Selection and Matching

Turbocharger to Large Propulsion

Diesel Engine Performance

Hamid Keshavarzi

A dissertation submitted in partial fulfilment of the

requirements of Liverpool John Moores University
for the award of Master of Science in Maritime
Technical Operations

March 2005
 Selection and Matching Turbocharger to Large Propulsion Engine
Performance

H. Keshavarzi
Liverpool John Moors University
March 2005

Key words
Marine propulsion diesel engine, Pressure-charging, Turbocharger, Environmental
Protection and Turbocharger matching

Abstract
The diesel engine is a compression-ignition internal combustion heat engine which
can be operated in both the four- and two-stroke cycle. This high efficiency translates
to good fuel economy and low greenhouse gas emissions.
Pressure charging is the process of force-feeding air into the combustion chamber of
the diesel engine. All marine propulsion diesel engines have an air-charge system
with an exhaust driven turbine. This is referred to as turbocharging. A modern
turbocharger has simple, modular design, aimed at improving overall life cycle.
Developments in turbocharger’s component design and manufacture all contribute to
this goal. The key design criteria include:
• High specific flow rates
• High efficiencies and reliability
• Low noise emissions
• Ease of maintenance and mounting
• Long-service life
When comparing similar rated engines, in terms of environmental protection, one
fitted with a modern turbocharger will consume some 10-15% less fuel while
reducing gaseous emissions by equally significant amounts. However it is not just in
fuel efficiency where environmental protection benefits lie, in noise and vibration for
example, modern turbocharger has succeeded in lowering noise emissions to less
than 105dB ( A) at one meter distance and has improved vibration characteristics, by
having kept the natural frequencies well above any exciting frequencies from the
diesel engine.
In connection with turbocharger matching to marine propulsion diesel engine, years
of experience have enabled makers of turbocharger to develop a simple, semi-
empirical method for selecting the optimum turbocharger for any propulsion engine,
turbocharging system, output data and ambient conditions, at low computation cost
and with sufficient accuracy. The calculation of turbocharging system with pulsating
admission of the turbine is based on an empirical ‘pulse factor’ and can thus be
reduced to a simple computation of a system with ‘equivalent constant-pressure
admission’ of the turbine. All the empirical characteristic variables are so defined
that they can be determined from the usual, available numerical data from acceptance
tests and turbocharger adaptation tests, and also by step-by-step computation of real
working cycle.

ii
 Acknowledgements

I have in this dissertation work, a distillation of the wisdom and knowledge acquired
from continual efforts of successful turbocharger designers.
My special gratitude to Mr. Markos and Mr. E. Meier of ABB Turbo System Ltd,
Baden, Switzerland, and Mr. T. Schmitz of MAN B&W Diesel AG, Augsburg,
Germany who provided me with a lot of valuable data and useful information about
turbocharger technology and matching.
Last but not the least I thank Mr. A. Saajedi who contributed so much to this
dissertation work as supervisor as he frequently worked out to a complete, well-
balanced text in a process through which he acted as a critical reader, and he indeed
gave very valuable suggestions for improvement both technically and educationally.

iii
 Table of Contents
Abstract ii
Acknowledgement iii
Chapter 1 Diesel engine
1.1 History 01
1.2 Working principle 01
1.3 Class and construction 03
1.4 Operating modes 03
1.5 Cylinder geometry 04
1.6 Performance 04
1.7 Power 06
1.8 Air consumption 06
1.9 Pressure charging in marine diesel engine 07
1.10 Conclusions 09
Chapter 2 Turbocharger technology and selection
2.1 History and milestone 11
2.2 Working principles 12
2.3 Operating modes 15
2.4 Turbocharger efficiency 16
2.4.1 Efficiency calculation 16
2.4.2 Total (tot-tot) 17
2.4.3 Total-static (tot-stat) 18
2.5 Core technology development 18
2.5.1 Compressor technology 19
2.5.1.1 Compressor wheel and the diffuser 19
2.5.1.2 Compressor characteristic 21
2.5.1.3 Compressor silencer-air filter 24
2.5.1.4 Air intake casing 24
2.5.1.5 Compressor outlet casing 24
2.5.2 Turbine technology 25
2.5.2.1 Turbine design 25
2.5.2.2 Turbine characteristic 26
2.5.2.3 Turbine rotor 27
2.5.2.4 Turbine nozzle ring 28
2.5.2.5 Turbine casing 28
2.5.3 Cleaning device 29
2.5.4 Bearing technology 29
2.5.4.1 Bearing design 29
2.5.4.2 Bearing lubrication 31
2.5.4.3 Bearing casing 32
2.5.5 Sealing air system 32
2.6 Other issues 34
2.6.1 Vibration 34
2.6.2 Noise emission and control 34
2.6.3 Oil cocking 37
2.6.4 Containment 37
2.6.5 The surging phenomenon 37
2.6.5.1 Computational surge stability test 37
2.6.5.2 Actual surge stability test 40
2.6.6 Fuels 41

iv
2.7 Conclusions 44
Chapter 3 Turbocharger matching

3.1 Formulation of the problem 49

3.2 The method of calculation for matching turbocharger 49
3.3 Modeling and simulation methodology 51
3.4 The turbocharger matching procedure 53
3.4.1 The necessary information for turbocharger matching 55
3.5 Turbocharger matching for two-stroke engine with constant-pressure
turbocharging system (computational) 57
3.6 Representation of the turbine characteristics 64
3.7 A diagram for rapidly determining operating points 66
3.8 A detailed engine simulation code for matching the engine with its
turbocharger and investigation of compressor surging 69
3.9 Turbocharger matching for two-stroke engine with constant-pressure
turbocharging system (in-service) 73
3.10 Conclusions 74
3.11 List of symbols 78
Glossary 82
References 85

v
 List of figures
Fig. 1.1: Cut away drawing of a turbo charged diesel engine 08
Fig. 2.1: Modern exhaust gas turbocharger 13
Fig. 2.2: Optimized aerodynamics compressor wheel 19
Fig. 2.3: Compressor wheel. Air mass volume at radius r 20
Fig. 2.4: Rotating compressor wheel 21
Fig. 2.5: Compressor characteristic 22
Fig. 2.6: Compressor characteristic with backswept vanes 23
Fig. 2.7: Compressor efficiency on a constant-speed engine operating
line versus pressure ratio 23
Fig. 2.8: Turbine efficiency versus the turbine pressure ratio 27
Fig. 2.9: Turbine disk 27
Fig. 2.10: Axial thrust and radial bearings location 30
Fig. 2.11: Bearing lubrication 31
Fig. 2.12: Emergency bearing lubrication 32
Fig. 2.13: Sealing air diagram 33
Fig. 2.14: Surging cycle 38
Fig. 3.1: Flow diagram for turbocharger matching to a two-stroke
diesel engine with constant pressure charging 54
Fig. 3.2: Enthalpy-temperature diagram for air and combustion gas
for determining the exhaust gas temperature 58
Fig. 3.3: Diagram for determining the exhaust gas temperature and the
proportion of the chemical energy of the fuel in the exhaust gas 59
Fig. 3.4: Proportion of the chemical energy of the fuel in the exhaust
gas ( ζ a ) as a function of the mean effective pressure ( Pme ) 60
Fig. 3.5: Determination of the resultant scavenging air cross-section
S resM of a two-stroke diesel engine 61

Fig. 3.6: Diagram for determining turbocharger operating points 67

vi
 List of tables
Table 2.1: Component emission level of prototype turbocharger 36
Table 2.2: Component emission level of prototype turbocharger
after modification 37
Table 2.3: Heavy fuel oil (HFO) specification 42
Table 3.1: The engine’s basic characteristics 71

vii
Chapter 1

Diesel engine

1.1 History

The first decade of the 1900s proved to be a time of experimentation and success in

the area of diesel engine design and manufacture. The installation of diesel engines

into river and coastal craft was eagerly anticipated, however, there still remained

some skepticism in the performance abilities of the combustion engines on long,

seafaring journeys. Rudolf Diesel patented his engine in Germany, on 28th of

February 1892 and he later obtained patent rights in most industrialized countries. In

1894, Diesel contacted David Halley, the managing director of Burmeister and Wain

(B&W), requesting the company experiment with his design, which eventually laid

the ground for a most successful career in the design and manufacture of diesel

engines.[1]

While the Selandia, built 1912, remains heralded as the first seagoing diesel engine

vessel, in 1905, the 125 ton vessel, Venoga, built by Sulzer, became the world’s first

diesel engine vessel and was used on Lake Geneva. [2]

1.2 Working principle

Nearly all motive power is derived from heat using some form of heat engine. A heat

engine requires a source of hot energy. We get this by burning fossil fuel or by

nuclear fusion. [3]

The diesel engine is a compression-ignition internal combustion heat engine which

may be operated in both the four-stroke and two-stroke cycle. The intention of this

dissertation is to focus only on marine large two-stroke diesel propulsion engines.

The combustion process can be theoretically modeled by applying thermodynamic

1
laws of mass and energy conservation to the processes in the engine cylinder. Basic

design and performance parameters in diesel engines include compression ratio,

swept volume, clearance volume, a number of scavenging characteristics in two-

stroke engines, power output, indicated power, mechanical efficiency, indicated and

brake mean effective pressures, specific fuel consumption, and etc. [4]

All internal combustion diesel engine, require air to produce power. The air is

ingested and combined with fuel before being compressed in the combustion

chamber and then burned to generate power. Of the two ingredients needed to

produce this power, air is generally the more difficult to deliver to the combustion

chamber. This is primarily due to the fact that a naturally aspirated engine must

"inhale" the air using the vacuum generated when a piston traveling downward on its

intake stroke creates a low-pressure environment in the intake tract. How effectively

this process is able to fill the cylinders is a major factor in determining how much

power the engine is capable of developing, and is measured in terms of volumetric

efficiency η volumetric . An engine capable of completely filling the volume of its

cylinders by the end of the intake stroke would have 100 percent volumetric

efficiency η volumetric . There are a number of factors that hinder this efficiency. These

include the shape, size, and length of the intake tract, the quality of the piston seal,

the timing of the valve events, and the efficiency of the exhaust evacuation during

the preceding stroke. The deficit in cylinder fill imposed by these factors (and others)

is referred to in terms of pumping losses. A typical naturally aspirating engine

operates at around 80 to 85 percent ofη volumetric . However in order to overcome these

obstacles, or at least to diminish them, air will have to be forced into the cylinder

using external means rather than relying on the draw of the descending piston.

2
1.3 Class and construction

There are two classes of diesel engines: two-stroke and four-stroke. Many larger

propulsion diesel engines operate on two-stroke cycle. Smaller engines generally use

the four-stroke cycle.

With regard to construction, two different types of diesel engines can be

distinguished: crosshead engines and trunk piston engines. The engines are built as

in-line engines i.e. all cylinders are positioned on one line. Trunk piston engines are

also built with two lines of cylinders in a V-configuration, i.e. V-engines. [4]

1.4 Operating modes

In diesel engines, fuel is injected into the engine cylinder near the end of the

compression stroke. During a phase known as ignition delay, the fuel spray atomizes

into small droplets, vaporizes, and mixes with air. As the piston continues to move

closer to top dead center, the mixture temperature reaches the fuel’s ignition point,

causing instantaneous ignition of some pre-mixed quantity of fuel and air. The

balance of fuel that had not participated in premixed combustion is consumed in the

rate-controlled combustion phase, also known as diffusion combustion.

The chemical energy stored in the fuels is transformed into mechanical energy at the

output shaft in two steps: first, chemical energy is converted into thermal energy by

means of a combustion reaction of the fuel, with the air as working medium and;

second, the thermal energy is converted into mechanical energy.

The basic diesel cycle consist of air inlet, compression, combustion and expansion,

and exhaust. These processes can be achieved in two strokes of the piston or in four

strokes, i.e. in a two-stroke cycle or in a four-stroke cycle. [4]

3
1.5 Cylinder geometry

A stroke is defined as the distance travelled by the piston between the extreme top

position and the extreme bottom position: top dead centre (TDC) and bottom dead

centre (BDC). The inside diameter of the bore is DB [m] . The stroke-bore ratio λ s is

the ratio of stroke length Ls [m] to bore diameter. The cylinder volume that

[ ]
corresponds with the stroke is the swept volume Vs m 3 , and equals the product of

bore area and stroke length. The volume above the piston at BDC is the maximum

cylinder volume VBDC , where as the volume above piston at TDC is the clearance or

compression volume VTDC . The ratio of VBDC over VTDC is called the geometric

compression ratio ε . [4]

LS
λ= (1.1)
DB

π
VS = AB .LS = .DB2 .LS (1.2)
4

1.6 Performance

The efficiency of a diesel engine is much better than the efficiency of a steam plant

or a gas turbine; this is true at design load and even more so at part load. The

fundamental cause for the high efficiency of a diesel engine is the intermittent

character of the combustion, which allows high peak temperatures in the cylinder

without causing an extreme continuous thermal loading of the surrounding materials.

As for any other machine involved in energy conversion, the power-speed

characteristics, the power density and fuel economy are important issues for marine

diesel engine. Other characteristics are maximum obtainable power, air consumption,

emissions and costs. [4]

4
Performance of a marine propulsion diesel engine, broadly speaking, is divided into

two categories based on engine speed: low-speed and medium-speed. However

medium speed diesel engines have some other application such as electric generation

plant prime mover, engines to drive smaller boats and crafts and etc.

Since, not all energy entering the diesel process in the form of fuel is converted into

indicated work because of the losses and related efficiencies which are encountered

during conversion process of fuel energy to work output the overall, or effective

efficiency of an engine is work output divided by heat input.

We
ηe = (1.3)
Qf

And in analogy, the indicated efficiency can be defined as the ratio of indicated work

and heat input

Wi
ηi = (1.4)
Qf

The diesel engine is still the most frequently used prime mover in merchant marine

and its advantages over other prime movers, are that the diesel engine;

• Is the most energy efficient prime mover when compared to gas turbine or

steam plant

• Has improved fuel economy with lower greenhouse gas emissions

• Has longer durability, reliability, and fuel safety

• Can handle wide range of fuel quality

• Has high maintainability due to simple technology

The disadvantages of the diesel engine include noise, low specific power

output, NO X and diesel particulate matter emissions, and high cost.

5
1.7 Power

The power of an engine is generated by the pressure of the working gas on the piston.

The mean pressure is expressed as Pmi (bar). The friction loss has to be deducted

from this, and what remains is the mean effective pressure Pme (bar). The power of an

engine, Pe in kW , depends on its size and on its speed ne , and on the mean effective

pressure, Pme in bars.

i.VS .ne .Pme .10 2

Pe = kW (1.5)
K .60

Where i is the number of cylinder and in general terms, the swept volume is Vs

in m 3 , the number of revolutions of the crankshaft per complete working cycle is

defined by the constant k where;

k =1 for a 2-stroke engine and k =2 for a 4-stroke engine

pe
The effective efficiency of an engine therefore is: η = (1.6) where Q is the
Q

energy supplied by fuel.

1.8 Air consumption

Combustion requires oxygen. The oxygen is contained in the combustion air that is

trapped in the cylinder. The amount of air required to efficiently burn the fuel is

normally related to the amount of fuel; this ratio is called the air-fuel ratio, which is

mca
formally defined as: Air − fuel , ratio = (1.7)
mf

By using basic chemistry, the minimum required, so called stoichiometric, amount of

air can be determined when the composition of the air is defined and the composition

of the fuel is known; this then leads to definition of the stoichiometric air-fuel ratio:

6
 mca. min
σ= (1.8)
mf

The ratio of the actual amount of combustion air to minimum amount of combustion

mca
air is by definition the air excess ratio: λ = (1.9)
mca. min

The actual amount of combustion air mca is bigger than the theoretical mca. min in order

to improve combustion and cool the combustion chamber to maintain temperature

within design limits. [4]

1.9 Pressure-charging in marine diesel engine

The goal of pressure charging is to obtain more power from a cylinder of given size,

or in other words to increase the power to weight ratio of the diesel engine. In a

marine diesel engine which draws its combustion air direct from the atmosphere the

density of the induced air charge is approximately the same as the ambient air

density. As this air density determines the maximum weight of fuel that can

effectively be burned per working stroke in the cylinder, it also determines the

maximum power that can be developed by the diesel engine. If, therefore, the charge-

air density is increased by the interposition of a suitable compressor between the

ambient air and the cylinder, it follows that the weight of air per working stroke is

increased and thereby a greater weight of fuel can be burned in the same cylinder,

with proportionate augmentation of power.

The power for driving the compressor has an important influence on the operating

efficiency of the diesel engine.

For example, it is relatively uneconomical to drive the compressor direct from the

engine by chain or other mechanism because some of the additional power is

7
absorbed thereby and there is thus an increase in specific fuel consumption for the

extra power obtained. [4]

Fig. 1.1: Cut away drawing of a turbo charged diesel engine [5]

In the diesel engine’s exhaust gases about 25% of the input energy is available at

fairly high temperature. They are therefore a useful, potential source for heat

recovery. Usually marine propulsion diesel engines are designed for air intake

temperature of up to 45 o C for tropical conditions and where drawing intake air from

the engine room i.e. over 10 O C higher intake air temperature when intake air is

8
drawn from outside engine room via air ducts. With this increased intake air

temperature and the exhaust gases energy available, exhibit enhanced pressure

charging via turbocharger (Fig. 1.1).

1.10 Conclusions

The marine diesel engine is today’s predominant prime mover used for ship

propulsion. The most typical marine propulsion plant of modern merchant ships is a

single, slow-speed turbocharged, two-stroke diesel engine directly coupled to the

vessel’s single, fixed-pitch propeller. This configuration can provide large power

outputs (up to 80MW from a single unit) and yet is characterized by operational

robustness due to its conceptual simplicity.

The marine diesel engines are reciprocating internal combustion engines. The

process of energy conversion in the diesel engine include: air inlet, compression,

expansion and exhaust. Combustion normally takes place during expansion.

In all marine propulsion diesel engines, for combustion air and fuel are required. The

air is ingested and combined with fuel before being compressed in the combustion

chamber and then burned to generate power. Of the two ingredients needed to

produce this power, air is generally the more difficult to deliver to the combustion

chamber. This is primarily due to the fact that a naturally aspirated engine must

"inhale" the air using the vacuum generated when a piston traveling downward on its

intake stroke creates a low-pressure environment in the intake tract. A diesel engine

capable of completely filling the volume of its cylinders by the end of the intake

stroke would have 100 percent volumetric efficiency. With key performance

parameters such as mean effective pressure and indicated work the out put power of

the engine can be quantified. A very important performance parameter is the

9
effective efficiency which relates the diesel engine work output to the fuel-related

heat input. Effective efficiency includes the effect of heat loss, incomplete

combustion of the fuel and mechanical losses. Other important performance

parameters are fuel consumption, air consumption, air-fuel ratio and air excess ratio.

Power density is an important parameter to express the output of a marine diesel

engine in relation to its size or weight. However parameters such as engine speed,

mean piston speed and mean effective pressure are influential to power density.

To increase the power output the air has to be forced into the combustion chamber.

Pressure charging is the process of force-feeding air into the combustion chamber of

the diesel engine. All marine propulsion diesel engines have an air-charge system

with an exhaust driven turbine. This is referred to as turbocharging (patented in 1905

by Dr. Buchi with first practical application in 1923). In chapter2, turbocharging,

exhaust gas turbocharger technology and characteristics shall be discussed. However

to further increase the density of air, charge air cooling system is provided which

cools the compressed air by low temperature water before it is fed into the engine.

In marine propulsion applications the main advantages of diesel engine over other

prime movers, is that the diesel engine;

• is relatively insensitive to fuel quality,

• has high reliability,

• has high maintainability due to rather simple technology,

• has high efficiency,

• has relatively lesser initial and operating costs

The disadvantages of the marine diesel engine are its pollutant emissions, when

compared to gas turbine, and its low power density.

10
Chapter 2

Turbocharger technology and selection

2.1 History and milestones

About a half-hour after the invention of the internal combustion engine, somebody

figured out that it would make more power if the intake air could be forced into the

engine rather than sucked in by the down stroke of the piston. The idea of supplying

air under pressure to a diesel engine was voiced by Dr. Rudolf Diesel as early as

1896. Since then, designers and engine manufacturers have been trying to devise new

and better ways to stuff cylinders full of mixture for maximum output. Many of these

efforts involved crank-driven devices to compress the air, but, a Swiss designer

named Dr. Alfred J. Buchi came up with the idea of using exhaust gases to drive the

compressor. Dr. A. Buchi filed an application to patent his first turbocharger with

Swiss patent office in 1905 and he further patented his so called “pulse system” in

1925. This system feeds the exhaust gases of the engine through narrow pipes to the

turbocharger turbine, thus driving the compressor. The pressure variation in the

small-volume pipes allows overlapping of the inlet and exhaust, permitting

scavenging of the compression space of the engine cylinder with clean air. Cylinders

that do not disturb each other’s scavenging process can be connected to one pipe

(turbine gas inlet) in accordance with the firing order of the diesel engine. This pulse

system was the foundation for further success of turbocharging.

In December 1928, following a lecture given by Dr. A. Buchi at the Royal Institute

of Engineers at Hague in the Netherlands it was learnt that the thermal load of a

diesel engine does not essentially increase when turbocharged. Thus began a phase of

extensive research and development.

11
2.2 Working principle

The development of turbocharged marine diesel engines has always aimed at higher

power and efficiency. About 75% of engine power relies on the turbocharger.

The turbocharger consists of two machines (Fig. 2.1), a turbine and a compressor

which are mounted on a common shaft. The exhaust gases from the diesel engine

flow through the gas inlet casing and nozzle ring to the turbine wheel. The turbine

uses the energy contained in the exhaust gas to drive the compressor.

The compressor draws in fresh air and compresses it before being forced into the

cylinders. The exhaust gases exit the turbocharger via the gas outlet casing. The

turbocharger is gas tight.

The rotating compressor wheel is driven at high speed by the turbine. The air which

is necessary for the operation of the diesel engine and which is compressed in the

turbocharger is drawn through the suction branch or the silencer into the compressor

wheel. Impeller blades accelerate and fling out the air into the diffuser casing at high

velocity. It then leaves the turbocharger through the volute of the air outlet housing.

The diffuser transforms the high velocity air into high-pressure air for combustion in

the diesel engine.

The rotor runs in two radial plain bearings which are located in the bearing bush

between the compressor casing and turbine casing. The axial thrust bearing is on the

compressor side. The plain bearings are connected to a central lubricating oil field in

which the oil is supplied by the oil system of the diesel engine. The oil outlet is

always at the lowest point of the bearing casing.

The turbocharger may be provided with an emergency lubricating oil tank. In the

event of failure of the lubricating oil system this emergency lubrication provides a

supply of oil to the bearing positions until the rotor stands still.

12
The power necessary to drive a compressor in the turbocharger must be equal to the

power delivered by the turbine. The power of a rotating machine, such as a

compressor or a turbine, is:

P = m& .Δh = m& .c p ΔT (2.1)

This relationship shows the direct influence of mass flow on the output of the

turbocharger. The temperature drop over the turbine is directly related to the pressure

drop.

The pressure drop over the turbine depends on the flow area of the turbine and on the

exhaust flow forced by the engine on the turbine. So, the output of the turbocharger

mainly depends on the mass flow. [4]

When the same equation is applied to the compressor, it shows that the power input

will result not only in a pressure rise, but also in a temperature rise of the charge air.

Fig. 2.1: Modern exhaust gas turbocharger [5]

To lower the temperature and to increase the density, a charge air cooler is required

between the compressor and the inlet air receiver. This helps to increase the engine

output at more moderate charging pressure levels (e.g. a mean effective pressure of

10 bar, a charging pressure of 0.6 bar gauge with air-cooler and 0.85 bar without air-

13
cooler, for the same charge of air (kg) in the cylinders; without an air-cooler the

exhaust gas temperature would be some 50 °C higher).

Essentially, a turbocharged marine diesel engine will exhibit decreasing specific fuel

consumption with an increasing degree of turbocharging.

In addition, deeper knowledge of the thermodynamic properties of the diesel process

and a better understanding of the fuel injection systems will help to substantially

reduce the specific fuel consumption of marine diesel engines.

For comparison, a naturally aspirating diesel engine may have a mean effective

pressure of 6 to 7bar and a turbocharged diesel engine of 10 to 30bar, for identical

cylinder size.

In addition to above advantages the state of the art for modern marine diesel engines

is an output 4 times (400 percent) as high as the non-turbocharged diesel engine for

the same speed and dimensions.

This means that the specific fuel oil consumption of modern turbocharged marine

diesel engine amounts to only 80 percent of the specific fuel oil consumption of the

non-turbocharged diesel engine. Thus, turbocharged diesel engines are a must in

terms of environmental protection, as fuel that is not consumed, neither will cause air

pollution, nor produce CO2 . Also, the modern turbocharger combining high pressure

ratios with high efficiency is an important factor when the engine process has to be

adjusted to achieve a low NO x emission level through low process temperatures

(high air-to-fuel ratio, high charging pressure). Put in general terms, the materials

and energy required to produce a turbocharged marine diesel engine for a given

output and speed are considerably lower than for a non-turbocharged one for the

same output and speed. The advantages of turbo-charging by means of an exhaust

gas turbocharger system are:

14
 • A substantial increase in the diesel engine output for a given speed which is

approximately proportional to the absolute charging pressure supplied by the

turbocharger, for any stated diesel engine size and piston speed, alternatively,

a substantial reduction in engine dimensions and weight for any stated horse-

power;

• An appreciable reduction in required space for the installation of a specific

engine output, with more favorable specific fuel consumption rate at all

engine loads;

• Increased reliability and reduced maintenance costs, resulting from less-

exacting conditions at cylinders.

• An appreciable reduction in the specific fuel consumption rate at all engine

loads;

• A reduction in initial cost;

• Increased reliability and reduced maintenance costs, resulting from less-

exacting conditions at cylinders.

• A reduction in harmful diesel engine emissions

2.3 Operating modes

A turbocharger may be operated on the constant-pressure principle or on the pulse

principle. The differences between these principles lie in the design of the exhaust

system of the diesel engine. Just before the exhaust valve opens, the cylinder process

ends with a relatively high pressure and temperature. In the constant pressure system,

during blow down, the cylinder pressure drops quickly to the exhaust receiver

pressure and the pressure in a large receiver remains almost constant. In the pulse

15
system however the pressure in a relatively small receiver, on the other hand, has a

pulsating character.

A constant pressure system features one big exhaust manifold, which collects the

exhaust gases of all cylinders. As the mass flow fluctuations caused by the cylinders

that intermittently exhaust into the receiver, are dampened out by the sheer size of

the manifold, the pressure in the manifold is relatively low and constant over the

cycle. [4]

In the pulse system, up to three cylinders are connected to one turbine by a small

exhaust pipe. The pressure in the manifold is low, which is advantageous for the

scavenging process. Until one of the cylinders opens its exhaust, the pressure rises

quickly, even higher than the charge pressure before the engine, giving the turbine a

boost. The energy present in the exhaust gases is more effectively transported to the

turbine. The pressure before the turbine is high and the blow down losses are much

smaller than for the constant pressure system. The greater pressure ratio over the

turbine however is counteracted by a lower efficiency of the turbine due to the

increased flow losses as a result of the pulsating flow. [4]

2.4 Turbocharger efficiency

2.4.1 Efficiency calculation

The efficiency is an important criterion for the evaluation of the turbocharger. The

equation 2.2 shows how the efficiency of turbocharger can be calculated. The

specific thermal value “ C p ” and the isentropic exponent “k” are temperature

dependent. The isentropic exponent for the exhaust gas “ k g ” is also influenced by

the gas composition. In two-stroke engine, however, the air pressure in the

16
scavenging air pipe plus the cooler pressure drop are used for P2 , while the ambient

reduced by the filter losses is used for P1 . The pressure in the exhaust manifold is P3 .

The efficiencies are calculated with the help of measured operating values and so

when pressure and temperature before the turbine are not known, then it is not

possible to determine the turbocharger efficiency. [1]

K L −1
.
T m C pL ( P2 / P1 ) K L − 1
η TC = 1 x .L x [ K G −1
] (2.2)
T2 m C pg
g 1 − ( P4 / P3 ) KG

T1 = CompressorInletTemperature[ K ]
T3 = TurbineInletTemperature[ K ]
.
.
m L = AirMass[kg / s ]
.
.
m g = GasMass ( AirandFuelOil[kg / s ])
C pL = SpecificHeat (air[ J / kg.K ])
C pg = SpecificHeat ( gas[ J / kg.K ])
P1 = AirInlet Pr essure[bar ]
P2 = Ch arg eAir Pr essure[bar ]
P3 = TurbineInlet Pr essure[bar ]
P4 = TurbineOutlet Pr essure[bar ]
k L = IsentropicExponent (air )
k g = IsentropicExponent ( gas)
η TC = Turboch arg erEfficiency
P2 / P1 = Pr essureRatio(compressor )
P3 / P4 = Pr essureRatio(turbine)

2.4.2 Total (tot – tot)

Total efficiency is one of the most common factors for the thermodynamic characters

of turbocharger. Total pressures directly in front and after the compressor and in

front of turbine as well as total temperatures are to be put in the equation. The flow

velocity in the turbine outlet casing is not taken into account as no further stage for

17
the usage of the dynamic pressure is given; as a result, the static exhaust gas turbine

outlet pressure is applied and not the total pressure. [1]

2.4.3 Total-static (tot - stat)

The ambient pressure is used and the losses between compressor outlet and inlet are

comprehended in the charge air cooler. As only the static compressor outlet pressure

can be used in the engine, and not the dynamic portion, the compressor outlet

pressure is used instead of total value. As a result, the ambient pressure at the

silencer is applied for P1 and the static pressure after the turbine is applied for P2 . [1]

2.5 Core technology developments

As with most industrial sectors, turbocharger design and manufacturing businesses

are facing constant pressure to enhance products whilst remaining cost competitive.

For manufacturers of propulsion marine diesel engines, the turbocharger is a critical

component. From a technical standpoint, not only it is a key factor in the engine

performance, but it is also critical to overall product reliability.

Additionally the external demands from end users and the progressively more

stringent regulatory requirements such as International Maritime Organization (IMO)

rules which are demanding reduction in emissions to which both the turbocharger

manufacturers and the diesel engine manufacturers have to respond, and increasing

pressure ratio requirements resulting from the progression to higher specific cylinder

powers, lead to obvious pressures on the manufacturer to continually develop their

existing products and introduce enhanced products.

There are currently progressive developments in turbocharger manufacturing process

but since it is not possible in the context of this dissertation to cover all the currently

18
underway developments, the following is, however, intended to give an appreciation

of how slow speed marine propulsion diesel engine application requirements are

placing demands on turbocharger designs; and design and manufacturing initiatives

are facilitating the continuous improvement in turbocharger product technology.

2.5.1 Compressor technology

The main parts of the turbocharger compressor are the compressor wheel (inducer

and impeller), common rotor and compressor shaft, diffuser, silencer-filter, air intake

casing and compressor casing.

2.5.1.1 Compressor wheel and the diffuser

The compressor wheel (Fig.2.2) which is one of the most important parts of the

turbocharger is normally made of a single piece high-strength aluminum alloy for

compression ratios up to 4.5 and single piece titanium for compression ratios over

4.5.

Fig. 2.2: Optimized aerodynamics compressor wheel [5]

The highly stressed, one piece impeller wheel which withstands the high

circumferential velocities of up to 560 m/s, the splitter bladed impeller design, the

19
backswept blades, and the diffuser blades arranged with correct angle of incidence

with a profile that reduces the losses caused by collision to a minimum, ensures

efficiency as high as 87% in a given design operation range. The enlarged

compressor wheel diameter with increased volume flow also exhibits optimized

matching of the turbocharger and large propulsion engine. [1]

The compressor wheel which may feature a corrosion resistance coating to protect

the impeller against acidic corrosion must fulfill the following requirements:

• To provide the engine with a sufficient amount of air at the desired pressure.

• High compressor efficiency.

• Wide compressor map to ensure a safe surge margin, not only at full load, but

also at part load.

• To take high loads due to blades loads as well as centrifugal and vibration

stresses.

Fig. 2.3 shows a schematic of a compressor wheel. Assume that the wheel stands still

with the space between the blades filled with air at ambient pressure and temperature

and then consider a small air mass volume at a radius r.

r r

Fig. 2.3: Compressor wheel. Air mass volume at radius r [6]

When compressor wheel starts to rotate (Fig. 2.4) with a circumferential speed U, at

radius r, the speed will be V. The small air mass volume will be subjected to a radial

acceleration, V 2 / r which causes the wheel to move outwards in radial direction. All

20
the air experiences this influence and it begins to flow into the air inlet casing

through the compressor wheel and into the diffuser and air outlet casing. The air

eventually leaves the compressor wheel at its circumference with an absolute

velocity C. It should be noted that the general performance of the compressor is

positively influenced by low air friction losses on the various flow surfaces of the

compressor wheel and the diffuser. [6]

W Diffuser

v r

Compressor wheel
(Impeller and Inducer)
U = Circumferential speed
V = Speed of air mass volume
C = Absolute speed of air leaving the compressor wheel
W = Speed of air relative to blade

Fig. 2.4: Rotating compressor wheel [6]

2.5.1.2 Compressor characteristic

To determine the specification for a turbocharger compressor, two characteristic

variables are required. These accurately establish the operating point in the

compressor map (characteristic). For the map representation the variables commonly

used by ABB Turbo System Ltd, are [7]:

The total pressure ratio of the compressor:

∏ VA
*
= PVA* / PVE* (2.3)

Where: PVA* = Pressure at compressor outlet under total conditions

21
 PVE* = Pressure at compressor inlet under total conditions

The volumetric flow rate of the compressor in the suction condition, corrected

to 15 O C (288.15 K ) [7]:

.
. .
288.15.TVE*
. m 288.15
=
mVE
V= * TVE* *
pVE
(2.4)
pVE
.
Where: m = mass flow rate and TVE* = temperature at the compressor inlet. These

determining variables should be calculated for the nominal operating of the

propulsion engine. Additionally a check will always be carried out through out the

operating range to see whether any engine or turbocharger limit values are exceeded.

Fig. 2.5 shows the characteristic of a modern compressor. [7]

Fig. 2.5 Typical compressor characteristic [1]

22
At a given speed and with increasing volume, the achievable pressure ratio is lower

due to the lower efficiency. The explanation of this can be found in Fig. 2.6.

A = Design point
πc = Pressure ratio

v = Intake volume

a= Characteristic without losses

b= Characteristic with friction losses
c= Characteristic with friction and incidence

Fig. 2.6 Compressor characteristic with backswept vanes [6]

Theoretically, a compressor with backswept vanes and no losses due to incidence or

due to friction will exhibit a decreasing pressure ratio with the increasing volume

(line a). But there is friction, and it increases with the volume (line b).

η
0.89c
Older turbocharger
0.87 Modern turbocharger

0.85

0.83

0.81

0.79

0.77

0.75

1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0

Compressor pressure ratio

πc

Fig. 2.7: Compressor efficiency on a constant-speed engine operating line

versus pressure ratio [5]

To the left and right of design point A on the constant speed line c, the angle of

incidence of the flow into the diffuser is not optimal. The hatched areas represent the

23
magnitude of the losses. The progress in achievable pressure ratio and compressor

efficiency on a constant speed engine operating line is also shown in the Fig. 2.7.

2.5.1.3 Compressor silencer-air filter

The turbocharger for marine propulsion diesel engine have plate-type silencer as a

standard; they are surrounded by an effective air filter. A special guide cone inside

the silencer ensures equalization on the air flow and uniform air admission to the

compressor.

Silencer features following characteristics:

• Contributes to high turbocharger efficiencies due to their low pressure losses,

especially at higher mass flows;

• Effective noise level reduction to the required standard level;

• Maximum velocities of the air at silencer inlet of 6 m/s.

The soft air filter helps to keep compressor, diffuser and intercooler free from

deposits by an effective filtering process. [1]

2.5.1.4 Air intake casing

The air inlet casing is either constructed with 90 degree bent or as an axial air inlet

duct. The large flow paths and wide-curved deflection regions exhibit constant

pressure and velocity distribution at compressor inlet.

2.5.1.5 Compressor outlet casing

The compressor casing which is normally made of grey cast iron, with its wide flow

sections and large outlet areas, it ensures efficient conversion of kinetic energy into

pressure. In the large propulsion engine where high charge air pressures

24
(continuously above 4.0 bars) are required, the compressor casing can be heat

insulated as the classification society requirement or as per request of the buyer, the

ship-builder or engine manufacturer.

2.5.2 Turbine technology

2.5.2.1 Turbines design

There are two completely different designs; radial flow and axial flow exhaust gas

turbines which are used to drive turbocharger compressors. Radial turbine is

normally used in small turbocharger fitted on engine with supercharged engine

output from 500 kW to about 4500 kW per turbocharger, where axial turbine is used

on propulsion engine (medium-speed and slow-speed engines). The radial turbine is

perfectly capable of accepting the exhaust gas from engine running on heavy fuel oil

with ability to retain its high efficiency over a very long period of time, especially

when reasonable maintenance is provided. [8]

The axial turbine is able to supply an adequate output with good efficiency to drive

the compressor from low pressure ratios upwards, thus assuring good part-load

performance of the engine. The latter is especially important for fixed- pitch

propeller drives. Variable turbine geometry with higher part-load boost pressure and

improved dynamic response ensures best transient performance and reduces fuel

consumption and emissions in engine’s part load operation. [8]

The main parts of a modern turbocharger turbine are the turbine rotor (disk and rotor

blades), common compressor and rotor shaft, nozzle ring, gas admission and gas

outlet casings and integrated turbine cleaning device.

25
2.5.2.2 Turbine characteristic

To determine the specification for turbine, as in the compressor, two characteristic

variables are required; these accurately establish the operating point in the turbine

map (characteristic). For the map representation the variables commonly used by

ABB Turbo System Ltd, are [7]:

- The expansion pressure ratio of the turbine:

Π T = PTE* / PTA (2.5)

Where: Π T is expansion pressure ratio of the turbine (pressure under total conditions

at the inlet and under static conditions at the outlet), PTE* is pressure at turbine inlet

under total conditions, and PTA is static pressure at the turbine outlet.

- The effective cross-sectional area of a nozzle having the same flow capacity as the

turbine (usually termed the equivalent nozzle area):

.
.
m TE R A .TTE*
S Teff = α Tgeom = −
(2.6)
PTE* .Ψm (Π T , k A )

Where: S Teff is the equivalent turbine nozzle area, α Tgeom is reference flow coefficient

.
defined by the turbine geometry, mTE is the exhaust gas flow at the turbine inlet, R A

Is gas constant of the exhaust gas, TTE* is temperature at turbine inlet under total

condition, Ψm is function for calculating the isentropic mass flow through a nozzle,

−
and k A is mean isentropic exponent of the exhaust gas. As in the compressor case

these determining variables should be calculated for the nominal operating of the

propulsion engine. Additionally a check will always be carried out through out the

operating range to see whether any engine or turbocharger limit values are exceeded.

[7]

26
Figure 2.8 shows the turbine efficiency versus the pressure ratio for three different

specifications: full load, intermediate and part load optimization.

90
Turbine Efficiency [%] 88
Balanced

86
84
82
80
Full load optimized
78 Part load optimized
76
74
72
70
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
Expansion Ratio

Fig.2.8: Turbine efficiency versus the turbine pressure ratio [1]

2.5.2.3 Turbine rotor

The forged turbine disk (Fig. 2.9) consists of a high-tensile, heat resistance alloy and

is connected with the rotor shaft by means of friction welding [1].

Fig. 2.9: Turbine disk [1]

27
The blades are precisely forged of a Nimonic alloy. The blades are fastened to the

turbine disk by means of a fir-tree foot connection. Improved constructively design

of the modern turbocharger has made the turbine blades very well accessible for

inspection and cleaning with the usual damping wire in the turbine blade ring

omitted. [1]

2.5.2.4 Turbine nozzle ring

The cast nozzle ring with profiled blades largely contributes to the excellent

efficiency of the turbine. With improved flow in the nozzle ring, the vibration

acceleration of the rotor blades is reduced and at the same time the stability of the

nozzle ring is remarkably improved, especially when it is subjected to heavy stress

from cleaning granulates. The casings if insulated with simple and highly efficient

insulation material, they guarantee a lower noise level as well as low surface

temperature in the engine room. [1]

2.5.2.5 Turbine casing

The gas admission and gas outlet casings having wide flow areas are made of

nodular iron, and with improved constructively design they are un-cooled and are

effectively insulated with the flow losses minimized. Since the turbine outlet casing

flange may be subject to loads by the effected gas forces, additional exterior forces

and or torque and the gas admission casing flange unlike the turbine outlet casing

may be subject only to loads by the effected gas forces, this necessitates the use of

compensators directly at the turbine inlet and at the turbine outlet. The compensators

are to be pre-loaded in such a manner that thermal expansion of the pipes and the

casing do not affect force or torque in addition to the gas forces. [1]

28
2.5.3 Cleaning device

In modern turbocharger where efficient and standard synthetic air filter is normally

used the washing of compressor can be dispensed, provided the air filter is properly

treated. However turbocharger’s turbine must be cleaned at regular intervals

beginning from the very first operation to remove combustion residues from the

blades of rotor and nozzle ring, failure to do so might cause a deterioration of the

operating data or severe excitations of the rotor blades. Two principal cleaning

procedures for turbine are: Turbine wet cleaning and turbine dry cleaning. Both

cleaning methods can be used with the same turbocharger to complement the

advantages of each single device.

In wet cleaning fresh water free from any chemical additives with approximate

pressure of 3 bars has to be used and in order to avoid overload on turbine blades by

thermo-shock and centrifugal stresses, the propulsion engine load has to be reduced

to 10% of normal load.

In dry cleaning with advantage of carrying it out during normal operation of the

engine, the container for the granulate matter has to be filled with the maker’s

specified quantity and has to be blown-in during an injection period of approximately

30 seconds.

2.5.4 Bearing Technology

2.5.4.1 Bearing design

Modern turbochargers which are designed for operation with engine lubricating oil

with required filtration of about 5o μm filter mesh size, demand, high-tech bearing

technology (Fig.2.10) to guarantee safe and reliable turbocharger operation under all

circumstances. Therefore such bearings features should include the axial thrust

29
bearing with the free floating disc for high loads and high speeds, and the radial fixed

bearing bushes, centered in a squeeze oil damper.

The axial floating disc rotates at about half of the rotor speed between the rotating

and static thrust bearing components. By this design the relative velocities are

reduced to cause better oil film formation and declination tolerance and prolongs the

bearing lifetime.

Squeeze Oil Damper

Squeeze Oil Damper

Radial Bearing

Radial Bearing

Auxiliary Thrust Free

Bearing Floating
Thrust Disk
Oil Inlet

Fig.2.10: Axial thrust and radial bearings location [5]

Plain bearings of inboard arrangement, made of steel back, cast of stannous, lead and

bronze alloy material, designed in a multi-lobe geometry, to ensure centering of the

rotor shaft. The bearing on the compressor side takes both axial and radial forces

where as the bearing on the rotor side takes radial forces only. The turbine side

bearing is designed as floating bearing bush to ensure quiet running even at the

highest speeds [5].

The inboard bearing arrangement resulted in:

• Ideal axial admission of the air to the compressor wheel and of the exhaust

gases to the nozzle ring and the turbine

• Short bearing distance therefore exact alignment of the rotor, critical rotor

speeds outside the operating speed range

30
 • Short and stiff rotor with low moment of inertia, therefore good acceleration

response

• Excellent access to all bladed components for inspection and maintenance

The advantages of the plain bearings are:

• Long life time

• Ideal behavior at very high axial and radial forces

• High damping effect due to large hydraulic oil film

• Insensitive to vibrations and imbalances

• No necessity for vibration control

2.5.4.2 Bearing lubrication

During the normal operation of the turbocharger the bearings are lubricated via the

main engine lubricating oil system (Fig. 2.11).

Fig. 2.11: Bearing lubrication [5]

At the same time the emergency lubricating oil tank is continuously filled with

system oil via a small bypass bore in the non-return valve with excess lube oil being

supplied to the engine’s lube oil circuit by means of free overflow.

31
In the event of disturbance in lubricating oil supply, the integrated emergency oil

tank on the turbocharger secures a safe rotor run down. If the oil supply is disturbed

because of e.g. a black out, there will be more than sufficient amount of oil within

the emergency oil system (Fig. 2.12) to secure bearing lubrication after engine shut

down. Since the emergency oil system employs the principle of pure gravity, this

simple system does not require any auxiliaries.

Fig. 2.12: Emergency bearing lubrication [5]

2.5.4.3 Bearing casing

Modern turbochargers use completely water-free heat insulated bearing casings made

of cast iron, machined in one single setting resulting in an uniquely exact rotor

alignment which can be withdrawn (with complete rotating assembly) from the

turbine housing without need to disconnect exhaust manifolds to and from engine.

2.5.5 Sealing air system

The sealing air prevents the penetration of hot exhaust gas into the bearing casing

and lube oil from seeping into turbine (Fig. 2.13). It also helps to reduce undesired

32
thrust on the axial bearing disc. The sealing air system is fully integrated in the

bearing casing without ruling out the option for the turbocharger to also be operated

with external sealing air. A part of the air compressed by the compressor wheel is

diverted and flows out of the compressor casing into a ring duct in the bearing

casing. From there the air is led into the sealing air pipe, whereby an orifice reduces

the pressure to the required sealing air pressure. The air is led to a ring duct on the

turbine side of the bearing casing. There the sealing air emerges between shaft and

turbine labyrinth where, a small amount of the sealing air flows back into the bearing

casing via the labyrinth rings and thus holds back the lubricating oil, and the other

part of the sealing air is led past the turbine disk into the gas outlet casing.

The sealing air pressure is factory set via the orifice and there are no needs to either

control it or adjust it by the end user [1].

01- Compressor casing

02- Ring duct, compressor side
03- Orifice
04- Sealing air pipe
05- Ring duct, turbine side
06- Compensation pipe
07- Non-return valve
08- Pipe bend
09- Bearing bush
10- Locating bearing
11- Bearing casing
12- Gas outlet casing

Fig. 2.13: Sealing air diagram [1]

33
2.6 Other issues

2.6.1 Vibration

Any vibratory forces or couples that may emanate from a main engine “diesel

propulsion plant” under consideration must be carefully assessed before it is accepted

as suitable. [9] It is often the case that much effort is correctly directed towards core

improvements offering higher performance and higher efficiencies. Manufacturers,

however, have also kept in perspective all application requirements, some of which

are associated immediately with the diesel engine needs and some driven by the

market and by legislation. One such issue is that of vibration levels. Natural

frequencies of rotating components are nowadays always analyzed in the design

phase. It is also important, however, that the natural frequency of the turbocharger

assembly should be thoroughly evaluated and the overall system response of the

turbocharger on its bracket understood. In addition to theoretical analyses, the

vibration characteristics of turbochargers and their air filter silencers have been

practically evaluated on a shaker table to give confidence in the natural frequencies

being well above any exciting frequencies from the diesel engine. [9] The

turbocharger and air filter silencers assemblies may additionally be analyzed on the

diesel engine bracket to further assist understanding of the system as a whole and to

provide sound data to support theory. This work can ultimately result in more

reliable modeling of the turbocharger and air filter silencers in order to prevent

vibration problems being encountered in service.

2.6.2 Noise emissions and control

The market leaders in marine two stroke diesel propulsion plant are in no doubt that

the rising tide of environmental awareness and controls, hitherto mainly expressed in

34
exhaust emission controls, will necessitate new technical initiatives as regards

engine-emitted noise. Greater demands are accordingly being placed on engine

designers to provide more detailed and precise information regarding noise emissions

and its various forms.

One of the main origins of noise emissions from two-stroke machinery is the

turbocharger. [10]

The charging systems of large marine diesel engines comprise up to four

turbochargers. The components connected to the turbocharger can contribute

considerably to the total noise level of the engine. In particular, these components are

mainly responsible for pure tone noise transmitted from the compressor outlet. The

result of development work for reducing noise at the compressor outlet revealed that

an acoustically optimized diffuser is highly effective in reducing the noise level at

the compressor outlet. [11]

As mentioned earlier the increasing demands with respect to the diesel engine output

required increased pressure ratio and volume flow of the turbochargers, which has

resulted in higher noise emissions. Therefore noise attenuation and the noise level

produced by the turbocharger is also a subject of close scrutiny. Legislation

continues to improve the safety and comfort of working environments and noise

exposure is one key element of this. Current standards dictate the need for noise

levels of typically 110 dB( A) or NR 105 at 1m. It is likely that levels will further

reduce and there will be a need to further improve attenuation in this respect.

Development work is therefore proceeding on variations in design, which will allow

these criteria to be met.

Typical sound power limits on ships measured at a distance of 1 meter from the

engine are 110 dB( A) for 100 percent load or 105 dB( A) at slightly reduced load.

35
Turbochargers being capable of operating over a wide range of gas flows and power

ratings generate noise with complex mechanism, possess both body-radiated and

aerodynamic noise source. Attempts at separately quantify the generated noise within

a turbocharger are complex too, particularly with respect to turbine exhaust noise,

due to extreme temperatures, high exit velocities and products of combustion, etc.

The surface sound pressure level of the turbochargers can be calculated from the

sound power level which is the energetic sum of the components’ partial sound

power. That means that for a prototype turbocharger a sound power level of

113 dB( A) corresponds to a surface sound pressure level of 95 dB( A) . Table 2.1

shows the sound power level of the turbocharger components and their respective

contribution to the total sound power level.

dB( A) Sound power level

Turbocharger overall 121.8
Silencer circumference plus front area 113.3
Compressor scroll 120.5
Turbine casing with standard insulation 112.5

Table 2.1 Component emission level of prototype turbocharger [11]

When comparing these values with a given reference value of the total sound power

level of 113 dB( A) it is easy to ascertain which components actually offered

potential for improvement i.e. the compressor scroll accounted for the largest

percentage of the total, followed by the silencer.

In an attempt by turbocharger designer the enhancement of the silencer design,

improvement of the insulation material and introduction of newly designed

acoustically optimized diffuser proved to be highly effective in reducing the noise

level in the prototype turbocharger (Table 2.2).

36
 dB( A) Sound power level
Turbocharger overall 114.0
Silencer circumference plus front area 111.0
Compressor scroll 110.4
Turbine casing with standard insulation 102.0

Table2.2 Component emission level of prototype turbocharger after modification [11]

2.6.3 Oil cocking

To avoid oil cocking at high gas inlet temperatures or after a shutdown from full

load, temperature have to be kept as low possible. This can be achieved by either

using water cooled bearing casing or by separation of the bearing bush from the

bearing housing.

2.6.4 Containment

To protect personnel and to avoid any risk of injury in the case of turbocharger over

speed with sudden break of the connection between the compressor and the shaft all

housings are designed to be capable of containing any bursting parts [5].

2.6.5 The surging phenomenon

2.6.5.1 Computational surge stability test

The compressor runs at constant speed and supplies air to the air receiver of the

engine, where a required pressure must be maintained. Fig. 1 shows the line of

constant speed and the operating line of the engine. The intersection of the two lines

is the working point A. If a slight increase in air volume occurs, more pressure is

required on the operating line and the pressure becomes lower on the constant speed

line. The volume has to decrease again to the point of equilibrium A. If, at the same

charger speed, a slight reduction in air flow occurs, the pressure will increase

37
although less pressure is required on the working line. Equilibrium is then once more

at point A. The working point A is stable on the part of the constant speed line

inclined downwards with increasing volume. If a slight decrease in volume occurs at

point B (at the same pressure as A), then the pressure on the constant speed line

decreases. The compressor cannot maintain the required pressure, the volume

continuous to decrease, and the compressor surges. Point B is not stable on that part

of the constant speed line that is inclined upwards (with increasing volume).

Theoretically, instability of the compressor starts where the line of constant speed is

level. Since a turbocharger, which supplies a continuous airflow is combined with an

engine taking air intermittently; there will always be a pressure fluctuation which

influences the point where instability starts. [6]

Compressor pressure ratio π c

Surge
line

Operating
line

B
A

Line of constant speed

V
0

Fig. 2.14: Surging cycle [6]

As per review result of the modern turbochargers specifications the possibility of

surging is virtually excluded. It is however always likely for surging to happen after

some years of service with maintenance not carried out in accordance with the

manufacturer instructions.

38
The transient operation of a large propulsion engine with constant pressure turbo-

charging, where two or more turbochargers supply air in parallel to a common

receiver, during turbocharger compressor surging can be investigated through

simulation in which a detailed zero-dimensional performance prediction code for

reciprocating engines can be used in conjunction with a model capable of predicting

the dynamic behavior of the compressor. Steady state as well as transient simulation

runs can be performed with the valid results against the experimental data.

Following is the result of an actual experiment performed regarding the examination

of the behavior of a large, propulsion engine by employing a detailed zero-

dimensional engine simulation code in conjunction with a model capable of

predicting compressor surging.

Initially, steady state simulation runs were performed and the derived results were

validated against the engine shop trials. Then, a case of engine transient operation at

full speed was also examined. The measured ordered engine speed and propeller load

were used as input and transient runs were performed in order to determine the

engine PI speed governor constants. After determining the governor constants, the

predicted transient simulation results were in very good agreement with the data

measured in the shipboard tests. Having validated the simulation code against steady

state and transient measured data, a case of engine operation with turbocharger

compressor surging was simulated. To induce the compressor surging, the turbine of

the one of the three turbochargers was considered to be dirty and the turbine

swallowing capacity and efficiency were considered 10% lower than the ones of the

clean turbine. The surging of compressor caused reduction in the scavenging receiver

pressure, which, in turn, resulted in less air available for combustion into the engine

cylinders, reduction of engine developed torque and finally drop of engine speed as

39
the engine load almost remained constant. The lack of air for combustion also caused

the increase of the exhaust receiver temperature, thus increasing engine thermal

loading. In addition, the almost instant changes of the compressor absorbed torque

during compressor surging were shown to introduce severe transient torsion loading

to the turbocharger shaft. [6]

2.6.5.2 Actual surge stability test

For surge stability test of an installed 2-stroke propulsion engine one of the following

methods can also be adopted:

1. Run the engine at 100% load. Reduce the load suddenly to about 75%. If no

surging occurs repeat the process, this time reducing the load from 100% to

50% load. If no surging occurs, the stability above 50% load is good.

2. Run the engine at part load with a charge air pressure of about 0.6 bar gauge.

Pull the fuel pump of one cylinder, suddenly to zero. Repeat this test with

other cylinders. If surging occurs in one case, the stability is acceptable.

40
2.6.6 Fuels

In vast majority of engines, the burning of fuel is the prerequisite of thermodynamic

process, so it is important to understand the chemical reactions which take place

during combustion. In many chemical reactions energy is liberated; in others energy

is absorbed. A chemical reaction in which energy is absorbed is called an

endothermic reaction. A chemical reaction in which energy is liberated is called an

exothermic reaction. Thus fuel-burning reactions are exothermic reactions. [12]

The quality of the fuel which the engine is operated affects the composition of the

exhaust gas. Impurities in the fuel can lead to residue in the exhaust gas which can

affect the engine parts and the turbocharger in an abrasive or corrosive manner.

All modern two-stroke engines can run on crude-oil based heavy fuel oil (HFO),

when engine and processing system are designed accordingly. The fuels used must

meet the respective limit values that are listed in the fuel specifications. The limit

values that influence the engine operation are normally specified when ordering fuel.

Adding motor lubricants (waste oil), mineral oil, foreign material such as coal oil and

remainders from refining or other processes (e.g. solvent) is banned and not yet part

of the standard. Such additions lead to combustion with high residue and increased

wear and corrosion on the parts and components in way of exhaust gas flow. Adding

motor lubricants (waste oil) is particularly critical as the lube oil additives cause

emulsions to form and keep debris, water and catalyst particles finely distributed in

poise. This impedes or avoids the required fuel cleaning.

41
 ISO 8217 GRADE RMA10 RMD15 RME25 RMG35 RMH45 RMH55

CHARACTERISTIC Unit Limit

density@15ْ C Kg/m3 Max 975 985 991 991 991 991

Kinematic Visc.@100ْ cSt Max 10 15 25 35 45 55

C
Approx Visc.@ 50ْ C** cSt 50 100 225 390 585 810

Flash Point ْC Min 60 60 60 60 60 60

Pour Point, Winter ْC Max 0 30 30 30 30 30

Pour Point, Summer ْC Max 6 30 30 30 30 30

Micro Carbon Residue %m/m Max 10 14 15 18 22 22

Ash %m/m Max 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.20

Water %V/V Max 0.5 0.8 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0

Sulphur %m/m Max 3.5 4.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0

Vanadium Mg/kg Max 150 350 200 300 600 600

Aluminium+Silicon Mg/kg Max 80 80 80 80 80 80

Total sediment %m/m Max 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10
Potential

Table 2.3: ISO Fuel Standard 8217: 1996(E), Selected Marine Residual Fuels (Class F)
Requirements [13]

** Note Approximate Viscosity at 50 degree C as indicated in ISO 8217:1996 Annex C.

---- = No Specified Limit.

The following points are to be observed when thorough processing of heavy fuel is

required for trouble free propulsion engine operation:

1. Heavily abrasive inorganic, solid foreign substances (cat-fines, rust and sand)

must be separated to the greatest possible extent.

2. Aluminium content greater than 10 mg/kg the abrasive wear in the parts and

components in way of exhaust gas flow increases heavily

42
3. Modern separators of latest generation which are fully capable and effective

over a large density range without any adjustment, and separate water with an

HFO density of 1.01g/ml at 15 ° C with the cleaning effect by the separator

itself, are to be used.

4. The HFO purification is to be designed in such a manner that inorganic solid

foreign particle size to be less than 5 μm with an amount less than 20mg/kg

and also to lower the water content in the fuel to less than 0.2vol.%.

5. With unfavourable vanadium-sodium ratio, the melting temperature of the

HFO ash drops to the range of the exhaust valve temperature, which causes

hot corrosion. By pre-cleaning the HFO in the settling tank and in the

centrifugal separators, the water and thus the water soluble-sodium

compound can be removed to the largest extent. With a sodium content

exceeding 100mg/kg, increasing salt deposits in the parts and components in

way of exhaust gas flow are to be expected. This may jeopardize the engine

operation. However under certain conditions hot corrosion may be avoided

with fuel additives that increase the melting temperature of the HFO ash.

6. Heavy fuel oil with high ash content in form of foreign substances e.g. sand,

rust, cat-fines, increase the mechanical wear in the components and parts in

way of exhaust gas flow. Heavy fuel oil from catalytic cracking plants can

contain cat-fines. There are significant variations from refinery to refinery in

the proportion of the aluminium and silicon compounds that comprise

catalyst fines. The catalyst fines generally affect high wear in parts and

components which are in way of exhaust gas flow. [13]

43
2.7 Conclusions

The definition and purpose of turbocharging is that exhaust gas can be put to use as

an effective resource to achieve greater power, reduced specific fuel consumption,

better energy resources conservation, improved performance in environmental

impact, and lower costs. The end users demand progress towards ever higher power

outputs, and matching turbocharger to diesel engine performance, the external

influences of environmental and pollution concerns, and standards laid down by the

IMO, classification societies and other concerned bodies in pursuit of more efficient,

better performing turbochargers in marine propulsion plants leaves the manufacturer

with one choice of designing production processes effective and as efficient as

possible. So far there have been many schemes produced over the years involving

some complex air charging arrangements. These include turbo-compounding and

supercharging arrangements. As always; there are specific applications where these

more complex systems can be attractive. For marine drive purposes, however,

whether the complexity of such system is appropriate has to be questioned. Although

it is not possible to state with certainty where the future lies, it is perhaps instructive

to look at present turbocharger designs and consider their conceptual simplicity.

High efficiencies are already being achieved with fundamentally simple designs with

reduced numbers of the components. If turbo-charging systems become more

complex, greater efforts need to be made to ensure reliability is maintained, as it is

unlikely that diesel engine manufacturers and operators will tolerate reduced

reliability. However for this reason the common approach of the manufacturers is a

‘minimalist’ approach derived from the trend towards ‘pipe less diesel engines’.

Typical of this is the range of turbochargers that has simple, modular design, aimed

44
at improving overall life cycle costs. Developments in component design and

material all contribute to this goal.

The key design criteria of a modern turbocharger should include:

• High compressor pressure ratio;

• High performance level especially at high pressure ratios;

• High specific flow capacity;

• Reduced fuel oil consumption and less emission of harmful exhaust gases;

• High reliability;

• Highly qualified mechanically

• Enhanced operation safety;

• Robust, simple and compact construction with reduced number of parts;

• Long lifetime;

• Easy maintenance even under adverse condition such as operation with low

quality heavy fuel oil;

• Increased time between overhauls;

• Improved allowable vibration acceleration;

• Reduced sound emission values; and

• Improved surge stability

The modern turbocharger is a one-piece system, with both turbine and compressor

built onto the same shaft, with inlet air filter systems and connection to the exhaust

and charge air manifolds. It is driven by the exhaust gases of the diesel engine

flowing through the compressor stage and outputting to the charge air manifold of

the engine. In such turbocharger, the plain bearings are designed for about 50-micron

mesh size filtration and direct lubrication from the engine’s oil supply. The axial

thrust bearing uses a free-floating disc, with non-rotating bearing bushes in an oil-

45
squeeze damper. The purpose of the free-floating disc and bearing arrangement is to

improve wear resistance, with thicker oil films, when using contaminated oil.

As the progress towards ever higher power outputs, and matching turbocharger to

engine performance, plus concentration on detailed changes in component design,

and increasing the range and capacity of existing designs, will continue, the makers

of turbocharger however, accordingly will focus on improvements in the design and

operation of the turbocharger, including choice of materials in turbine and

compressor units, sealing system, and washing techniques, etc.

Perhaps the most interesting question, however, is where and how turbo-charging

will progress in the future and how manufacturers can lead or even create the market

for advanced products. It is difficult to predict where the diesel engine manufacturer

will move, or even how fast, but the likelihood is that pressure ratios will continue to

increase in the drive towards higher ratings and power densities. As such, Titanium

impellers are likely to become progressively more commonplace in demanding

applications. Titanium impellers offer a means by which simple single stage turbo

charging can progress into the immediate future. Having concentrated on the

impeller, however, it should be noted that there is a limit to what can be effectively

achieved with single stage turbines. From a materials perspective, higher stresses can

be accommodated through using improved materials.

In connection with plans for changes to component design and material, the

followings may be a center of attention for the makers;

• Provision of an optional nozzle ring capable of adjustment during operation,

by the makers of turbocharger.

46
 • The use of ceramic and other coatings to improve the turbocharger's

performance and overall life cycle costs by reducing cleaning and

maintenance intervals.

• Utilization of polymers and some other materials which are not normally

used for turbocharger sealing, to improve the turbocharger sealing systems.

• Increasing thermal efficiency and recovery of the useful, potential source of

energy in the diesel engine exhaust gas.

Should the recent escalation of the fuel prices continue, marine diesel engine makers

will have to positively react to the end user’s demands about saving fuel cost and

reduction in emissions, via investment to be put into reducing engine fuel

consumption as they did after the 1973 fuel crisis. There is a natural trade-off

between diesel engine fuel consumption and NO X emissions. Reduction in specific

fuel consumption involves a natural increase in NO X emissions. It is also to be

remembered that modern large, slow-speed marine diesel engines are very highly

developed and there is a little potential for achieving significant reduction in CO2

emissions by diesel engine development alone thus utilization of wasted energy,

may be considered as one of the practical solutions to the problem. In the diesel

engines’ exhaust gases about 25% of input energy is available at a fairly high

temperature which are useful, potential source of energy for recovery process. Since

large marine propulsion diesel engines are designed for intake air temperature up

to 45 O C (intake from engine room) for tropical conditions, the turbocharger can be

re-matched to return thermal load of the engine back down to what prevails for the

intake temperature at 45 O C . When considering such a tuning to reach an increased

exhaust gas temperature, it is important that the thermal load of the adopted diesel

engine should not increase to a level that may jeopardize the diesel engine

47
reliability. Modern, high-efficiency turbochargers also have a small surplus in

efficiency capability in the upper load ranges because of which a certain exhaust gas

flow can be branched off before the turbocharger to drive a power turbine.

It is always possible that as yet unforeseen developments will change the direction of

marine diesel engine and turbocharger development, however, increased power

density can surely only be achieved through higher cylinder pressures. At some

point, therefore, a change may be likely to occur in turbocharger design and

complexity. This is an interesting point to consider, as with increased complexity, the

turbocharger will be likely to further increase in cost compared to the diesel engine

itself and thus become an even greater center of attention in the overall power

package design.

In technology terms, higher pressure ratios are readily achievable but the market for

turbocharger has the other demands on it, as have already been indicated, such as

size, cost and efficiency. A compact turbocharger "module", with incorporation of

inter-cooling, may provide greater flexibility and prove attractive to the market,

provided costs can be controlled.

As the public interest focuses on the improved fuel economy, and the environmental

acceptability of marine propulsion systems, the minimization of pollutant emissions

has to be considered too. So the external influences of environmental and pollution

concerns, and standards laid down by the IMO, classification societies and others in

pursuit of more efficient, better performing turbochargers in marine propulsion

diesel engine plants remains paramount.

48
Chapter 3

Turbocharger matching

3.1 Formulation of the problem

Today turbochargers are normally constructed in series, and in order to adopt the

products to any engine with its individual turbo charging system, its output data and

installation conditions, turbochargers are constructed according to a modular system.

Therefore the following need to be determined for each engine with its turbo

charging system, its output data and its ambient conditions:

• Type of turbocharger

• Size of turbocharger

• Number of turbochargers on the same engine

• Specification of the casing variants and positions, the rotor and stator blades

arrangements of the compressor and turbine and variants of the bearings and

lubricating system

3.2 The method of calculation for matching turbocharger

There are numerous methods for calculating the operating characteristic variables of

turbocharged marine diesel engines. They extend from simple, empirical rules for

establishing variables required for turbocharger matching, to complicated,

programmed procedures by which the real working cycle can be simulated in all its

details. An engineer who is concerned with the development of turbo charging

systems and the design of exhaust gas turbochargers must, however, be familiar with

a method which is appropriate to each task, to enable the best choice to be made for

each particular case. [14]

49
One of the leading turbocharger manufacturers have developed on the basis of years

of practical experience, a simple, semi-empirical method of calculation for matching

turbochargers. In this method following are considered:

Since as a rule only single turbochargers or small series of machines are ordered to

the same design data, the number of design calculations is very large. The cost of

each computation must therefore be kept as low as possible. The number of available

types, sizes and specifications is also very large. Correspondingly large is the number

of compressor and turbine characteristics and the supplementary calculation

information. Therefore appropriate representation of this information, and also easily

used storage with ready access, is of importance. [7]

Since a particular problem arises from the different turbocharging systems of the

various marine type two-stroke diesel engines for which it is not possible to use one

consistent mathematical model of the turbocharged engine, the type and quantity of

the information and data that the diesel engine manufacturers make available varies

considerably, achievement of their specifications and expectations in regard to

turbocharger matching and the operating characteristic values is essential. [7]

Since the only measurements that are in general available from test results on

turbocharged engines are those that have been obtained from acceptance tests, test

runs of ships and turbocharger matching tests, the characteristic values obtained from

experience that are used in the computation method must be defined in such a way

that they can be determined clearly and with sufficient accuracy from the readings

that have been obtained in the usual way. [7]

So, over the years, reliable figures based on experience are made obtainable from the

systematically collected and evaluated readings of numerous different propulsion

diesel engine plant performances.

50
A further source of empirical values are detailed studies and tests on turbo charging

systems, computer simulations of the exhaust gas exchange and working cycles,

which the maker carry out in the course of their continued development of

turbocharger technology.

3.3 Modeling and simulation methodology

In proven engineering practice devices are designed, manufactured, and constructed

by technologies that are proven by tests and experience, which are reflected in

approved codes and standards and other appropriately documented statements, and

that are implemented by proper selection and training of qualified persons. [15]

Modeling is the process of identifying the principal physical dynamics effects to be

considered in analyzing a system, writing the differential and algebraic equations

from the conservation laws and property laws of the relevant discipline, and reducing

the equations to a conventional differential equation form. The major disciplines of

engineering systems are mechanics, electricity and electronics, fluid mechanics and

fluid control, and thermodynamics. [16]

The performance of the diesel engine used in a marine propulsion plant can be

predicted from module of a detailed propulsion plant performance prediction code

which has been under continuous development for years at the laboratory.

The engine model can be a ‘control volume’ (filling and emptying) type model that

calculates the in-cylinder processes in a degree to degree crank angle resolution. A

turbocharged engine is modeled as a several flow receiver elements (control

volumes) interconnected by flow controller elements. The flow receiver elements are

the cylinders, the scavenging receiver and the exhaust receiver, while the scavenging

ports, the exhaust valves, the compressors and the turbines are considered to be the

51
flow controller elements. The engine environment is regarded as a fixed fluid

element (constant pressure, temperature and composition).

The flow receivers are treated as open thermodynamic systems, where work, heat

and mass transfer take place across the boundaries. The working medium in each

flow receiver is regarded as a homogenous mixture of pure air and combustion

products, subjected to the perfect gas law. Spatial uniformity of the medium

properties is assumed at any instant. Thus, the instantaneous state of the flow

receiver gas is described by its pressure, temperature and equivalence ratio. By

applying the first law of thermodynamics (energy equation) and the conservation of

mass to each flow receiver, the differential equations for the calculation of

temperature and mass are derived. The rate of change of a flow receiver gas

equivalence ratio with respect to time depends on the rate of fuel addition by

injection and on the fuel content in the form of combustion products of the gas

entering or exiting the flow receiver.

Simulation procedure includes two distinct phases of operation:

• The steady state phase, and the;

• The transient phase

During the steady state phase (typically used for steady-state performance

predictions), the engine is considered to operate under ‘frozen’ RPM and fixed load

with constant fuelling. The program then, by performing a number of cycles, tries to

reach a converged solution, implying an equilibrium state of the engine, for all the

elements present in the engine configuration. During the transient phase, the program

performs the simulation in the time domain. The engine operates under a pre-

specified load profile, which may be either constant or variable in time.

52
The model can predict both the variation of micro-parameters (such as the in-

cylinder pressures and temperatures throughout an engine cycle), and the cumulative

macro-parameters (such as heat loss, mean effective pressure) in detail for various

engine configuration.

3.4 The turbocharger matching procedure

All computation methods for turbocharger matching are essentially meant for

selection of the optimum specification. The sequence of the individual procedural

steps and the methods and aids used within these steps can, however, vary very

considerably according to the turbo charging system and the available information.

Fig. 3.1 illustrates the procedure in the case of a two-stroke diesel engine with

constant-pressure turbo charging. Although the procedure has proved its value

countless times in practice, its use is nevertheless not obligatory.

The first step in the selection of turbocharger to be matched to large marine slow-

speed two-stroke diesel engine is always the procurement of the necessary data and

information about the diesel engine, the plant and all the turbochargers concerned,

and also their specifications. The more complex and truly representative the

computing models are, the more comprehensive this data becomes and the more

difficult it is to obtain. Even for the simple, semi-empirical design method set out

here, an imposing list of information as stipulated in section 3.3.1 (table of necessary

information for turbocharger matching), is required. Additionally for the step-by-

step computation of the real working cycle on the computer, a great deal of

additional information would also be required. [7]

53
 Procurement of information on engine, turbocharger
and plant as per table

Calculation S resM

Determination of design point for

turbocharger Pe , n, p amb , Tamb , ϕ amb , Tkw ...........

Assumption
p s , Ts , l e , be , ζ a , p max , pVE
*
, TVE* , pVA
*
, pTA

.
Calculation Π V* , V 288 , pTE
*
, TTE* , Π T , S Teff ,η TLsoll

Assumption of compressor and turbine specifications

Computationη TList

η ist = η soll ?

Computation or estimation of
λa , λ s , λv , λ1 , p max − p c , be , ζ a

Computation of be , ζ a with assumptions

Computation or estimation of critical performance

variables, including off–design operating point

No limit values exceeded?

Final turbocharger specification

Fig. 3.1: Flow diagram for turbocharger matching to a two-stroke diesel engine with constant

pressure charging [7]

54
3.4.1 The necessary information for turbocharger matching

A- Turbocharger computing information

For all types, sizes and specifications the following are required:

• Compressor characteristics

.
η sV
*
= η sV
*
(V 288, Π *v ) [7] (3.1)

• Turbine characteristics

η sT* = η sT* (Π T , u / c0 ) [7] (3.2)

Additional information:

• Volumetric efficiencyη vol ( allows for cooling and sealing air flow rates )

• Mechanical efficiency η mec ( allows for bearing friction and wheel friction of

compressor and turbine wheels )

• Heat losses through walls at turbine inlet and outlet casings ΔTGE
*
, ΔTGA
*

• Pressure loss in intake pipe or filter-silencer at compressor inlet ΔPVE*

• Cross-sectional area at compressor outlet flange SVA

B- Constructional features of engine and turbocharger system

• Number of cylinders z

• Cylinder bore d

• Piston stroke s

• Compression ratio ε

• Pre-chamber volume VVK in pre-chamber diesel engines

• Maximum admissible combustion pressure Pmax zul

• Valve timings E .. , E S , A.. , AS

O o

55
 • Form of inlet and outlet cross-sections as a function of the crankshaft angle

S E = S E (ϕ ); S A = S A (ϕ ) [7] (3.3)

• Numbering of the cylinders, V-angle direction of rotation of crankshaft

• Firing sequence, firing intervals

• General layout of charging system

• Lengths and cross-sections of the individual sections of the exhaust gas ducts,

including the ducts in the cylinder head

• Technical data and characteristics of any scavenging pumps, auxiliary

blowers, etc.

• Technical data and characteristics of the charging air cooler Δp K* , ε K or K. A

C- Output data, intended use of engine

• Nominal output and nominal speed with definition (e.g. maximum continuous

rating as per DIN6271, ISO standard output, etc.)

• Intended use with information on all operating points and operating curves

(e.g. propeller curve) in an output diagram p e , n specially the overload

operating point and maximum torque at reduced speed

• Duration and frequency of the various operating points

D- Ambient conditions

• Atmospheric state of the environment p amb , Tamb , ϕ amb , minimum and

maximum values, duration and frequency

• Cooling water temperature Tkw or cooling air temperature TKL at inlet to the

charging air cooler

56
 • Pressure loss in the exhaust gas line downstream of the turbine Δp nT

• Any pressure loss Δp vV

*
and any rise of temperature ΔTvV* of the air before entry

into the compressor

E- Regulations, expectations, empirical values

• Establishing the design operating point

• Establishing the charging air state or scavenging air state

• Expected performance values, especially those of air flow, fuel consumption,

and exhaust gas temperature

3.5 Turbocharger matching for two-stroke engine with constant-pressure turbo-

charging system (computational)

When the calculation data as per the table have been obtained, the next step is to

establish the design operating point. For this purpose the nominal output and nominal

speed of the engine ( Pe , n) are usually chosen in conjunction with the unfavorable

atmospheric conditions ( Pamb , Tamb , ϕ amb ) , which can occur in the plant. [7]

The scavenging air state is then established and assumptions are made for the

following operating characteristics:

• Specific air flow rate (l e )

• Specific fuel consumption (be )

• Proportion of chemical energy of the fuel in the exhaust gas upstream of

turbine (ζ a )

From these assumptions, the exhaust gas temperature at the turbine inlet (TTE* ) can be

be b
*
calculated from the equation: hTE = ( hs + ζ a ech ) /( 1 + e ) [7] (3.4)
le le

57
With the aid of the h, T diagram for air and combustion gas (Fig. 3.2) and the

equation number 3.4 the relationship between the specific enthalpy of the scavenging

*
air (hs ) and of the exhaust gas at the turbine inlet (hTE ) can be shown. [7]

Fig. 3.2: Enthalpy-temperature diagram for air and combustion gas for determining the exhaust

gas temperature [7]

For the limited range of the usual scavenging air temperatures, a diagram can be

drawn with sufficient accuracy, from which the temperature difference TTE* − TS can

ech
be read off directly (Fig. 3.3). By introducing the parameter ζ a in which ech 0
ech 0

represents a fixed reference value of the chemical energy of the fuel

(e.g. ech 0 = 42 MJ / kg ), the diagram can be used for all the common diesel engine

fuels. The curves of Fig. 3.3 can also, be approximated by polynomials, thus

enabling TTE* − Ts to be simply calculated on a programmable pocket computer. [7]

58
However, with the aid of Fig. 3.3 the value ζ e can easily be determined by measuring

the air flow rate, the scavenging air temperature and the exhaust gas temperature.

Fig. 3.3: Diagram for determining the exhaust gas temperature and the proportion of the

chemical energy of the fuel in the exhaust gas [7]

If all the accessible readings are systematically collected and arranged according to

the diesel engine types, turbo charging systems and other aspects, very valuable and

reliable empirical curves can be obtained, as shown for example in Fig. 3.4. If, in

individual cases, insufficient values are available from experience, they can be

augmented by calculated values from the working cycle. It is possible, from such

59
working cycle calculations, to clarify in particular the influences of those parameters

that are not normally varied in tests, such as the compression ratio of the engine,

maximum combustion pressure, etc.

The total pressure of the exhaust gas at the turbine inlet PTE* is determined on the one

hand by the pressure gradient necessary for scavenging the cylinders and, on the

other, by the energy balance of the turbocharger. [7]

a = Two-stroke engine, b = Four-stroke

Fig. 3.4: Proportion of the chemical energy of the fuel in the exhaust gas ( ζ a ) as a function of

the mean effective pressure ( Pme ) [7]

The calculation of the pressure PTE* from the anticipated scavenging air flow rate In

two-stroke diesel engine with constant-pressure turbocharging where the diesel

engine is represented by a nozzle with isentropic flow through it, is proved to be

advantageous. The cross-sectional area of this nozzle, known as the resultant

−
scavenging cross-section of the engine S resM , can be calculated approximately from

the graphs of the effective inlet and outlet cross-sections of the individual cylinders

(Fig. 3.5).

60
If test results are already available from a specific engine type, its resultant

scavenging cross-section can be calculated simply from the readings of scavenging

air flow rate, scavenging air state and exhaust gas pressure. It is also possible in this

−
manner to obtain empirical values of S resM
which are usually more accurate and

reliable than those calculated from Fig. 3.5.

S E xS A
S resZ = (3.5)
S E2 + S A2

z As
S resM =
360 0 ∫ EO
S resZ xdϕ (3.6)

Fig.3.5: Determination of the resultant scavenging air cross-section S resM of a two-stroke diesel

engine [7]

After the total pressure at the turbine inlet has been calculated, it is possible, on the

one hand to calculate the four turbocharger determining variables ∏ T , S T eff , ∏ *v

.
and V 288 , and on the other to determine the turbocharger overall efficiencyη TL soll

61
required for the assumed specific air flow rate. Followings are the formulating

process for determination of the turbocharger overall efficiencyη TL soll :

Expansion pressure ratio of the turbine: [7]

PTE* PTE*
ΠT = = (3.7)
PTA Pamb + Δp nT

Equivalent nozzle area of the turbine: [7]

.
.
mTE R A .TTE*'
S Teff = −
(3.8)
*
pTE .ψ m (Π T , k A )

Where:

TTE*' = TTE* − ΔTGE

*
(3.9)

.
m TE = Pe .(l e + be ) (3.10)

−
− 2kA − − −

Ψm (Π T , k A ) = (Π T− 2 / k A − Π T−( k A +1) / k A (3.11)

−
k A −1

− −
k A /( k A −1)
⎛− ⎞
⎜ ⎟
k A +1
( forΠ T ≤ Π Laval =⎜ ⎟ ) (3.12)
⎜ 2 ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎠

−
Ψm (Π T , k A ) = cons tan t
( forΠ T ≥ Π Laval )

Total pressure ratio of the compressor: [7]

*
pVA p s + Δp k* + Δp dynVA
Π = * =
*
(3.13)
p amb − ΔpVE − Δp vV
v * *
pVE

62
Note: the volumetric flow rate of the flow in the state at the compressor inlet is

corrected to 15 °C (288.15 K): [7]

. .
*
. mVA 288.15 mVA .RL 288.15 xTVE
V 288 = * x = (3.14)
pVE TVE* *
pVE

Where:

.
m VA = l e xPe (3.15)

The necessary turbocharger overall efficiency: [7]

.
mVA xΔhsV
*
η TLsoll = (3.16)
.
m TE xΔhsV
*

kL
R L xTVE* (Π V*( k L −1) / k L − 1)
1 kL −1
η TLsoll = x −
] (3.17)
be
(1 + ) kA − −

le R A xTTE* (1 − Π T(1− k A ) / k A )
−
k A −1

On the basis of the calculated determining variables for the turbocharger and by

using the turbine and compressor characteristics, the appropriate specification can be

selected and the actual turbocharger overall efficiencyη TList can be calcu1ated. [7]

TTE*'
η TList = η sV
*
xη sT' x xη vol xη mec (3.18)
TTE*

If the difference between η TList and η TLsoll is then greater than is acceptable, the

calculation should be repeated with new assumptions. As a rule, the specific air flow

rate l e is varied until the difference between η TList and η TLsoll is approximately equal to

the difference between the efficiencies of adjacent turbocharger specifications.

63
Before the calculated turbocharger specification is finally established, all the

calculated and assumed operating characteristic values are checked to see that they

agree with the specifications, expectations and experience of the diesel engine and

turbocharger manufacturers. In order to do this, certain characteristic values

governing the assumptions adopted are also determined. [7]

These are, for example:

• Air flow rate λ a and scavenging air ratio λ s of the engine

• Volumetric efficiency λ1 and combustion air ratio λ s of the engine

• Final compression pressure p c and pressure rise at combustion p max − p c , or

the pressure ratios p max / p S that are decisive for the specific fuel

consumption.

It is also necessary to check throughout the operating range of the engine that no

operating characteristic variables exceed the permissible limit values throughout the

whole operating range. In the turbocharger in particular, the compressor surge limit,

the maximum admissible rotational speed and the maximum admissible turbine inlet

temperature must be observed. If necessary the scavenging air state should be

changed or a different turbocharger specification should be selected and the

computation procedure then repeated. [7]

3.6 Representation of the turbine characteristics

The flow characteristic of an axial turbine with a low degree of reaction is very

similar to that of an ideal nozzle with isentropic flow. A turbine of this type can

therefore be very well characterized by the cross-sectional area of an equivalent

nozzle of the same flow capacity. To a first approximation, the equivalent nozzle

64
area can be calculated in the same way as the resultant cross-section of two throttles,

one behind the other, in an incompressible flow, namely by: [7]

S D xS S
S Tres = (3.19)
S D2 + S S2

Here S D represents the narrowest cross-section of the guiding vanes, the so called

nozzle area, and S S represents the narrowest flow cross-section in the rotor blades

arrangement.

The constant cross-section S T res , unambiguously determined by the geometry, is well

suited for the specification of different turbine variants; it is not, however, exactly

equal to the equivalent nozzle area. One of the leading turbocharger manufacturers

named ABB Turbo Systems Ltd, have therefore introduced the flow coefficient α T ,

which is mainly dependent upon the pressure ratio Π T , and to a slight extent also

upon the tip speed ratio u / c0 .In axial- flow turbines, so following is therefore true:

[7]

S T eff = α T (Π T , u / c 0 ) xS T res (3.20) Where the value of α T is rather close to unity.

For radial turbines and also certain axial-flow turbines the cross-section S T geom

according to the definition of equation (3.19) is no longer even approximately equal

to the equivalent nozzle cross-section S T eff Instead of S T res a different, constant

reference cross-section S T geom sufficiently defined by the geometry of the turbine, has

therefore been introduced so that, in general, the following applies for the equivalent

nozzle area: [7]

S T eff = α T (Π T , u / c0 ) xS T geom (3.21)

65
The complete turbine characteristics are therefore represented by the following

functions: [7]

S T eff = S T eff (Π T , u / co ) = α T (Π T , u / co ) xS T geom

η sT' = η sT' (Π T , u / co ) (3.22)

' TTE − ΔTGE

* *
TTE*'
η sT = η sT' = η sT (3.23)
TTE* TTE*

Allowance for the cooling ΔTGE

*
in the gas inlet casing is separate from the

efficiency η sT' of the adiabatic turbine, since either cooled or un-cooled casings can be

supplied. Moreover, measurements of the turbine characteristics are frequently

carried out with compressed air instead of hot gas.

In free-running turbochargers with constant-pressure admission of the turbine, the tip

speed ratio u / co changes only within very narrow limits during steady operation. It is

thus possible to represent both S T eff or α T and η sT' to a good approximation as

functions of Π T alone.

For matching calculations, the following characteristic curves are therefore used

instead of an entire turbine map: [7]

S T eff = S T eff (Π T ) = α T (Π T ) xS T geom (3.24)

η sT' = η sT' (Π T ) (3.25)

It is therefore generally unnecessary to calculate u / co .

3.7 A diagram for rapidly determining operating points

The computing steps of the method described here can be easily carried out by means

of the aforementioned diagrams (Fig. 3.2, 3.3, 3.4) and a programmable pocket

66
computer. Diagrams such as those described in (Fig. 3.2, 3.3, 3.4) can also be very

useful for rapidly determining an approximate operating point. Their greatest use,

however, is in providing an overall view of the influence of the various parameters

obtained from these diagrams. An overall view can also be obtained from Fig. 3.6.

The mass flow parameter: [7]

. _
_ m TE R A x TTE*'
Π T ae xψ m (Π T ae , k A ) = (3.26)
PTA xS T ae

Which is plotted as the abscissa?

_
With a constant, mean value of the isentropic exponent k A , the pressure ratio Π T ae
(as ordinate) can be represented by a single (broken) curve.

Fig.3.6: Diagram for determining turbocharger operating points [7]

The energy balance of the turbocharger is determined by the parameter

_ _* _*
m TE T TE b T TE
CTL = .
x * η TL ae = (1 + e ) η TL ae (3.27)
mVA TVE l e TVE

67
For fixed values of this parameter, it is possible, for each value of Π T ae , to calculate

the associated values of Π V* and also to plot them as ordinates (full curves).

For each value of the abscissa, i.e. of the mass flow parameter of equation [7]

_ _ *'
_ m TE R A x T TE
Π T ae xψ m (Π T ae , k A ) = (3.28)
PTA xS T ae

Π T ae And Π V* , can therefore be directly read off. The parameter used as abscissa

value should be calculated by the following formulae from the characteristic

variables of the turbocharged diesel engine: [7]

_
. .
m TE R A xTTE*' VH λ xK b R A xTTE*' pVE
*
p
=Π x *
x a st (1 + e ) x x *S (3.29)
S T geom α T ae
V
pTA xS T ae l e R L xTS pTA pVA

The individual factors of the right side of this equation are all variables which have
.
VH
either to be found (e.g. or specified, e.g. Π *v , p S , TS ) or can be estimated.
S T geom

The plotted example (chain-dot line) shows how associated values of the various

parameters can be read off. The diagram presented here is generally valid both for

four-stroke and for two-stroke engines with a free-running turbocharger. It can be

used both for constant pressure and for pulse turbo charging.

The computing method set out here does not make any claim to scientific exactness,

but has proved itself as a rational, flexible method in countless applications. The

accuracy of the method is equivalent to the accuracy of the information on the

engines and plant that is normally available. [7]

68
3.8 A detailed engine simulation code for matching the engine with its

turbocharger and investigation of compressor surging

Surging is a vibration of audible level emanating from the compressor end of the

rotating element. The compressor, depending upon its speed at any particular time,

can only discharge up to a given pressure. If for any reason the pressure in the

scavenge space is equal to or higher than this discharge pressure, air will attempt to

flow back through the rotating impeller. In essence this is like a centrifugal pump

attempting to pump against a closed valve, but with the air compressors the back

flow of air throws the rotating element into a vibration, which produces the so called

barking noise. [17]

There are many causes of surging. It is usually engine initiated. The turbocharger

should be matched to the engine's air consumption rate and pressure across the whole

operating range; this being calculated before the engine is built and tested during the

shop trials. So as described in section 3.3, the transient operation of a large two-

stroke marine diesel engine during compressor surging can be investigated through

simulation. A detailed performance prediction code for the engine may be used in

conjunction with a model capable of predicting the dynamic behavior of the

turbocharger compressor. In the detailed engine simulation the steady state as well as

transient simulation runs are performed and the results are validated against the

experimental data which are collected during the investigation which is carried out

within the context of international projects. [18]

In these projects, where the dynamics of large marine propulsion plants are

investigated, an onboard Data Acquisition System (DAQ System) can be developed

and installed onboard a ship. The DAQ is a shipboard, real-time computer system

including the required sensors and analog-to-digital interface modules, as well as,

69
hard disk storage capacity for the measurement data series. The DAQ System is

bootstrapped around an industrial PC board with a 5x86/133 MHz processor, 4 MB

DRAM, watchdog timer, 4 serial communication ports RS-232/RS-485 and 1.4 GB

HDD.

Measurements can be performed during the normal trading schedule. The HDD units

of the DAQ System may be designed to store the corresponding amount of data for

any specified period provided that the HDD to be replaced at each port of call. A

total of about 3 GB (gigabytes) of raw binary data may be recorded during the 8

months of operation of the DAQ System. This amount of data corresponds to more

than 6 GB of ASCII data containing valuable information about the propulsion

power plant operation under actual conditions. Part of these data can be used for the

tuning and validation of the power plant simulation code as described above in this

text.

Following deals in brief with a case of engine operation with turbocharger in which

the problems in turbocharger matching have been extensively investigated for the

design, development and optimization of the propulsion engine of a container ship.

The investigation includes a simulated case of engine operation with turbocharger

compressor surging.

The propulsion engine which is directly coupled to the ship propeller is a MAN B&W

9K90MC, slow speed, two-stroke, marine diesel engine with basic characteristics as

described in table 3.1. The engine is equipped with 3 ABB VTR-714 turbochargers, one

air cooler connected after each turbocharger compressor for cooling the compressor

discharge air, with electrically driven blowers fitted between each air cooler and the

scavenging receiver for allowing adequate cylinder’s air scavenging at part load

engine operations.

70
 Number of cylinders 9
Bore 900MM
Stroke 2550MM
MCR 41162Kw at 94rpm
Boost pressure at MCR 3.6bar
BMEP at MCR 18bar
Turbochargers 3 ABB VTR714
Table 3.1: The engine’s basic characteristics [18]

Initially, during the investigation, steady state simulation runs at 100%, 85%, 75%,

50%, 40% and 25% loads were performed. For the simulation at 25% load, the

electrically driven air blowers were considered to be activated. The required input

and validation data, including the engine geometric data, the fuelling and injection

timing data, the heat release rates, the compressor and turbines maps and the blower

curve, were provided by the engine and turbocharger manufacturers, respectively.

A set of the derived results, including the engine brake power, the brake specific fuel

consumption, the cylinder maximum pressure, the scavenging receiver pressure, the

exhaust receiver temperature and the turbocharger speed, when compared with the

respective parameters measured during the engine shop trials proved that the

predicted results match very well the measured performance data.

After, the steady state runs, a case of engine transient operation was simulated. The

engine was considered to be operating at full speed and for this case the ordered

engine speed, the engine speed, the propeller shaft torque, the fuel rack position and

the engine boost pressure were available. The measured ordered speed was given as

input in the simulation code. In addition, the engine load torque was considered to be

the measured propeller shaft torque. The governor used in the transient simulations

was a standard PI governor. Due to the fact that the governor P and I constants were

not known, they had to be adjusted so that the predicted fuel rack response, was in

good agreement with the measured one. Thus, for various values of these constants,

71
transient runs were performed and the simulation results compared with the

experimental data. The best agreement between the experimental data and the

simulation results was obtained with the values for k P = 0.05 and k I = 0.01 .

The measured ordered engine speed and propeller load were used as input and

transient runs were performed. Having validated the simulation code against steady

state and transient measured data, a case of engine operation with turbocharger

compressor surging was then simulated. To induce the compressor surging, the

turbine of the one of the three turbochargers was considered to be dirty and the

turbine swallowing capacity and efficiency were considered 10% lower than the ones

of the clean turbine. The compressor of the turbocharger with the dirty turbine then

exhibited surging. This was expected, because the compressor of the turbocharger

with the dirty turbine is pushed by the other turbochargers to operate closer to its

surge limit. Since the efficiency and the mass flow rate of the dirty turbine were

reduced, the power delivery from the turbine wheel to the turbocharger shaft was

lower and as a result the turbocharger speed and the compressor mass flow rate were

also reduced. In addition, as the three turbochargers are connected in parallel, the

compressor pressure ratio was the same for all the turbochargers. So, the compressor

of the turbocharger with the dirty turbine was operating with lower speed and mass

flow rate but with the same pressure ratio as the compressors of the clean

turbochargers and therefore its operating point moved closer to or inside the

compressor instability region. [18]

As was previously mentioned, due to the compressor surging, the scavenging

receiver pressure was considerably reduced. This caused a decrease in the engine

developed torque as well as the reduction of the air amount entering the engine

cylinders. The former resulted in the engine speed drop since the propeller load

72
remained almost constant, whereas the latter had as a consequence less air to be

trapped inside the engine cylinders, resulting in higher gas temperatures in cylinders

and exhaust gas receiver, thus increasing the engine thermal loading. [18]

From the above analysis, it can be deduced that the continuous surging of

turbocharger’s compressor is unacceptable for the engine operation as it leads to

severe turbocharger vibrations and severe transient torsional loading to the

turbocharger shaft as well as deterioration of the engine performance.

3.9 Turbocharger matching for two-stroke engine with constant-pressure turbo-

charging system (in-service)

For the purpose of in-service investigation of turbocharger matching to marine slow

speed two-stroke diesel engine performance, the maker of turbocharger normally

supplies variants for nozzle ring and diffuser on a loan basis (matching parts).

The brief in-service matching procedures are as follow:

1. Test run of the engine with “delivery build” of the turbocharger;

2. If the charge air pressure (required by the engine manufacturer) is too low or

too high, the nozzle ring must be changed (smaller nozzle for higher boost,

larger nozzle for lower boost);

3. If the measured charge air pressure is accepted, the surge margin has to be

checked for conformity with the manufacturer limits margin;

4. If the surge margin is below the required value, for instance 10% or less, a

smaller diffuser must be used (in rare cases even a smaller compressor

wheel);

5. Part load points must also be checked for adequate surge margins.

73
If necessary the scavenging air state should be changed or a different turbocharger

specification should be selected and the computational and in-service procedures

then repeated.

3.10 Conclusions

The turbocharger matching to large slow-speed marine diesel engine with its

associate effects on combustion and emissions is an important issue of marine

propulsion plants. So, it will be necessary for every newly specified turbocharger for

a new application to be matched to optimize the turbocharger for the actual diesel

engine’s operation conditions and to find the most suitable build, as well as to ensure

that no operating characteristic variables exceed the permissible limit values

throughout the whole operating range. Therefore the following need to be determined

for each engine with its turbo charging system, its output data and its ambient

conditions:

• Type of turbocharger

• Size of turbocharger

• Number of turbochargers on the same engine

• Specification of the casing variants and positions, the rotor and stator blades

arrangements of the compressor and turbine and variants of the bearings and

lubricating system

In the turbocharger in particular, the maximum admissible rotational speed, the

maximum admissible turbine inlet temperature, and the compressor surge limit must

be observed. For this purpose turbochargers with a new specification are normally

supplied with variants for nozzle-ring and diffuser on a loan basis (matching parts).

74
Therefore matching of each newly specified exhaust gas turbocharger with a large,

two-stroke, marine propulsion diesel engine should have following characteristics:

• It is optimised with the best possible flow cross-sections for the operating

conditions of the marine propulsion diesel engine.

• A sufficient surge-limit distance is ensured across the complete operating

range. If a compressor operates near the surge line, a perturbation in the

system may be enough to throw the compressor into surge. When surge

occurs, the air flow reverses, and flows backward through the compressor.

The flow then reverses again, and the process repeats. As one might imagine,

an engine does not operate very well under this condition and disastrous

effects are a serious possibility, including catastrophic failure. [19]

• Setting a limit to how fast fuel index is allowed to increase to reduce the risk

of surging. One of the first steps in the series of events which may lead to

surging is a significant temperature rise as experiences gained by ACME

(Adaptive Control of Marine Engines) project partners indicates a correlation

between the exhaust gas temperature after the turbine and the distance to the

surge line on the compressor map. [20]

Engine simulation codes are widely used during the design, development and

optimization of the large, marine propulsion diesel engines. Especially during the

recent years, the increased complexity of such engine configuration in conjunction

with the extensive usage of electronic systems for controlling the various engine

parameters, introduced for improving the engine performance and reducing exhaust

emissions. The utilization of detailed engine simulation codes during the engine

design procedure has become progressively more commonplace in marine propulsion

plant’s (diesel engine) optimization process. The enhanced design of modern

75
turbocharger’s axial turbine reflects the very high efficiency and large volume flow

and the design of the turbocharger’s compressor reflects a wide compressor map,

very high efficiency (peak efficiencies of more than 87% are obtainable), and

increased volume flow.

There are numerous methods for calculating the operating characteristic variables of

turbocharged marine diesel engines. They extend from simple, empirical rules for

establishing variables required for turbocharger matching, to complicated,

programmed procedures by which the real working cycle can be simulated in all its

details. Notably since there are different turbo-charging systems of the various

marine type two-stroke diesel engines, with the variable type and quantity of the

information and data that the makers make available and the necessity to fulfill the

diesel engine makers specifications and expectations in regard to turbocharger

matching and the operating characteristic values, it is not possible to use one

consistent mathematical model for calculating the operating characteristic variables

of turbocharged marine diesel engines.

Full scale shipboard measurements of the propulsion plant parameters can be

obtained under normal trading conditions of the ship for an extensive period. The

measured data can be elaborated and several signal fragments may be used for the

evaluation of the results of the simulation code.

A large part (half an hour) of the recorded propulsion plant actual transient operation

can then be simulated to confirm whether the simulation results are in very good

agreement with the measured data. However as per the test results on turbocharged

engines, the measured data are normally in good agreement with the simulation

results. This proves that the simulation code can adequately predict the dynamic

response of the complete propulsion plant system. Therefore, it can be used as a tool

76
for evaluating the results of design and operating parameters changes as well as for

investigating various control options, acting as a virtual propulsion plant and thus

substituting the actual experiments, which may be very costly and time-consuming.

In matching of turbocharger to marine propulsion diesel engine performance there is

a complex phenomenon called compressor surging which requires special

consideration as the continuous surging of turbocharger compressor may lead to the

deterioration of the propulsion plant performance.

The common approach of the engine and turbocharger manufacturers towards

prediction of compressor surging and its associate effects on the large slow-speed,

marine diesel engine performance, is to examine the transient behavior of such diesel

engine and the effect of compressor surging on engine and turbocharger operation by

developing a model capable of predicting the dynamic behavior of the air

compression system including compressor surging conditions. The model is then

incorporated into a detailed engine simulation code. With this model, as mentioned

earlier, improved results can be obtained, because the inertia of the air inside the

compressor passages and the variation of the steady state compressor characteristics

due to compressor transient operation are taken into consideration. Simulation of the

engine operation with compressor surging is deduced by using a throttle valve after

the air cooler. The result of obtained simulation data indicates that the compressor

surging causes reduction in the average air flow to the cylinders, and consequently

cause reduction in the air/fuel ratio, increase in exhaust gas temperature, and drop of

engine torque due to the incomplete combustion. In such cases, where the obtained

simulation results can contribute to better understanding of the behavior of the

engine and its turbocharger in advance, appropriate control measures avoidance

could be introduced for compressor surge.

77
3.11 List of symbols

A Reference area for the n Engine rotational speed

heat transfer in the
charging air cooler
Aö, As Outlet opens, outlet closes nTL Turbocharger rotational
speed
be Specific fuel n288 Corrected turbocharger
consumption of the rotational speed
engine
c0 2ΔhsT p Absolute static speed

CTL Characteristic number for pamb Ambient pressure

the energy balance of the
turbocharger
d Cylinder bore Pc Final pressure of
compression in cylinder
ech Specific chemical energy Pe Useful power output of
of the fuel (specific engine
calorific value, referred to
the absolute temperature
zero)
ech 0 ech Reference value of Pmax Maximum firing
pressure
Eö, Es Inlet opens, inlet closes Pmax zul Permissible max. firing
pressure
h Specific enthalpy Pme Break mean effective
pressure(BMEP) of the
engine
hs Specific enthalpy of the PTA Static pressure at the
scavenging air and turbine outlet
charging air in the inlet
manifold.
* Specific total enthalpy of
hTE
the exhaust gas at the
turbine inlet
Mean energy value of PT&E Pressure at turbine inlet
_
hT E*
for pulsating turbine h * under total conditions
TE
admission
ΔhsT Specific, isentropic PT&Eae for P. Value of
TE
enthalpy head of the
turbine equivalent constant
pressure turbine
admission
S Tgeom Reference cross-sectional PV&A Pressure at compressor
area defined by the outlet under total
turbine geometry conditions

78
STres Resultant flow area of PV&E Pressure at compressor
axial turbines inlet under total
conditions (downstream
of suction branches of
filter silencer)
SVA Cross-sectional area at the ΔPdynVA Lost proportion of the
compressor outlet flange dynamic pressure at the
compressor outlet
T Absolute static ΔPK& Pressure drop in
temperature charging air cooler
under total conditions
Tamb Ambient temperature ΔPnT Pressure drop in the gas
line downstream of the
turbine
TKW , TKL Cooling water and ΔPV&E Pressure drop in the
cooling air temperature suction branches or
upstream of the charging filter silencer at the
air cooler compressor inlet under
total conditions
Ts Scavenging air and ΔPvV Pressure drop in the air
charging air temperature duct upstream of the
compressor (when
provided)
TTA* Temperature at turbine Rl Gas constant of the air
outlet under total
conditions
TTE* Temperature at turbine RA Gas constant of the
inlet under total exhaust gas
conditions
T* , TTE* − ΔTGE
* s Piston stroke
TE

T* , T * , Mean energy value of S Cross-sectional area

TE TE
for pulsating turbine
admission
T *
Temperature at the SA Isentropic flow area of
VE compressor inlet the outlet valves or
ports
ΔTGE
* Drop in exhaust gas SD Cross-sectional area of
temperature in the gas the turbine nozzle ring
inlet casing of the turbine
ΔTvV* Increase in the air SE Isentropic flow area of
temperature upstream of the inlet valves or ports
the compressor
u Tip speed of turbine rotor S resM Resultant scavenging
flow area of the engine
(mean valve)

79
UT Lower dead centre of S resZ Resultant scavenging
piston flow area of one
cylinder (instantaneous
valve)
Vh Swept volume of one SS Minimum flow area of
cylinder the rotor blading
*
Swept volume of the STae Equivalent nozzle area
VH entire engine per unit of for equivalent constant-
time pressure turbine
admission
VVK Pre-chamber volume for STeff Equivalent turbine
pre-chamber diesel engine nozzle area
V
. Volume flow of delivery ′
ηsTae Isentropic turbine
288 rate under compressor efficiency without heat
inlet conditions, corrected through the wall for
to 15 C(288-15K) equivalent constant-
pressure admission
z Number of cylinders of η sV* Isentropic compressor
the engine efficiency (total
conditions at the inlet
and outlet)
αT Flow coefficient of the η TL Overall efficiency of
turbine the turbocharger
α Tae Flow coefficient for ηTLsoll ,ηTList Required and actual
equivalent constant overall efficiency of
pressure turbine turbocharger
admission
Δ Difference ηTLae Overall efficiency of
the turbocharger for
equivalent constant-
pressure turbine
admission
ε Compression ratio of the η vol Volumetric efficiency
engine (as per DIN 1940) of the compressor
εk Thermal ratio of the kL Isentropic exponent of
charging air cooler the air
ξa Proportion of chemical kA Mean isentropic
energy of the fuel in the exponent of the exhaust
exhaust gas at the turbine gas
inlet
η mec Mechanical efficiency of λA Air flow of the engine
the turbocharger
μ sT Isentropic turbine λl Volumetric efficiency
efficiency (total of the engine
conditions at the
inlet/static pressure at the
outlets)

80
η s′T Isentropic turbine λs Scavenging air ratio of
efficiency without heat engine
through the wall
λv Combustion air ratio of
the engine
ΔhsV* Specific, isentropic Π Laval Expansion pressure
delivery head of the ratio for which an
compressor isentropic flow attains
the speed of sound
ΔhsTae Specific, isentropic ΠT Expansion pressure
enthalpy head of the ratio of the
turbine for equivalent turbine(pressure under
constant pressure turbine total conditions at the
admission inlet and under static
conditions at the outlet)
k Heat transfer coefficient Π Tae Expansion pressure
of the charging air cooler ratio for equivalent
with the reference area A constant-pressure
turbine admission
K St 'Pulse factor', correction Π *V Pressure ratio of the
factor for the equivalent compressor (pressure
nozzle area of the turbine under total conditions
at inlet and outlet)
le Specific air flow of the ρs Density of the
engine scavenging and
charging air in the inlet
manifold
m& TE Exhaust gas mass flow at ρ *
Density of the air under
the turbine inlet vE total conditions at the
compressor inlet
mTE . ϕ Crank angle
m TE Mean value of
m& VA Air mass flow at the ϕ amb Relative humidity of
compressor outlet the ambient air
ψm Function for calculating
the isentropic mass flow
through a nozzle

81
Glossary

ABB A leading turbo charger manufacturer located in Baden,

Switzerland
Abscissa The horizontal coordinate of a point in a plane Cartesian
coordinate system obtained by measuring parallel to the x-
axis
Adiabatic Occurring without loss or gain of heat
Ambiguously Doubtful or uncertain especially from obscurity or
indistinctness
Analogy A comparison of one thing with another thing that has similar
features
ASCII American Standard Code for Information Interchange, ASCII
is a code for representing English characters as numbers,
with each letter assigned a number from 0 to 127
Attenuation To make thin or slender
Bootstrapped To promote or develop by initiative and effort with little or
no assistance
Cat-fines Catalyst fines, abrasive particulates in bunker fuel
Co2 Carbon dioxide
Compensator To make an appropriate and usually counterbalancing
payment to
Compensator To be equivalent to: counterbalance
Comprehended To grasp the nature, significance, or meaning of
Containment The act, process, or means of containing
Converged To tend or move toward one point or one another
Criterion A standard on which a judgment or decision may be based
Deterioration The action or process of deteriorating
Diffuser A device (as a reflector) for distributing the light of a lamp
evenly
Diffusion The process whereby particles of liquids, gases, or solids
intermingle as the result of their spontaneous movement
caused by thermal agitation and in dissolved substances
move from a region of higher to one of lower concentration

82
DRAM Dynamic Random Access Memory, a type of memory used
in most personal computers
Endothermic Characterized by or formed with absorption of heat
Enhance To increase or improve in value, quality, desirability, or
attractiveness
Equation A usually formal statement of the equality or equivalence of
mathematical or logical expressions
Equilibrium A state of intellectual or emotional balance
Excitation The disturbed or altered condition resulting from stimulation
of an individual, organ, tissue, or cell
Exothermic Characterized by or formed with expulsion of heat
Exponent A symbol written above and to the right of a mathematical
expression to indicate the operation of rising to a power
Fixed-Pitch Referred to propellers with fixed blades
Granulates To form or crystallize into grains or granules
HDD Hard Disk Drive, the mechanism that reads and writes data
on a hard disk
Hitherto Up to this or that time
IMO International Maritime Organization
Impede To interfere with or slow the progress of
Impeller Blade of a rotor
Imply To contain potentially
Intermittently Coming and going at intervals
Isentropic Of or relating to equal or constant entropy
Labyrinth A place constructed of or full of intricate passageways and
blind alleys
Multi-Lobe Multi processor
NOx Nitrogen oxide
Preceding To surpass in rank, dignity, or importance
Predominant Having superior strength, influence, or authority
Propeller A device that consists of a central hub with radiating blades
placed and twisted so that each forms part of a helical surface
and that is used to propel a vehicle
Propulsion The action or process of propelling

83
Scavenging To remove (as dirt or refuse) from an area
Silencer The muffler of an internal combustion engine
Simulation To give or assume the appearance or effect of often with the
intent to deceive
Skepticism An attitude of doubt or a disposition to incredulity either in
general or toward a particular object
Spatial Relating to, occupying, or having the character of space
Surge To rise and fall actively
Swallowing To take through the mouth and esophagus into the stomach
Thermodynamic Being or relating to a system of atoms, molecules, colloidal
particles, or larger bodies considered as an isolated group in
the study of thermodynamic processes
Volute A spiral or scroll-shaped form

84
References

1- MAN B&W Turbochargers, Electronic support system, (2004) and

MAN B&W Diesel AG, TCA Turbocharger, Project Guide, (June 2003),

D 2366240e

2- Somer, A, Jack and Brown, David, (1998) The Sulzer Diesel Engine,

ISBN 3-9521561-0-8, Vol.1

3- Dunn, D. (2001) Fundamental Engineering Thermodynamics, Pearson

Education Limited, ISBN 0-582-43217-0

4- Klein Woud, J. and Stapersma, D. (2002) Design of propulsion and electric

power generation system, IMarEST, ISBN 1-902536-47-9

5- Publication number CH-Z 3043 99 E, (1999) and Electronic performance

support system, Version 1.6 (December 2001) ABB turbo system Ltd.,

Baden, Switzerland

6- Schieman, J. (1995) Turbocharger compressors, Turbo magazine, Issue no. I,

Vol.1

7- Meire, E. A simple method of calculation for matching turbochargers, ABB

Turbo Systems Ltd. Internal Paper, Revision 5-81, Baden, Switzerland

8- Schieman, J. (1995) Turbocharger turbines, Turbo magazine, Issue no. II,

Vol.1

9- Watson,D. G. (1998) Practical ship design, Elsevier ocean engineering series,

Vol.1, ISBN 0-08-042999-8

10- Tinsley, D. (2004) Noise and vibration, IMAREST publication, Marine

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