertilizers and pesticides: Increased applications of fertilizers and pesticides leads to pollution of land and water and soil degradation. 4. Damage of top soil: Increase in food production generally leads to damage to top soil through nutrient depletion. 5. Water-logging: Soil erosion, salination and contamination of the soil with industrial wastes all cause land degradation. 6. Soil erosion: Soil erosion is the process of removal of superficial layer of the soil from one place to another. = Man induced landslides Various anthropogenic activities like hydroelectric projects, large dams, reservoirs, construction of roads and railway lines, construction of buildings, mining etc are responsible for clearing of large forested areas. During the construction of roads, mining activities etc. huge portions of fragile mountainous areas are cut or destroyed by dynamite and thrown into adjacent valleys and streams. These land masses 68weaken the a ready fragile mountain slopes and lead to landslides, They also inerease the turbidity of various nearby streams, thereby reducing their productivity Harmful effects of soil erosion: Soil fertility is lost because of loss of top soil layer. Loss of its ability to hold water and sediment. Sediment runoff can pollute water and kill aquatic life. ‘Types of soil erosion (i)Normal erosion: Gradual removal of top soil by the natural proc (ii)Accelerated erosion The rate of erosion is slower. Caused by man-made activities. The rate of erosion is much faster than the rate of formation of soil. Causes of soil erosion (i)Water: Affects soil erosion in the form of rain, run-off, rapid flow, wave action. Sheet erosion: When there is uniform removal of a thin layer of soil from a large surface area, it is called sheet erosion. Rill erosion: when there is rainfall and rapidly running water produces finger-shaped grooves or rills over the area, itis called rill erosion. Gully erosion: When the rainfall is very heavy, deeper cavities or gullies are formed, which may be U or V shaped. Slip erosion: This occurs due to heavy rainfall on slopes of hills and mountains. Stream bank erosion: During the rainy season, when fast running streams take a turn in some other direction, they cut the soil and make caves in the bank. (ii) Soil removal by turbulent Wind blow (iii) Through biotic agents : Overgrazing, mining and deforestation are the major biotic agents, cause soil erosion. Deforestation without reforestation, overgrazing by cattle, surface mining without land reclamation, irrigation techniques that lead to salt build- up, water logged soil, make the top soil vulnerable to erosion.35% of world soil erosion is due to overgrazing. 30% of world soil erosion is due to deforestation. 69[essen acne cenearees (iv) Soil removal through mass Landslides during rainy seasons (v). Soil removal and weakening through Construction activities-Construction of dams, buildings, roads removes the protective vegetal cover and leads to soil erosion. ® Control of soil erosion (or) soil conservation practices 1. Conservational till farming (or) no-till-farming: In tradition method, the land is ploughed and soil is broken up and leveled to make a planting surface. This disturbs the soil and makes it susceptible to erosion. However, no-till-farming causes minimum disturbance to the top soil. Here the tilling machines make slits in the unploughed soil and inject seeds, fertilizers and water in the slit. So the seed germinates and the crop grows. 2. Contour farming: It involves planting crops in rows across the contour of gently sloped land.Each row acts as a small dam to hold soil and to slow water runoff. w . Terracing: It involves conversion of steep slopes into broad terraces, which run across the contour. This retains water for crops and reduces soil erosion by controlling runoff. = . Alley cropping (or) Agro forestry: It involves planting crops in strips or alleys between rows of trees of shrubs that can provide fruits and fuel wood. Even when the crop is harvested, the soil will not be eroded because trees and shrubs still remain on the soil and hold the soil particles. 5. Wind breaks or shelter belts: The trees are planted in long rows along the boundary of cultivated lands, which block the wind and reduce soil erosion. Wind breaks help in retaining soil moisture, supply of some wood for fuel and provide habitats for birds. ROLE OF AN INDIVIDUAL IN CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES : The conservation efforts are underway at National as well as International level, the individual efforts for conservation of natural resources can goa long way. Individuals can reduce wastage of natural resources and they can put pressure on Government about forming strong policies to protect the environment and they can minimize the use of sources that lead to pollution and degradation. 701. Don't keep water taps running while brushing, shaving, washing or bathing. Tl. Build rain warer harvesting system in your house. Even the President of India is doing this IIT, Turn off lights, fans and other appliances when not in use fo conserve energy IV. Do not waste food. Take as much as you can eat Reduce the use of pesticides. V._ Fertilize your crop primarily with organic fertilizers. Eat local and seasonal vegetables. This saves lot of energy on transport, storage and preservation. VI. Plant more trees and build fruit gardens. Covering syllabus of MBSU : + Scope and Importance : concept of Sustainability and Sustainable development ™ What is sustainability? The definition of “sustainability” is the study of how natural systems function, remain diverse and produce everything it needs for the ecology to remain in balance. It also acknowledges that human civilisation takes resources to sustain our modern way of life. The three pillars of Sustainability are Economic Development, Social Development and Environmental Protection. the Primary Goals of Sustainability are * The end of poverty and hunger + Better standards of education and healthcare - particularly as it pertains to water quality and better sanitation + Toachieve gender equality + — Sustainable economic growth while promoting jobs and stronger economies + Allofthe above and more while tackling the effects of climate change, pollution and other environmental factors that can harm and do harm people’s health, livelihoods and lives. Sustainability to include health of the land, air and sea ”© What is Sustainable Development? ainable development is the practice of developing land and construction projects ina manner that reduces their impact on the environment by allowing them to create energy efficient models of self-sufliciency Susi ion in its 1987 report “Our According to Brundtland Commi: Common Future” “Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present, without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.” Sustainable development has 3 goals: to minimize the depletion of natural resources, to promote development without causing harm to the environment and to make use of environmentally friendly practices, Deforestation: causes and impacts due to mining, dam building on environment, forests, biodiversity and tribal populations What is deforestation? Deforestation is the permanent destruction of forests in order to make the land available for other uses. Deforestation can involve conversion of forest land to farms, ranches, or urban use. ™ Causes for deforestation For the most part, human activity is to blame for deforestation, though natural disasters do play a role. So let’s take a look at how and why humans deforest areas To create ingredients that are highly prized consumer items, such as the oil from palm trees ¢ Human settlements and urbans: To make more land available for housing and urbanization ¢ Logging, or cutting down trees in a forest to harvest timber for wood, products or fuel, is a primary driver of deforestation To harvest timber to create commercial items such as paper, furniture and homes . © Agriculture also drives deforestaton, Farmers clear the land for crops or for cattle and often will clear acres of land using 72slash and burn techniques. cutting down trees and then burning, them. Dams Vo build a hydroelectric dam, acres of land must be flooded, Which causes decomposition and release of greenhouse gases. Local people can also be displ d by dam projects, causing further deforestation when these people resettle elsewhere Fires, both accidental and intende quickly , destroy acres of forest very Mining also re: its in deforestation. Digging a coal, diamond or gold mine requires the removal of all forest cover, not just for the mines but also for trucks and equipment. To create room for cattle ranching Consequences/ impact results of deforestation Deforestation, which is the loss of wild forest habitats due to human activity, has grown into a global problem as demand for wood climbs. Shrinking forests can cause wide-reaching problems. Deforestation affects wild animals, plants and humans in at least four distinct ways: via soil erosion, which can lead to clogged waterways and other problems; via water cycle disruption, which can lead to desertification and habitat loss; via greenhouse gas emissions, which contribute to global climate change; and via biodiversity losses, which can lead to extinctions and loss of natural beauty. Combined, these four issues affect not only wild plants and animals but human beings as well. Deforestation leads to loss of habitat and source of livelihood for forest dwellers especially the tribalsUnit - 2 Ecosystems and Biodiversity Conservations SConcept of Ecosystem : The term ecosystem was first used dy Arthur George Transley in 1935, famous ecologists Boosystem is the fundamental unit of ecological studies because it comprises of both biotic and abiotic components. The word ‘eco’ implies’ the environment and system means an interacting} unitedly.plants, animals and other organisms together with the physical environment with which they interact constitute ecosystems. ‘Types and kinds of Ecosystem The world ecosystems are chiefly divided into two major categories or types viz. (a)Terrestrial ecosystem (b) Aquatic Ecosystem. * Terrestrial ecosystem includes (i) mountain ecosystem (ii) Desert Ecosystem (iii) lowland Ecosystem (iv) Forests Ecosystem etc. * Aquatic ecosystem are further divided into (i) fresh water water ecosystem which include lake ecosystem, river ecosystem, Pond and tank ecosystem (ii). marine ecosystem includes- open ocean ecosystem, coastal estuarine ecosystem Structure of Ecosystem : The structure of an ecosystem is basically a description of the organisms and physical features of environment including the amount and distribution of nutrients in a particular habitat. It also provides information regarding the range of climatic conditions prevailing in the area. From the structure point of view, all ecosystems consist of the following basic components: 1. Abiotic components (Abiotic component of ecosystem includes basic inorganic elements and compounds, such as soil, water, oxygen, 74calcium carbonate calcium carbonates, phosphates and a variety of organic compounds (by-products of organic activities or death) 2. Biotic © mpone OFganisms present in the The biotic components include all living vironmental system From nutrition point of view, the biotic components can be grouped into two basic components: (1) Autotrophie components: The autotrophic components include all green plants which fix the radiant energy of sun and manufacture food from inorganic substances. Gi) Heterotrophic components: The heterotrophic components include non-green plants and all animals which take food from autotrophs. ** Function of Ecosystem: An ecosystem is a discrete structural, functional and life sustaining environmental system. The environmental system consists of biotic and abiotic components in a habitat. Biotic component of the ecosystem includes the living organisms; plants, animals and microbes whereas the abiotic component includes inorganic matter and energy. Abiotic components provide the matrix for the synthesis and perpetuation of organic components (protoplasm). The synthesis and perpetuation processes involve energy exchange and this energy comes from the sun in the form of light or solar energy. Thus, in any ecosystem we have the following functional components: (i) Inorganic constituents (air, water and mineral salts) Organisms (plants, animals and microbes), and ) Energy input which enters from outside (the sun). ii : hese three interact and form an environmental system. «Producers, consumers and decomposers : Biotic components of an ecosystem can be described under the following three heads: 1. Producers (Autotrophic components), 2. Consumers, and 3. Decomposers or reducers and transformers 15ay elements chiefly green vegetations like grass, plants and trees at are Producers? The producers are the autotrophic They use carbon dioxide is assimilated and the light energy is converted into chemical energy. The chemical energy is actually locked up in the energy rich carbon compounds. Oxygen is evolved as by- product in the photosynthesis. ant energy of sun in photosynthetic process: whereby ™ What are Consumers? Those living members of ecosystem which consume the food synthesized by producef are called consumers. Under this category are included all kinds of animals that are found in an ecosystem. Consumers can be broken down into three classifications: herbivores, carnivores, and omnivores. © Herbivores are consumers that only eat plants. Deer and caterpillars are herbivores found commonly in a number of environments. Carnivores are consumers that only eat other animals. Lions and spiders are examples of carnivores. There is a special category of carnivore called scavengers. Scavengers are animals that eat only dead animals. Catfish and vultures are examples of scavengers. Omnivores are consumers that eat both plants and animals depending upon the season and availability of food. Bears, most birds, and humans are omnivores. There are different classes or categories of consumers, such as : (a) Consumers of the first order or primary consumers: These are purely herbivorous animals that are dependent for their food on producers or green plants. Insects, rodents, rabbit, deer, cow, buffalo, goat are some of the common herbivores in the terrestrial ecosystem, and small crustaceans, molluscs, etc. in the aquatic habitat. Elton (1939) named herbivores of ecosystem as “key industry animals”. The herbivores serve as the chief food source for carnivores. (b) Consumers of the second order, or secondary consume! These are carnivores and omnivores. Carnivores are flesh eating animals and the omnivores are the animals that are adapted to consume herbivores as well as plants as their food. Examples of secondary consumers are sparrow, crow, fox, wolves, dogs, cats, snakes, etc. 16(c) Consumers of the third order or tertiary consumers: These © the top nivores which prey upon other arnivores, omnivores and herbivores. Lions, tigers, hawk, vulture, etc. are considered as tertiary oF top consumers. (d)Parasites, scavengers and saprob Besides different classes of consumers, the parasites, scavengers and saprobes are also included in the consumers. The parasitic plants and animals utilize the living tissues of different plants and animals. The scavengers and saprobes utilize dead remains of animals and j, ants as their food. ™ What are Decomposers and transformers? Decomposers and transformers are the living components of the ecosystem and they are fungi and bacteria. Decomposers attack the dead remains of producers and consumers and degrade the complex organic substances into simpler compounds. The simple organic matters are then attacked by another kind of bacteria, the transformers which change these organic compounds into the inorganic forms that are suitable for reuse by producers or green plants. The decomposers and transformers play very important role in maintaining the dynamic nature of ecosystems. “Energy Flow in an Ecosystem : The flow of energy in ecosystems is vitally important to the thriving of life on Earth. Nearly all of the energy in Earth’s ecosystems originates within the Sun. Once this solar energy reaches Earth, it is distributed among ecosystems in an extremely complex manner. A simple way to analyze this distribution is through a food chain or food web. All organisms, dead or alive, have potential for energy transfer in an ecosystem. The energy flow in the ecosystem is one of the major factors that support the survival of such a great number of organisms. Heat Heat se = eer) aThe energy flow in an eo system is unidirectional by cycling energy and nutrients from the external sources: The energy flow takes place via food chain and food web. During the process of energy flow in the ecosystem, plants being the producers absorb sunlight with the help of the chloroplasts and a part of it is transformed into chem ical energy in the process of photosynthesis. This energy and pass stored in various organic products in the plants ed on to the primary consumers in the food chain when the herbivores consume (primary consumers) the plants as food and convert chemical energy accumulated in plant products into kinetic energy, degradation of energy will occur through its conversion into heat. Then followed by the secondary consumers. When these herbivores are consumed by carnivores of the first order (secondary consumers) further degradation will occur. Finally, when tertiary consumers consume the carnivores, again energy will be degraded. Thus, the energy flow is unidirectional in nature. Moreover, in a food chain, the energy flow follows the 10 percent law. According to this law, only 10 percent of energy is transferred from one trophic level to the other; rest is lost into the atmosphere. This is clearly explained in the following figure and is represented as an energy pyramid **Ecological succession : What is Ecological succession? Ecological succession is the gradual process by which ecosystems change and develop over time. Nothing remains the same and habitats are constantly changing. Itis the observed changes in an ecological community over time. These changes are fairly predictable and orderly. Within an ecological community, the species composition will change over time as some species become more prominent while others may fade out of existence. As the community develops over time, vegetation grows taller, and the community becomes more established. 78There are two main types of succession, primary and second ep Mary succession: Primary succession is the series of community changes which occur on an entirely new habitat Which has never been colonized before. For e: xample, a newly quarried rock face or sand dunes, It is initiated when a new area that has never previously supported an ecological community is colonized by plants and animals, This could be on newly exposed rock surfaces from landslides or lava flows. © Sccondary succession: Sccondary succession is the series of community changes which take place on a previously colonized, but disturbed or damaged habitat. For example, after felling tre fire break out. It occurs when an area that has previously had an ecological community is so disturbed or changed that the original community was destroyed and a new community moves in. This is more common than primary succession and is often the result of natural disasters, such as fires, floods, and winds, as. well as human interference, such as logging and clear-cutting, “What is food Chain? = = The term food chain refers to the sequence of events in an ecosystem, where one organism cats another and then is eaten by another organism. It starts with the primary source like the sun or hydrothermal vents where producers make food, continues with consumers or animals who eat the food, and ends with the top predator. ina woodland, land clearance or afte: e Ina forest ecosystem, grass is eaten by a deer, which in turn is eaten by a tiger. The grass, deer and tiger form a food chain. In this food chain, energy flows from the grass (producer) to the deer (primary consumer) to the tiger (secondary consumer). @ A food chain in a grasskand ecosystem may consist of grasses and other plants, grasshoppers, frogs, snakes and hawks. Wo ae’ Jo ~e 6 719Examples of g and food chain + Ina freshwater aquatic ecosystem like a pond, the organisms inthe food ch mall animals, insects and their in include al larvae, small fish, big fish and a fish-eating bird or animal Some common food chains are mentioned below: Plants *! Deer *! Lion Plants *! Worm’! Bird *! Cat Plants’! Grasshopper”! Frog’! Snake"! Hawk Algae’! Small’! animal *! Small fish ’! Big fish —> Bird There are basically two different types of food chains in the ecosystem, namely — Grazing food chain (GFC) — This is the normal food chain that we observe in which plants are the producers and the energy flows from the producers to the herbivores (primary consumers), then to camnivores(secondary consumers) and so on. Saprophytic or Detritus food chain (DFC) —1n this type of food chain, the dead organic matter occupies the lowermost level of the food chain, followed by the decomposers and so on. Parasitic food chain (PFC) —In this type of food chain, large organisms either the producer or the consumer is exploited and therefore the food passes to the smaller organism. “What are Food webs? Many interconnected food chains make up a food web. Food web is a connection of multiple food chains. Food chain follows a single path whereas food web follows multiple paths. A network of food chains or feeding relationships by which energy and nutrients are passed on from one species of living organisms to another.What is Ecological Pyramid? Ecological Pyramid is a graphical depiction which is meant to illustrate the relationship between different living organisins at different trophic levels in an ecosystem. In an ecological pyramid there are three types of ecological pyramids. Ecological pyramid came into existence duc to famous scientist such as Charles Elton, G. Evelyn Hutchinson, and Raymond Lindeman, It has numerous names like Eltonian pyramid after Charles Elton, energy pyramid, trophic pyramid, and food pyramid "Types of Ecological Pyramids * Pyramid of Numbers Pyramid of numbers represent the total numbers of individuals(population) present in each trophic level. The term “pyramid of numbers” was first coined by Elton in 1972. This pyramid is quite convenient especially when it comes to counting the number of organisms. Pyramid of numbers is divided into two different forms depending on the number of organisms: upright and inverted. ¢ Pyramid of Biomass This pyramid indicates the total mass of organisms in a particular trophic level. Just like the pyramids of number, the pyramid of biomass has two forms inverted and upright pyramids. © Pyramid of Energy Pyramid of energy is an upright pyramid that illustrates the flow of energy from producers to consumers. Furthermore, it indicates the actual role played by various organisms in energy transfer. Energy pyramids indicate how much energy is required in the next trophic level as it flows upwards. The pattern of energy flow in this pyramid can be described based on the law of thermodynamics which states that energy is neither created nor destroyed it is only transformed from one form into another.Forest ecosystems: structures and function + = What is Forest Ecosystems? Forests ecosystems are part of terrestrial ecosystem in which an abundance of flora, or plants, is seen so they have a big number of organisms which live in relatively small space. Therefore, in forest ecosystems the density of living organisms is quite high. A small change in this ecosystem could affect the whole balance, effectively bringing down the whole ecosystem. You could see a fantastic diversity in the fauna of the ecosystems, too. They are further divided into: * Tropical evergreen forest: These are tropical forests that receive a mean rainfall of 80 for every 400 inches annually. The forests are characterised by dense vegetation which comprises tall trees at different heights. Each level is shelter to different types of animals. ¢ Tropical deciduous forest: There, shrubs and dense bushes rule along with a broad selection of trees. The type of forest is found in quite a few parts of the world while a large variety of fauna and flora are found there. © Temperate evergreen forest: Those have quite a few number of trees as mosses and ferns make up for them. Trees have developed spiked leaves in order to minimize transpiration. ¢ Temperate deciduous forest: The forest is located in the moist temperate places that have sufficient rainfall. Summers and winters are clearly defined and the trees shed the leaves during the winter months. ¢ — Taiga: Situated just before the arctic regions, the taiga is defined by evergreen conifers. As the temperature is below zero for almost half a year, the remainder of the months, it buzzes with migratory birds and insects. Structure and Function of Forest Ecosystem : I. Biotic components: The various biotic components, representatives from the three functional groups, of a forest ecosystem are: 1) Producer Organisms: In a forest, the producers are mainly trees. Trees are of different kinds depending upon the type of forest developed in that climate. Apart from trees, climbers, epiphytes, 82shrubs and yp epeta ubs and ground vegetation, Dominant species of trees in major types of forest ceosy ste SPes of forest ecosystems are: Tectona grandis, Acer, Betula, Picea, Pine, Cedrus. 2) Consumers: In a forest, consumers are of three main types; 4) Primary Consumers: These are Herbivores which feed directly on producers. Eg: Ants, Beetles, Bugs, spiders etc. feeding on tree leaves. Larger animals such as Elephants, Deer, giraffe etc. grazing on shoots and/or fruits of trees. b) Secondary Consumers These are carnivores and feed on primary consumers. Eg: Birds, Lizards, Frogs, Snakes and Foxes. ©) Tertiary Consumers: These are secondary carnivores and feed on secondary consumers. These include top carnivores like Lion, Tiger. 3) Decomposers: These include wide variety of saprotrophic micro- organism like; Bacteria (Bacillus Sp., Clostridium sp., pseudomonas. Fungi (Aspergillus sp., Ganoderma sp., Fusarium. Actinomycetes (Streptomyces). They attract the dead or decayed bodies of organisms & thus decomposition takes place. Therefore, nutrients are released for reuse. II. Abiotic components These include basic inorganic & organic compounds present in the soil & atmosphere.In addition dead organic debris is also found littered in forests. : 83Covering the syllabus of MBBSU, NEHU Grassland, desert ecosystems, Aquatic ecosystems The Desert Ecosy tem Desert ecosystems are located in regions that receive an annual rainfall less than 25. They occupy about 17 percent of all the land on our planet. Due to the extremely high temperature, low water availability and intense sunlight, fauna and flora are scarce and poorly developed. The vegetation is mainly shrubs, bushes, few grasses and rare trees, The stems and leaves of the plants are modified in order to conserve water as much as possible. The best known desert ones are the succulents such as the spiny leaved cacti. The animal organisms include insects, birds, camels, reptiles all of which are adapted to the desert (xeric) conditions. +The Grassland Ecosystem Grasslands are located in both the tropical and temperate regions of the world though the ecosystems vary slightly. The area mainly comprises grasses with a little number of trees and shrubs. The main vegetation includes grasses, plants and legumes that belong to the composite family. A lot of grazing animals, insectivores and herbivores inhabit the grasslands. The two main kinds of grasslands ecosystems are: Savanna: The tropical grasslands are dry seasonally and have few individual trees. They support a large number of predators and grazers. ” Prairies: It is temperate grassland, completely devoid of large shrubs and trees. Prairies could be categorized as mixed grass, tall grass and short grass prairies. «The Mountain Ecosystem Mountain land provides a scattered and diverse array of habitats where a large number of animals and plants can be found. At the higher altitudes, the harsh environmental conditions normally prevail, and only the treeless alpine vegetation can survive. The animals that live there have thick fur coats for prevention from cold and hibernation in the winter months, Lower slopes are commonly covered with coniferous forests. % Aquatic Ecosystems The aquatic ecosystem is the ecosystem found in a body of water. It encompasses aquatic flora, fauna and water properties, as well, There are two main types of aquatic ecosystem - Marine and Freshwater 84* The Ma © Ecosystem Marine ecosystems are the bigest ecosystems, which cover around 71% of Earth's surface and contain 97% of out planet's water, Water in Marine ceosystems features in high amounts minerals and salts dissolved in them, The different divisions of the marine ecosystem are: Oceanic: A relatively shallow part of occans which lies on the continental shelf. * Profundal: deep or Bottom water. Benthic Bottom substrates. Inter-tidal: The place between low and high tides. Estuaries Coral reefs © Salt marshes Hydrothermal vents where chemosynthetic bacteria make up the food base. Many kinds of organisms live in marine ecosystems: the brown algae, corals, cephalopods, echinoderms, dinoflagellates and sharks = The Freshwater Ecosystem Contrary to the Marine ecosystems, the freshwater ecosystem covers only 0.8% of Earth’s surface and contains 0.009% of the total water. Three basic kinds of freshwater ecosystems exist © Lentic: Slow-moving or till water like pools, lakes or ponds. Lotic: Fast-moving water such as streams and rivers. Wetlands: Places in which the soil is inundated or saturated for some lenghty period of time. The ecosystems are habitats to reptiles, amphibians and around 41% cf the world’s fish species. The faster moving turbulent waters typically contain a greater concentrations of dissolved oxygen, supporting greater biodiversity than slow moving waters in pools. “Biodiversity: definition, genetics, species and ecosystem diversity ® What is Bio diversity? Biodiversity is the shortened form of two words “biological” and “diversity.” It refers to all the variety 85of life that can be found on Earth (plants, animals, fungi and micro-organisms) as well as to the communities that they form and the habitats in which they live. Biological diversity is often understood at three levels * Species Diversity refers to the variety of different species (plants, animals, fungi and micro-organisms) such as palm trees, elephants or bacteria; * Genetic diversity corresponds to the variety of genes contained in plants, animals, fungi and micro-organisms. It occurs within a species as well as between species. For example, poodles, German shepherds and golden retrievers are all dogs, but they all look different; * Ecosystem diversity refers to all the different habitats - or places - that exist, like tropical or temperate forests, hot and cold deserts, wetlands, rivers, mountains, coral reefs, etc. Each €cosystem corresponds to a series of complex relationships between biotic (living) components such as plants and animals - and abiotic (non-living) components which include sunlight, air, water, minerals and nutrients. Value of Diversity: consumpative use, productive Use, social, Ethical, Aesthetic and option values Values of Biodiversity ® Direct Values of Biodiversity also known as commodity 1 values or use values which can be consumed and use for production of items. a)consumptive use value : these are direct use values where the biodiversity product can be harvested and consumed directly as fuel food, medicines and drugs, fiber. pulp, wood fall under this gl 86 roups,b). Productive Use Value: These are commercially usable values where the product is marketed and sold © Indirect values of Bio-diversity : Benefits that are provided by biodiversity for life sustaining, ecology and healthy environment without affecting natural resources are called indirect values. a). Non Consumptive values: biodiversity which benefits without being directly consumed and act as source of healthy life and habitat for living being. It includes the benefits of waste water treatment, solid waste disposal, eco-tourism and medical research. b). Social Value or religious value: these are the values associated with the social life, customs, religion and psycho-spiritual aspects of the people. In india Tulsi, peepal, mango, lotus beael, the fruits and leaves or flower are used for worshipped. c). Ethical Value (Existence Value): It involves ethical issues like “All life must be preserved”. It is based on the concept of ‘live and let live’. d). Aesthetic Value: great aesthetic value is attached to biodiversity as it gives us pleasure, peace of mind, excitement and a feeling of appreciation. Eg. Ecotourism. e) Optional values: these include the potentials of biodiversity that are presently unknown and need to be explored.eg. there is a possibility that there will be cure for Aids and cancer which can be derived for wild life environment biodiversity. f). Eco-system service value: it refers to the services provided by ecosystem in the process of food chain and inter-connected relationships between biotic and abiotic. ™ Global Biodiversity: Roughly 1.5 million species are known till date which may be just 15 % of the actual number. Globally we have roughly 1,70,000 flowering plants, 30,000 vertebrates. and about 2,50,000 other groups of species that have been described. It isa stupendous task to describe the remaining species which may range anywhere from 8 million to 100 million. Biodiversity generally tends to cluster in some specific areas. The habitat of biodiversity is in two habitats i.e Terrestrial biodiversity spot and marine biodiversity spot 87Peeseasecaeeeeeaseeeeees * What is Biodiversity Hot spot? The British biologist Norman Myers coined the term “biodiversity hotspot” in 1988 as a biogeographic region characterized both by exceptional levels of plant endemism and by serious levels of habitat loss. In other words, biodiversity hotspot is a biogeographic region with significant levels of biodiversity that is threatened by human habitation. A biodiversity hotspot is a biogeographic region that is both a significant reservoir of biodiversity and is threatened with destruction. The term biodiversity hotspot specifically refers to 25 biologically rich areas around the world that have lost at least 70 percent of their original habitat. The remaining natural habitat in these biodiversity hotspots amounts to just 1.4 percent of the land surface of the planet, yet supports nearly 60 percent of the world’s plant, bird, mammal, reptile, and amphibian species. = Biodiversity hotspots in india * Himalaya: Includes the entire Indian Himalayan region (and - that falling in Pakistan, Tibet, Nepal, Bhutan, China and Myanmar) * Indo-Burma: Includes entire North-eastern India, except Assam and Andaman group of Islands (and Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia and southern China) ¢ Sundalands: Includes Nicobar group of Islands (and Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Brunei, Philippines) * Western Ghats and Sri Lanka: Includes entire Western Ghats (and Sri Lanka) “Threats to Biodiversity-habitat loss, poaching of wildlife, man- wild conflicts Biodiversity is a paramount factor for the survival of the living world in general and mankind in particular. The fewer species (animals and Plants) we have, the fewer people we will have on the earth. During | the last few decades, loss of biodiversity is on the rise, Following are the major causes of threat to biodiversity. 88Mabitat Loss: Today, major loss to biodiversity in the world has been done by man, Man has begun to overuse or misuse Most of these natural ecosystems. Due to mindless and unsustainable resource use, on productive forest and grasslands have been turned into deserts, and wastelands have increased all over the world. Rapid industrialization, urbanization, and growth in population have resulted in massive deforestation and consequential habitat loss around the world. For instance, mangroves have been cleared for fuel-wood and prawn farming, which has led to a decrease in the habitat essential for breeding of marine fish. Forests all over the world, in particular tropical rainforests such as the Amazon, are under unforeseen threat largely from conversion to other land-uses. Poaching of Wildlife: Poaching of wildlife for trade and commercial activities has been on the rise for the last many decades. It has been a significant cause of the extinction of hundreds of species and the endangerment of many more, such as whales and many African large mammal, Asian tigers, etc. Most extinction over the past several hundred years is mainly due to overharvesting for food, fashion, and profit. Illicit trade in wildlife in current times is driving many species of wild animals and plants to extinction. Elephants are poached for ivory; tigers and leopards for their skin; pangolins for meat and scales; and rare timber is targeted for hardwood furniture. Man-Wildlife Conflict: Man-wildlife conflict refers to the interaction between wild animals and people and the consequential negative impact on both of them. Human population growth and the resultant destruction of wildlife habitat for human habitation and economic prosperity create reduction of resources or life to some people and wild animals.There are many consequences of man versus wildlife conflicts. The major consequences are “ Destruction of wildlife habitat Injury and loss of life of both humans and wildlife Crop damage and livestock depredation Damage to human property 89* Decrease in wildlife population and reduction in geographic ranges © Trophic cascades Apart from the above, there are other causes of threat to biodiversity. Factors such as climate change, invasion of non-native species also add to biodiversity losses in some or the other. > Causes of biodiversity loss 1. Deforestation 2. Habitat loss and nature degradation 3. Overexploitation 4. Air pollution 5. Water pollution 6. Land pollution 7. Climate change 8. Invasive species ™ Causes of Loss of Biodiversity : * Habitat Loss and Fragmentation: Destruction of the natural habitat is one of the main reasons for the extinction of species. * Over-Exploitation: When a biological system is overexploited by man for the natural resources, it results in degradation and extinction of the resources. * Co-extinetion: When a species becomes extinct, the plant and animal species associated with it in an obligatory manner, also become extinct. ™ Recent Extinctions: Quagga, Africa, The Dodo Bird, Mauritius, Thylacine, Australia, Steller’s sea cow, Dugong resembling the Steller’s sea cow. = What is endangered species?: Endangered species, any species that is at risk of extinction because of a sudden rapid decrease in its population or a loss of its critical habitat. Previously, any species of plant or animal that was threatened with extinction could be called an endangered species. The need for separate definitions of “endangered” and “threatened” species resulted in the development of various categorization systems, each containing definitions and criteria by which a species can be classified according to its risk of extinction. What is endemic species? : Endemic species are plants and animals that exist only in one geographic region. Species can be endemic to large or small areas of the earth: some are 90endemic to a particular continent, some to part of a continent and others toa single istind, Usually an area that contains endemic species is isolated in some difficulty spr ty, so that specics have ading, to other environmental char; reas, or it has unusual acteristics to which endemic species are uniquely adapted. Endemism, or the occurrence of endemic animals and plants, is more common in some regions than in others. A species is endemic to a particular geographical arca if it occurs only in that area. For example, the platypus is endemic to Australia, because it naturally occurs only in Australia and nowhere else. Similarly, chimpanzces are endemic to Africa, and red foxes are endemic to the Holarctic biogeographical region, which comprises the cold and temperate Parts of Eurasia and North America. Exotie spe in India: India is the abode to various animals and plant species. But due to climatic changes or human activities, some animals are on the verge of extinction. The Government of India has established 103 National Parks, 543 Wildlife Sanctuaries, 73 Conservation Reserves, and 45 Community Reserves to protect wildlife in India. Many of the animals comes under endangered species. First is the illegal poaching and hunting of this animal and another is introduction of foreign species and deforestation cultivation which has hampered the dwelling of these animals in their natural habitat. The population of these animals is still witnessing a significant drop despite the efforts to conserve them. Nilgiri Tahr: Itcan be found in the Nilgiri hills and also in the Southern portion of the Western Ghats in the states of Tamil Nadu and Kerala in Southern India. Nilgiri Tahr is the state animal of Tamil Nadu. The total population of this animal is around 3000. Purple Frog:. They can be found only in the Western Ghats and Palghat Gap region. They use their tongue and a special buccal groove to procure their food and feed mainly on termites. 91* Nicobar Pigeons: This species of pigeons are found in coastal regions from the Andaman and Nicobar Iskands. India, cast through the Malay Archipelago, to the Solomons and Palay and on small nearby islands. Nowadays illegal hunting of this beautitiul bird is taking place for its meat and gizZard stone, which is used in jewelry, They are near-threatened species as per IUCN : * Nilgai: The Nilgai or the blue bull is the largest Asian antelope This animal is endemic to the Indian subcontinent. The lifespan of a Nilgai on an average is about ten years. They can be found in Terai lowlands in the foothills of the Himalayas (northern India). * Indian Desert Jird: The Indian Desert Jird or Indian Desert Gerbil is an inhabitant of desert and barren areas which prefer firm soil. They are mainly found in the Thar Desert region of India (mainly in the states of Rajasthan and Gujarat). = What is conservation of biodiversity? Conservation is the protection, preservation, management, or restoration of wildlife and natural resources such as forests and water. Through the conservation of biodiversity and the survival of many species and habitats which are threatened due to human activities can be ensured. There is an urgent need, not only to manage and conserve the biotic wealth, but also restore the degraded ecosystems. e Types of Conservati Conservation can broadly be divided into two types: 1, In-situ conservation 2. Ex-situ conservation Biodiversity Conservation in-situ EX-SITU 1. Protected Areas 1. Seed Banks, Gene Banks = National Parks 2. Long Term Captive Breeding ~ Sanctuaries c. Animal Transtocations ~ Blosphere Reserves 4 Tissue Culture Banks 2. Sacred Forests and Lakes 5. Cryopreservation of Gametes and Embryos 6. Botanical Gardens 7. Zoological Gardens or 200s, 92ation * Biodiversity Conser * In-Situ Cons: an ation: It is the process of protecting either endangered plant or animal species in its natural habitat, by protecting or cleaning up the habitat itself, or by defending the species from predators. It is applied to conservation of agricultural biodiversity in agro forestry by farmers, especially those using unconventional farming practices. In-situ conservation is being done by declaring area as protected area. + In ludia following types of natural habitats are being maintained: 1. National parks 2. Wildlife sanctuaries 3. Biosphere reserves INDIA has over 600 protected areas, which includes over 90 national parks, over $00 animal sanctuaries and 15 biosphere reserves. © Advantages of in-situ conservation: 1. The flora and fauna live in natural habitats without human interference. + 2. The life cycles of the organisms and their evolution progresses in a natural way. 3. In-situ conservation provides the required green cover and its associated benefits to our environment. 4. It is less expensive and easy to manage. 5. The interests of the indigenous people are also protected = Ex-Situ Conservation: Ex-situ conservation is the preservation of components of biological diversity outside their natural habitats. This involves conservation of genetic resources, as well as wild and cultivated or species, and draws on a diverse body of techniques and facilities. Such strategies include establishment of botanical gardens, zoos, conservation strands and gene, pollen seed, seedling, tissue culture and DNA banks. © Advantages of ex-situ preservation: 1. It is useful for declining population of species. 2. Endangered animals on the verge of extinction are succe ssfully breeded. 933. Threatened species are breeded in captivity and then released in the natural habitats 4, Ex-situ centres offer the possibilities of observing wild animals, which is otherwise not possible. §. It is extremely useful for conducting research and scientific work on different sp * The oldest zoo, the Schonbrummn zoo which exists today also, was established in VIENNA in 1759. In India, the Ist z00 came into existence at BARRACKPORE in 1800. In world there are about 800 zoos. Such zoos have about 3000 species of vertebrates. Some zoos have undertaken captive breeding programmes. ™ Wildlife protection Act in India of 1972 Keeping in view the recent human encroachment, the Indian Government did take effective initiatives to conserve wildlife in the country, and amongst it, most commendable initiatives is the Wildlife Protection Act of 1972, which prohibits trade of rare and endangered species. However, this is not the only laudatory measure taken by the Government of India (GOI), there is so much more that needs to be told about the schemes and projects that have helped the country maintain its rich wildlife. Here is a glance at the important wildlife conservation initiatives that GOI has taken: In the Wildlife Protection Act of 1972, GOI created Protected Areas like National Parks, Sanctuaries, Conservation Reserves and Community Reserves for the wildlife and imposed punishments on those indulged in illegal act of hunting. Wetland (Conservation and Management) Rules 2010 have been drafted to in India. The Central Government has also in National Plan for Conservation of Aquatic Eco-System that lends assistance to the states for the sound management of all wetlands.In order to curb the illegal trade of wildlife and that of endangered species, Wildlife Crime Control Bureau has been established. There are many, projects taken, project tiger, project crocodile, project elephant, Project turtle , project crocodile etc. : 94What is Red Data Book ? . i The Red Data Book is a public document which is created for recording endangered and r: ¢ species of plants, animals, fungi as well I subspecies which are present in a particular region. The Red Data Book helps us in providing complete information for research, studies and also for monitoring the programs on rare and endangered species and their habits, as some loca © The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) was founded in 1964 with an aim to maintain a complete record of every species that ever lived. * The Red Data Book contains the complete list of threatened species. The main aim behind this documentation is to provide complete information for research and analysis of different species. ™ The Red Data Book contains colour-coded information sheets, which are arranged according to the extinction risk of many species and subspecies. © Black represents species which are confirmed to be extinct. © Red represents species that are endangered Amber for those species whose status is considered to be vulnerable © White is assigned for species that are rare » Green for species that were formerly endangered, but their numbers have started to recover © Grey coloured for the species that are classified as vulnerable, endangered, or rare but sufficient information is not available to be properly classified. = In a nutshell, the Red Data Book indexes species as: Threatened, Not threatened and Unknown 97