Paul J. Morin - Julia K. Johnson - Stephen J. Reynolds - Charles M. Carter - Exploring Geology (2019)

exploring
GEOLOGY
About the Cover
At Sheep Mountain, the bones of the Earth lay bare. As displayed in the cover photograph by well-known
photographer Michael Collier, vegetation is scant in the Bighorn Basin of north-central Wyoming, and
impressive geologic features, such as huge mountain-sized folds in the rocks, are impossible to miss. The
basin’s sedimentary layers were originally laid down in regionally extensive, horizontal sheets, starting
in the Mississippian Period and continuing until well into the Cretaceous Period − that is, from 350
to about 100 million years ago. Later, east-directed tectonic compression from 80 to 45 million years
ago squeezed the basin until the layers buckled upward into a gigantic fold called an anticline. Upward
warping to form the fold was followed by weathering and erosion, which stripped off parts of the folded
layers, beautifully exposing the geometry of the fold. The folding ended tens of millions of years ago,
but the weathering and erosion continue today, so the spectacular geologic scene is like one frame of a
movie spanning tens of millions of years. From an aerial perspective, it’s easier to see that rocks in the
middle of the anticline started out near the bottom of the stack and are therefore the oldest. In this spe-
cial place, nature provided a wonderful expression of the events recorded in deposition of a sequence of
layers, the subsequent folding of the layers, and more recent weathering and erosion that shaped the final
scene.
Michael Collier received his BS in geology at Northern Arizona University, MS in structural geology
at Stanford, and MD from the University of Arizona. He rowed boats commercially in Grand Canyon
in the ’70s and ’80s, then practiced family medicine in northern Arizona. Collier has published books
about the geology of Grand Canyon, Death Valley, Denali, and Capitol Reef National Park. He has
authored books on the Colorado River basin, glaciers of Alaska, and climate change in Alaska, as well
as a three-book series on American mountains, rivers, and coastlines. As a special projects writer with
the USGS, he produced books about the San Andreas Fault, the downstream effects of dams, and climate
change. Collier’s photography has been recognized with awards from the USGS, the National Park
Service, the American Geosciences Institute, and the National Science Teachers Association.
exploring
GEOLOGY FIFTH EDITION
STEPHEN J. REYNOLDS
Arizona State University
JULIA K. JOHNSON
Arizona State University
PAUL J. MORIN
University of Minnesota
Polar Geospatial Center
CHARLES M. CARTER
CYNTHIA C. SHAW
Lead Illustrator, Art Director
EXPLORING GEOLOGY, FIFTH EDITION
Published by McGraw-Hill Education, 2 Penn Plaza, New York, NY 10121. Copyright © 2019 by McGraw-
Hill Education. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. Previous editions © 2016, 2013,
and 2010. No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored
in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education, including, but
not limited to, in any network or other electronic storage or transmission, or broadcast for distance learning.
Some ancillaries, including electronic and print components, may not be available to customers outside the
United States.
This book is printed on acid-free paper.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 LWI 21 20 19 18
ISBN 978-1-259-92963-2
MHID 1-259-92963-9
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Reynolds, Stephen J., author. | Johnson, Julia K., author. | Morin,
Paul J., author.
Title: Exploring geology / Stephen J. Reynolds (Arizona State University),
Julia K. Johnson (Arizona State University), Paul J. Morin (University of
Minnesota, Polar Geospace Center) ; Charles M. Carter, Cynthia C. Shaw,
lead illustrator, art director.
Description: Fifth edition. | New York, NY : McGraw-Hill Education, c2019. |
Includes index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2017046083 | ISBN 9781259929632 (alk. paper)
Subjects: LCSH: Geology—Textbooks.
Classification: LCC QE26.3 .E97 2019 | DDC 550—dc23 LC record available at
https://lccn.loc.gov/2017046083
The Internet addresses listed in the text were accurate at the time of publication. The inclusion of a website
does not indicate an endorsement by the authors or McGraw-Hill Education, and McGraw-Hill Education does
not guarantee the accuracy of the information presented at these sites.
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BRIEF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1: THE NATURE OF GEOLOGY............................................. 2

CHAPTER 2: INVESTIGATING GEOLOGIC QUESTIONS.................... 24
CHAPTER 3: PLATE TECTONICS........................................................... 48
CHAPTER 4: EARTH MATERIALS.......................................................... 74
CHAPTER 5: IGNEOUS ENVIRONMENTS..........................................106
CHAPTER 6: VOLCANOES AND VOLCANIC HAZARDS..................138
CHAPTER 7: SEDIMENTARY ENVIRONMENTS AND ROCKS.........170
CHAPTER 8: DEFORMATION AND METAMORPHISM.....................204
CHAPTER 9: GEOLOGIC TIME.............................................................236
CHAPTER 10: THE SEAFLOOR AND CONTINENTAL MARGINS.......270
CHAPTER 11: MOUNTAINS, BASINS, AND CONTINENTS................298
CHAPTER 12: EARTHQUAKES AND EARTH’S INTERIOR..................328
CHAPTER 13: CLIMATE, WEATHER, AND THEIR
INFLUENCES ON GEOLOGY.........................................366
CHAPTER 14: GLACIERS, COASTS, AND CHANGING
SEA LEVELS....................................................................404
CHAPTER 15: WEATHERING, SOIL, AND UNSTABLE SLOPES.........446
CHAPTER 16: STREAMS AND FLOODING...........................................482
CHAPTER 17: WATER RESOURCES......................................................516
CHAPTER 18: ENERGY AND MINERAL RESOURCES........................540
CHAPTER 19: GEOLOGY OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM............................574
vii
CONTENTS
Digital Resources v 2.6 How Do Geologists Refer to Rates and Time? 36
Preface xvi 2.7 How Do We Investigate Geologic Questions? 38
Acknowledgments xxvii
2.8 How Do Scientific Ideas Get Established? 40
About the Authors xxxi
2.9 What Does a Geologist Do? 42
C H AP T E R 1: 2.10
CONNECTIONS: How Did This Crater Form? 44
T H E N AT U RE OF GEOLOGY 2 2.11
INVESTIGATION: What Is the Geologic
History of Upheaval Dome? 46
1.1 How Does Geology Influence
Where and How We Live? 4
1.2 How Does Geology Help Explain Our World? 6
1.3 What Is Inside Earth? 8
1.4 What Processes Affect Our Planet? 10
1.5 How Do Rocks Form? 12
1.6 What Can Happen to a Rock? 14
1.7 How Do the Atmosphere, Water,
and Life Interact with Earth’s Surface? 16
1.8 What Is Earth’s Place in the Solar System? 18 CHAPT E R 3 :
1.9 CONNECTIONS: How Is Geology Expressed PLAT E T E CTONIC S 48
in the Black Hills and in Rapid City? 20
1.10
INVESTIGATION: How Is Geology 3.1 What Are the Major Features of Earth? 50
Affecting This Place? 22
3.2 Why Do Some Continents Have Matching Shapes? 52
3.3 Where Do Earthquakes and Volcanoes Occur? 54
3.4 What Causes Tectonic Activity to Occur in Belts? 56
3.5 What Happens at Divergent Boundaries? 58
3.6 What Happens at Convergent Boundaries? 60
3.7 What Happens Along Transform Boundaries? 62
3.8 How Do Plates Move and Interact? 64
3.9 How Is Paleomagnetism Used to Determine
Rates of Seafloor Spreading? 66
3.10
What Geologic Features Does Plate Tectonics Help
Explain? 68
3.11
CONNECTIONS: Why Is South America Lopsided? 70
C H AP T E R 2 :
3.12
INVESTIGATION: Where Is the Safest Place to Live? 72
I N V E ST I GATIN G G EOLOGIC
QU E ST I ON S 24
2.1 What Can We Observe in Landscapes? 26

2.2 How Do We Interpret Geologic Clues? 28
2.3 How Do We Depict Earth’s Surface? 30
2.4 How Do We Depict Earth’s Heights, Slopes,
and Subsurface Geology? 32
2.5 How Are Geologic Problems Quantified? 34
viii
C H AP T E R 4: 5.5 How Do Rocks Melt? 116
E A RT H M ATERIALS 74 5.6 How Do Igneous Rocks Form? 118
5.7 How Does Magma Move? 120
4.1 What Is the Difference Between a Rock 5.8 How Does Magma Solidify? 122
and a Mineral? 76 5.9 How Does Magma Form Along Divergent
4.2 How Are Minerals Put Together in Rocks? 78 Plate Boundaries? 124
4.3 How Do We Distinguish One Mineral 5.10
How Does Magma Form Along Convergent
from Another? 80 Plate Boundaries? 126
4.4 What Controls a Crystal’s Shape? 82 5.11
How Is Magma Generated at Hot Spots and
4.5 What Causes Cleavage in Minerals? 84 Other Sites Away from Plate Boundaries? 128
4.6 How Are Minerals Classified? 86 5.12
How Do Large Magma Chambers Form and
How Are They Expressed in Landscapes? 130
4.7 What Is the Crystalline Structure
of Silicate Minerals? 88 5.13
How Are Small Intrusions Formed
and Expressed in Landscapes? 132
4.8 What Are Some Common Silicate Minerals? 90
5.14
CONNECTIONS: How Did the Sierra
4.9 What Are Some Common Nonsilicate Minerals? 92
Nevada Form? 134
4.10
Where Are Different Minerals Abundant? 94
5.15
INVESTIGATION: What Types of Igneous
4.11
What Are the Building Blocks of Minerals? 96 Processes Are Occurring Here? 136
4.12
How Do Atoms Bond Together? 98
4.13
How Do Chemical Reactions Help Minerals
Grow or Dissolve? 100
4.14
CONNECTIONS: How Are Minerals
Used in Society? 102
4.15
INVESTIGATION: What Minerals Would
You Use to Build a House? 104
C H AP T E R 5 : CHAPT E R 6:
I G N E OU S EN VIRON M EN TS 106 VOLCANOE S AN D VOLCA NI C
HAZARDS 13 8
5.1 What Textures Do Igneous Rocks Display? 108
5.2 How Are Igneous Rocks Classified? 110 6.1 What Is and Is Not a Volcano? 140
5.3 What Are Some Other Igneous Rocks? 112 6.2 What Controls the Style of Eruption? 142
5.4 How Do Temperature and Pressure 6.3 What Features Characterize Basaltic Volcanoes? 144
Vary Inside Earth? 114 6.4 How Do Shield Volcanoes Form? 146
ix
6.5 What Causes Flood Basalts? 148 7.9 Where Does Sandstone Form? 188
6.6 What Are the Hazards of Basaltic Eruptions? 150 7.10
How Do Fine-Grained Clastic Rocks Form? 190
6.7 What Are Composite Volcanoes? 152 7.11
How Do Carbonate Rocks Form? 192
6.8 What Disasters Were Caused by 7.12
How Do Changing Environments Create
Composite Volcanoes? 154 a Sequence of Different Kinds of Sediments? 194
6.9 How Do Volcanic Domes Form? 156 7.13
How Do We Study Sedimentary Sequences? 196
6.10
Why Does a Caldera Form? 158 7.14
Why Are Sediments and Sedimentary Rocks
6.11
What Disasters Were Related to Calderas? 160 Important to Our Society? 198
6.12
What Areas Have the Highest Potential 7.15
CONNECTIONS: How Did Sedimentary
for Volcanic Hazards? 162 Layers West of Denver Form? 200
6.13
How Do We Monitor Volcanoes? 164 7.16
INVESTIGATION: What Is the Sedimentary
History of This Plateau? 202
6.14
CONNECTIONS: What Volcanic Hazards
Are Posed by Mount Rainier? 166
6.15
INVESTIGATION: How Would You Assess
Hazards on This Volcano? 168
CHAPT E R 8:
DE F ORMAT ION AND
ME TAMORPHISM 204
8.1 How Do Rocks Respond to Stress? 206

C H AP T E R 7 : 8.2 How Do Rocks Respond to Changes in Stress,
S E D I M E N TA RY EN V IRONME NTS Temperature, and Fluids? 208
A ND R OCKS 170 8.3 How Do Rocks Fracture? 210
8.4 What Are Different Types of Faults? 212
7.1 What Sedimentary Environments Occur on Land? 172 8.5 What Are Folds and How Are They Shaped? 214
7.2 What Sedimentary Environments Are 8.6 What Are Some Metamorphic Features? 216
Near Shorelines and in Oceans? 174 8.7 What Are Some Common Metamorphic Rocks? 218
7.3 Where Do Clasts Come From? 176 8.8 How Does Metamorphism Occur? 220
7.4 What Are the Characteristics of 8.9 Where Does Metamorphism Occur? 222
Clastic Sediments? 178 8.10
What Processes Occur in Extensional
7.5 What Types of Rocks Do Clastic Sediments Form? 180 and Strike-Slip Settings? 224
7.6 What Are Nonclastic Sedimentary Rocks and 8.11
How Are Different Structures
How Do They Form? 182 and Metamorphic Features Related? 226
7.7 Why Do Sedimentary Rocks Have Layers? 184 8.12
How Are Geologic Structures and Metamorphic
7.8 Where Do Breccia and Conglomerate Form? 186 Rocks Expressed in the Landscape? 228
x
8.13 How Do We Study Geologic Structures CHAPT E R 10:
and Metamorphic Features? 230 T HE SE AF LOOR AND
8.14 CONNECTIONS: What Is the Structural C ONT INE NTAL MAR G I NS 270
and Metamorphic History of New England? 232
8.15 INVESTIGATION: What Structural and 10.1 How Do We Explore the Seafloor? 272
Metamorphic Events Occurred Here? 234
10.2 What Processes Occur at Mid-Ocean Ridges? 274
10.3 What Are Major Features of the Deep Ocean? 276
10.4 How Do Oceanic Islands, Seamounts,
and Oceanic Plateaus Form? 278
10.5 What Processes Form Island Arcs? 280
10.6 How Did Smaller Seas of the Pacific Form? 282
10.7 How Did Smaller Seas Near Eurasia Form? 284
C H AP T E R 9 : 10.8 How Do Reefs and Coral Atolls Form? 286
G E OLOG I C TIM E 236 10.9 What Is the Geology of Continental Margins? 288
10.10 How Do Marine Evaporite Deposits Form? 290
9.1 How Do We Infer the Relative Ages of Events? 238 10.11 How Did Earth’s Modern Oceans Evolve? 292
9.2 How Do We Study Ages of Landscapes? 240 10.12 CONNECTIONS: How Did the Gulf of Mexico
9.3 What Is the Significance of an Unconformity? 242 and the Caribbean Region Form? 294
9.4 How Are Ages Assigned to Rocks and Events? 244 10.13 INVESTIGATION: How Did These Ocean
Features and Continental Margins Form? 296
9.5 What Are Fossils? 246
9.6 How and Why Did Living Things Change
Through Geologic Time? 248
9.7 How Are Fossils Used to Infer Ages of Rocks? 250
9.8 How Was the Geologic Timescale Developed? 252
9.9 What Is the Evidence for the Age of Earth? 254
9.10
What Events Occurred Early in Earth’s History
and How Did Earth Change Over Time? 256
9.11
What Were Some Milestones
in the Early History of Life on Earth? 258
9.12
What Were Some Milestones
in the Later History of Life on Earth? 260 CHAPT E R 11:
9.13
How Do We Reconstruct Geologic Histories? 262 MOUNTAINS, BASI NS,
9.14
Why Do We Investigate Geologic History? 264
AND CONT INE NTS 29 8
9.15
CONNECTIONS: What Is the History
of the Grand Canyon? 266 11.1 Why Are Some Regions High in Elevation? 300
9.16
INVESTIGATION: What Is the Geologic History 11.2 Where Do Mountain Belts and High Regions Form? 302
of This Place? 268 11.3 How Do Local Mountains Form? 304
11.4 Where Do Basins Form? 306
11.5 How Do Mountains and Basins Form
at Convergent Continental Margins? 308
11.6 How Does Continental Extension Occur? 310
11.7 What Are the Characteristics and History
of Continental Hot Spots? 312
xi
11.8 What Features Characterize the Interiors 12.13 What Is the Potential for Earthquakes Along
of Continents? 314 the San Andreas Fault? 354
11.9 What Are Tectonic Terranes? 316 12.14 How Do We Explore Earth’s Subsurface? 356
11.10 How Do Continents Form? 318 12.15 What Do Seismic Waves Indicate
11.11 How Did the Continents Join and Split Apart? 320 About Earth’s Interior? 358
11.12 CONNECTIONS 1: How Did the Appalachian 12.16 How Do We Investigate Deep Processes? 360
and Ouachita Mountains Form? 322 12.17 CONNECTIONS: What Happened During
11.13 CONNECTIONS 2: What Is the Geologic History the Great Alaskan Earthquake of 1964? 362
of the Western United States? 324 12.18 INVESTIGATION: Where Did This Earthquake
11.14 INVESTIGATION: Where Will Mountains Occur, and What Damage Might Be Expected? 364
and Basins Form in This Region? 326
CHAPT E R 13 :
CLIMAT E , WE AT HE R , A ND
C H AP T E R 12 : T HE IR INF LUE NC E S ON G E O LO GY 3 66
E A RT H QUAKES A N D EART H’S
I N T E R I OR 328
13.1 What Causes Winds? 368
13.2 What Causes Some Local and Regional Winds? 370
12.1 What Is an Earthquake? 330
13.3 Why Does It Rain, Snow, and Hail? 372
12.2 How Does Faulting Cause Earthquakes? 332
12.3 Where Do Most Earthquakes Occur? 334 13.4 How Does Rising Air Cause Precipitation? 374
12.4 What Causes Earthquakes Along 13.5 How Do Hurricanes, Tornadoes,

Plate Boundaries and Within Plates? 336 and Other Storms Develop? 376
12.5 How Do Earthquake Waves Travel? 338 13.6 What Is the Global Pattern of Surface Currents? 378
12.6 How Do We Determine the Location and 13.7 How Do Ocean Currents Influence Climate? 380
Size of an Earthquake? 340 13.8 What Causes Short-Term Climatic Variations? 382
12.7 How Do Earthquakes Cause Damage? 342 13.9 What Controls the Location of Rain Forests? 384
12.8 What Were Some Major North American 13.10 What Are Deserts and How Do They Form? 386
Earthquakes? 344
13.11 How Does Wind Transport Material? 388
12.9 What Were Some Recent Large Earthquakes? 346
13.12 What Features Are Common in Deserts? 390
12.10 How Does a Tsunami Form
and Cause Destruction? 348 13.13 What Is the Evidence for Climate Change? 392
12.11 How Do We Study Earthquakes in the Field? 350 13.14 What Factors Influence Climate Change? 394
12.12 Can Earthquakes Be Predicted? 352 13.15 What Are the Consequences of Climate Change? 396
xii
13.16 What Is the Relationship Among Climate, 14.18 What Causes Changes in Sea Level? 440
Tectonics, and Landscape Evolution? 398 14.19 CONNECTIONS: What Would Happen to Sea
13.17 CONNECTIONS: What Happened During Level if the Ice in West Antarctica Melted? 442
Hurricane Sandy? 400 14.20 INVESTIGATION: What Is Happening Along
13.18 INVESTIGATION: What Kinds of Climate the Coast of This Island? 444
and Weather Would Occur in This Place? 402
C H AP T E R 14:
G LACI E R S , COASTS , AND C HANGING
S E A LE VELS 404 CHAPT E R 15:
WE AT HE RING, S OI L,
14.1 What Are Glaciers? 406 AND UNSTABLE SLOP E S 446
14.2 How Do Glaciers Form, Move, and Vanish? 408
14.3 How Do Glaciers Erode, Transport, and 15.1 What Physical Processes Affect
Deposit? 410 Earth Materials Near the Surface? 448
14.4 What Are the Landforms of Alpine Glaciation? 412 15.2 How Do Chemical Processes Affect
14.5 What Are the Landforms of Continental Earth Materials Near the Surface? 450
Glaciation? 414 15.3 How Does the Type of Earth Material
14.6 What Features Are Peripheral to Glaciers? 416 Influence Weathering? 452
14.7 What Is the Evidence for Past Glaciations? 418 15.4 How Do Climate, Slope, Vegetation,
and Time Influence Weathering? 454
14.8 What Happened During Past Ice Ages? 420
15.5 How Is Weathering Expressed? 456
14.9 What Starts and Stops Glaciations? 422
15.6 How Do Caves Form? 458
14.10 What Processes Occur Along Coasts? 424
15.7 What Is Karst Topography? 460
14.11 What Causes High Tides and Low Tides? 426
15.8 How Does Soil Form? 462
14.12 How Do Waves Form and Propagate? 428
15.9 Why Is Soil Important to Society? 464
14.13 How Is Material Eroded, Transported,
and Deposited Along Coasts? 430 15.10 What Controls the Stability of Slopes? 466
14.14 What Landforms Occur Along Coasts? 432 15.11 How Do Slopes Fail? 468
14.15 What Are Some Challenges of Living 15.12 How Does Material on Slopes Fall and Slide? 470
Along Coasts? 434 15.13 How Does Material Flow Down Slopes? 472
14.16 How Do We Assess the Relative Risks 15.14 Where Do Slope Failures Occur in the U.S.? 474
of Different Stretches of Coastline? 436 15.15 How Do We Study Slope Failures and Assess
14.17 What Happens When Sea Level Changes? 438 the Risk for Future Events? 476
xiii
15.16 CONNECTIONS: What Is Happening with the
Slumgullion Landslide in Colorado? 478
15.17 INVESTIGATION: Which Areas Have
the Highest Risk of Slope Failure? 480
CHAPT E R 17:
WAT E R RE SOURCE S 516
17.1 Where Does Water Occur on Our Planet? 518

17.2 How Do We Use Fresh Water? 520
17.3 Where Is Groundwater Found? 522
C H AP T E R 16 : 17.4 How and Where Does Groundwater Flow? 524
ST R E AM S A N D FLOODING 482 17.5 What Is the Relationship Between
Surface Water and Groundwater? 526
16.1 What Is a Drainage Network? 484 17.6 How Do We Explore for Groundwater? 528
16.2 How Do Streams Transport Sediment 17.7 What Problems Are Associated
and Erode Their Channels? 486 with Groundwater Pumping? 530
16.3 How Do Stream Systems Change Downstream 17.8 How Can Water Become Contaminated? 532
or Over Short Time Frames? 488
17.9 How Does Groundwater Contamination Move
16.4 What Factors Influence Profiles of Streams? 490
and How Do We Clean It Up? 534
16.5 Why Do Streams Have Curves? 492
17.10 CONNECTIONS: What Is Going On with the
16.6 What Happens in the Headwaters of Streams? 494 Ogallala Aquifer? 536
16.7 What Features Characterize Braided Streams? 496 17.11 INVESTIGATION: Who Polluted Surface
16.8 What Features Characterize Water and Groundwater in This Place? 538
Low-Gradient Streams? 498
16.9 What Happens When a Stream
Reaches Its Base Level? 500
16.10 How Do Streams Change Over Time? 502
16.11 What Happens During Stream Incision? 504
16.12 What Is and What Is Not a Flood? 506
16.13 What Were Some Devastating Floods? 508
16.14 How Do We Measure Floods? 510
16.15 CONNECTIONS: How Does the Colorado River
Change as It Flows Across the Landscape? 512
16.16 INVESTIGATION: How Would Flooding
Affect This Place? 514
xiv
C H AP T E R 18 : CHAPT E R 19:
E N E R GY A N D M IN ERAL GE OLOGY OF T HE SOL AR SYSTEM 574
R E S OU R CES 540
19.1 How Do We Explore Other Planets and Moons? 576
18.1 How Do Oil and Natural Gas Form? 542 19.2 Why Is Each Planet and Moon Different? 578
18.2 In What Settings Are Oil and Gas Trapped? 544 19.3 What Is the Geology of the Inner Planets? 580
18.3 What Are Shale Gas and Shale Oil? 546 19.4 What Is the Geology of Our Moon? 582
18.4 How Do Coal and Coal-Bed Methane Form? 548 19.5 What Is Observed on Jupiter and Its Moons? 584
18.5 What Are Other Types of Hydrocarbons? 550 19.6 What Is Observed on Saturn and Its Moons? 586
18.6 How Do We Explore for Fossil Fuels? 552 19.7 What Is the Geology of the Outer Planets
18.7 How Is Nuclear Energy Produced? 554 and Their Moons? 588
18.8 How Is Water Used to Generate Electricity? 556 19.8 CONNECTIONS: What Have We Learned
About Mars? 590
18.9 What Are Alternative Energy Sources? 558
19.9 INVESTIGATION: How and When Did Geologic
18.10 What Are Mineral Deposits
Features on This Alien World Form? 592
and How Do They Form? 560
18.11 How Do Precious Metal Deposits Form? 562
18.12 How Do Base Metal Deposits Form? 564
18.13 How Do We Explore for Mineral Deposits? 566
18.14 Why Are Industrial Rocks and Minerals
So Important to Society? 568
18.15 CONNECTIONS: Why Is Wyoming So Rich in
Energy Resources? 570
18.16 INVESTIGATION: Where Would You Explore
for Fossil Fuels in This Place? 572
Glossary G-1
Credits C-1
Index I-1
Tapestry of Time Map of North America end of book
xv
PREFACE
TELLING THE STORY . . .

WE WROTE EXPLORING GEOLOGY SO THAT STUDENTS
could learn from the book on their own, freeing up instructors to teach
the class in any way they want. I (Steve Reynolds) first identified the
need for this book while I was a National Association of Geoscience
Teachers’ (NAGT) distinguished speaker. As part of my NAGT activi-
ties, I traveled around the country conducting workshops on how to
infuse active learning and scientific inquiry into introductory college
geology courses, including those with upwards of 200 students. In the
first part of the workshop, I asked the faculty participants to list the
main goals of an introductory geology college course, especially for
nonmajors. At every school I visited, the main goals were similar and
are consistent with the conclusions of the National Research Council
(see box below): Like most geologists, author Steve Reynolds prefers teaching students
out in the field, where they can directly observe the geology and
∙ to engage students in the process of scientific inquiry so that they reconstruct the sequence of geologic events.
learn what science is and how it is conducted,
∙ to teach students how to observe and interpret landscapes and spend nearly all of class time covering content because (1) textbooks
other aspects of their surroundings, include so much material that students have difficulty distinguishing
what is important from what is not; (2) instructors needed to lecture so
∙ to enable students to learn and apply important geologic
that students would know what is important; and (3) many students have
concepts,
difficulty learning independently from the textbook.
∙ to help students understand the relevance of geology to their
lives, and In most cases, textbooks drive the curriculum, so the author team
∙ to enable students to use their new knowledge, skills, and ways decided that we should write a textbook that (1) contains only impor-
of thinking to become more informed citizens. tant material, (2) indicates clearly to the student what is important and
what they need to know, and (3) is designed and written in such a way
I then asked faculty members to rank these goals and estimate how much that students can learn from the book on their own. This type of book
time they spent on each goal in class. At this point, many instructors rec- would give instructors freedom to teach in a way that is more consistent
ognized that their activities in class were not consistent with their own with their goals, including using local examples to illustrate geologic
goals. Most instructors were spending nearly all of class time teaching concepts and their relevance. Instructors would also be able to spend
content. Although this was one of their main goals, it commonly was more class time teaching students to observe and interpret geology, and
not their top goal. to participate in the process of scientific inquiry, which represents the
top goal for many instructors.
Next, I asked instructors to think about why their activities were not con-
sistent with their goals. Inevitably, the answer was that most instructors
COGNITIVE AND SCIENCE-
EDUCATION RESEARCH
NRC The National Research Council To design a book that supports instructor goals, we delved into cognitive
and science-education research, especially research on how our brains
process different types of information, what obstacles limit student learn-
NATIONAL COMMITTEE ON SCIENCE
ing from textbooks, and how students use visuals versus text while study-
EDUCATION STANDARDS AND ASSESSMENT, ing. We also conducted our own research on how students interact with
NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL textbooks, what students see when they observe photographs showing
geologic features, and how they interpret different types of geologic illus-
LEARNING SCIENCE IS AN ACTIVE PROCESS. trations, including geologic maps and cross sections. Exploring Geology
Learning science is something students do, not something that is is the result of our literature search and of our own science-education
done to them. In learning science, students describe objects and research. As you examine Exploring Geology, you will notice that it is
events, ask questions, acquire knowledge, construct explanations of stylistically different from most other textbooks, which will likely elicit
natural phenomena, test those explanations in many different ways, a few questions.
and communicate their ideas to others. Science teaching must involve
students in inquiry-oriented investigations in which they interact
with their teachers and peers.
xvi
HOW DOES THIS BOOK SUPPORT STUDENT CURIOSITY AND INQUIRY?
First Pages First Pages
CHAPTER
15
We a t h e r i n g , S o i l , a n d U n s t a b l e S l o p e s 447
Weathering, Soil, and TOP ICS IN T H IS CHAPTER

Unstable Slopes 15.1 What Physical Processes Affect
Earth Materials Near the Surface? 448
15.9
15.10
Why Is Soil Important to Society?
What Controls the Stability of Slopes?
464
466
15.2 How Do Chemical Processes Affect
SLOPES CAN BE UNSTABLE, leading to slope failures that can produce catastrophic landslides or mudslides involv- 15.11 How Do Slopes Fail? 468
ing thick slurries of mud and debris. Such events have killed tens of thousands of people at once and destroyed houses, 15.12 How Does Material on Slopes Fall and Slide? 470
15.3 How Does the Type of Earth Material
bridges, and large parts of cities. Where does this dangerous, loose material come from, what factors determine if a Influence Weathering? 452
15.13 How Does Material Flow Down Slopes? 472
slope is stable, and how do slopes fail? In this chapter, we explore slope stability and the origin of soil, one of our 15.4 How Do Climate, Slope, Vegetation, and Time
15.14 Where Do Slope Failures Occur in the U.S.? 474
most important resources. Influence Weathering? 454 15.15 How Do We Study Slope Failures and
Assess the Risk for Future Events? 476
The Cordillera de la Costa is a steep 2 km-high mountain In December 1999, torrential rains in the mountains caused landslides and 15.16 CONNECTIONS: What Is Happening with
range that runs along the coast of Venezuela, separating the mobilized soil and other loose material as turbulent, flowing masses of 15.6 How Do Caves Form? 458
the Slumgullion Landslide in Colorado? 478
capital city of Caracas from the sea. This image, looking south, muddy debris (flash floods) that buried parts of the coastal cities. Some 15.7 What Is Karst Topography? 460
has topography overlain with a satellite image taken in 2000. light-colored landslide scars are visible on the hillsides in this image. 15.17 INVESTIGATION: Which Areas Have
15.8 How Does Soil Form? 462
The white areas are clouds and the purple areas are cities. The the Highest Risk of Slope Failure? 480
Caribbean Sea is in the foreground. The map below shows the How does soil and other loose material form on hillslopes? What factors
location of Venezuela on the northern coast of South America. determine whether a slope is stable or is prone to landslides and other
types of downhill movement? Huge boulders smashed through the lower two floors of this
1999 Venezuelan Disaster
15.00.a2 building in Caraballeda (▼) and ripped away part of the right side.
The mud and water that transported these boulders is no longer
A
15.00.a1
present, but the boulders remain as a testament to the event.
debris flow is a turbulent slurry of water
and debris, including mud, sand, gravel,
pebbles, boulders, vegetation, and even
cars and small buildings. Debris flows can move at
speeds up to 16 m/s (36 mph). In December 1999,
two storms dumped as much as 1.1 m (42 in.) of
rain on the coastal mountains of Venezuela. The rain
loosened soil on the steep hillsides, causing many
landslides and debris flows that coalesced in the
steep canyons and raced downhill toward the cities
built on the alluvial fans.
In Caraballeda, the debris flows carried boulders
up to 10 m (33 ft) in diameter and weighing 300 to
400 tons each. The debris flows and flash floods
raced across the city, flattening cars and smashing
houses, buildings, and bridges. They left behind a
jumble of boulders and other debris along the path
of destruction through the city.
15.00.a3 Caraballeda, Venezuela
After the event, USGS geologists went into the
area to investigate what had happened and why.
They documented the types of material that were
carried by the debris flows, mapped the extent of
the flows, and measured boulders (▼) to investigate
processes that occurred during the event. When the
geologists examined what lay beneath the founda-
tions of destroyed houses, they discovered that much
of the city had been built on older debris flows.
These deposits should have provided a warning of
what was to come.
The mountain slopes are too steep for buildings, so people The city of Caraballeda, built on one such alluvial fan, was especially 15.00.a5 Caraballeda, Venezuela
built the coastal cities on the less steep fan-shaped areas at the hard hit in 1999 by debris flows and flash floods that tore a swath of ⊳ This aerial photograph of
foot of each valley. These flatter areas are alluvial fans com- destruction through the town. Landslides, debris flows, and flooding Caraballeda, looking south
posed of mountain-derived sediment that has been transported killed more than 19,000 people and caused up to $30 billion in damage up the canyon, shows the
down the canyons and deposited along the mountain front. in the region. The damage is visible as the light-colored strip through damage in the center of the
15.0
the center of town. city caused by the debris
What are some potential hazards of living next to steep moun- flows and flash floods.
tain slopes, especially in a city built on an active alluvial fan? How can loss of life and destruction of property by debris flows and
landslides be avoided or at least minimized?
446
rey29639_ch15_446-481.indd 446 09/15/17 09:43 PM

rey29639_ch15_446-481.indd 447 08/18/17 02:56 PM
Exploring Geology promotes inquiry and science

as an active process. It encourages student curiosity Inquire
and aims to activate existing student knowledge by
posing the title of every two-page spread and every “Exploring Geology is a seminal textbook for the new century, created by a unique team
subsection as a question. In addition, questions are of authors who have synergistically merged their expertise in geology and geoscience
dispersed throughout the book. Integrated into the teaching, cognitive science, and the graphic arts. The design of the book has been richly
book are opportunities for students to observe pat- informed by current research on how students best learn geoscience, and what topics are
terns, features, and examples before the underly- essential and relevant. Each chapter is designed as a sequence of two-page inquiry mod-
ing concepts are explained. That is, we employ a ules; each module focuses on a specific topic, opens with an engaging question, and inte-
learning-cycle approach where student exploration grates clear, jargon-free explanations with generous, precisely detailed illustrations. In
precedes the introduction of geologic terms and the conventional textbooks, figures are often subordinate to columns and columns of type; in
application of knowledge to a new situation. For Exploring Geology, text and illustrations are mutually embedded in a topical mosaic. At
example, chapter 15 on slope stability begins with the close of each chapter, a real-world application of the subject matter and an investiga-
a three-dimensional image of northern Venezuela, tive exercise complete the learning cycle. This book is an innovative, accessible resource
and readers are asked to observe where people are that fosters understanding through authentic geological inquiry and visualization, rather
living in this area and what geologic processes than dense exposition.”
might have formed these sites. Steven Semken
School of Earth and Space Exploration, Arizona State University
Past President, National Association of Geoscience Teachers
xvii
WHY ARE THE PAGES DOMINATED BY ILLUSTRATIONS?
Geology is an extremely visual science. Typically, geology textbooks Exploring Geology contains a wealth of figures to take advantage of the
contain a variety of photographs, maps, cross sections, block diagrams, visual nature of geology and the efficiency of figures in conveying geo-
and other types of illustrations. These diagrams help portray the distri- logic information. This book contains few large blocks of text, and most
bution and geometry of geologic units on the surface and in the subsur- text is in smaller blocks that are specifically linked with illustrations. An
face in a way words could never do. In geology, a picture really is worth example of our integrated figure-text approach is shown on the previous
a thousand words or more. page and on the next page. In this approach, each short block of text
is one or more complete sentences that succinctly describe a geologic
feature, geologic process, or both of these. Most of these text blocks are
connected to their illustrations with leader lines so that readers know
Engage exactly which feature or part of the diagram is being referenced by the
“Finally, there is an introductory geology textbook that was text block. A reader does not have to search for the part of the figure
designed around how modern college students learn! Reynolds and that corresponds to a text passage, as occurs when a student reads a tra-
company paid attention to the research on learning and have pro- ditional textbook with large blocks of text referencing a figure that may
duced a text that matches how I teach. My students study and disappear on a different page.
cuss images in class and then in their textbook. This book is built
around the illustrations—information-rich, graphically interesting The approach in Exploring Geology is consistent with the findings
figures that engage most students better than the best-written nar- of cognitive scientists, who conclude that our minds have two dif-
rative could. From the spectacular opening spreads to the Connec- ferent processing systems, one for processing pictorial informa-
tions and Investigations, Exploring Geology provides a full course tion (images) and one for processing verbal information (speech and
worth of interesting learning opportunities for use in the classroom written words), as illustrated below. Images enter our consciousness
and as homework.” through our eyes, and text can enter either through our eyes, such as
when we read, or through our ears, as occurs during a lecture. Research
Scott R. Linneman into learning and cognition shows that having text enter via our ears,
Western Washington University while our eyes examine an image, is among the best ways to learn.
Past President, National Association of Geoscience Teachers
New experiences from the environment enter the Input from the senses is filtered and transferred into two
brain via the senses. Images, for example, come in different types of working memory, a visual area for
through the eyes, and sounds enter the ears. images and a phonetic area for words. Each
type of working memory has a very limited
capacity to hold new information.
Information from working memory is

processed further and transferred
into long-term memory. Ideally, new
information is linked to existing
knowledge in long-term memory to
build a more complete understanding.
When information from long-term

memory is needed, it is retrieved into
working memory, where it can be pro-
cessed to make decisions.
xviii
First Pages
Cognitive scientists also speak about two

58
types of memory: working memory holds
information and actively processes it,
3.5 What Happens at Divergent Boundaries?
whereas long-term memory stores infor- AT MID-OCEAN RIDGES, Earth’s tectonic plates diverge (move apart). Ridges are the sites of many small to moderate-
sized earthquakes and much submarine volcanism. On the continents, divergent motion can split a continent into two pieces,
mation until we need it (Baddeley, 2007). commonly forming a new ocean basin as the pieces move apart.
Both the verbal and pictorial processing What Happens at Mid-Ocean Ridges?
systems have a limited amount of work- Mid-ocean ridges are divergent plate boundaries where new oceanic lithosphere forms as two oceanic plates move apart.
These boundaries are also called spreading centers because of the way the plates spread apart.
ing memory, and our minds have to use 1. A narrow trough, or rift, runs along the axis of most mid-ocean ridges. 3. Much of the magma solidifies at depth, but some erupts onto
much of our mental processing space to The rift forms because large blocks of crust slip down as spreading
occurs. The divergence and movement of fault blocks causes faulting,
the seafloor, forming submarine lava flows. These eruptions create
new ocean crust that is incorporated into the oceanic plates
reconcile the two types of information resulting in frequent small to moderate-sized earthquakes. as they move apart.
in working memory. For information

2. As the plates move 4. Mid-ocean ridges are elevated above
apart, solid mantle in the surrounding seafloor because they con-
the asthenosphere rises sist of hotter, less dense materials, including
that has both pictorial and verbal com- toward the surface. It
partially melts in
magma. They also are higher because the
underlying lithosphere is thinner beneath
ponents, as most geoscience information response to a decrease

in pressure. The molten
ridges than beneath typical seafloor. Lower
density materials and thin lithosphere mean
rock (magma) rises that the plate “floats” higher above the
does, the amount of knowledge we retain along narrow conduits,
accumulates in magma
underlying asthenosphere. The elevation of
the seafloor decreases away from the ridge
depends on reconciling these two types chambers beneath the
rift, and eventually
because the rock cools and contracts, and
because the less dense asthenosphere
of information, on transferring informa-

becomes part of the cools enough to become part of the more
oceanic lithosphere. dense lithosphere.
tion from working memory to long-term

memory, and on linking the new informa- 03.05.a1–2
tion with our existing mental framework.

For this reason, this book integrates text
and figures, as in the example shown
here.
WHY ARE THERE SO MANY FIGURES?

rey29639_ch03_048-073.indd 58 07/21/17 12:26 PM
This textbook contains more than 2,500

illustrations, which is two to three times Visualize
the number in most introductory geology
textbooks. One reason for this is that the “This is it! This is a book that my students can use to learn, not just ‘do the reading.’ The focus on
book is designed to provide a concrete questions on every page draws students in, and the immediacy of the illustration and text focused
example of each rock type, environment, on each question makes it almost impossible for students not to want to plunge in to find out how
or geologic feature being illustrated. each question is answered. And the centrality of high-quality illustrations, rather than exhaustive
Research shows that many college stu- text, is a key component for helping students learn once they are engaged. Geoscience is a visual
dents require concrete examples before science, and this approach helps students visualize geologic processes in the real world, truly
they can begin to build abstract concepts learning rather than simply preparing to parrot back definitions. Do I worry that this book isn’t
(Lawson, 2003). Also, many students packed with text? Not in the slightest! With examples, real-world data, and research results easily
have limited travel experience, so photo- accessible on the Internet, I don’t want or need an introductory textbook that tries to be encyclo-
graphs and other figures allow them to pedic. I want a book that engages students, captures their imaginations, and helps them learn. This
observe places, environments, and pro- is the book!”
cesses they have not been able to observe
firsthand. The inclusion of an illustration Barbara J. Tewksbury
for each text block reinforces the notion Hamilton College
that the point being discussed is impor- Past President, American Geological Institute
tant. In many cases, as in the example on Past President, National Association of Geoscience Teachers
xix
174 Sedimentary Environments and Rocks 175
7.2 What Sedimentary Environments 07.02.a5 Namibia

6. Sandy dunes that are 7. Some shorelines
07.02.a6 Olympic Peninsula, WA
Are Near Shorelines and in Oceans?

inland from beaches are include low areas,
called coastal dunes (⊳). called tidal flats (⊲),
These dunes commonly form that are flooded by
where sand and finer sedi- the seas during
OCEANS AND THEIR SHORELINES are dynamic environments with wind, waves, and ocean currents transporting ment from the beach are high tide but
sediment eroded from the coastline or brought in from elsewhere. The characteristics of each environment, especially blown or washed inland and exposed to the air
reshaped by the wind. When during low tide.
the types of sediment, depend mostly on the proximity to shore, the availability of sediment, and the depth, temperature, strong winds blow onto land, Most tidal flats are
and clarity of the water. Examine the large figure below and try to envision what you would expect in each setting, sand can move from the covered by mud
including the type of sediment that would occur there. beach to the dunes, and sand and sand or are
can move back toward the rocky. Some low
07.02.a2 Carmel, CA
beach when winds blow parts of the land
1. Beaches are stretches of coastline along which sediment has accu-
toward the sea or lake. adjacent to tidal
mulated (⊳). Most beaches consist of sand, pieces of shells, and
flats can accumu-
rounded gravel, cobbles, or boulders. The setting determines which of
late salt and other
these components is most abundant. Some shorelines have bedrock
evaporite minerals as seawater and terrestrial (on-land) waters
all the way to the ocean and so have little or no beach. Wide, sandy
evaporate under hot, arid (dry) conditions.
beaches are more inviting as places to relax and play.
07.02.a1 07.02.a7 Mississippi Delta, LA
07.02.a3 Akumal, Mexico

2. The water near the
shoreline may be shel-
tered by offshore reefs or
islands. The sheltered
water, called a lagoon (⊳),
is commonly shallow, calm,
and perhaps warm. The
near-shore parts of lagoons
contain sand, mud, and 8. In addition to the parts of deltas overlapping the shore,
stones derived from land, submarine deltas extend in some places for tens of kilometers
whereas the outer parts may offshore (▲). The muddy or sandy front of the delta may be
have sand and pieces of unstable, and material can slide or tumble down the slope,
coral eroded from a reef. sending sediment into deeper water.
07.02.a4 Raja Ampat, Indonesia
3. Where ocean water is
shallow, warm, and clear,
coral and other marine 9. Other accumulations of sand rise above the shallow coastal
creatures construct reefs waters as long, narrow islands, called barrier islands. Most
(⊳), which can parallel the barrier islands, such as the one below, are only hundreds of
coast, encircle islands, or meters wide. The areas between barrier islands and the shore-
form irregular mounds and line are commonly shallow lagoons or saltwater marshes (▼).
platforms. Reefs typically
protect the shoreline from
the energetic, big waves
of the deeper ocean.
4. Away from the shoreline, many landmasses are

flanked by continental shelves and slopes consisting
of layers of mud, sand, and carbonate minerals.
Material from these sites can move down the slope
in landslides or in turbulent, flowing masses of sand, 5. The deep part of the seafloor is a dark, cold Before You Leave This Page
mud, and water called turbidity currents. The slopes environment that commonly is several kilometers beneath
7.2
of some continents are incised by branching the surface. It generally receives less sediment than areas Sketch and describe the main sedimentary
submarine canyons (not shown here) that funnel closer to land, and its sediment is dominated by fine, windblown environments in oceanic and near-shore environments.
sediment toward deeper waters. dust and by remains of mostly single-celled marine organisms.
07.02.a8 Santa Rosa Island, FL
this page, conceptualized figures are integrated with photographs and text
rey29639_ch07_170-203.indd 174 08/04/17 09:33 AM
rey29639_ch07_170-203.indd 175 08/04/17 09:33 AM
so that students can build a more coherent view of the environment or

process.
Exploring Geology focuses on the most important geologic concepts and

makes a deliberate attempt to eliminate text that is not essential for student
learning of these concepts. Inclusion of information that is not essential
tends to distract and confuse students rather than illuminate the concept;
thus you will see fewer words. Cognitive and science-education research
has identified a redundancy effect, where information that restates and
expands upon a more succinct description actually results in a decrease in
student learning (Mayer, 2001). Specifically, students learn less if a long
figure caption restates information contained elsewhere on the page, such
as in a long block of text that is detached from the figure. We avoid the
redundancy effect by including only text that is integrated with the figure.
The style of illustrations in Exploring Geology was designed to be more

inviting to today’s visually oriented students who are used to photo-
realistic, computer-rendered images in movies, videos, and computer
games. For this reason, many of the figures were created by world-class
artists who have worked on Hollywood movies, on television shows, for
National Geographic, and in the computer-graphics industry. In most
cases, the figures incorporate real data, such as satellite images and
aerial photographs. Our own research shows that many students do not
understand geologic cross sections and other subsurface diagrams, so
xx
nearly every cross section in this book has a three-dimensional aspect,
and many maps are presented in a perspective view with topography.
Research findings by us and other researchers (Roth and Bowen, 1999)
indicate that including people and human-related items on photographs
and figures attracts undue attention, thereby distracting students from
the geologic features being illustrated. As a result, our photographs have
nondistracting indicators of scale, like dull coins and plain marking pens.
Figures and photographs do not include people or human-related items
unless (1) we are trying to illustrate how geoscientists study geologic
processes and features, (2) illustrate the relevance of the processes on
humans, or (3) help students appreciate that geoscience can be done
by diverse types of people, potentially including them, as depicted in
our photographs.
xxi
Vo l c a n o e s a n d V o l c a n i c H a z a r d s 157
What Types of Rocks and Landscapes Characterize Domes?

Most volcanic domes consist of andesite, rhyolite, or rocks with a composition between andesite and rhyolite. Domes
are distinctive features when they form and harden, and even after they have been partially eroded. They consist of
solidified lava that has several different textures, and typically they are associated with pyroclastic rocks and other
HOWdebris
AREthatGEOLOGIC
formed when the dome partially
TERMS collapsed or was
INTRODUCED blown apart.
IN THIS BOOK?
06.09.c1 Newberry volcano, OR Rock Types 06.09.c3 Wickenburg, AZ
Wherever possible, we introduce terms after students have an opportu-
1. Some parts of domes cool rapidly 3. The outer parts of domes cool, solid-
nity to observe the feature or concept that is being named. This approach
into volcanic glass (obsidian) which, ify, and fracture into angular blocks that
is consistent with several educational philosophies,
although dark, has aincluding a learning
felsic composition. can become incorporated into the
cycle and just-in-time teaching. Research on learning
Obsidian can be almost cycles shows
entirely glassthat magma to produce volcanic breccia (⊲).
students are more likely to retain(⊳)a or
term
canifcontain
they already
vesicles,have a mental
crystals, and Such breccias vary from containing
pumice. This
image of the thing being named (Lawson, example
2003). has layers,
For example, thiscalled
book mostly blocks to being mostly intact
flow bands, formed by shearing and lava, with some blocks. The matrix com-
presents students with the collection of igneous rocks shown to the right
other processes during flow. monly contains some volcanic ash.
and asks them to think about how they would classify the rocks. Only
then does the textbook present a classification of igneous rocks.
2. Obsidian and other volcanic glasses 4. When a volcanic dome collapses,
Also, the figure-based approach are unstable
in this bookand overterms
allows time begin
to betointro- avalanches of rock and other debris
change from unordered glass into rhy- can rush downhill in a pyroclastic flow
duced in their context rather thanolite
as acomposed
definitionofthat is small
very detached from a
crystals. of blocks and ash. The resulting
visual representation of the term.TheIn this book, we introduce
conversion, when not complete, new terms deposits are tuff or volcanic breccia
in italics rather than in boldface because
creates aboldfaced
mottled rockterms on a lighter
(⊳) with textbook (⊲) consisting of pieces of the dome
page cause students to immediately focus
colored mostly
rhyolite andon the terms,
darker rather
areas that refresh
in an their memory.
ash-rich matrix.To expand comprehension of the definition, each
than build an understanding of the areconcepts.
still partially
Theglass.
book includes a glos- entry in the glossary references the page where the term is defined in
sary for those06.09.c2
students who wish to look up the definition of a term to
Mule Creek, AZ the context of a figure. 06.09.c4 Flagstaff, AZ
Expression in the Landscape

⊳ 5. Some domes are intermediate between a simple dome shape and a lava flow
WHY DOES THE BOOK CONSIST
with lobes OF
that spread out TWO-PAGE
from SPREADS?
the magmatic conduit. This flow-dome formed 1,300
years ago and so has a relatively uneroded shape and contains unaltered obsidian.
This book consists of two-page spreads, most of

⊲ 6. Volcanic which
layers arecliff
in this further
definesub- learned and
an arch-shaped retained.
feature that is aThis concept
volcanic of cognitive load (Sweller, 1994)
dome,
divided into sections. Research has which was formed
shown approximately
that because 20 million years
of our limited ago and then
has profound buried byfor
implications subsequent
student learning during lectures and while
amount of working memory, much volcanic
new layers. Over time,
information theifglass
is lost it is has
not converted to textbooks.
reading finely crystalline rhyolite.
Two-page spreads and sections help prevent cogni-
06.09.c5 Newberry volcano, OR
incorporated into long-term memory. Many students keep reading and tive overload by providing natural breaks that allow students to stop and
06.09.c6 Superstition Mtns. AZ
highlighting their way through a textbook without stopping to integrate consolidate the new information before moving on.
the new information into their mental framework. New information
simply displaces existing information in working memory before it is
Deadly Collapse of a Dome at Mount Unzen, Japan
M
06.09.t1
ount Unzen towers above a small city First Pages First Pages
in southern Japan. The top of

theVolcanic
mountain contains Before You Leave This Page
Form? a steep vol-
156 Vo l c a n o e s a n d Vo l c a n i c H a z a r d s 157
6.9 How Do Domes What Types of Rocks and Landscapes Characterize Domes?
canic dome that formed and collapsed repeat-
MANY VOLCANIC AREAS CONTAIN DOME-SHAPED HILLS called volcanic domes. The domes form when
viscous lava mounds up above and around a vent. When domes collapse, they sometimes release deadly pyroclastic
edly between 1990 and 1995. The collapsing

flows that rush downhill at hundreds of kilometers an hour. Volcanic domes form distinctive rocks and features in the
landscape. Volcanic domes can be associated with subduction zones, either in an island arc or above a subduction
debris that formed when the dome partially collapsed or was blown apart.
Describe the characteristics of a
zone beneath a continent, or in association with continental rifts and hot spots.
domes unleashed more than 10,000 small 06.09.c1 Newberry volcano, OR
1. Some parts of domes cool rapidly

Rock Types
3. The outer parts of domes cool, solid-
06.09.c3 Wickenburg, AZ
volcanic dome.
What Are Some Characteristics of a Volcanic Dome? into volcanic glass (obsidian) which, ify, and fracture into angular blocks that
pyroclastic flows (top photograph) toward the

Some volcanic domes have a nearly symmetrical dome shape, but most have a more irregular shape because some parts
of the dome have grown more than other parts or because one side of the dome has collapsed downhill. Domes may be
hundreds of meters high and one or several kilometers across, but they can be much smaller.
although dark, has a felsic composition.
Obsidian can be almost entirely glass
(⊳) or can contain vesicles, crystals, and
can become incorporated into the
magma to produce volcanic breccia (⊲).
Such breccias vary from containing Explain or sketch the two ways by
city below. In 1991, the opportunity to observe
pumice. This example has layers, called mostly blocks to being mostly intact
which a volcanic dome can grow.

06.09.a1 06.09.a2
⊳ This rubble-covered dome formed near the end of the 1912 eruption in
the Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes in Alaska. Volcanic domes commonly
and film these small pyroclastic flows attracted have this type of rubbly appearance because their outer surface consists of
angular blocks as large as houses. The blocks form when solidified lava
2. Obsidian and other volcanic glasses
are unstable and over time begin to
4. When a volcanic dome collapses,
avalanches of rock and other debris
Explain or sketch how a volcanic

fractures as it is pushed from below, and when pieces and blocks slide change from unordered glass into rhy- can rush downhill in a pyroclastic flow
volcanologists and other onlookers to the moun-

down steep slopes on the side of a dome. olite composed of very small crystals. of blocks and ash. The resulting
The conversion, when not complete, deposits are tuff or volcanic breccia
⊲ Most domes do not form in isolation but occur in clusters or in associa- creates a mottled rock (⊳) with lighter (⊲) consisting of pieces of the dome
tion with another type of volcano. Domes can form within the craters of colored rhyolite and darker areas that in an ash-rich matrix.
dome can collapse or be destroyed
tain. Unfortunately, partial collapse of the dome
composite volcanoes, like these within the crater in Mount St. Helens, or are still partially glass.
within large calderas. In composite volcanoes and calderas, domes com- 06.09.c4 Flagstaff, AZ
06.09.c2 Mule Creek, AZ
by an explosion.
monly are minor eruptions of viscous magmas that remain after a major
eruptive event (e.g., the explosion of Mount St. Helens).
06.09.t2
caused a pyroclastic flow larger than had
How Are Volcanic Domes Formed and Destroyed?
occurred previously. This larger flow killed 43

with lobes that spread out from the magmatic conduit. This flow-dome formed 1,300
Domes form as viscous lava reaches the surface, flows a short distance, and solidifies near the vent. Domes can
grow in two different ways — from the inside or from the outside. Domes can also be destroyed in two different
⊲ 6. Volcanic layers in this cliff define an arch-shaped feature that is a volcanic dome,
Describe the types of rocks
journalists and volcanologists and left a path of
ways — collapse or explosion.
Growth of a Dome Collapse or Destruction of a Dome 06.09.c5 Newberry volcano, OR

which was formed approximately 20 million years ago and then buried by subsequent
volcanic layers. Over time, the glass has converted to finely crystalline rhyolite. associated with volcanic domes.
destruction through the valley (lower photo-
1. Domes mostly grow from the 2. Domes can also grow 3. Domes can be par- 06.09.c6 Superstition Mtns. AZ
6.9
inside as magma injects into the as magma breaks through tially destroyed when
Describe how you might recognize

interior of the dome. This new to the surface and flows steep flanks of the
material causes the dome to outward as thick, slow- dome collapse and
graph). Note that damage was concentrated
expand upward and outward, moving lava. As the magma break into a jumble of
M
fracturing the partially solidified advances, the front of the blocks and ash that flow 06.09.t1
outer crust of the dome. This pro-
cess creates the blocks of rubbly,
flow cools, solidifies, and
can collapse into angular
downhill as small-scale ount Unzen towers above a small city
in southern Japan. The top of a volcanic dome in the landscape.
along valleys that drain the mountains
pyroclastic flows (⊲).
solidified lava that coat the out- blocks and ash. the mountain contains a steep vol- Before You Leave This Page
side of the dome. 06.09.b2
edly between 1990 and 1995. The collapsing Describe the characteristics of a
domes unleashed more than 10,000 small volcanic dome.
⊳ 4. Domes can also
be destroyed by pyroclastic flows (top photograph) toward the Explain or sketch the two ways by
explosions originat- city below. In 1991, the opportunity to observe which a volcanic dome can grow.
ing within the dome. and film these small pyroclastic flows attracted
These typically occur volcanologists and other onlookers to the moun- Explain or sketch how a volcanic
when magma solidi- dome can collapse or be destroyed
tain. Unfortunately, partial collapse of the dome
fies in the conduit 06.09.t2 by an explosion.
and traps gases that
build up until the occurred previously. This larger flow killed 43 Describe the types of rocks
pressure can no journalists and volcanologists and left a path of associated with volcanic domes.
6.9
06.09.b3 longer be held. Describe how you might recognize

06.09.b1 a volcanic dome in the landscape.
along valleys that drain the mountains
rey29639_ch06_138-169.indd 156 08/04/17 10:59 AM
rey29639_ch06_138-169.indd 157 08/04/17 10:59 AM
xxii
rey29639_ch06_138-169.indd 157 08/04/17 10:59 AM
Each spread has a unique number, such as 6.9 for the 9th topical two- ∙ Two-page spreads allow busy students to read or study a
page spread in chapter 6 (see previous page). These numbers help complete topic in a short interval of study time, like during
instructors and students keep track of where they are and what is being breaks between classes.
covered. Each two-page spread, except for those that begin and end a ∙ All test questions and assessment materials are tightly articulated
chapter, contains a Before You Leave This Page checklist that indicates with the Before You Leave This Page lists so that exams and
what is important and what is expected of students before they move on. quizzes cover precisely the same material that was assigned to
This list contains learning objectives for the spread and provides a clear students via the What-to-Know list.
way for the instructor to indicate to the student what is important. The
items on these lists are compiled into a master What-to-Know list. The two-page spread approach also has huge advantages for the instruc-
tor. Before writing this book, the authors wrote the items for the Before
You Leave This Page lists. We then used this list to decide what figures
SIGNIFICANT ADVANTAGES OFFERED were needed, what topics would be discussed, and in what order. In
other words, the textbook was written from the learning objectives. The
BY EXPLORING GEOLOGY Before You Leave This Page lists provide a straightforward way for an
Two-page spreads and integrated Before You Leave This Page lists offer instructor to tell students what information is important. Because we
the following advantages to the student: provide the instructor with a master What-to-Know list, an instructor
can selectively assign or eliminate content by providing students with
∙ Information is presented in relatively small and coherent chunks
an edited What-to-Know list. Alternatively, an instructor can give stu-
that allow a student to focus on one important aspect or geologic
dents a list of assigned two-page spreads or sections within two-page
system at a time.
spreads. In this way, the instructor can identify content for which stu-
∙ Students know when they are done with this particular topic and dents are responsible, even if the material is not covered in class.
can self-assess their understanding with the Before You Leave
This Page list.
HOW IS THIS BOOK ORGANIZED?
Two-page spreads are organized into 19 chapters that are arranged into five rocks, structures, and geologic time from earlier chapters. We have also
major groups: (1) introduction to Earth and the science of geology, (2) earth incorporated a small component of historical geology, including evolution
materials and the processes that form them, (3) geologic time and tectonic of the continents and ocean basins.
systems, (4) climate and surface processes, and (5) capstone chapters on
resources and planetary geology. The first three chapters provide an over- Next, we briefly discuss weather and climate (chapter 13) to provide a
view of geology, the scientific approach to geology, and plate tectonics—a backdrop for subsequent chapters on surface processes and to introduce
unifying theme interwoven throughout the rest of the book. The next five timely topics, such as hurricanes and climate change. This chapter also
chapters cover earth materials, including minerals (chapter 4), different discusses deserts, drought, and rain forests. Glaciers, coasts, and sea-
families of rocks and structures (chapters 5–8), and the processes that form level changes are integrated into a single chapter (chapter 14) to pres-
or modify rocks. Unlike many geology books, Exploring Geology begins ent a system approach to earth processes and to emphasize the interplay
the discussion of earth materials with an examination of landscapes— between glaciations, sea level, and the character of the shoreline. Chapter
something students can relate to—as a lead-in to rocks, then to minerals, 15 focuses on weathering, soils, and slope stability; chapter 16 presents
and finally to atoms, the most abstract topic in geology books. The sedi- streams and flooding; and chapter 17 covers surface-water and groundwa-
mentary environments chapter includes a brief introduction to weathering, ter resources and groundwater-related problems.
setting the stage for the discussion of clastic sediments but saving a more
We consider the last two chapters to be capstones, integrating and apply-
detailed discussion of weathering and soils for the part of the book that
ing previous topics to enable students to understand energy and mineral
deals with surficial processes. Also, this book integrates the closely related
resources (chapter 18) and planetary geology (chapter 19). These two
topics of metamorphism and deformation into a single chapter.
chapters give students and instructors an opportunity to see how an under-
After earth materials, we cover the principles of geologic time, emphasizing standing of rock types, rock-forming processes, geologic structures, geo-
how geologists reconstruct Earth’s history (chapter 9). We then move on to logic time, and the flow of water and other fluids can help us understand
ocean basins, mountains and basins, and earthquakes (chapters 10–12), all important resources and the surfaces of other planetary bodies. The late
of which integrate and apply information about rocks, structures, geologic placement of both chapters allows a more comprehensive treatment of
time, and plate tectonics. These chapters provide important details about these topics than would be possible if they were incorporated into earlier
aspects of plate tectonics after students have gained an understanding of chapters.
xxiii
SPECIAL TEXT FEATURES
Concept Sketches
Most items on the Before You Leave This Page list are
by design suitable for student construction of concept
sketches. Concept sketches are sketches that are annotated
with complete sentences that identify geologic features,
describe how the features form, characterize the main geo-
logic processes, and summarize geologic histories (John-
son and Reynolds, 2005). An example of a concept sketch
is shown to the right.
Concept sketches are an excellent way to actively engage

students in class and to assess their understanding of geo-
logic features, processes, and history. Concept sketches are
well suited to the visual nature of geology, especially cross
sections, maps, and block diagrams. Geologists are natural
sketchers using field notebooks, blackboards, publications,
and even napkins, because sketches are an important way to
record observations and thoughts, organize knowledge, and
try to visualize geometries of rock bodies and sequences of
events. Our research data show that a student who can draw,
label, and explain a concept sketch generally has a good
understanding of that concept.
TWO-PAGE SPREADS The next-to-last two-page spread in each chapter is a Connections

spread, which is designed to help students connect and integrate the
Most of the book consists of two-page spreads, each of which is about various concepts from the chapter and to show how these concepts can
one or more closely related topics. Topical spreads convey the geologic be applied to an actual location. Connections are about real places that
content and help organize knowledge. illustrate the geologic concepts and features covered in the chapter and
First Pages
First Pages explicitly illustrate how a geologic problem is investigated and how geo-
17.6
528
How Do We Explore for Groundwater?

Wa t e r Re s o u r c e s 529
logic problems have relevance to society. The C onnections spread also
prepares the student for a following I nvestigation two-page spread.
How Do Hydrogeologists Depict the Water Table?
GROUNDWATER IS AN IMPORTANT RESOURCE, and much time and effort go into exploring for new sources of
groundwater and gaining a better understanding of existing groundwater supplies. Large numbers of geologists and Once hydrogeologists collect the appropriate field, drilling, and geophysical data, they produce various types
hydrogeologists explore for groundwater by collecting surface and subsurface data to investigate the depth, amount, of maps and diagrams, especially maps showing the elevation of the water table. From such maps we can determine the
general direction of groundwater flow.
and setting of groundwater, the direction in which groundwater flows, and the quality of the water.
17.06.b1 17.06.b2
1. The most important piece of 2. Hydrogeologists then draw
information about groundwater
What Kinds of Information Are Used to Investigate Groundwater? is a map showing variations in
N 140 Acequia Rd
N 140
contours to show the elevation
of the top of the water table.
150
Hydrogeologists are geoscientists who specialize in groundwater investigations and interactions between surface water and the elevation of the water 150 The contours shown here indi-
table. The first step in con- 130 132 130 132
Rural Rd
groundwater. They study geology on the surface and in the subsurface, and they use a variety of direct and indirect methods Farms 140 cate the elevation of the water
structing such a map is to col- 130 table in meters. Each contour
129
to interpret the subsurface geometry of rock units, sediment, and the water table. lect and plot elevations of the 130 129
130 follows a specific elevation on
17.06.a2 Vietnam water table in all available
Aberdeen First Pages First Pages
1. Hydrogeologists usually begin a ground- 2. Because surface water and groundwater
Village the water table across the area.
wells. Each number on this
water study by collecting known information, are interrelated, hydrogeologists may collect 119 Rupert Rd 119 120
map is the elevation (in meters 3. Arrows drawn perpendicular
including topographic and geologic maps, data about the flow of surface water, including above sea level) of the water 115
115 to the contours show the direc-
reports about the geology and water the volume of water (the discharge) flowing in table at a well in that location. 120 120
resources, and information about depth to different stretches of streams. Such observation of groundwater flow, which
Albion Ln
High numbers mean the water

the water table, especially records of past tions can indicate whether streams are gaining table is higher than in sites 110 110 1 km
is down the slope of the water
table, from higher contours to
CONNECTIONS Wa t e r Re s o u r c e s 537
drilling. They may also need to or losing water to the groundwater system. 109 1 km 109
with lower numbers.
What Is Going On with the Ogallala Aquifer?

do new geologic Additionally, sampling the chemistry of surface lower ones.
field studies. waters (⊲) may help us understand water 17.10 Where Does Groundwater in the Aquifer Come from and How Is It Used?
quality and potential threats to 3. This graph shows the water balance for the Ogallala aquifer.
groundwater. Other Depictions 1. Most of the water going
17.06.b4 THE MOST IMPORTANT AQUIFER IN THE UNITED STATES lies beneath the High Plains, stretching from South into the aquifer is from
Water going into the aquifer (▼) is shown above the axis,
whereas water being lost by the aquifer is below the axis. Some
4. Hydrogeologists compare contour maps of Dakota to Texas. It provides groundwater for about 20% of all cropland in the country, but it is severely threatened by local precipitation. This map groundwater recharge occurs where water from precipitation
3. Hydrogeologists and geologic techni- water-table elevations to other features, overpumping. The setting, characteristics, groundwater flow, and water-use patterns of this aquifer connect many differ- shows the amount of pre- seeps into the aquifer, especially in areas that receive higher
including the locations cipitation received across
cians measure the depth to the water
of wells, rivers, farms, and ent aspects of water resources and illustrate their relationship to geology. the area, with darker shades
amounts of precipitation, as either rain or snow.
table in existing wells by lowering an
electronic device, called a water-level other sites, that may indicating more precipitation.
affect the groundwa- The western part of the
GAINS
indicator, into the well (▼). Some water- 500
What Is the Setting of the Ogallala Aquifer?
VOLUMETIC RATE (1000 m3 /yr)
level instruments use sound and others ter, such as by tak- aquifer receives much less Pumping Springs Rivers Storage
use electrical currents. The data are ing water out of the precipitation (rain, snow, and 0
ground. They exten- Recharge
LOSSES
recorded for later analysis. 1. The Ogallala aquifer, also called 3. The aquifer is named for hail) than the eastern part.
sively use computer- -500
ized geographic infor- the High Plains aquifer, covers much the Ogallala Group, the main
mation systems (GIS) of the High Plains area in the center geologic formation in the -1000
17.06.a1 of the United States. The blue-out- aquifer. The formation was Predevelopment
to overlay and com- 5. A cross section or block diagram, usually drawn -1500
pare one data set to lined area on this map shows the named by a geologist in the 2. Areas of the aquifer that 2000
with some vertical exaggeration, helps us explore extent of the main part of the aquifer. early 1900s after the small 2050
another (⊲) and to iden- receive the least amounts -2000 17.10.b2
4. Geophysical surveys, how the water table relates to subsurface geology. The aquifer forms an irregularly Nebraskan town of Ogallala.
tify patterns and rela- of precipitation — the south-
such as measurements of Key considerations include the geometry and dis- shaped north-south belt from South
tions between different western parts — are also
variations in gravity, magnetism, and tribution of different geologic materials, especially Dakota and Wyoming through 4. The amount taken out of 5. As the aquifer dewaters
types of information. those predicted to go dry
electrical conductivity, provide key infor- those of different permeability, and how much of Nebraska, Colorado, Kansas, the pan- the aquifer by pumping, it compacts, which causes
by 2050.
mation on the subsurface geometry of 5. Information about the subsurface is critical 17.06.b3
each unit is below the water table (in the saturated handles of Oklahoma and Texas, and springs, and inflow into rivers a decrease in porosity
17.06.a6
rock units and the water table. The for understanding the setting and controls of zone where it could yield water). eastern New Mexico. 4. Much of the Ogallala greatly exceeds the recharge, and a loss of pore space
graph below shows measurements of groundwater flow. Hydrogeologists choose Group consists of sediment so most parts of the aquifer (in which to store water).
gravity over the edge of the basin drill-hole sites that will maximize the amount 6. Hydrogeologists incorporate the geologic information and well data into computer pro- deposited by streams and 17.10.b1 are being dewatered. This cannot be undone.
shown above; the strength of gravity of information gained. Drill holes provide grams to produce three-dimensional depiction (▼) of the water table. They then model the wind during the last half of
decreases slightly as the thickness of direct measurements of the depth of the directions and rates of groundwater flow and calculate the volumes of fresh water that will the Cenozoic, mostly between
low-density sediments increases away water table, water samples for quality analysis, be available for drinking and other uses. The goal of the various depictions is to understand Before You Leave This Page 19 and 5 million years ago. How Has Overpumping Affected Water Levels in the Ogallala Aquifer?
from the mountain front and out into the samples of subsurface material, and a chance 17.06.a3 the three-dimensional geometry of the basin, rock units, water table, and topography. These 2. The Ogallala aquifer covers about Braided streams carried abun-
basin. We can use the gravity to esti- to observe the subsurface material with down- factors control where and how much water accumulates, where and how it flows, and how it 450,000 km2 (174,000 mi2) and is cur- dant sediment eastward from The USGS estimates that the aquifer contains 2.9 billion acre-feet of water. That is enough to cover the entire lower 48
6. Geologists and hydrogeologists Summarize the types of information
mate the thickness of the sediments. hole video cameras and geophysical instru-
graphically portray the results of
interacts with features we see on the surface. This computerized model shows, from top to rently the largest source of ground- the Rocky Mountains, spread- states with 1.5 feet of water. How much has overpumping affected the aquifer’s water levels, and what will happen to the
bottom, the land surface, the base of two different that hydrogeologists collect and what
ments. The photo below shows a core of
drilling on a drill log (⊳), which is water in the country. It provides 30% ing over the landscape and region and to the country if large parts of the aquifer dry up?
A sediment retrieved by drilling. sedimentary sequences in the each indicates about the subsurface. of all groundwater used for irrigation depositing a relatively contin-
similar to a stratigraphic section
subsurface (colored yellow and in the U.S. In 1980, near the height of uous layer of sediment. Depo- 1. This map shows the thickness (in meters) 2. This map shows how many feet the water 3. Future Predictions — It is uncertain what will
17.06.a5 Phoenix, AZ
(plotting types of rocks or sedi- Describe how a contour map of

STRENGTH OF
B brown), and the top of hard the aquifer’s use, 17.6 million acre-feet sition stopped when regional
ments versus depth). A drill log of the saturated zone within the aquifer. In table dropped in elevation between 1980 and happen, but hydrogeologists are conducting
GRAVITY
water-table elevations is constructed

C D bedrock (gray). The vertical of water were withdrawn to irrigate 13 uplift and tilting caused the some of its northern parts, more than 300 1995 as a consequence of overpumping. The detailed studies of key areas to try to predict
commonly also includes other and how it would be used to predict
lines are wells, color coded to million acres of land. The water is streams to downcut and m (1,000 ft) of the aquifer is saturated with largest drops, exceeding 10 m, occurred in south- what will happen in the next decades. Projec-
types of information, especially the direction of groundwater flow.
show the presence of sediment used mostly for agriculture and range- erode rather than continuing water, whereas less than 60 m (180 ft) western Kansas and the northern part of Texas. tions of current water use, combined with
0 100 200 300 400 500 geophysical measurements that
saturated by groundwater (yel- to deposit sediment. Present-
17.6
Describe factors to show in a cross land. The main agricultural products remain saturated in the southern parts. Compare this map to the one for precipitation. numerical models of the water balance, pre-
DISTANCE FROM MOUNTAIN FRONT (m) correlate with the type of material, 17.06.b5
low) at depth versus unsatu- section or block diagram if ground- include corn, wheat, soybeans, and day streams continue to dict that some parts of the aquifer will go dry
17.06.a4 the permeability, and with the
rated (red) closer to the surface. water is the focus of the study. feed for livestock. erode into the aquifer and by 2050. This will have catastrophic conse-
presence or absence of water.
This is an unconfined aquifer. drain eastward and south- quences for the local farmers, ranchers, and
ward, eventually flowing into businesses, and for people across the country
the Gulf of Mexico. who depend on the aquifer for much of their
food. Subsidence related to groundwater with-
drawal and compaction of the aquifer will be
rey29639_ch17_516-539.indd 528 08/18/17 03:07 PM 17.10.a1 an increasing concern. What do you think
rey29639_ch17_516-539.indd 529 08/18/17 03:07 PM would happen to the region if this aquifer
were partly pumped dry?
The Aquifer in Cross Section 7. The upper part of the aquifer (shaded yellow) is above the water
table and in the unsaturated zone.
5. This vertically exag- 1.5 17.10.a2
NM TX
gerated cross section 8. Blue colors show levels
Each chapter has at least one two-page spread illustrating how geology
shows the thickness of of the water table for 1950
ELEVATION (km)
Ground Surface Before You Leave This Page

the aquifer from west to 1.2 TX OK
and 2000, and purple
east. It shows the aqui- shows the predicted levels
fer in various colors; 2000 1950 for 2050. Note that water
Water Table Summarize the location, charac
rocks below the aquifer 0.9 levels in the aquifer have
teristics, and importance of the
are shaded bluish gray. Base of Ogallala fallen due to overpumping.
impacts society and another two-page spread that specifically describes

Ogallala aquifer.
Note that the aquifer is The western part is pre-
17.10
at the surface and is an 80 km dicted to be totally depleted Summarize the water balance
0.6 WEST 2050 EAST
unconfined aquifer. (HORIZONTAL DISTANCE) by 2050 (no purple). for the aquifer and how water
levels have changed in the last
6. The irregular base of the aquifer is an unconformity that reflects erosion of the land before deposition of the aquifer. several decades.
how geoscientists study typical problems.

536 17.10.c1 17.10.c2
Untitled-1 536 09/15/17 09:53 PM Untitled-1 537 09/15/17 09:54 PM
xxiv
Each chapter ends with an Investigation spread that is an exercise in program, as was done for many figures in previous editions. This
which students apply the knowledge, skills, and approaches learned in involved adding labels to hundreds of illustrations, but it has the
the chapter. These exercises mostly involve virtual places that students benefit of having every label as an integral part of its associated
explore and investigate to make observations and interpretations and to art file, a useful feature for constructing PowerPoint files.
answer a series of geologic questions. ∙ This edition contains more than 135 new photographs, with a
deliberate intention to represent a wider geographic diversity, to
provide more detail and clarity about a geologic process, rock,
I N V E S T I G AT I O N Wa t e r Re s o u r c e s 539
or mineral, and to expand the discussion of specific topics. In
17.11 Who Polluted Surface Water and
addition, we individually reprocessed nearly all photographs
6. Bedrock units cross the land- 7. A north-south ridge is
Stratigraphic Section
scape in a series of north-south composed of sandstone, Gravel – Unconsolidated sand and gravel in the lower
Groundwater in This Place? stripes, parallel to the strike of the

rock layers. One of the north-south
valleys contains several large coal
called the lower sand-
stone. Slidetown, a new
town on this ridge, is
parts of the valley
Upper Sandstone – Well-sorted, permeable sandstone
SURFACE WATER AND GROUNDWATER IN THIS AREA are contaminated. You will use the geology of the area,
that were in the first edition, using technology and techniques

mines and a coal-burning, electrical- not a possible source of Upper Shale – Impermeable, with coal
along with elevations of the water table and chemical analyses of the contaminated water, to determine where the generating plant. An unsubstantiated the contamination
Sinkerton Limestone – Porous, cavernous limestone
rumor says that one of the mines because it was built too
contamination is, where it came from, and where it is going. From your conclusions, you will decide where to drill had some sort of chemical spill that recently. A few nice- Middle Shale – Impermeable shale
new wells for uncontaminated groundwater. was never reported. Activity at the tasting, freshwater springs
mines and power plant has caused issue from the sandstone Lower Sandstone – Permeable sandstone
that were not available when the first edition was prepared. This
1. The region contains a series of ridges to fine coal dust to be blown around where it is cut by small Lower Shale – Impermeable shale
Goals of This Exercise: the east and a broad, gentle valley to the by the wind and washed into stream valleys.
west. Small towns are scattered across the the smaller rivers that flow Basal Conglomerate – Poorly sorted with salty water
• Observe the landscape to interpret the area’s geologic setting. ridges and valleys. There are also several along the valley.
farms, a dairy, and a number of industrial sites, Granite – Sparsely fractured; oldest rock in area
• Read descriptions of various natural and constructed features. 17.11.a2
reprocessing involved opening up the original highest-resolution

each of which is labeled with a unique name.
Hydrogeologists studied one of these towns, 8. The highest part of the region is a ridge of granite and sedimentary
• Use well data and water chemistry to draw a map showing where
Springtown, and concluded that it is not the rocks along the east edge of the area. This ridge receives quite a bit of
contamination is and which way groundwater is flowing. source of any contamination. rain during the summer and snow in the winter. Several clear streams
• Use the map and other information to interpret where contamination begin in the ridge and flow westward toward the lowlands.
originated, which facilities might be responsible, and where the
scans or digital photograph and using modern image-processing

2. A main river, called the Black River for its
contamination is headed. unusual dark, cloudy color, flows westward 9. A company built a coal-burning power plant over tilted beds of
(right to left) through the center of the valley. a unit named the Sinkerton Limestone, so called because it is
• Determine a well location unlikely to be contaminated in the future. The river contains water all year, even associated with many sinkholes, caves, and karst topography.
when it has not rained in quite a The limestone is so permeable that the power plant has had
while. Both sides of the valley difficulty keeping water in ponds built to dispose of waste
software to correct brightness, contrast, and color balance, and to

slope inward, north and waters, which are rich in the chemical substances (including
Procedures south, toward the contaminant) that are naturally present in coal.
the river.
Use the available information to complete the following steps, en-
10. The tables below list water-table elevations in meters and
tering your answers on the worksheet or online. 17.11.a1 concentrations of contamination in milligrams per liter (mg/L) for
remove visual noise. The resulting improvements will be notice-

each of the lettered wells (A–P). This table also lists the concentra-
A. This figure shows geologic features, rivers, springs, and human- tion of contamination in samples from four springs (S1–S4) and eight
constructed features, including a series of wells (lettered A through P). river segments (R1–R8). The location of each sample site is
Observe the distribution of rock units, sediment, rivers, springs, and marked on the figure. Wells M, N, and P are deep wells, drilled
other features on the landscape. Compare these observations with the into the Sinkerton Limestone aquifer at depth, although they first
cross sections on the sides of the terrain to interpret how the geology encountered water at a shallow depth. The chemical samples from
able for many images in the printed book, but they are more
is expressed in different areas. these wells were collected from deep waters.
B. Read the descriptions of key features and consider how this informa-
tion relates to the geologic setting, to the flow of surface water and Well Elev. WT mg/L Well Elev. WT mg/L
groundwater, and to the contamination. A 110 0 I 130 30
C. The data table on the next page shows elevation of the water table in
conspicuous in the digital e-book and especially in the high-

B 100 0 J 130 0
each lettered well. Use these data and the base map on the worksheet
to construct a groundwater map with contours of the water table at the 5. From mapping and C 105 0 K 120 0
following elevations: 100, 110, 120, 130, 140, and 150 meters. On the con- other studies on the surface,
toured map, draw arrows pointing down the slope of the D 110 20 L 130 0
hydrogeologists have deter-
water table to show the direction of groundwater flow.
resolution images we provide instructors for use in classrooms.

mined the sequence of rock E 120 10 M 150 50
D. Use the data table showing concentrations of a contaminant, purposely 4. Based on units, as summarized in the
unnamed here, in groundwater to shade in areas where there is contam- shallow drilling, stratigraphic section in the F 115 0 N 150 0
the water table (the top upper right corner of this
ination. Use darker shades for higher levels of contamination. G 120 0 O 140 0
of the blue shading) mim- page. These studies also
E. Use the groundwater map to interpret where the contamination most ics the topography, being document a broad anticline
3. Drilling H 120 50 P 150 0
likely originated and which facilities were probably responsible. Mark a and gravity higher beneath the and a syncline beneath the
This edition contains many new and replaced figures and even
large X over these facilities on the map, and explain your reasons in surveys show ridges than beneath the eastern part of the region.
valleys. Overall, the water Note that contamination can Spring mg/L River mg/L River mg/L
the worksheet or online. that the valley is
underlain by a thick table slopes from east to flow through the subsurface, S1 50 R1 0 R5 0
F. Determine which of the lettered well sites will most likely remain free west (right to left), parallel following limestone and
of contamination, and draw a circle around one such well. sequence of relatively
unconsolidated and weakly cemented sand to the regional slope of other permeable units, S2 0 R2 20 R6 0
17.11
G. Devise a plan to remediate the groundwater contamination by drilling and gravel. The deepest part of the basin has the land. All rocks below instead of passing horizon-
more that were lightly revised, such as replacing fonts. Figures

the water table are satu- tally through impermeable S3 0 R3 0 R7 5
wells in front of the plume of contamination; mark these on the map been downdropped by normal faults, one of
with the letter R. which is buried beneath the gravel. rated with groundwater. ones, like shale. S4 0 R4 0 R8 5
538
rey29639_ch17_516-539.indd 538 08/18/17 03:07 PM

rey29639_ch17_516-539.indd 539 08/18/17 03:07 PM
from the fourth edition were replaced with new versions to
Investigations are modeled after the types of problems geologists investi- update information so that it is more recent, to improve student
gate, and they use the same kinds of data and illustrations encountered in understanding of certain complex topics, and for improved
the chapter. The Investigation includes a list of goals for the exercises and appearance. All fonts were replaced in every figure that has text.
step-by-step instructions, including calculations and methods for construct- ∙ This edition contains a new two-page spread on early changes in
ing maps, graphs, and other figures. These investigations can be completed Earth’s history, which features a new section on impact craters
by students in class, as worksheet-based homework, or as online activities. and summarizes changes in the chemistry of the oceans and
atmosphere, such as the Great Oxygenation Event. We also
thoroughly revised the coverage of climate change, more promi-
NEW IN THE FIFTH EDITION nently featuring recent climate change at the start of the discus-
The fifth edition of Exploring Geology represents a significant revision. This is followed by a new section that discusses the types
sion, with every chapter receiving additions and improvements. Some of proxies, using a more geologic, photograph-based approach
changes will be obvious, while others are more subtle but nevertheless in place of the previous collection of small graphs of proxies. In
substantial. The style, approach, and sequence of chapters is unchanged, the next spread, which covers factors that could cause climate
but every chapter received new photographs, many revised figures, change, the role of CO2 was moved up front to start the discus-
major to minor editing of text blocks and, in some cases, reorganiza- sion by focusing on factors involved in recent climate change,
tion. We revised many text blocks to improve clarity and conciseness, followed by those that affect climate on geologic timescales.
or to present recent discoveries and events. Most chapters contain the
∙ Many two-page spreads have been extensively revised with
same number and order of two-page spreads, but one chapter gained a
improved layout, illustrations, and text. In addition to the new or
new two-page spread and another had two spreads completely revised.
revised illustrations, we updated text to reflect new ideas or new
Nearly all changes were made in response to comments by reviewers
data. For example, we updated ages on the geologic timescale,
and students. The most important revisions are listed below:
data on current estimates of water usage, and many other rela-
∙ This edition features completely different fonts from the previ- tively minor data points.
ous edition. The new fonts were chosen partly to improve the ∙ Throughout the book, we added numbers to most text boxes to
readability on portable electronic devices, while retaining fidel- direct students to read the text boxes in a specific order. We also
ity to a quality printed book. This font replacement resulted in renumbered many figure numbers so that they are in the same
countless small changes in the layout of individual text blocks on order as the newly numbered text boxes. For all chapter-ending
every two-page spread. In addition to replacing all of the fonts Investigations, we replaced numbers with letters in the Proce-
within the text, all figure labels were replaced with the new font, dures lists to avoid confusion with newly numbered text boxes.
a process that required opening, editing, and commonly resiz- ∙ Every box with the learning objectives was changed from
ing every illustration that had text, as in the axes of graphs. In “Before You Leave This Page Be Able To” to simply “Before
addition, all labels were incorporated into the actual artwork, You Leave This Page”. This is more concise, and opened up
rather than overlaying them on the artwork using the page-layout room on nearly every two-page spread.
xxv
CHAPTER 1 received a light revision, featuring four new photographs CHAPTER 14 was renamed, using coasts instead of shorelines, and
and the reprocessing of most existing photographs. It also has one text and headings were changed throughout to reflect this change. There
revised illustration that now incorporates an actual photograph of Pluto. are also 19 new photographs, mostly from Florida and Alaska.
CHAPTER 2 also received a light revision, with three new photo- CHAPTER 15 has 21 new photographs about karst, caves, slopes, and
graphs. The section on ecosystems was extensively edited and the geo- problem soils. The new photographs are mostly from Florida, Texas, the
logic timescale and accompanying text were updated to reflect recent Slumgullion Landslide, and Carlsbad Caverns National Park.
changes in the age of boundaries between periods.
CHAPTERS 16 and 17 had minor revisions with 11 new photo-
CHAPTER 3 remains mostly unchanged, but every illustration with graphs, but all the graphs and maps were revised for new fonts and other
text was edited to replace the fonts and labels are now part of the art improvements, such as arrow colors on groundwater flow. In chapter
file, as occurred in every chapter. Most photographs were reprocessed. 16, we replaced “rivers” with the more general term “streams” where
appropriate, and modified sections of how streams respond to changing
CHAPTER 4 was revised heavily for the fourth edition, but less so conditions and causes of flooding to include ice dams. We redid the
for this edition. It features eight new photographs and noticeable color Colorado River tributary map.
corrections to several others. Several sections received significant edits.
CHAPTER 18 contains seven new photographs and several repro-
CHAPTER 5 has 13 new photographs, representing more diverse loca- cessed photographs, two of which were greatly improved. We rewrote
tions, including Joshua Tree National Park. Several other photographs the section on environmental issues associated with mining, which fea-
are notably improved due to reprocessing. We also reorganized and rear- tures one of the new photographs.
ranged the section on volcanic necks so that students examine the con-
ceptual model before the photograph of an actual example. CHAPTER 19 had moderate revisions, with the addition of four new
images, depicting more recent images of Pluto, nebula, and a comet. We
CHAPTER 6 has three new photographs, as well as two revised photo- added or refined the discussions of Pluto, Ceres, comets, the age of the
graphs of Augustine pyroclastic eruptions to better convey the vertical solar system, and the number of moons of Jupiter, each reflecting cur-
extent of the eruption. In addition to font changes, the chapter has two rent information.
rebuilt illustrations.
FRONT AND BACK MATTER, including the Preface, Glossary, and
CHAPTER 7 includes 26 new photographs of sedimentary environ- Index, were revised and updated to reflect the revised table of contents
ment and rocks, accompanied by revised text. The photographs are and changes in page numbers due to reorganizations.
mostly from Florida, Texas, and New Mexico. Several sections were
reorganized to take advantage of the new and improved photographs.
CHAPTER 8 contains 10 new photographs of structures, metamorphic REFERENCES CITED

rocks, and students studying structure. Two of these are from the Francis- Baddeley, A. D., 2007. Working memory, thought, and action. Oxford:
can Complex of California and are accompanied by a brief introduction Oxford University Press, 400 p.
to melange. The discussion of strike and dip was expanded to help stu- Johnson, J. K., and Reynolds, S. J., 2005. Concept sketches—Using
dents understand that water is not necessary for a strike and dip. Several student- and instructor-generated annotated sketches for learning,
sections were reordered and heavily edited around the new photographs. teaching, and assessment in geology courses. Journal of Geosci-
CHAPTER 9 features a new two-page spread on early events in Earth’s ence Education, v. 53, pp. 85–95.
history, including the formation of impact craters, and on changes in the Lawson, A., 2003. The neurological basis of learning, development &
atmosphere and oceans over time. It has four new photographs and four discovery: Implications for science & mathematics instruction.
new illustrations, mostly associated with the new two-page spread. Text Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, The Netherlands, 283 p.
was revised in a number of places, mostly near new photographs. The
geologic timescale is updated for ages between certain time periods. Mayer, R. E., 2001. Multimedia learning. Cambridge: Cambridge Uni-
versity Press, 210 p.
CHAPTERS 10, 11, and 12 received minor revisions, including a few Roth, W. M., and Bowen, G. M., 1999. Complexities of graphical repre-
new photographs and noticeable changes to four illustrations. We added sentations during lectures: A phenomenological approach. Learn-
brief mentions of eroded fault scarps and the East California Shear Zone. ing and Instruction, v. 9, pp. 235–255.
CHAPTER 13 has major revisions to the first two spreads on climate Sweller, J., 1994. Cognitive Load Theory, learning difficulty, and
change. All figures were revised to reflect updated global tempera- instructional design. Learning and Instruction, v. 4, pp. 295–312.
tures, and recent climate change was consolidated at the start of the
discussion. Graphs of proxies were replaced with photographs to pro-
vide a more geologic approach. There are also three new desert-related
photographs.
xxvi
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Writing a totally new type of introductory geology textbook would not Michael Ort, Peg Owens, Jack Ridge, Nancy Riggs, Steve Semken,
be possible without the suggestions and encouragement we received James Speer, Barbara Tewksbury, and David Walsh. For logistical
from instructors who reviewed various drafts of this book. We are reasons, we did not use all the photographs offered to us, but we greatly
especially grateful to people who contributed days reviewing the book appreciated receiving them. Many instructors also took us out in the
or attending symposia to openly discuss the vision. Many colleagues field or guided us to interesting geologic sites in different regions in
enthusiastically encouraged us onward, including Bruce Herbert, order to help us diversify our collection of photographs.
Dexter Perkins, Scott Linneman, Steve Semken, Diane Clemens-Knott,
Jeff Knott, Barbara Tewksbury, and Cathy Manduca. Previous editions We used a number of data sources to create many illustrations. Reto
received special attention, including full-book reviews, from reviewers Stöckli of the Department of Environmental Sciences at ETH Zürich
Dexter Perkins, Grenville Draper, Scott Linneman, Richard Sedlock, and NASA-Goddard produced the Blue Marble and Blue Marble Next
and Bill Dupré. David Williams always provides thoughtful guidance Generation global satellite composites. We used data from the ZULU
about revising the planetary geology chapter. Mike Kelly coauthored server at the NASA Earth Science Enterprise Scientific Data Purchase
the first two editions, expertly researching, illustrating, and writing Program for hundreds of figures in this book. Brian Davis of the USGS
about especially challenging topics, such as earthquake mechanics, EROS Data Center was quick to find elusive data, and Collin Bode of
stream dynamics, and climate. Many of his illustrations and words the National Center for Earth-surface Dynamics was indispensable in
grace the pages of this edition, including some of our favorite passages. helping us process GIS data. Debbie Leedy, Melanie Coyan, and Joshua
For this edition, we incorporated some material from our Exploring Coyan provided various types of 3D files.
Physical Geography and Exploring Earth Science textbooks, including
figures and text contributed by our coauthors Robert V. Rohli, Peter R. We have treasured our interactions with the wonderful Iowans at
Waylen, Mark A. Francek, Paul J. Morin, and Charles M. Carter. For McGraw-Hill Education, who enthusiastically supported our vision,
the help and support from all these people, we are very grateful. needs, and progress. We especially thank our current and previous
publishers Michael Ivanov, Michelle Vogler, Ryan Blankenship, and
This book contains over 2,500 figures, two to three times more than Marge Kemp for their continued encouragement and excellent support.
a typical introductory geology textbook. This massive art program Jodi Rhomberg and Laura Bies skillfully and cheerfully guided the
required great effort and artistic abilities from the artists who turned development of the book during the entire publication process, making
our vision and sketches into what truly are pieces of art. In addition to it all happen. Lori Hancock helped immensely with our ever-changing
author Chuck Carter, we greatly appreciate the dedication and artistic photographic needs. We also appreciate the support, cooperation,
touches of illustrators Cindy Shaw, Susie Gillatt, Daniel Miller, and guidance, and enthusiasm of Thomas Timp, Marty Lange, Tami Hodge,
David Fierstein. We also benefited from interactions with designers Kelly Brown, Matthew Backhaus, Tammy Ben, and many others at
David Hash and Chris Willis, who helped translate our ideas about McGraw-Hill who worked hard to make this book a reality. Kevin
pedagogy into a workable and aesthetically sound design. Cindy Shaw Campbell provided thorough copy editing and updated the glossary
deserves special praise for handling most revisions to illustrations, and index, as he has done for all editions of all our books. Janet
going the extra step of researching the geology of places to decide Robbins helped with photograph permissions. Our wonderful colleague
how to best show the geologic features. She acted as Art Director Gina Szablewsky expertly directed the development of LearnSmart
from the second edition onward, greatly improving the book by materials, provided general encouragement, and did a complete review,
standardizing illustrations, nudging and redoing troublesome parts of editing, and writing new questions for our test bank. We thank our
the layout, and adding arrows and other special touches. Susie Gillatt colleague Dexter Perkins for many discussions and for contributing his
expertly improved all new photographs and delivered finished files insights and teaching tips to the Instructor’s Manual.
in an astonishingly prompt manner. Terra Chroma, Inc. of Tucson,
Arizona, supported many aspects in the development of this book. Finally, a project like this is truly life consuming, especially when the
Numerous people went out of their way to provide us with photographs, author team is doing the writing, illustrating, photography, near-final page
illustrations, and advice—in some cases going out into the field to layout, media development, and development of assessments, teaching
take the photographs we needed. These helpful people included Vince ancillaries, and the instructor’s website. We are extremely appreciative
Matthews, Ron Blakey, Michael Collier, Cindy Shaw, Bill Dupré, of the support, patience, and friendship we received from family
Tom Sharp, Allen Glazner, Ramón Arrowsmith, Garry Hayes, Daniel members, friends, colleagues, and students who shared our sacrifices
Griffin, Martin Munro, Ariel Anbar, Jessica Barone, Doug Bartlett, and successes during the creation of this new vision of a textbook. We
Don Burt, Phil Christensen, Ed Garnero, Jeff Knott, Matthew Larsen, thank Susie Gillatt; John and Kay Reynolds; and our always helpful,
Spencer Lucas, Henrik Thorburn, Dan Trimble, Bixler McClure, book-writing companions Widget, Jasper, and Ziggy Reynolds, and
Vladamir Romanovsky, Scott Johnson, Chris Marone, Tom McGuire, Annabelle Louise and Hazel Johnson. We thank you all so much!
xxvii
Northern Arizona University, Sylvester Allred
REVIEWERS Tristan Kloss
Special thanks and appreciation go out to all reviewers. This book was University of North Carolina—Chapel Hill, Trent McDowell
improved by many beneficial suggestions, new ideas, and invaluable Florida Atlantic University, Jessica Miles
advice provided by these reviewers. We appreciate all the time they Roane State Community College, Arthur C. Lee
devoted to reviewing manuscript chapters, attending focus groups, sur- State University of New York at Cortland, Noelle J. Relles
veying students, and promoting this text to their colleagues: University of Wisconsin—Milwaukee, Gina Seegers Szablewski
Elise Uphoff
We would like to thank the following individuals who wrote
and/or reviewed learning goal-oriented content for Learnsmart.
College of DuPage, Mark J. Sutherland

EXPLORING GEOLOGY REVIEWERS Columbus State Community College, Jeffery G. Richardson
Appalachian State University, Cynthia M. Liutkus Duke University, Bruce H. Corliss
Appalachian State University, Ellen A. Cowan East Carolina University, Richard L. Mauger
Appalachian State University, Johnny Waters East Tennessee State University, Yongli Gao
Appalachian State University, Sarah K. Carmichael Eastern Kentucky University, Stewart S. Farrar
Arizona State University, David A. Williams Eastern Washington University, Jennifer Thomson
Arizona State University, Ed Garnero Eastern Washington University, Richard Orndorff
Arizona State University, Ronald Greeley Edinboro University of Pennsylvania, Eric Straffin
Auburn University, David T. King, Jr. El Paso Community College, Kathleen Devaney
Auburn University, Lorraine W. Wolf Ferris State University, Fred Heck
Auburn University, Ming-Kuo Lee Florida International University, Dean Whitman
Auburn University, Willis Hames Florida International University, Grenville Draper
Bethel University, Bryan Anderson Florida International University, Neptune Srimal
Blinn College, Amanda Palmer Julson Florida State University, Neil Lundberg
Boston College, Yvette Kuiper Florida State University, William C. Parker
Bowling Green State University, Paula J. Steinker Fullerton College, Richard Lozinsky
Brigham Young University, Dan Moore Fullerton College, Sean Chamberlin
Brigham Young University, William W. Little George Mason University, Stacey Verardo
Brown University, Jan Tullis Georgia Institute of Technology, Meg Grantham
Buffalo State College, Elisa Bergslein Georgia Perimeter College, Deniz Z. Ballero
Buffalo State College, Kyle C. Fredrick Georgia Perimeter College, Gerald D. Pollack
California State University–Long Beach, Stan Finney Georgia Perimeter College, John Anderson
California State University–Fresno, Stephen D. Lewis Georgia Perimeter College, John R. Anderson II
California State University–Fullerton, Diane Clemens-Knott Georgia Perimeter College, Pamela J. W. Gore
California State University–Fullerton, Jeffrey Knott Georgia State University, Pamela C. Burnley
California State University–Fullerton, Stephen Wareham Georgia State University, Seth Rose
California State University–Northridge, George E. Davis Glendale Community College, J. Robert Thompson
California State University–Northridge, Karen L. Savage Glendale Community College, Pamela Nelson
Cape Fear Community College, James Criswell Glendale Community College, Steven D. Kadel
Clemson University, Richard Warner Grand Valley State University, John Weber
Cleveland State University, Heather Gallacher Grand Valley State University, Kevin Cole
College of Charleston, Cassandra J. Runyon Grand Valley State University, Stephen Mattox
College of Charleston, James L. Carew Guilford Tech Community College, Steve Adams
College of Charleston, Michael Katuna Gustavus Adolphus College, Alan D. Gishlick
College of Charleston, Steven C. Jaume Hofstra University, J. Bret Bennington
College of Charleston, T. J. Callahan Hunter College, Randye L. Rutberg
xxviii
Indiana State University, James H. Speer St. Cloud State University, Kate Pound
Indiana State University, Jennifer Latimer St. Norbert College, Nelson R. Ham
Indiana University Northwest, Zoran Kilibarda State University of New York, College at Potsdam, Michael Rygel
Iowa State University, Cinzia Cervato Sul Ross State University, G. David Mattison
Iowa State University, Kenneth Windom Syracuse University, Henry T. Mullins
Jacksonville State University, David A. Steffy Syracuse University, Jeffrey A. Karson
Kansas State University, Mary Hubbard Syracuse University, Suzanne L. Baldwin
Keene State College, Peter A. Nielsen Tarleton State University, Bethany D. Rinard
Long Beach City College, Douglas Britton Tarleton State University, Carol Thompson
Louisiana State University, Jeffrey A. Nunn Tarrant County College, Clair Russell Ossian
Louisiana Tech University, Maureen McCurdy Hillard Tennessee Tech University, Michael J. Harrison
Mansfield University of Pennsylvania, Nicole Wilson Texas A&M University–Corpus Christi, Thomas Naehr
Marshall University, Dewey D. Sanderson Texas A&M University, Bruce Herbert
Mesa Community College, Robert A. Leighty Texas Tech University, Aaron Yohsinobu
Metropolitan State College of Denver, Jason Janke The College of New Jersey, Margaret H. Benoit
Miami University of Ohio, Elizabeth Widom The University of Akron, Wayne College, Adil M. Wadia
Michigan Technical University, Theodore Bornhorst Tulane University, Mead A. Allison
Middle Tennessee State University, Michael Westphal Hiett Tulane University, Sadredin C. Moosavi
Mississippi State University, John E. Mylroie University of Alabama–Tuscaloosa, Delores Robinson
Mississippi State University, Renee M. Clary University of Alabama, Andrew M. Goodliffe
Missouri State University, Kevin Ray Evans University of Alabama, Nathan L. Green
Missouri State University, Mélida Gutiérrez University of Alaska–Anchorage, Derek Sjostrom
Monroe Community College, Amanda Colosimo University of Alaska–Fairbanks, Paul McCarthy
Monroe Community College, Jessica Barone University of Arkansas–Little Rock, Wendi J. W. Williams
Montgomery College, Nathalie Nicole Brandes University of Arkansas, Steve Boss
Morehead State University, Eric Jerde University of Cincinnati, Craig Dietsch
New Mexico State University, Jeffrey M. Amato University of Colorado–Boulder, Eric Small
New Mexico State University, Marilyn C. Huff University of Colorado–Boulder, Kevin H. Mahan
Northern Arizona University, Abe Springer University of Florida, Joseph G. Meert
Northern Arizona University, David M. Best University of Hawaii at Manoa, Scott Rowland
Northern Arizona University, Nancy Riggs University of Houston, Michael A. Murphy
Northern Essex Community College, Mark E. Reinhold University of Houston, Peter Copeland
Northern Illinois University, Mark Fischer University of Houston, William Dupré
Northern Illinois University, Mark Frank University of Idaho, Dennis Geist
Northern Virginia Community College, Kenneth Rasmussen University of Illinois–Chicago, Roy E. Plotnick
Ohio University, Alycia L. Stigall University of Louisiana–Lafayette, Brian E. Lock
Ohio University, Daniel I. Hembree University of Louisiana–Lafayette, Carl Richter
Oregon State University, Roy Haggerty University of Maryland–College Park, Christine A. M. France
Pennsylvania State University, Timothy Bralower University of Memphis, Lensyl Urbano
Portland Community College, Frank D. Granshaw University of Memphis, Randel Tom Cox
Purdue University–West Lafayette, Yuch-Ning Shieh University of Memphis, Steven R. Newkirk
Rutgers University, Mark D. Feigenson University of Michigan–Dearborn, Jacob A. Napieralski
Rutgers University, Roy Schlische University of Minnesota, Kent C. Kirkby
Saint Louis University, John Encarnacion University of Mississippi, Cathy A. Grace
San Francisco State University, Bridget Wyatt University of Missouri–Columbia, Francisco Gomez
San José State University, Richard Sedlock University of Missouri–Columbia, Martin Appold
San Juan College, John H. Burris University of New Orleans, Mark A. Kulp
Southern Illinois University–Edwardsville, Michael Grossman University of North Carolina–Chapel Hill, Trent McDowell
Southwestern Illinois College, Stanley C. Hatfield University of North Carolina–Wilmington, John R. Huntsman
xxix
University of North Dakota, Dexter Perkins University of West Georgia, Rebecca L. Dodge
University of North Texas, Harry Williams University of Wisconsin–Eau Claire, Donald J. Sidman
University of North Texas, Paul F. Hudak University of Wisconsin–Madison, Steven Ralser
University of Northern Colorado, Jared R. Morrow University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee, Gina Seegers Szablewski
University of Northern Colorado, Michael Taber University of Wisconsin–Platteville, Mari Vice
University of Oklahoma, Barry Weaver Wake Technical Community College, Adrianne A. Leinbach
University of Oklahoma, David E. Fastovsky Wake Technical Community College, Gretchen Miller
University of Oklahoma, G. Randy Keller Wayne State University, Mark Baskaran
University of South Carolina–Aiken, Allen Dennis West Virginia University, John Renton
University of South Carolina, Robert Thunell Western Illinois University, Kyle Mayborn
University of South Carolina, Scott White Western Illinois University, Steven W. Bennett
University of South Dakota, Timothy Heaton Western Kentucky University, Aaron J. Celestian
University of South Florida, Chuck Connor Western Kentucky University, Margaret E. Crowder
University of South Florida, Judy McIlrath Western Michigan University, Duane Hampton
University of Tennessee–Chattanooga, Ann Holmes Western Michigan University, G. Michael Grammer
University of Tennessee–Knoxville, Kula C. Misra Western Washington University, Bernard A. Housen
University of Texas–Brownsville, Ravi Nandigam Western Washington University, David Hirsch
University of Texas–Brownville, Elizabeth Heise Western Washington University, Scott R. Linneman
University of the Pacific, Lydia K. Fox Western Washington University, Thor A. Hansen
University of Toledo, James Martin-Hayden Wharton County Junior College, Danny Glenn
University of West Georgia, Curtis L. Hollabaugh Wright State University, Michael G. Bourne, Jr.
University of West Georgia, James R. Mayer Wright State University, Stacey A. Hundley
University of West Georgia, Julie K. Bartley Youngstown State University, Shane V. Smith
University of West Georgia, Philip M. Novack-Gottshall
In June 2008, The McGraw-Hill Companies announced that Exploring Geology had received the
distinguished Corporate Achievement Award for Innovation. Each year, McGraw-Hill Education
publishes 200–300 titles in science, economics, marketing, humanities, and career education. Explor-
ing Geology was recognized for its pioneering design and innovative pedagogical approach that is
based on cognitive and science-education research. This unique text features over 1,200 extraordinary
line-art drawings and 1,200 photographs that support clearly articulated learning outcomes, authentic
inquiry, and modeling how geoscientists approach geologic problems. This first-of-its-kind book has
significantly affected the texbook publishing industry, causing other textbook publishers to imitate this
innovative approach, including two-page spreads, figure-centered pages, Before-You-Leave-This Page
boxes, and chapter-ending investigations.
xxx
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
STEPHEN J. REYNOLDS JULIA K. JOHNSON
Stephen J. Reynolds received an undergraduate geology degree from the Julia K. Johnson is a full-time faculty member in the School of Earth and
University of Texas at El Paso, and M.S. and Ph.D. degrees in structure/ Space Exploration at Arizona State University. Her research involves
tectonics and regional geology from the University of Arizona. He structural geology, regional geology, and geoscience education. The
then spent 10 years directing the geologic framework and mapping main focus of her geoscience education research is on student- and
program of the Arizona Geological Survey, where he completed the instructor-generated sketches (concept sketches) for learning, teaching,
1988 Geologic Map of Arizona. Steve is a professor in the School of and assessment in college geology classes. Prior to coming to ASU,
Earth and Space Exploration at Arizona State University, where he has she did groundwater studies of copper deposits and taught full-
taught Physical Geology, Structural Geology, Advanced Field Geology, time in the Maricopa County Community College District, teaching
Orogenic Systems, Cordilleran Regional Geology, Teaching Methods Physical Geology, Environmental Geology, and their labs. At ASU,
in the Geosciences, and others. He helped establish the ASU Center she teaches Introduction to Geology to more than 2,000 students per
for Research on Education in Science, Mathematics, Engineering, and year in in-person and online classes. Julia supervises the associated
Technology (CRESMET), and was President of the Arizona Geological introductory geology labs and coordinates the introductory geology
Society. He has authored or edited over 200 geologic maps, articles, teaching efforts of the School of Earth and Space Exploration, helping
and reports, including the 866-page Geologic Evolution of Arizona. other instructors incorporate active learning and inquiry into large
He also coauthored Structural Geology of Rocks and Regions, a widely lecture classes. At ASU, Julia coordinated an innovative project
used structural geology textbook, and Observing and Interpreting focused on redesigning introductory geology classes so that they
Geology, a Laboratory Manual for Physical Geology. Working with a incorporated more online content and asynchronous learning. This
team of geographers, he authored Exploring Physical Geography and project was very successful in improving student performance, mostly
Exploring Earth Science, both of which follow the style and approach due to the widespread implementation of concept sketches and partly
of his award-winning Exploring Geology textbook. His current geologic due to Julia’s approach of decoupling multiple-choice questions and
research focuses on structure, tectonics, and mineral deposits of the concept-sketch questions during exams and other assessments. As a
Southwest, including northern Mexico. For nearly 20 years, he has result of the innovation and documented results, Julia’s redesign project
done science-education research on student learning in college geology was identified as exemplary by the National Center for Academic
courses, especially the role of visualization. He was the first geologist Transformation (NCAT). She gives talks and webinars to faculty
with his own eye-tracking laboratory, where he and his students have members across the county about how to redesign their own classes to
researched student learning, demonstrating that students learn more improve efficiency and student performance at the same time. Julia is
when using the unique design, layout, and approach of this textbook, recognized as one of the best science teachers at ASU, and has received
compared to how much (or little) they learn from a traditional textbook. student-nominated teaching awards and very high teaching evaluations
Steve is known for innovative teaching methods, has received numerous in spite of her challenging classes. In recognition of her teaching, she
teaching awards, and has an award-winning website. He was a National was a Featured Faculty of the Month on ASU’s website in 2005. She
Association of Geoscience Teachers (NAGT) distinguished speaker, and has authored publications on geology and science-education research,
he travels across the country presenting talks and workshops on how to including an article in the Journal of Geoscience Education on concept
infuse active learning and inquiry into large introductory geoscience sketches. Her geologic map of the Phoenix Mountains is among the
classes. He is commonly an invited speaker to national workshops most downloaded publications at the Arizona Geologic Survey, with
and symposia on active learning, visualization, and teaching methods nearly 18,000 downloads and counting. She coauthored Observing
in college geoscience courses. He has been a long-time industry and Interpreting Geology, a Laboratory Manual for Physical Geology,
consultant in mineral, energy, and water resources and environmental Exploring Earth Science, and Exploring Physical Geography. She
issues, and has received outstanding alumni awards from UTEP and the developed a number of websites used by many geology students,
University of Arizona. including the Visualizing Topography and Biosphere 3D websites.
xxxi
PAUL MORIN CHARLES M. CARTER
Paul J. Morin is Director of the Polar Geospatial Center at the University Chuck has been working in the science and entertainment industries
of Minnesota. He is responsible for supporting National Science for more than 30 years. He worked on the groundbreaking video game
Foundation scientific and research operations through remote sensing Myst and on more than two dozen other video games in a variety of
and other geospatial data. He also has strong interests in the effects art, animation, and management roles, including computer graphics
of artistic technique and technology on the efficacy of visualizations supervisor and art director. His illustration and animation work has
in the hands of students. He is a co-investigator and co-developer of been used extensively by National Geographic, and his illustrations
earth science museum exhibits that travel the world, being featured and layouts are featured in books published by National Geographic to
at the American Museum of Natural History, the Field Museum, feature the best of its artwork. In 1994, he was instrumental in helping
and many others. For several years, he was an NAGT distinguished launch National Geographic Online. His illustrations and animations
speaker visiting universities and colleges to present talks on the role have also appeared in Scientific American, Wired, the BBC, the Dept.
of visualization in geology courses. He is regarded by many people of Homeland Security, the Dept. of Defense and NASA, among others.
as one of the top visualization developers in the geosciences. Other Chuck designed digital matte paintings and animations for TV shows
professional interests include visualization of data sources that are such as Babylon 5, Crusade, and Mortal Kombat Krusades, as well as
traditionally viewed as being too complex for students to understand, animation and digital environments for motion rides such as Disney’s
such as mantle convection. His visualizations have been published in Mission to Mars and Paramount’s Star Trek: The Experience. More
Wired, National Geographic, and Nature, and are featured throughout recently, Chuck founded Eagre Games in Orono, Maine, designing fully
this textbook. immersive adventures, including Eagre’s first game, ZED.
Illustrators and Artists

CINDY SHAW SUSIE GILLATT
Cynthia Shaw has been illustrating science for most of her life, begin- Susie Gillatt grew up in Tucson, Arizona, where she received a bach-
ning with an eighth-grade poster on Yellowstone geysers that sparked elor of arts degree from the University of Arizona. She has worked as a
her interest in science. She started producing art for academic publica- photographer and in different capacities in the field of video production.
tions while in college, and later became involved with science curricu- She is president of Terra Chroma, Inc., a multimedia studio. Initially
lum development. Cindy holds a B.A. in zoology from the University specializing in the production of educational videos, she now focuses
of Hawaii-Manoa as well as a master’s in education from Washington on scientific illustration and photo preparation for academic books and
State University, where she researched the use of science illustration as journals. Many of the photographs in this book were contributed by
a teaching and learning tool for the science classroom. Now focusing on Susie from her travels to experience different landscapes, ecosystems,
earth science, mapping, and coral reef ecology, she writes and illustrates and cultures around the world. For her own art, she especially enjoys
for textbooks, museums, and children’s books, and develops ancillary combining photography with digital painting, watercolor, and other
science educational materials through her business, Aurelia Press. Her artistic mediums. Inspired by nature, she likes discovering and captur-
childrens’ novel, Grouper Moon, is used in many U.S. and Caribbean ing the abstract designs found in natural patterns. Her award-winning
classrooms, and is making a positive impact on fostering children’s art has been displayed in galleries in Arizona, Colorado, and Texas. She
appreciation for coral reef and fisheries conservation. Currently land- is inspired by living in the desert environment of Tucson and the alpine
locked in Richland, Washington, Cindy escapes whenever possible with ecology of the San Juan Mountains north of Durango, Colorado, with
her husband to travel, hike the Pacific Northwest, and dive coral reefs to her husband, three cats, and three dogs who participate in dog-agility
research, field-sketch, and do photography for her projects. trials in the Four Corners region.
DANIEL MILLER DAVID FIERSTEIN

Born in North Carolina, Daniel has been a self-taught artist from the David Fierstein attended the University of California at Santa Cruz,
start. He drew and painted in grade school. After high school, he began where he received a bachelors degree in Chemistry and completed the
his professional career as a silversmith, then goldsmith, painter and graduate certificate program in Science Illustration. David’s art and ani-
sculptor, designer, and art director. Attaining his goal of working in the mation use 3D digital modeling and painting to depict engineering and
film industry, he created notable sculptural elements for many major scientific concepts in the context of natural landforms and processes. His
films, soon moving on to Los Angeles. His film credits include Stargate work has been used by Scientific American, National Geographic, and
and The Chronicles of Riddick, to name a few. He completed other large- the Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute. His artwork has also
scale sculptural installments, including Fountains of the Gods at Caesars appeared in college textbooks, including Exploring Geology, Explor-
Palace in Las Vegas. Daniel taught himself computer 2D and 3D skills, ing Earth Science, and Exploring Physical Geography. David combines
including animation, leading to contributions as a concept artist and programming and art to create science-based games for touch-screen
matte painter for films and the video game industry. Daniel lives in Las devices and virtual reality that immerse the player in the life cycle of
Vegas, and devotes his creative energies to his passion for oil painting. an animal.
xxxii
exploring
GE LOGY
CHAPTER
1 The Nature of Geology

GEOLOGY HAS MANY EXPRESSIONS in our world. Geologic processes reshape Earth’s interior and sculpt its
surface. They determine the distribution of metals and petroleum, and they control which places are most s usceptible
to volcanoes, floods, and other natural disasters. Geology is the study of ancient seas, rivers, and other environments,
the organisms that inhabited such environments, and the formation and destruction of mountain ranges and other land-
forms. Geology encompasses factors, such as climate and the availability of water, that are critical to ecosystems. In
this book, we explore geology, the science of Earth, and examine why an understanding of geology is important in
our modern world.
North America and the surrounding ocean floor have a wealth of interesting features. The large image below (▼) is computer-generated and
combines different types of data to show features on the land and seafloor. The shading and colors on land are from space-based satellite
images, whereas colors and shading on the seafloor indicate depths below the surface of the sea. Can you find the region where you live?
What types of features are there?
01.00.a2 Glacier NP, MT
⊳ The dramatic scenery of Glacier National Park in Montana features
cliffs and rugged mountains that expose a series of intricate gray rock
layers. The beautiful valleys preserve evidence of being carved
by glaciers during the most recent ice age, approximately
01.00.a1
10,000 to 30,000 years ago.
What processes sculpt the land surface and

produce such beautiful scenery? What
evidence is there for past climate
changes, including those that
allowed glaciers to cover
large parts of North
America?
The 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens in southwestern

Washington (▼) ejected huge amounts of volcanic ash
into the air, toppled millions of trees, unleashed floods
and mudflows down nearby valleys, and killed
57 people. Geologists study volcanic phenomena to
determine how and when volcanoes erupt and what
hazards volcanoes pose to humans and other creatures.
How do geologic studies help us determine where it is

safe to live?
01.00.a3 Mount St. Helens, WA
The Nature of Geology 3
TO PICS IN TH IS CH APTE R
1.1 How Does Geology Influence Where
1.7 How Do the Atmosphere, Water, and Life
and How We Live? 4
Interact with Earth’s Surface? 16
1.2 How Does Geology Help Explain Our World? 6
1.8 What Is Earth’s Place in the Solar System? 18
1.3 What Is Inside Earth? 8
1.9 Connections: How Is Geology Expressed
1.4 What Processes Affect Our Planet? 10 in the Black Hills and in Rapid City? 20
1.5 How Do Rocks Form? 12 1.10 Investigation: How Is Geology Affecting
1.6 What Can Happen to a Rock? 14 This Place? 22
Rocks of New England and easternmost Canada record a fascinating

history, which includes an ancient ocean that was destroyed by the colli- A View of North America
N
sion of two landmasses. Many of these rocks, such as those in Nova
Scotia, have contorted layers (▼), and some rocks provide evidence of orth America is a diverse continent, ranging from the low, trop-
having been formed at a depth of 30 km below the surface. ical rain forests of Mexico to the high Rocky Mountains of
western Canada. In the large image of North America on the
How do layers in rocks get squeezed and deformed, and how do rocks left, the colors on land are from satellite images that show the distribu-
from deep in the earth get to the surface where we now find them? tion of rock, soil, plants, and lakes. Green colors represent dense veg-
01.00.a4 Nova Scotia, Canada etation, including forests shown in darker green and fields and grassy
plains shown in lighter green. Brown colors represent deserts and other
regions that have less vegetation, including regions where rock and
sand are present. Lakes are shown with a solid blue color. Note that
there are no clouds or ocean waters in this artificial picture.
The color of the ocean floor varies with depth below sea level. Light
blue colors represent shallow areas, whereas dark blue represents places
where the seafloor is deep. Observe the larger features in this image,
both on land and at sea. Ask yourself the following questions: What is
this feature? Why is it located here? How did it form? In short, what is
its story?
Notice that the two sides of North America are very different from
each other and from the middle of the continent. The western part of
North America appears more complex because it has many mountains
and valleys. The mountains in the eastern United States are more sub-
dued, and the East Coast is surrounded by a broad shelf (shown in a
light blue-gray) that continues out beneath the Atlantic Ocean. The cen-
ter of the continent has no large mountains but has broad plains, hills,
river valleys, and large lakes.
All of the features on this image of Earth are part of geology. The
Everglades National Park in southern geologic history of North America explains why the mountains on
Florida (▼) is one of the most threatened the two sides of the continent are so different and when and how
regions on the planet because the the mountains formed. Geology explains how features on the
water needs of humans conflict with seafloor came to be, and why the central United States and
those of the ecosystem, and because
Canada are the agricultural heartland of the continent, whereas
rising sea levels threaten to inundate
some other areas are deserts. The high standard of living of
parts of south Florida.
people in the United States and Canada is largely due to an
How can geologists help study and abundance of natural resources, especially water, coal,
protect this and other natural treasures? petroleum, minerals, and fertile soils. Such resources are
the result of Earth’s geologic history. In short, geology
controls the height and shape of the land and seafloor,
the types of materials that are present, and the processes
that affect the land, sea, and us. As shown throughout
this book, geology affects many aspects of society.
1.0
1.0
01.00.a5 Everglades NP, FL

4
1.1 How Does Geology Influence

Where and How We Live?
GEOLOGY INFLUENCES OUR LIVES IN MANY WAYS. Geologic features and processes constrain where people
can live because they determine whether a site is safe from landslides, floods, or other natural hazards. Some areas
are suitable building sites, but other areas are underlain by unstable geologic materials that could cause damage to any
structure built there. Geology also controls the distribution of energy resources and the materials required to build
houses, cars, and factories. Finally, geologic processes shape the surface of the planet and produce a wonderful diver-
sity of landscapes, including beautiful scenery.
Where Is It Safe to Live?

The landscape around us contains many clues about whether a place is relatively safe or whether it is a natural disaster
waiting to happen. What important clues should guide our choice of a safe place to live?
1. Volcanoes erupt molten lava, columns of hot volcanic ash,

and very dangerous, fast-moving clouds of ash, rocks, and 3. The location, height, and
volcanic gas. Volcanoes are notorious for unleashing shape of mountains and val-
destructive mudflows, but they can also provide valuable leys are a result of geologic
nutrients and excellent soils for growing crops. Inhabitants processes. Geologic factors,
of a volcanic area must decide whether the good soils are especially the steepness of
worth the risks. hillsides and the strength of
underlying materials, determine
where it is stable enough to
2. If hillslopes are too steep or are made of very build. Some soils can creep
weak materials, they can collapse c atastrophically as slowly downhill over time,
landslides that destroy everything in their path. destroying any structure built
on them.
01.01.a1
6. Slip along
faults in Earth’s
crust causes earth-
quakes, which can
destroy poorly constructed
buildings and kill thousands of
people. Such movement can offset
the land surface, in this case raising
the mountains relative to the valley.
4. Areas along rivers are desirable

sites for cities because rivers pro- 5. The types of soils that form on Earth’s surface depend on
vide water, transportation, and even the local rocks, the steepness of slope, the climate, and other
energy. Rivers replenish the nutrients factors. Soils near rivers commonly are fertile and are capable
in fertile floodplains, but they also of growing important crops. Other soils are dangerous to build
pose a hazard for buildings located on because they become weak when shaken by an earth-
too close to the river or in low areas quake or else they expand when wet, cracking foundations
that are likely to be flooded. and making structures unsafe.
How Does Geology Influence Our Lives?

To explore how geology affects our lives, observe this photograph, which shows a number of different features, including
clouds, snowy mountains, slopes, and a grassy field with horses and cows (the small, dark spots). For each feature you
recognize, think about what is there and what processes might be occurring. Then, think about how geology influences
the life of the animals and how it would influence your life if this was your home. Think about this before reading on.
In the distance are snow-covered

mountains partially covered with
clouds. Snow and clouds both
indicate the presence of water,
an essential ingredient for life.
The mountains have a major
influence on water in this scene.
As the snow melts, water flows
downhill toward the lowlands, to
the horses and cows.
The horses and cows roam on a

flat, grassy pasture and avoid
slopes that are steep or barren
of vegetation. The steepness of
slopes reflects the strength of
the rocks and soils, and the flat
pasture resulted from loose
sand and other materials that
were laid down during flooding
along a desert stream. Where is
the likely source of the water
needed to grow grass in
the pasture?
01.01.b1 Henry Mtns., UT
What Controls the Distribution of Natural Resources?

This map of North America shows the locations of large currently or recently active copper mines (orange dots) and iron
mines (blue dots). What do you notice about the distribution of each type of mine?
1. Large copper 2. Large iron mines are common in the Great Lakes
mines are region and in eastern Canada, within an area called the
restricted to the Canadian Shield (inside the red line). Most rocks in this
mountainous region are older than one billion years, and the iron-rich
western part of rocks formed at a time in Earth’s history when oxygen
the continent became more abundant in the atmosphere, causing iron
(west of the pur- dissolved in the seas to precipitate into vast iron-rich lay-
ple line). Magma ers. Rocks of this early age are less common out west, so
(molten rock) this type of iron deposit is less common, too.
invaded this part of
the continent 3. The age of rocks and how the rocks formed are two of
between 160 and many geologic factors that control where mineral resources
35 million years occur. Resources often are not located where humans would
ago and formed prefer them to
the copper depos- be for logistical, Before You Leave This Page
its. As described political, or
later in this book, environmental
these magmas formed reasons. Sketch or list some ways that geology
only along the western controls where it is safe to live.
1.1
side of the continent, so Explain how geology influences the

the copper deposits are distribution of natural resources.
here, too. 01.01.c1
6
1.2
1.2 How Does Geology Help Explain Our World?
THE WORLD HAS INTERESTING FEATURES at all scales. Views from space show oceans, continents, and moun-
tain belts. Traveling through the countryside, we notice smaller things — a beautiful rock formation or soft, green hills.
Upon closer inspection, the rocks may include fossils that provide evidence of ancient life and past climates. Here, we
give examples of how geology explains big and small features of our world.
How Do Continents Differ from Ocean Basins?

Examine this computer-generated view (▼) of the continent of Australia and the surrounding ocean basins. Colors on land
show vegetation, rocks, soil, and sand, whereas colors in the oceans indicate depth, with darker blue being the deepest seafloor.
Note the main features, especially those on the seafloor.
1. This map illustrates one of the most impor- 4. The seafloor beneath deep parts of the ocean is
tant distinctions on Earth — our planet is locally complex, containing chains of submarine moun-
divided into continents and oceans. tains east of Australia and long features that look like
large scratch marks south of the continent. The deep
2. The boundary between the blue parts of the seafloor in this region are much rougher
colors of the oceans and the than the smooth-appearing continental shelf.
greens and browns of the land is
the shoreline, which outlines the
familiar shape of Australia as seen 5. The distinction between continents and oceans is
on world maps. a reflection of differences in their geology. Conti-
nents and oceans differ in the types and thick-
3. Surrounding the land is a fringe nesses of the rocks they contain and, as we will
of seafloor that is not very deep, learn later, form in very different ways. Within the
represented on this map by light oceans are major variations in the depth and
blue colors. This fringe of shallow character of the seafloor from place to place.
seafloor, called the continental The land also varies in elevation and character,
shelf, is wider on the north side such as higher, vegetation-covered mountains
of the continent than on the in eastern Australia than in the rest of the con-
other three sides. Geologists tinent. Each region, whether on land or
consider the continent to con- beneath the ocean, has its own geologic his-
tinue past the shoreline and to tory, and the landscape and rocks contain
the outer edge of the conti- clues as to the geologic events that affected
nental shelf. each place.
01.02.a1
What Stories Do Landscapes Tell?

Observe this photograph of a canyon wall and think of at least two questions about what you see. Go ahead, try it!
1. The landscape has cliffs and slopes 2. In the bottom half of the image, 3. Several questions about the landscape come to mind. What
composed of rock units that are some large, angular blocks of types of rocks are exposed here? How did the large, brownish
shades of tan, brown, and yellow. brownish rock are perched near blocks get to their present position? How long will it take for the
the edge of a lower cliff. blocks to fall or slide off the lower cliff?
01.02.b1 Superstition Mtns., AZ
4. The answer to each question helps explain part of the scene.
The first question is about the present, the second is about the
past, and the third is about the future. The easiest q
uestions to
answer are usually about the present, and the hardest ones are
about the past or the future.
5. All of the rocks in this view are volcanic rocks, typical of those
formed during a very explosive type of volcanic eruption.
6. The large blocks are composed of the same material as the

upper brown cliff and were part of that cliff before falling or slid-
ing downhill onto the slope below.
7. It is difficult to predict when the blocks will fall off the lower
cliff. Some blocks near the edge could fall in the next rainstorm,
but others will probably be there for millions of years.
How Has the Global Climate Changed Since the Ice Ages?
These computer-generated images show where glaciers and large ice sheets were during the last ice age and where they are
today. Note how the extent of these features changed in this relatively short period of time. What caused this change, and
what might happen in the future because of global warming or cooling?
28,000 Years Ago Today

Twenty-eight thousand Since 20,000 years ago,
years ago, Earth’s Earth’s climate warmed
climate was slightly enough to melt back
cooler than it is the ice sheets to
today. Cool where they are
climates permitted today. Our knowl-
continental ice edge of the past
sheets to extend extent of ice sheets
across most of comes from geolo-
Canada and into gists who examine
the upper Midwest the landscape for
of the United appropriate clues,
States. Ice sheets including glacial fea-
also covered parts tures and deposits that
of northern Asia remained after the gla-
and Europe. 01.02.c1 01.02.c2
ciers retreated.
What Is the Evidence That Life in the Past Was Different from Life Today?
Museums and action movies contain scenes, like the one below, of dinosaurs lumbering or scampering across
a land covered by exotic plants. Where does the evidence for these strange creatures come from?
⊲ 1. This mural, painted by artist
Karen Carr, is two stories tall and
shows what types of life are inter-
preted to have been on Earth
during the Jurassic Period,
approximately 160 million years
ago. Dinosaurs roamed the land-
scape, while the ancestors of
birds began to take flight. Flower-
ing plants were not yet abundant
and grasses had not yet
appeared, so non-flowering trees,
bushes, and ground cover domi-
nated the landscape.
01.02.d1
01.02.d2 Dinosaur NP, UT
⊳ 2. Fossil bones of Jurassic d
inosaurs are
common in Dinosaur National Park, Utah.
From such bones and other information,
geologists infer how long ago these crea-
tures roamed the planet, what the creatures Before You Leave This Page
looked like, how big they were, how they
lived, and why they died. Studying the rocks Explain the difference in appearance
that enclose the bones provides clues to the between continents and oceans.
local and global environments at the time of
Describe some things we can learn
1.2
the dinosaurs. Rocks and fossils are the

record of past geologic events, environ- about Earth’s past by observing its
ments, and prehistoric creatures. landscapes, rocks, and fossils.
8
1.3
1.3 What Is Inside Earth?
HAVE YOU EVER WONDERED WHAT IS INSIDE EARTH? We can directly observe the uppermost parts of Earth,
but what else is down there? Earth consists of concentric layers that have different compositions. The outermost layer
is the crust, which includes continental crust and oceanic crust. Beneath the crust is the mantle, Earth’s most voluminous
layer. The molten outer core and the solid inner core are at Earth’s center.
How Does Earth Change with Depth? 01.03.a1

01.03.a2 Polished slab
1. Continental crust has an average compo-

sition similar to this granite, a piece of a
kitchen countertop (⊳). Continental crust,
the thin, light-gray layer on the figure to
the right, averages 35 to 40 km
(20–25 mi) in thickness. Recall
that one mile is equivalent to
1.6 kilometers.
2. Oceanic crust exists beneath the deep oceans and

has an average composition that is the same as basalt,
a common dark lava rock (▼). Oceanic crust has an
average thickness of about 7 km (4 mi), which
is much thinner than can be shown here (the
barely visible dark-gray layer).
01.03.a3 Grants, NM
3. The mantle extends from the base of the crust down 2,900 k m (1,800 mi).
Much of the upper mantle is composed of the green mineral olivine, like
the center (▼) of this rock brought to the surface in a volcano.
4. The lower mantle has a composition similar to the upper

01.03.a4 Durango, Mexico mantle, but it contains minerals formed at very high pressures.
Nearly all of the mantle is solid, not molten. High tempera-
tures cause some parts to be partially molten, while other
parts flow because they are weak solids.
5. Based on studies of earthquakes,

01.03.a5
observations of meteorites, and models for the
density of Earth, geoscientists interpret the core to
consist of metallic iron and nickel, like that observed in
iron-nickel meteorites (⊳). The outer core is molten,
but the inner core is solid.
Are Some Layers Stronger Than Others?

In addition to layers with different compositions, Earth has layers that are defined by strength and by how easily
the material in the layers fractures or flows when subjected to forces.
The uppermost part of the mantle is relatively strong and solidly attached to the
overlying crust. The crust and uppermost mantle together form an upper, rigid layer
called the lithosphere (lithos means “stone” in Greek). The part of the uppermost
mantle that is in the lithosphere is the lithospheric mantle.
The mantle directly beneath the lithosphere is mostly solid, but it is hotter than the rock
above and can flow under pressure. This part of the mantle, called the asthenosphere,
functions as a soft, weak zone over which the lithosphere may move. The word
asthenosphere is from a Greek term for “not strong.” The asthenosphere is approxi-
mately 80 to 150 km thick, so its base can be as deep as about 250 km. 01.03.b1
Why Do Some Regions Have High Elevations?

Why is the Gulf Coast of Texas near sea level, while the Colorado mountains are 3 to 5 km (2 to 3 mi) above
sea level? Why are the continents mostly above sea level, but the ocean floor is below sea level? The primary factor
controlling the elevation of a region is the thickness of the underlying crust.
1. The granitic 2. The thickness of continental crust ranges from less than 25 km (16 3. The crust beneath low-elevation regions like
crust is less mi) to more than 60 km (37 mi). Regions that have high elevation Texas is thinner. If the crust is thinner than 30 to
dense than the generally have thick crust. The crust beneath the Rocky Mountains of 35 km (18 to 20 mi), the area will probably be
underlying mantle, Colorado is commonly more than 45 km (28 mi) thick. below sea level, but it can still be part of the
and so rests, or continent, like on a continental shelf.
floats, on top of
4. Most islands are volcanic mountains built on
the mantle. The
oceanic crust, but some are small pieces of
underlying litho
continental crust.
spheric mantle
is mostly solid, 5. Oceanic crust is thinner than continental crust
not liquid. and consists of denser rock than continental crust.
As a result, regions underlain only by oceanic
01.03.c1
crust are well below sea level.
Density and Isostasy
T
he relationship between regional eleva- commonly paraphrased by saying mountain regions have similar thicknesses of crust. Tem-
tion and crustal thickness is similar to belts have thick crustal roots. As in the case of perature also controls the thickness of the lith-
that of wooden blocks of different the floating wooden blocks, most of the change osphere, which also affects a region’s elevation.
thicknesses floating in water (▼). Wood floats in crustal thickness occurs at depth and less If the lithosphere in some region is heated, it
on water because it is less dense than water. occurs near the surface. Smaller, individual expands, becoming less dense, and so the
Ice floats on water because it is less dense than mountains do not necessarily have thick crustal region rises in elevation. Thinner lithosphere
water, although ice and water have the same roots. They can be supported by the strength of also yields higher elevations.
composition. Thicker blocks of wood, like the crust, like a small lump of clay riding on
thicker parts of the crust, rise to higher eleva- one of the wooden blocks.
tions than do thinner blocks of wood. The density of the rocks also influences
Before You Leave This Page
For Earth, we envision the crust being sup- regional elevations. The fourth block shown
ported by mantle that is solid, unlike the liquid here has the same thickness as the third block, Sketch the major layers of Earth.
water used in the but it consists of a
wooden-block denser type of Sketch and describe differences in
example. This wood. It therefore thickness and composition between
concept of differ- floats lower in the continental crust and oceanic crust,
ent thicknesses of water. Likewise, a and contrast lithosphere and
crust riding on region of Earth asthenosphere.
the mantle is underlain by espe- Sketch and discuss how the principle
1.3
01.03.t1
called isostasy. cially dense crust of isostasy can explain differences in
Isostasy explains most of the variations in ele- or mantle is lower in elevation than a region regional elevation.
vation from one region to another, and it is with less dense crust or mantle, even if the two
10
1.4
1.4 What Processes Affect Our Planet?
EARTH IS SUBJECT TO VARIOUS FORCES. Some forces arise within Earth, and others come from the Sun and
Moon. Especially important is gravity, the mutual attraction that any two objects exert on one another. The interactions
between these forces and Earth’s land, water, air, and inhabitants control most natural processes and influence our lives
in many ways.
How Do Forces and Processes Affect Earth?

1. Earth’s gravity causes air in the 2. Water, in either liquid or 3. The Sun and Moon 4. Electromagnetic energy,
atmosphere to press down on frozen forms, moves downhill exert a gravitational pull on including visible light, infrared,
Earth’s surface and on its inhabit- in rivers and glaciers, trans- Earth. Although the Sun is ultraviolet, and other forms of
ants. The weight of this air causes porting rocks and other much larger, it exerts energy, radiate from the Sun to
atmospheric pressure, which gener- debris and carving down- less force on the Earth. The Sun provides in
ally is greater at sea level than in ward into the landscape. The Earth because it is excess of 99% of Earth’s surface-
high elevations — there is less air downward movement of ice so far away com- energy budget and so drives sur-
on top of high elevations than at and water is driven by the pared to the Moon. face temperatures, wind, and
sea level. pull of Earth’s gravity. other processes.
01.04.a1
5. Uneven solar heating causes

variations in water and air tempera-
tures across the surface of Earth,
causing wind and ocean currents.
Blowing wind picks up and moves
sand and dust across Earth’s surface
and makes waves on the surface of
oceans and lakes. Rotation of Earth
around its axis helps guide the direc-
tion of wind and ocean currents as
they distribute thermal energy from
one part of Earth to another.
6. The mass of Earth causes a downward pull of

9. Temperature gravity, which attracts objects toward the center
increases downward of Earth. Earth’s gravity is the force that makes
into Earth’s interior. water, ice, and rocks move downhill.
Heat from deeper in
Earth rises upward 7. Earth’s gravity causes the weight of rocks to exert a
toward the cooler sur- downward force on underlying rocks. These rocks in turn
face. Some heating is by 8. Radioactive push against adjacent rocks, causing squeezing of rocks from
direct contact between decay of naturally all directions. This force increases deeper into the interior
a hotter rock and a occurring uranium, because more rocks lie above. In many parts of Earth, forces
cooler rock, whereas potassium, and certain compress the rocks equally from all directions, but additional
other transfer of heat other elements produces forces arise by processes deep within Earth, such as from the
occurs via a moving heat, especially in the crust 01.04.a1 subsurface movement of rocks and magma. Forces generated
material, especially rising where these radioactive in one area can be transferred to an adjacent area, causing
molten rock (magma). elements are concentrated. sideways pushing or pulling on the rocks.
How Do Earth’s Surface and Atmosphere

Interact with Solar Energy? Energy and Forces
E
arth’s energy supply originates from internal and
Critical interactions occur between solar energy and Earth’s
external sources. Internal energy comes from within
atmosphere, oceans, and land. These interactions express Earth and includes heat energy trapped when the
themselves in wind, clouds, rain, snow, and climate. Our planet formed and heat produced by radioactive decay. This
atmosphere shields Earth from cosmic radiation, transfers water heat drives many internally generated processes, including
from one place to another, and permits life to exist. Like the melting of rocks at depth to produce magma.
the oceans, the atmosphere is constantly moving, producing The most significant source of external energy is the
winds, clouds, and storms that impact Earth’s surface. Sun, which bathes Earth in light, thermal energy, and
other electromagnetic energy. Thermal energy and light
from the Sun are more intense in equatorial areas of Earth
1. The atmosphere includes 2. The Sun produces vast amounts of energy, than in polar areas, causing temperature differences in the
a low, but important, percent- including ultraviolet radiation and visible light. In
atmosphere and oceans. Temperature differences help
age of water vapor, most of the upper levels of the atmosphere, oxygen
drive wind and ocean currents. Sunlight is also the pri-
which evaporated from absorbs most of the Sun’s harmful ultraviolet
Earth’s oceans. Under certain radiation and p revents it from reaching Earth’s mary energy source for plants, through the process
conditions, the water vapor surface, where it would have a detrimental of photosynthesis.
condenses to produce effect on many forms of life. Most of the Sun’s Early in Earth’s history, meteoroids and other objects
clouds, which are made of energy, including light and other forms of radia- left over from the formation of the solar system bombarded
tiny water droplets or ice tion, passes through the atmosphere, eventually the planet. During the impacts, kinetic energy (energy due
crystals. Rain, snow, and hail reaching Earth, warming the planet and provid- to movement of an object) changed into thermal energy,
may fall from clouds back to ing light for plants and animals. adding a tremendous amount of heat, some of which
the surface as precipitation. remains stored in our planet’s hot interior.
Internal forces also affect Earth. All objects that have
mass exert a gravitational attraction on other masses. If a
mass is large and close, the pull of gravity is relatively
strong. Earth’s gravity acts to pull objects toward the center
of the planet. Gravity is probably the most important agent
on Earth for moving material from one place to another. It
causes loose rocks, flowing glaciers, and running water to
move downhill from higher elevations to lower ones, and
drives ocean currents and wind. Moving water, ice, air,
and rocks can etch down into Earth’s surface, shaping
landscapes. Gravity is also an important factor in generating
wind and ocean currents.
Objects on Earth also feel an external pull of gravity
from the Sun and Moon. Gravity between the Sun and
Earth maintains our planet’s orbit around the Sun. The
Moon’s pull of gravity on Earth is stronger than that of the
3. Heating of Sun and causes more observable effects, especially the rise
the atmosphere, and fall of ocean tides. In other worlds, such as the moons
land, and oceans, of Jupiter and Saturn, the constant tug and flexing due to
accompanied by changes gravity can cause solid materials to melt, producing active
in air pressure, is the main volcanoes and other eruptions.
cause of winds across
Earth’s surface. 5. Much of
the Sun’s light
that reaches Earth
4. Water on land or in the oceans converts into infrared
can evaporate, becoming water
01.04.b1
energy, a form of energy
vapor in the atmosphere. Most water related to heat. Some of this
vapor comes from evaporation in the energy radiates upward and is Describe the different kinds of energy that
oceans, but some also comes from trapped by the atmosphere, which impact Earth from the outside, and what
evaporation of lakes, rivers, warms in a process called the effects they have on our planet.
irrigated fields, and other sites of sur- greenhouse effect. This process reg- List the different kinds of energy that arise within
face water. Plants take moisture from ulates global temperatures, which
Earth’s interior and explain their origins.
soils, surface waters, or air, and are moderate enough to allow water
1.4
release water vapor into the atmo- to exist as liquid water, gaseous Sketch and explain how Earth’s surface and
sphere through the process water vapor, and solid ice. Water atmosphere interact with solar energy.
of evapotranspiration. is a key requirement for life.
12
1.5 How Do Rocks Form?

THE VARIOUS PROCESSES THAT OPERATE on and within Earth produce the variety of rocks we observe. Many
common rocks form in river bottoms, beaches, or other familiar environments on Earth’s surface. Other rocks form in
less familiar environments, under high pressure deep within Earth, or at high temperatures on or beneath a volcano.
To understand the different kinds of rock that can form, we explore the types of materials that characterize different
modern-day environments.
What Types of Sediments Form in Familiar Surface Environments?

Much of the surface of Earth is dominated by mountains, plains, rivers, and lakes. Think back to what you have observed
on the ground in these types of places — probably mud, sand, and larger rocks. These loose materials are sediment and are
formed by the breaking and wearing away of other rocks in the landscape. Although more hidden from us, sediment also
occurs beneath the sea.
01.05.a2 Switzerland 01.05.a3 McElmo Canyon, UT
⊳ 1. Glaciers incor- 2. Steep mountain
porate rock debris fronts and cliffs exhibit
into their flowing, large, angular rocks that
icy masses. They broke away from bed-
carry a wide variety rock and moved down-
of sediment, from hill under the influence
large, angular boul- of gravity. Steep topog-
ders to fine rock raphy may produce
powder. They ulti- landslides and unstable,
mately deposit the rocky slopes covered
sediment along with angular blocks (⊲).
the edges of the
melting ice.
3. Sand dunes (⊲) are mostly

sand, which has been shifted
along the ground by the wind.
They contain sand because wind
cannot pick up larger par-
ticles, but it blows away
smaller ones.
01.05.a4 Namibia
4. Beaches (▼) typically have waves,

sand, broken shells, and rounded, well-
01.05.a1
worn stones. Some beaches are mostly
sand, and others are mostly stones.
6. River 01.05.a5 Naxos, Greece
channels
contain
sand, peb- 5. In deeper water,
bles, and cob- the seafloor consists of mud
bles, whereas and the remains of swimming and floating
low areas beside creatures that settle to the bottom. Seafloor
the channel accumulate silt closer to the land receives a greater contri-
and clay. Some rivers flow bution of sand and other sediment derived
into lakes, which have a from the land. Rivers and wind are espe-
muddy bottom with sand cially effective in delivering this sediment
around the lake shore. from the land to the sea.
What Types of Rocks Form in Hot or Deep Environments?

Some rocks form in environments that are foreign to us and hidden from view, deep within Earth. Others form
at very high temperatures associated with volcanic eruptions. Distinct families of rocks result from these rock-forming
processes, which include solidification of magma, precipitation of minerals from hot water, or the action of high
temperatures and pressures that transform one type of rock into another type of rock.
01.05.b2 Philippines 01.05.b3 Hawaii
1. In many volca-
noes, magma flows
onto the surface,
creating lava that
flows downhill or
piles up around
a vent (⊲).
2. Explosive volcanoes

erupt volcanic ash (▲), 5. Distinctive rocks
which can fall back to form when hot
Earth and blanket the waters cool and
terrain or can rapidly precipitate minerals.
and dangerously surge This may occur
down the flanks of beneath the surface
a volcano. or on the surface in
hot springs (▼).
3. Magma that does not
erupt may cool and solidify in
a magma chamber, forming gran-
ite or other rocks at depth. Heat
from the magma chamber may bake 4. Deep within
adjacent rocks, changing them into Earth where tem-
different kinds of rocks. peratures and pressures
01.05.b1 are high, forces can squeeze
and deform rocks into new arrange-
ments and into new types of rocks. Under
such force, solid rocks slowly flow, shear, and
Families of Rocks bend. Changing a preexisting rock by heat, pressure,
or deformation is the process of metamorphism.
D
01.05.b4 Yellowstone NP, WY
iverse environments shown on these
pages produce many different types of
rocks that, depending on the classifica-
tion scheme, are grouped into three or four rock over time. Other types of sedimentary
families. To interpret how rocks form, we rocks form by precipitation of minerals from Before You Leave This Page
observe modern environments and note the water or by coral and other organisms that
dominant types of sediment, lava, or other extract material directly from water. Distinguish the four families of rocks
material. We infer that these same types of Rocks formed from cooled and solidified by describing how each type forms.
materials would have been produced in older, magma are igneous rocks. These form when
prehistoric versions of that environment. By volcanoes erupt ash and lava or when molten For each family of rocks, describe
doing this, we use modern examples to inter- rock crystallizes in magma chambers at depth. two settings where such rocks form
pret ancient rocks and to understand how they Rocks changed by temperatures, pressures, and the processes that take place
or deformation are metamorphic rocks. Meta- in each setting.
formed. In this way, the present is the key
to the past. morphism can change sedimentary or igneous Describe what we mean by “the
Sedimentary rocks form on Earth’s surface, rocks, or even preexisting metamorphic rocks. present is the key to the past” and
1.5
mostly from loose sediment that is deposited by Finally, rocks that precipitate directly from hot how it is used to interpret the origin
moving water, air, or ice. If loose sediment is water are hydrothermal rocks. Some geologists of rocks and sediment.
buried, it can become consolidated into hard classify these rocks with metamorphic rocks.
14
1.6 What Can Happen to a Rock?

MANY THINGS CAN HAPPEN TO A ROCK after it forms. It can break apart into sediment or be buried deeply and
metamorphosed. If temperatures are high enough, a rock can melt and then solidify to form an igneous rock. Uplift
can bring metamorphic and igneous rocks to the surface, where they break down into sediment. Examine the large
figure below and think of all the things that can happen to a rock.
1. Weathering 2. Erosion and Transport

A rock on the surface interacts with sunlight, Rock pieces loosened or dissolved by weathering can be stripped away by erosion
rain, wind, plants, and animals. As a result, it and moved away from their source. Glaciers, flowing water, wind, and the force of
may be mechanically broken apart into gravity on hillslopes can transport eroded material away.
pieces or altered by chemical reactions via
the process of weathering. Weathering cre-
ates sediment, which ranges from very fine
clay to the large boulders shown here (▼).
01.06.a2 Central CO
01.06.a1
8. Uplift
At any point during its history, a 6. Melting
rock may be uplifted back to the
A rock exposed to high
surface where it is again
temperatures may melt
exposed to weathering. Uplift
to produce a mass of
commonly occurs in mountains,
magma. Melting usually
but it can also occur over broad
occurs at great depth, in
regions that lack mountains.
the lower crust or the
mantle.
01.06.a5 Acadia NP, ME
7. Solidification
As magma cools, either at depth or after being erupted onto the surface, it
will solidify and harden, a process called solidification. If crystals form during
solidification, the process is called crystallization. Crystallization that occurs by
slow cooling of magma at depth can form large, well-formed crystals, such as
those displayed by a typical granite (⊳). This granite crystallized at depth and
was uplifted to the surface much later.
The Life and Times of a Rock — The Rock Cycle
T
his process, in which a rock may be not go through the entire cycle, but instead Suppose that uplift brings up a rock and
moved from one place to another or move through only part of the cycle. Impor- exposes it at Earth’s surface. Weathering dis-
even converted into a new type of rock, tantly, the different steps in the rock cycle can solves and breaks up the rock into smaller
is the rock cycle. Scottish physician James happen in almost any order. Steps are num- pieces that can be eroded and transported at
Hutton first conceived of the rock cycle in the bered on this page only to guide your reading least a short distance before being deposited.
late 1700s as a way to explain the recycling of and follow possible sequences of events for a Under the right conditions, the rock fragments
older rocks into new sediment. Most rocks do single rock. will be buried beneath other sediment or per-
haps beneath volcanic rocks that are erupted
onto the surface. Many times, however, sedi-
3. Deposition ment is not b uried, but only weathered, eroded,
When the energy of transportation decreases sufficiently, water, transported, and deposited again. As an exam-
wind, and ice deposit their sediment. Sediment carried by rivers ple of this circumstance, imagine a rounded
and streams can reside within or next to the channel, or collect rock in a river. When the river currents are
near the river’s mouth. The river gravels in the photograph below strong enough, they pick up and carry the rock
are at rest for now but could be picked up and moved by a downstream, perhaps depositing it within or
large flood. Some sediment results from the precipitation of near the channel, where it may remain for years,
material from water or by the actions of organisms. Sediment in centuries, or even millions of years. Later, a
the photograph below was deposited by energetic streams. flood that is larger than the last one may pick
up the rock and transport it farther downstream.
If the rock is buried, it has two possible
paths. It can be buried to some depth and then
be uplifted back to the surface to be weathered,
eroded, and transported again. Alternatively, it
may be buried so deeply that it is metamor-
phosed under high temperatures and pressures.
Later uplift can bring the metamorphic rock to
the surface.
01.06.a3 Tibet If the rock remains at depth and is heated to
even higher temperatures, it can melt. The
resulting magma may remain at depth or may
be erupted onto the surface. In either case, the
4. Burial and Lithification magma eventually will cool and solidify into an
Once deposited, sediment can be buried igneous rock. Igneous rocks formed at depth
and compacted by the weight of overly- may later be uplifted to the surface or they may
ing material. Chemicals in groundwater remain at depth, where the rocks can be meta-
can coat sedimentary grains with minerals morphosed or even remelted.
and deposit natural cements that bind
A key point to remember is that the rock
adjacent grains. The process of sediment
turning into rock is lithification. cycle illustrates the possible things that can
happen to a rock. Most rocks do not complete
the cycle because of the many paths, interrup-
tions, backtracking, and shortcuts a rock can
take. The path a rock takes through the cycle
depends on the specific geologic events that
happen and the order in which they occur.
5. Deformation There are many possible variations in the path
and Metamorphism a rock can take.
After a rock forms, strong forces
can squeeze the rock and fold its
layers, a process called deforma- Before You Leave This Page
tion. If buried deeply enough, a
rock can be heated and deformed Sketch a simple version of the rock
to produce a metamorphic rock. cycle, labeling and explaining, in
The rock in the photograph to the your own words, the key processes.
left began as some other type of
1.6
rock but was strongly deformed, Describe why a rock might not
metamorphosed, and converted experience the entire rock cycle.
into a metamorphic rock.
01.06.a4 Kettle Falls, WA
16
1.7 How Do the Atmosphere, Water, and Life I nteract

with Earth’s Surface?
WHAT SHAPES THE SURFACE OF EARTH? The elevation of Earth’s surface is a reflection of crustal thickness,
mountain building, the resistance of the geologic materials to weathering and erosion, and other geologic factors, but
various processes give the landscape its detailed shape. Three important factors that affect landscapes are water and
its movement on the surface, the atmosphere and its movement around Earth, and the impact of diverse life-forms.
How Does Water Move on Our Planet?

Water on Earth resides in oceans, glaciers, lakes, rivers, and in soil and rock. Much of this water flows continuously under
the influence of gravity.
1. Rainfall strikes Earth’s surface, leading to weathering and 2. When winter snows don’t melt completely, as is common at higher eleva-
erosion. As raindrops land on the surface, they cause small- tions and at polar latitudes, snow accumulates in snowfields and in glaciers,
scale erosion and cover rocks and soil with liquid water that which are huge flowing fields or tongues of compressed snow and ice. Gla-
begins the weathering process. With sufficient precipitation, ciers pick up sediment as they move, in part by breaking away and grinding
water will accumulate and then flow downhill as runoff, causing up materials beneath and beside the glacier. As glaciers move, they carve
erosion. Rates of weathering, erosion, and runoff are highly the land beneath and transport sediment that has been incorporated in the
variable, sometimes quite rapid and other times very slow. ice. They deposit this sediment when the ice melts.
3. As moving water and the

sediment it carries encounter
obstructions, like solid rocks
and loose debris, the water’s
energy helps break apart the
obstruction and picks up and
transports the pieces (⊲).
Flowing water is the most
important agent sculpting
the land surface.
01.07.a2 Rampart Creek, Alberta
4. Water in oceans,

lakes, wetlands, and
other places on land
can evaporate into
water vapor in the
atmosphere. The water
vapor can return to
Earth as precipitation.
6. Water in lakes, rivers, and runoff can The flow of water from
sink into the ground and travel through cracks and the land and oceans to
other empty spaces in rocks and soils. This subsurface the atmosphere and
groundwater can react chemically with rocks through which it flows. It back again is the
flows toward lower areas, where it may emerge back on Earth’s sur- hydrologic cycle.
01.07.a1
face as springs (▼).
01.07.a4 Grand Canyon, AZ 01.07.a3 Marshall Point, ME
5. The uppermost part
of the oceans is con-
stantly in motion, pri-
marily due to the force
of wind blowing across
the surface. Winds
blowing across the
oceans cause waves
(⊲) that erode and
shape shorelines.
What Is Above, At, and Below Earth’s Surface?

Earth consists of four overlapping spheres: the lithosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere, and atmosphere. The lithosphere is the
solid Earth, the hydrosphere represents Earth’s water, and the atmosphere is its air. The biosphere includes all the places
where there is life, from up in the atmosphere, on land, and beneath the oceans.
1. The atmosphere is a mix of mostly nitrogen and oxygen gas that

surrounds Earth’s surface. It includes the air, clouds, and precipita-
tion, and it gradually diminishes in concentration out to a distance of
approximately 100 km, the approximate edge of outer space. It is
78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, less than 1% argon, and smaller amounts
of carbon dioxide and other gases. It has a variable amount of
water vapor, averaging about 1%, mostly in the lower atmosphere.
2. The biosphere includes life and all of the places it can exist on,
below, and above Earth’s surface. In addition to the abundant life on
Earth’s surface, the biosphere extends about 10 km up into the
atmosphere, to the bottom of the deepest oceans, and downward
into the cracks and tiny spaces in the subsurface. In addition to
visible plants and animals, Earth has a large population of diverse
microorganisms.
3. The hydrosphere includes water in all its expressions, including

oceans, lakes, rivers, streams, wetlands, glaciers, groundwater, mois-
ture in soil, and water vapor in clouds. Over 96% of water on Earth
is salt water in the oceans, and most freshwater is in glaciers and
groundwater, not in lakes and rivers.
4. The lithosphere refers generally to the solid upper part of the

Earth and specifically to the combination of the crust and strong
part of the uppermost mantle. Water, air, and life extend down into
the lithosphere, so the boundary between the solid Earth and other
spheres is not distinct, and the four spheres partially overlap.
01.07.b1
Learning with Concept Sketches
G
eology is a very visual science, relying runoff, and evaporation. We have a great sugges- Then, decide what features you need to show
on photographs, graphs, and many types tion to help you learn, retain, and apply any new on your sketch to represent these features, pro-
of illustrations to show geologic fea- information—construct a concept sketch! cesses, and relationships. Draw your sketch and
tures and to represent how various natural sys- A concept sketch, like the one shown below, write complete sentences describing the sketch,
tems operate. The main figure on the facing is a simplified sketch annotated with labels and including labels and leader lines as needed.
page shows how water moves on our planet from complete sentences that describe the features, You can then simply review your concept
the atmosphere to the land and sea, and back to processes, and relationships between different sketch later.
the atmosphere as part of the hydrologic cycle. aspects. By constructing a concept sketch, you
It can be difficult to keep track of all the pro- are putting the information into your own words
cesses that are occurring, such as precipitation, and drawings. Research and our experience with
teaching thousands of
Draw a concept sketch that shows
students show that
the major ways that water moves on,
this process greatly under, and above Earth’s surface.
aids learning and
improves student per- Explain how moving water, ice, and
formance in the class. wind can shape the Earth’s surface.
To construct a Sketch and explain Earth’s four
concept sketch, begin spheres, especially what characterizes
by listing the fea- each sphere and how they interact.
1.7
tures, processes, and

relationships you Describe how to construct a concept
want to describe. sketch.
01.07.t1
18
1.8 What Is Earth’s Place in the Solar System?

EARTH IS NOT ALONE IN SPACE. It is part of a system of planets and moons associated with the Sun, which
together comprise a solar system. The Sun is the most important object for Earth because it provides light and heat,
without which life would be difficult if not impossible. Earth has a number of neighbors, including the Moon.
What Are Earth’s Nearest Neighbors?

Earth has five nearby neighbors — three other planets, one moon, and the Sun. The Sun and the Moon have direct
effects on Earth. Both exert gravitational pull on our planet, and the Sun is our primary source of energy. The three
planets (Mercury, Mars, and Venus), while not affecting us directly, provide glimpses of how Earth might have turned
out. Earth and these three other planets are rocky and are called terrestrial planets, or simply the inner planets.
1. The Sun is the center of our solar system. It is by far the largest object in our solar system, but it is only a medium-sized
star compared with other suns in our galaxy. The Sun’s gravity is strong enough to keep all the planets orbiting around it.
On Earth, a year is defined as the time it takes Earth to complete one orbit around the Sun.
2. The Sun creates light, heat, and other types of energy by fusing together hydrogen atoms
in the process of nuclear fusion. This process is different than the process of nuclear fission,
which causes atoms to break apart and is how Earth generates much of its internal heat. The
Sun is the only object in our solar system that generates its own light — all the planets and
moons, including our own, are bright because they reflect the Sun’s light.
5. Mars is farther from the Sun

and is smaller than Earth.
Recent exploration of Mars
reveals that water once flowed
on the planet’s surface.
3. Mercury and Venus are planets

that are closer to the Sun than 4. The closest object to Earth is the
Earth. Both planets are much Moon, which reflects sunlight back toward
warmer than Earth but for different Earth, providing at least some light on
reasons. Mercury is close to the Sun most nights. The Moon’s surface is cov-
and has almost no atmosphere ered with craters produced by meteoroid
blocking the Sun’s energy. Venus impacts. Many craters are large enough to
has a thick atmosphere that traps be seen from Earth with binoculars. The
heat like a greenhouse. Venus is Moon’s gravity (along with that of the Sun)
01.08.a1 shrouded in clouds but is shown causes tides in the Earth’s oceans.
here with no clouds.
What Are Some Characteristics of the Outer Planets?

The four outer planets, Pluto, and many asteroids are farther from the Sun than Mars. The outer planets are called
gas giants because of their large size and gas-rich character. Pluto is a small, distant object that is no longer considered
to be a planet by many astronomers.
1. Hundreds of times larger than Earth, Jupiter is the largest planet in the solar system. Like 3. Uranus and Neptune are smaller gas-
the Sun, Jupiter is composed mostly of hydrogen and helium. It has a distinctly banded, giant planets, but these planets are still
swirly atmosphere with what appears to be a huge red storm. Jupiter and the other gas much larger than Earth. Their atmospheres
giants are much larger than the inner planets. contain significant methane, which causes
their bluish color.
2. Saturn is a gas giant similar to
Jupiter in composition and atmo-
sphere. Saturn has huge, beautiful
rings, composed mostly of small
chunks of ice and dust (as observed
by the Cassini spacecraft).
4. Far from the Sun, Pluto is a small, icy object.

Most astronomers no longer consider Pluto to
be a planet, but instead think it is related to
similar icy objects farther out in the solar sys-
tem. This designation leaves our solar system
with eight true planets instead of the nine we
have traditionally considered. Pluto’s size is
greatly exaggerated here compared
with the Sun and eight planets.
5. Asteroids are rocky fragments left over from the formation of the solar system. Most orbit
between Mars and Jupiter and have a composition that is similar to certain meteorites.
What Is the Shape and Spacing of the Orbits of the Planets?

1. If we step back from the solar sys- 2. Observe that all of the planets’ 3. Earth’s orbit is essentially circular, so Earth
tem so we can see the shape of each orbits, including Earth’s orbit, receives nearly the same amount of light and heat at
planet’s orbit, this is what the orbits of are almost circular. In other all times of the year. Earth’s seasons (summer and
the inner planets and Jupiter look like. words, Earth is at about the winter), therefore, are not caused by changes in the
In other words, if you traveled straight same distance from the Sun distance between Earth and the Sun. The seasons
up from the Arctic, perpendicular to during all times of the year. have another explanation, which involves the tilt of
the orbit of the planets, this is the Earth’s spin axis relative to its orbit, a topic we
view you would have. explore later in this book.
4. Note how far from the Sun
Jupiter is compared with the
inner planets. The distance
from Jupiter to Saturn is
greater than the distance from Before You Leave This Page
the Sun to Mars, and the dis-
tances to Uranus and Neptune Sketch a view of the solar system, from the
(not shown) are even larger. Sun outward to Jupiter.
Jupiter is much larger, relative
5. The sizes of the to the other planets, than Explain why the Sun and the Moon are the
planets are greatly shown here. most important objects to Earth.
1.8
exaggerated here Summarize how the outer planets are different

relative to the size from the inner planets.
of the Sun.
CONNECTIONS
1.9 How Is Geology Expressed in the Black Hills
and in Rapid City?
THE BLACK HILLS OF SOUTH DAKOTA AND WYOMING are a geologic wonder. The area is home to three
national parks and one national monument. It is famous for its gold and for the presidents’ faces carved into granite
cliffs at Mount Rushmore. Rapid City, at the foot of the mountains, was devastated by a flash flood in 1972. In this
region, the impacts of geology are dramatic and provide an opportunity for us to examine how geologic concepts pre-
sented in this chapter connect together and how they apply to a real place.
What Is the Setting of the Black Hills?

1. As seen in this shaded relief map (⊳), the Black Hills are an isolated moun-
tainous area that rises above the surrounding Great Plains. The region has a
moderately high elevation, more than 1,000 m (3,000 ft) above sea level,
because the continental crust beneath the area is thick (about 45 km, or 28
mi) and because erosionally resistant rocks were uplifted to the surface. The
highest point, Harney Peak, lies near the center of the Black Hills.
2. The famous gold deposits of the Homestake Mine formed at submarine
hot springs nearly 1.8 billion years ago. The rocks were then buried deep
within the crust, where they were heated, strongly deformed, and metamor-
phosed. Much later, uplift of the Black Hills brought the rocks and gold
closer to the surface.
3. Rapid City is on the eastern flank of the Black Hills. To the south, Bad-
lands National Park, known for its intricately eroded landscapes, is carved
into soft sedimentary rocks. The Black Hills is home to many caves, includ-
ing those at Wind Caves National Park and Jewel Caves National Park.
01.09.a2 Mount Rushmore, SD

4. The presidents’
faces at Mount
Rushmore (⊲)
were chiseled into
a granite that
solidified in an
underground
magma chamber
1.7 billion years
01.09.a1 ago. The granite
01.09.a3 Devils Tower, WY and surrounding
5. Devils Tower (⊳) is a metamorphic
well-known landmark that rocks were
rises out of the Black Hills. cooled, uplifted,
The rock formed by solidifi- and overlain by a
cation of a magma cham- sequence of sedimentary layers. More recently, they were uplifted to
ber at depth, followed by the surface when the Black Hills formed 60 million years ago.
uplift and erosion to bring
the rocks to the surface.
The distinctive columns are ▼ 6. This figure shows the geometry of rock units beneath the Black
the result of fracturing as Hills. The Black Hills rose when horizontal forces squeezed the area
the hot rock cooled. and warped its rock layers. As the mountains were uplifted, erosion
stripped off upper layers of sedimentary rock (shown in purples, blues,
and greens), exposing an underlying core of ancient igneous and met-
amorphic rocks (shown in brown). Rapid City is near the boundary
between the hard, ancient bedrock in the center of
01.09.a4
the mountains and
sedimentary rocks of
the plains.
20
What Geologic Processes Affect the Rapid City Area?

This view of Rapid City is an aerial photograph superimposed over topography. Where do you think erosion is occurring?
Where are sediments being deposited? Which places are most susceptible to landslides? Examine this scene and think about
the geologic processes that might be occurring in each part of the area.
1. Rapid City is located along the mountain front, partly 2. Upturned rock layers form 3. The plains contain sedimentary rocks, some
in the foothills and partly on the plains. Some parts of a ridge that divides the city of which were deposited in a great inland sea
the city are on low areas next to Rapid Creek, which into two halves. Some of the and then buried by other rocks. With uplift of
begins in the Black Hills and flows eastward through homes are right along the the mountains and erosion, the rocks came
a gap in a ridge and then through the center of the city. creek, whereas others are on back to the surface where they are weathered
the steep hillslopes. and eroded today.
01.09.b1
4. This part of the Black Hills consists of hard 5. Rapid Creek 6. A flash flood in 1972 destroyed buildings, bridges, and
igneous and metamorphic rocks that form steep drains a large area roads along Rapid Creek, leaving the creek littered with
mountains and canyons. Farther northwest (not in of the Black Hills shattered houses and other debris, an example of the
this view), the world-famous Homestake Mine pro- and flows through hazards of living too near flowing water. After the flood,
duced 39 million ounces of gold, more than any the middle of Rapid the city decided to restrict building in areas most likely to
other mine in the Western Hemisphere. The under- City. A small dam be flooded, instead turning the flood-prone areas into
ground mine is no longer operating, but it reached forms Canyon Lake parks and trails as part of a greenbelt along the creek, a
depths of more than 2.5 km (8,000 ft)! just above the city. wise and less risky use of such space.
The Rapid City Flash Flood of 1972
I
n June of 1972, winds pushed moist air caused 160 million dollars in damage. Most of
westward up the flanks of the Black Hills, the damage occurred along the creek channel, Before You Leave This Page
forming severe thunderstorms. The huge where many homes had been built too close to
thunderstorms remained over the mountains, the creek, and in areas low enough to be flooded Briefly sketch the landscape around
where they dumped as much as 15 inches of rain by this large volume of water. Since the flood, Rapid City and explain how geology
in one afternoon and evening. This downpour the city has removed buildings on many flood- affects this landscape.
unleashed a flash flood down Rapid Creek that prone sites and developed a wide greenbelt in
was ten times larger than any previously recorded the areas most likely to flood. Some buildings Identify and explain ways that
flood on the creek. The swirling floodwaters were allowed to remain in flood-prone areas, but geology affects the people of
breached the dam at Canyon Lake, which many were raised above likely levels of future Rapid City.
increased the volume of the flood downstream floods. As for all streams, the occurrence of an Describe the events that led to
1.9
through Rapid City. The floodwaters raced exceptionally large flood causes us to reassess the Rapid City flood and explain
toward the center of the city. They killed 238 how large a flood is possible and how often such why there was so much damage.
people, destroyed more than 1,300 homes, and floods are likely to reoccur.
I N V E S T I G AT I O N
1.10 How Is Geology Affecting This Place?
GEOLOGY HAS A MAJOR ROLE, from global to local scales, in the well-being of our society. The image below
shows an aerial photograph superimposed on topography for an area near St. George, Utah. In this investigation, you
will identify some important geologic processes operating in this region and think about how geology affects the people
who live here.
Goals of This Exercise:

4. The Virgin River receives water from
• Determine where important geologic processes are occurring. precipitation in mountains around Zion
• Interpret how geology is affecting the people who live here. National Park. It enters the valley through a
narrow gorge. Hot springs at the end of the
• Identify a relatively safe place to live that is away gorge, where the river flows through the cliffs,
from geologic hazards. provide recreation.
Begin by reading the procedures list on the next page. Then examine the
figure and read the descriptions flanking the figure.
1. Most of this region receives only a small amount of rain and is fairly dry.
The low areas are part of a desert that has little vegetation and that is hot
during the summer. The dry climate, coupled with erosion, provides dra-
matic exposures of the various rocks. People living here rely on water
from wells, reservoirs, and the rivers that flow into the area from distant
mountains that receive more rain and snow than this low, dry area.
2. A high, pine-covered mountain range and steep, rocky cliffs flank

the valley. The cliffs and mountains receive abundant winter snow and
torrential summer rains, which cause flash flooding down canyons that
lead into the valley. This photograph (▼) shows the valley, mountains,
and cliffs, viewed toward the northwest. The high mountains in the
photograph are outside of the area shown in the main figure.
01.10.a2 St. George, UT
3. This figure exaggerates the height of the land surface to

better show the features. It shows the mountains twice as
high and twice as steep as they really are. Exaggerating the
topography in this way is called v ertical exaggeration.
22
Procedures
Use the figure and descriptions to complete the following steps. Record your answers in the worksheet, which will be pro-
vided by your instructor in paper form, as a printable file, or as an activity you complete online.
A. Using the image below, explore this landscape. Make observations about the land and the geologic processes implied by the
landscape. Next, mark on the provided worksheet at least one location where the following geologic processes would likely occur:
weathering, erosion, transport of sediment, deposition of sediment, formation of igneous rock, flooding, and landsliding.
B. Using your observations and interpretations, indicate on the worksheet all the ways that geology might influence the lives of the
people who live here. Think about each landscape feature and geologic process, and then decide whether it has an important
influence on the people. Where would you look for water? Is there a higher potential for a certain type of natural hazard (flooding,
earthquakes, etc.) in a particular part of the area?
C. Using all your information, select a location away from geologic hazards that would be a relatively safe place to live compared to
more hazardous sites in the area. Mark this location on your worksheet with the word Here.
01.10.a3
5. Several dark, lumpy hills are volcanoes (⊲)
that erupted in the recent geologic past (last
several million years). When the volcanoes
erupted, they poured molten rock (lava)
onto the surface and launched hot volcanic
projectiles into the air.
01.10.a4
6. The Hurricane Cliffs mark the location
of the Hurricane fault, a huge crack
through the crust. Movement along this
fault uplifted rocks on the east side,
forming the cliffs (⊲). The fault is
active and has caused a few small
and moderate-sized earthquakes.
01.10.a5
7. Along the valley, the rock lay-
ers are warped upward like a
bunched-up rug (⊲). Petroleum
formed when organic-rich lay-
ers were buried and slightly
heated, liberating the oil. The
oil rose until it became
trapped within the rock lay-
ers at depth. It is pumped to the surface in a
nearby oil field that is not on the map but is in a
geologic setting similar to the area labeled here
as an oil field.
01.10.a6
8. Early pioneers and
more recent inhabit-
ants sited farms (⊲)
next to the river
because there is
a year-round
supply of fresh
water and because floodwaters
deposit mud that replenishes the
fertile soils. The river occasion-
ally overflows its banks, flooding
the farms and other low areas,
so most houses are away from
the river or on areas that are
1.10
high enough to avoid most

floods. Farms were placed
next to the rivers, and towns
were built near the farms.
01.10.a1
CHAPTER
2 Investigating Geologic
Questions
OUR WORLD IS FULL OF GEOLOGIC MYSTERIES. Investigating these mysteries requires asking a ppropriate ques-
tions and then knowing what to observe, how to interpret what we observe, and how to analyze the problem from
different viewpoints. Also, geologic data and questions require some innovative ways to depict the types and geometries
of materials on Earth’s surface and in the subsurface. The investigation of geologic questions leads to new ideas and
theories about Earth. This chapter explores ways to investigate geologic questions, beginning with a mystery about the
Mediterranean Sea.
This image of the Mediterranean region shows the seafloor colored in shades Drilling from a research ship encountered thick layers
of blue according to depth, with darker blue representing deeper water. On land, of salt buried beneath the Mediterranean Sea. Such salt
satellite data show rock and sand in shades of brown or tan and areas with forests layers usually form when large volumes of seawater
and grasslands in shades of green. evaporate, as in hot, dry climates.
Follow the coast of the Mediterranean Sea. Where does the Mediterranean Sea How do you get salt deposits at the bottom of a sea?
connect with the Atlantic Ocean or other bodies of water?
The Mediterranean Sea loses more water to evaporation

than it receives from the rivers of Europe, Africa, and Asia.
To keep the sea full, water from the Atlantic Ocean flows
eastward through the Strait of Gibraltar and into the Medi- Geologists exploring for oil in North Africa dis-
terranean Sea. At depth, some water flows the other way, covered a series of buried canyons beneath
westward from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic. the Nile River Valley and the sands of the
Sahara Desert.
What would happen if this flow to and from the Atlantic
Ocean was blocked? When and how did these buried canyons form?
24
I n v e s t i g a t i n g G e o l o g i c Q u e s t i o n s 25
TO PI CS I N T HI S CHAPT E R
2.1 What Can We Observe in Landscapes? 26 2.7 How Do We Investigate Geologic Questions? 38
2.2 How Do We Interpret Geologic Clues? 28 2.8 How Do Scientific Ideas Get Established? 40
2.3 How Do We Depict Earth’s Surface? 30 2.9 What Does a Geologist Do? 42
2.4 How Do We Depict Earth’s Heights, Slopes, 2.10 CONNECTIONS: How Did This Crater Form? 44
and Subsurface Geology? 32
2.11 INVESTIGATION: What Is the Geologic
2.5 How Are Geologic Problems Quantified? 34 History of Upheaval Dome? 46
2.6 How Do Geologists Refer to Rates and Time? 36
About six million years ago, many species of animals

around the Mediterranean Sea and Black Sea suddenly
became extinct. Marine organisms that lived in the deeper
When the Mediterranean Sea Was a Desert
T
parts of the Mediterranean Sea were most affected. Geolo- he Mediterranean Sea is approximately 4,000 km (~2,500 mi) long
gists determined this by collecting and studying fossils. and is surrounded by land, except for its connection to the Atlantic
Ocean through the Strait of Gibraltar. The Mediterranean is, on aver-
What dramatic changes in the environment caused
age, 1,500 m (4,900 ft) deep and holds approximately 4 million cubic
these species to perish?
kilometers (1 million cubic miles) of water.
02.00.a1
In the 1960s and early 1970s, geologists made a series of puzzling dis
coveries in the Mediterranean Sea. Surveys of the seafloor using sound waves
revealed some unusual features, similar to those observed for large subsurface
layers of salt. To investigate these features, scientists used a research ship,
the Glomar Challenger, to drill holes and retrieve samples from beneath the
seafloor at water depths of several kilometers. This and later drilling docu-
mented layers of salt hundreds to thousands of meters thick within sediments
on the seafloor. Drilling also revealed sands that showed evidence of having
been deposited by wind. From these and other studies arose an amazing
idea — sometime in the past the Mediterranean Sea had completely dried up.
According to this idea, the flow of Atlantic water into the Mediterranean
Sea was blocked six million years ago by bedrock near the Strait of Gibral-
tar. The blockage probably occurred because of volcanism or uplift of bed-
rock by mountain building. As water in the Mediterranean evaporated, it
deposited layer upon layer of salt. The great thickness of the salt indicates
that seawater spilled into the Mediterranean basin from the Atlantic Ocean
many times and then evaporated. After several hundred thousand years, the
Mediterranean Sea evaporated completely! It became a dry, hot, salt flat,
similar to parts of Death Valley, but 1,500 to 3,000 m (5,000 to 10,000 ft)
below sea level. Rivers draining into this new deep basin eroded down
through the land, cutting canyons hundreds of meters deep. The drying of
the Mediterranean Sea six million years ago caused profound climate
changes in the region, leading to the extinction of many species of animals
in and around the Mediterranean and Black seas.
By 5.3 million years ago, a global rise of sea level caused Atlantic Ocean
water to spill over the bedrock and cascade in huge volumes into the Mediter-
ranean Sea. Geologists calculate that it took more than 100 years for the deluge
to refill the Mediterranean basin. As the Mediterranean Sea rose, adjacent riv-
ers deposited sediment that filled and buried the recently cut canyons. The
development of this explanation for layers of salt beneath the Mediterranean is
a classic example of how science works. Geologists were puzzled by the pos-
sible presence of salt and sought an explanation. They gathered additional data
and developed an explanation that explained the salt, buried canyons, and
extinctions. Geologists continue evaluating the idea today, filling in and refin-
2.0
ing the story as they complete additional investigations. One question currently
being investigated is whether the sea dried out and was refilled only once or
was filled, dried out, and was refilled more than once.
26
2.1 What Can We Observe in Landscapes?

EARTH’S GEOLOGIC HISTORY IS RECORDED in its rocks and landscapes. To understand this history, we often
begin by observing a landscape to determine what is there. Most geologic landscapes display a variety of features, such
as different rock layers that we can distinguish by color, texture, and the way the rocks fracture. These pages provide
a guide for observing a landscape and reading its story.
What Features Do Landscapes Display?

Observe the top photograph, trying to identify distinct parts of the scene and then focusing on one part at a time. After
examining the photograph, read the accompanying text.
02.01.a1 Canyonlands NP, UT
Color commonly catches our attention. These rocks are various shades of
red, tan, and gray. Close examination of these rocks by geologists reveals
that the rocks consist of consolidated sand and mud, and therefore are
sedimentary rocks.
Another thing to notice is that this hill has different parts. A small knob of
light-colored rocks sits on the very top.
Below the knob is a reddish and tan slope and a small reddish cliff.
There is a main, light-colored cliff, the upper part of which has a tan color
and is fairly smooth and rounded.
Some parts of the cliff have horizontal lines that can be followed around
corners of the cliff. These lines are the outward expression of layers within
the rock. We call such layers in sedimentary rocks beds or bedding. These
beds originally extended across the area prior to more recent erosion.
Lower parts of the cliff have a darker reddish-brown color and display many
sharp angles and corners. Some of these corners coincide with vertical
cracks, or fractures, that extend back into the rock. The reddish-brown color
is a natural stain on the outside of the rocks.
Below the cliff is a slope that has pinkish-red areas locally covered by loose
pieces of light-colored rock. A reasonable interpretation is that the loose
pieces have fallen off the main cliff.
02.01.a2 Canyonlands NP, UT
In this figure, color overlays accentuate different features and parts of the hill.
1 Compare these features with the photograph above.
2 The uppermost three rock units (numbered 1, 2, and 3) are shaded tan,
yellow, and orange. Rocks of the main cliff (4) are shaded light purple.
On the lower slope, the reddish rocks are shaded light orange (5),
3
whereas the covering of loose, light-colored rocks is shaded gray (6).
Brown lines highlight beds in the rock units.

4 Black lines mark fractures cutting the rocks.
Simplifying this scene into a few types of features makes it easier to

observe, describe, and understand the landscape. In this landscape, we
observe only a few beds and rock layers but many fractures. Some layers
are more resistant to weathering and form cliffs, whereas less resistant ones
form slopes. Weathering has rounded off corners on the top of the cliff,
removed the reddish-brown stain, and loosened pieces that fell off the cliff,
covering a slope of underlying, reddish rocks.
6 5 Reexamine the top photograph. Do you look at the scene differently? Try this
strategy when observing features close to where you live.
What Are Some Strategies for Observing Landscapes?

Observe the photograph of Monument Valley below and try to recognize the types of features, such as layers and fractures,
described on the previous page. After you have made your observations, read the text, which describes aspects to observe
and some helpful strategies for looking at any landscape. Start by observing the photograph.
1. Most landscapes have a fairly complex 2. Another approach is to let the geology 3. Next, try focusing on one type of geologic
appearance when viewed in their entirety, so guide your observations from one part to feature at a time. In this photograph, start by
a useful approach is to focus on one part of another. In this scene, spend some time concentrating on the fractures in the cliff. Are
the landscape at a time. In the scene below, looking only at the cliff, and then focus on they steep, and are they evenly spaced? How
examine the left side of the image and com- the reddish slope below the cliff. Next, pay do they affect the appearance of the cliff?
pare it to the center. What similarities and dif- attention to the piles of loose rocks that rest Use the same approach to look at the ledges
ferences do you observe? on the reddish slope. that cross the reddish slope.
02.01.b1 Monument Valley, AZ
4. Color is one of the first things we notice in
any scene. Rocks, sediment, and soils have a
range of colors depending on the composition
of the materials and the environmental condi-
tions imprinted on those materials. Some col-
ors are integral to the rock, but others are a
natural stain on the outside surfaces of the
rock. The rocks of Monument Valley are red-
dish brown to tan inside, but are locally
coated by a darker brown stain.
5. Some rock types are more resistant to ero-

sion than others and have more dramatic
expressions in the landscape. Cliffs and
ledges generally represent rock types that are
hard to erode, as shown by the cliffs of hard
sandstone in this photograph. Slopes or soil-
covered areas contain weaker materials, such
as the loose windblown sand in the fore-
ground of this image.
8. To visualize different components of a land- 7. The shapes of eroded rocks depend on 6. Obvious features in many landscapes are
scape, draw a sketch that captures the main the hardness of the rock, thickness of layers, layers in the rocks. The cliff represents a
features but leaves out less important details. spacing of fractures, and many other factors. thick layer of sandstone, whereas the underly-
Compare the sketch below with the photo- Landscapes change over time, so shapes ing slopes and ledges are the expression of
graph above. Note how the sketch changes seen today will evolve into different shapes dozens of layers. In this location, the layers
the way you look at the photograph. on timescales of years to millions of years. are nearly horizontal, but layers can be tilted
or even folded. These differences in orienta-
02.01.b2 tion have a great impact on the appearance
of the resulting landscape. To understand
how layers influence the landscape, you first
observe the layers and recognize how they
are oriented.

Draw a simple sketch of a landscape
photograph, identifying the main
components, like those shown on
these pages.
Summarize the different aspects
2.1
or features you can observe in

a landscape.
28
2.2 How Do We Interpret Geologic Clues?

LANDSCAPES AND ROCKS CONTAIN MANY CLUES about their geologic history. From the characteristics of a
rock, we can infer the environment in which the rock formed. We can also apply some simple principles to determine
the age of one rock unit or geologic feature relative to another. Changes in landscapes through time provide additional
clues about how a place has changed and why it has its present appearance.
How Can We Infer the Environment in Which a Rock Formed?

To infer how a rock formed, compare its characteristics, such as the size and roundness of pebbles or other material it
contains, to those of deposits in modern environments, and decide which environment is the best match. Observe the
characteristics of the rock in the large photograph to the left and compare the rock with the photos of sediment deposited
in two modern environments. Which of these environments is most similar to the one in which the rock formed?
02.02.a1 Emery, UT 02.02.a3 Salt River, AZ
⊲ Many river channels
contain rounded stones
surrounded by a matrix of
sand. Does this sediment
resemble the rock in the
photograph to the left?
⊳ Steep mountain fronts

typically contain angular
rocks of many sizes in a
matrix of mud, sand, or
small rock fragments.
02.02.a2 Moab, UT
How Can We Envision the Slow Change of Landscapes Through Time?

Most landscapes evolve so slowly that we rarely notice significant changes in our lifetime. To get around this limitation,
geologists use a strategy called trading location for time, which uses different parts of a landscape to represent different
stages in the evolution of the landscape. In other words, we mentally arrange the different parts into a logical progression
of how we interpret the landscape to have changed, or will change, through time. The three models below illustrate this
approach; each could represent a different place or a different stage in the evolution of a landscape. The earliest stage is
on the left, and the most recent is on the right.
1. Erosion cuts
into a sequence 3. With sufficient
of rock layers, time, erosion con-
carving a moun- tinues to wear
tain with steep down the terrain,
sides and a leaving low,
broad top. Such rounded hills and
a flat-topped isolated knobs.
mountain is Given enough
called a mesa. 02.02.b1 02.02.b2 02.02.b3
time, a mesa can
2. With time, erosion wears away the edges of the mesa, forming a smaller, steep-sided evolve first into a butte and then into one or more
mountain, which geologists commonly call a butte. rounded hills and knobs.
02.02.b4 Monument Valley, AZ-UT
4. Try out the strategy of trading location for time in the
photograph to the right. Observe the three main features
and recognize that each could represent a phase in the
evolution of the landscape. Next envision the sequence of
events where a mesa could have been eroded into the
center butte and then into the rounded hill on the right.
How Do We Determine the Sequence of Past Geologic Events?

When exploring the geology of an area, we like to know the sequence of events that formed the rocks and geologic
features. We determine the relative ages of rocks and geologic features by using common-sense principles, including the
four described below.
Principle 1: The Youngest Layer Is on Top, Principle 2: A Geologic Feature Is Younger

and the Oldest Is on the Bottom Than a Rock Unit or Feature It Crosscuts
Any rock layer must be A feature (fault)
younger than any offsett ing the
rock unit on layers must be
which it is younger than
deposited. rock layers it
Here, the red- crosses and dis-
dish layer on places. The fault
top is the does not offset
youngest. The the land surface,
bottom yel- so the land surface
lowish layer is 02.02.c2 is younger. There are
02.02.c1
the oldest rock unit, and other types of cross-
overlying layers are successively younger. cutting relationships, such
a magma that cuts across existing rocks.
Principle 3: A Younger Rock or Deposit Principle 4: A Younger Magma Can Bake

Can Include Pieces of an Older Rock or Otherwise Change Older Rocks That Are Nearby
For these gray, When this dark-gray granite was molten, heat
pebble-sized from the magma baked and
pieces (called metamorphosed the
clasts) to have adjacent, preexist-
been incorpo- ing rocks, causing
rated into the a narrow reddish
tan layer, the zone next to the
clasts had to granite. Baking can
already exist. occur underground,
The tan layer as in this case, and
02.02.c4
is younger than beneath molten lava
02.02.c3
both the clasts and the gray or hot volcanic ash
bedrock that contributed the clasts. erupted on the surface.
02.02.c5 Death Valley, CA

⊳ An exciting part of geology is visiting a new place and figuring out
what events happened and in what order. This outcrop (rock exposure)
shows three rock units. The upper unit contains light-gray, angular pieces.
The lowest unit has light-gray layers that are tilted. Between these two
units is a thin unit that lacks large clasts and is medium gray. Take a
minute to use the prin-
ciples described
above to interpret the
relative ages of the Before You Leave This Page
three units. Not all
principles may apply. Describe the overall philosophy used
to infer the environment in which a
The upper rock is rock formed.
youngest, because it
overlies the other Describe or sketch what is meant by
units and contains trading location for time.
clasts of the lowest
Sketch and summarize four principles
2.2
unit. The lower unit is

used to determine the relative ages of
on the bottom and is
rocks and geologic features.
the oldest.
30
2.3 How Do We Depict Earth’s Surface?

THE SURFACE OF EARTH displays various features, including mountains, hillslopes, and river valleys. We commonly
represent such features on the land surface with topographic maps and shaded-relief maps. To depict the types of
materials on Earth’s surface, we use satellite images and geologic maps. A geologic map is the most important piece
of geologic information for an area because it shows the ages and types of rocks and sediment, as well as geologic
features, some of which could pose a natural hazard.
How Do Maps and Satellite Images Help Us Study Earth’s Surface?

Satellite images and various types of maps are the primary ways we portray the land surface. Some maps depict the shape
and elevation of the land surface, whereas others represent the materials on that surface. Views and maps of SP Crater in
northern Arizona provide a particularly clear example of the relationship between geologic features, the land surface, and
different types of maps.
02.03.a1 SP Crater, AZ
1. This perspective view has aerial 3. In the center of the area is a nearly
photography (photographs taken black feature, which is a solidified lava
from the air) superimposed over flow formed when fluid magma
topography (shape of the land). erupted onto the surface in the last
Take a look! What features do 5,000 years. The scoria cone at the
you observe in the topogra- southern end of the lava flow is
phy? Which areas are high in named SP Crater and is well
elevation? What are the most known to most geologists.
distinctive features?
2. The area has distinct, 4. Examine other features in
cone-shaped hills sur- the scene. Note the light-gray
rounded by broad, less areas in the upper left parts
steep areas. The hills of the image, and the linear
are small volcanoes features that cut across the
called scoria gray rocks. This entire
cones, which form area is dry, with few
when fragments trees to obscure the
of molten rock geology. There is a
are ejected clear correspon-
into the air and dence between the
settle around a topographic and
volcanic vent. geologic features.
02.03.a2 SP Crater, AZ 02.03.a3 SP Crater, AZ
Before You Leave

These Pages
Describe how each of
the four types of maps
and images depicts
Earth’s surface.
Describe what contours
on a topographic map
▲ 6. This photograph, taken from the large represent and how contour
crater south of SP Crater, shows the crater spacing indicates the
⊳ 5. This photo- (on the left) and several other scoria steepness of a slope.
graph, taken from the cones. The view is toward the north.
air, shows SP Crater Briefly describe what a
and the dark lava geologic map shows, using
flow that erupted the area around SP Crater
from the base of as an example.
the volcano.
7. A shaded-relief map (▼) emphasizes the shape of the 8. A topographic map (▼) shows the elevation of
land by simulating light and dark shading on the hills and the land surface with a series of lines called con-
valleys. The individual hills on this map are scoria cones. tours. Each contour line follows a specific elevation
The area is cut by straight and curving stream valleys on the surface. Standard shaded-relief maps and
that appear as gouges in the landscape. Simulated light topographic maps depict the shape of the land sur-
comes from the upper left corner of the image. face but give no specific information about geology.
02.03.a4 02.03.a5
9. Most topographic
maps show every fifth
contour with a darker
line, to help empha-
size the broader pat-
terns and to allow
easier following of
lines across the map.
These dark lines are
called index contours.
10. Adjacent contour

lines are widely spaced
where the land
surface is fairly flat
(has a gentle slope).
11. Contour lines are

more closely spaced
where the land sur-
face is steep, such as
on the slopes of the
scoria cones. Note
how the shapes of the
contours reflect the
shapes of the different
scoria cones.
12. A satellite image (▼) commonly uses measurements 13. A geologic map (▼) represents the distribution of rock
of different wavelengths of light reflecting from a land units and geologic features exposed on the surface. This
surface. The computer-processed image below shows one shows SP Crater and its associated lava flow and
the distribution of different types of plants, rocks, and older rock units. Compare the colored areas on this geo-
other features. The dark area in the center of the image logic map with the different areas visible on the satellite
is the black, solidified lava flow that erupted from the image to the left. Each color on this geologic map repre-
base of SP Crater, and reddish areas are scoria cones. sents areas that have a certain type of rock or feature.
02.03.a6 02.03.a7
14. The gray area in
the center of the map
marks the SP lava flow,
and light pinkish-brown
areas are scoria cones.
Light pink represents
volcanic cinders and
older lava flows. Laven-
der indicates areas with
light-colored rock (lime-
stone) at the surface.
15. Compare the four

maps to match specific
features of the area.
Which map or image
gives you the best
information about
2.3
the shape of the land-

scape? Which of these
gives you the best
information about
the geology?
32
2.4 How Do We Depict Earth’s Heights, Slopes,

and Subsurface Geology?
DIAGRAMS OF THE LAND SURFACE AND UNDERLYING GEOLOGY are essential tools for visualizing and
understanding Earth. We use two-dimensional and three-dimensional diagrams to depict the steepness of slopes, the
thickness and subsurface geometry of rock units, and how these units interact with the surface. Some diagrams show
interpretations of how present-day landscapes formed via a sequence of geologic events.
How Do We Refer to Differences in Topography?

Earth’s surface is not flat and featureless but instead has high and low parts. Topography is steep in some areas but nearly
flat in others. We use common terms to refer to the height of the land and the steepness of slopes.
1. The height of a feature above sea level is its 3. We also refer to the height of a
elevation. Scientists describe elevation in meters feature above an adjacent lower
or kilometers above sea level, but some maps area. The difference in elevation of
and most signs list elevation in feet. one feature relative to another is
topographic relief. Like elevation, we
2. Beneath water, measure relief in meters or feet; we
we talk about refer to rugged areas as having high
depth, generally relief and to topographically subdued
expressing it as areas as having low relief.
depth below sea
level. We use 4. Cliffs and slopes that drop sharply
meters for shal- in elevation are steep slopes,
low depths and whereas topography that is less steep
kilometers for is referred to as being gentle, as in a
deep ones. gentle slope.
02.04.a1
How Do We Represent Topographic Slopes?

We can depict steepness of the land surface with an imaginary slice through a terrain, like one through SP Crater and its
surroundings (▼). This type of portrayal of ups and downs of the land surface is a topographic profile.
1. The front of this figure 4. Imagine traveling across this
shows the change in 02.04.b1 SP Crater, AZ terrain along the line of the pro-
elevation across file. Some parts (the gentle
the land surface. slopes) are relatively easy
It is a type of to travel across,
topographic whereas the steep
profile. slopes require
more effort.
2. Steeper parts of the profile represent steep slopes on 3. Other parts of the profile are less steep, including lower
the sides of the small volcanoes. There is moderate elevation plains surrounding the volcanoes. There is only
relief between the peaks and surrounding plains. low relief from one part of the plains to another.
5. Some topographic profiles are sim- 6. We describe steepness of

ple plots of height of the topography W E
a slope in degrees from hori-
versus distance across the land, like zontal. The eastern slope of SP
the black line that traces a profile 26º Crater has a 26-degree slope
across SP Crater (⊲). The profile runs (26° slope). We also talk about
from west (on the left) to east (on the gradient — a 26° slope drops
right), so it is an east-west profile. 480 meters over a distance of
Most topographic profiles have such 1,000 meters (one kilometer),
directions labeled directly on the plot, typically expressed as 0.48, or
along with scales for elevation and 480 m /1,000 m.
for horizontal distances. 02.04.b2 SP Crater, AZ
How Do We Represent Geologic Features in the Subsurface?

Most of our planet’s geology is beneath Earth’s surface, hidden from our view. We are most aware of rock units and other
earth materials if they are exposed in outcrops on a mountainside, in a deep canyon, or perhaps in a roadside cut created
during road construction (a roadcut). However, such units are also present beneath areas of relatively gentle topography.
Geologic diagrams help us envision and understand the thicknesses, orientations, and subsurface distributions of rock units.
Such diagrams are also important ways in which geologists document and communicate their understanding of an area.
Block Diagram
1. A block diagram portrays in three dimensions the shape of the land surface and the subsurface distributions of
rock units. It also shows the location and orientation of faults, folds, and other geologic features (if present).
Cross Section Stratigraphic Section

2. A cross 3. A stratigraphic section shows
section shows the rock units stacked on top of
the geology as one another (with appropriate
a two-dimen- relative thicknesses).
sional slice
through the
land. This exam- 4. Commonly, the patterns within
ple is equivalent each rock unit visually represent the
to the front-left character of the unit, such as the
side of the blocky fractures in the gray unit or
block diagram. the rounded pebbles in this orange-
colored sedimentary unit.
02.04.c1
5. One edge of the diagram (here the left edge) typically conveys
the relative resistance of the different rock units to weathering and
erosion. A more easily eroded unit is recessed, like the orange unit
with the pebbles, whereas more resistant units protrude farther out,
like the two gray units.
Evolutionary Diagrams
6. Evolutionary diagrams (⊲) are
block diagrams, cross sections, or
maps that show the history of an
area as a series of steps, proceeding
from the earliest stages to the most
recent one. Here, the upper tan rock
layer depicted in the figures above is
deposited on the gray layer and later 02.04.c2
eroded.
Earliest Stage: Intermediate Stage: Late Stage:
Arrival of Sea Deposition of Layer Erosion of Layers
Sketching Geology 02.04.t1
A
challenge of geology is trying to
visualize how geology exposed at
the surface continues at depth.
Sketch and describe what we mean
Sketches drawn in the field while studying
by elevation, depth, relief, and slope.
the geology capture one’s thoughts while they
are still fresh and while ideas can be tested Sketch or describe the types of
by making additional field observations. The diagrams geologists use to
sketch to the right is a simplified geologic represent subsurface geology
cross section drawn to summarize field rela- and the sequence of rock units.
2.4
tionships for some faulted rock layers. A Sketch or describe what is shown
sketch is an excellent way to conceptualize from a textbook, because it emphasizes the by a series of evolutionary diagrams.
and think about geology, either in the field or most important features.
34
2.5 How Are Geologic Problems Quantified?

GEOLOGISTS APPROACH PROBLEMS IN MANY WAYS, asking questions about Earth processes and then collect-
ing data that help answer these questions. Some questions require quantitative data, which are numeric and are typically
visualized and analyzed using data tables, calculations, equations, and graphs.
What Is the Difference Between Qualitative and Quantitative Data?

02.05.a1 Augustine Island, AK 02.05.a2 Augustine Island, AK 02.05.a3 Augustine Island, AK
When Augustine volcano in Alaska erupts, Qualitative data include descriptive words, Quantitative data involve numbers that repre-
geologists make various types of observations labels, sketches, or other images. We can sent measurements. Most result from scientific
and measurements. Some observations are describe this picture of Augustine volcano instruments, such as this thermal camera that
qualitative, like simple descriptions, and others with phrases like “contains large, angular frag- records temperatures on Augustine volcano,
are measurements that are quantitative. Both ments,” “releases steam,” or “the rocks are or with simple measuring devices like a com-
types of data are essential for documenting mostly gray.” Such phrases can convey impor- pass. Geologists collect quantitative data in
geologic phenomena. tant information about the site. the field and in the lab.
What Quantitative Properties Do We Measure in the Field?

Geologists often describe features qualitatively, but they also collect quantitative data, which consist of numeric values
measured with scientific tools or instruments. Some measurements are collected in the field.
02.05.b1 Lake Pleasant, AZ 02.05.b2 Kyrgyzstan
⊳ ORIENTATION: Geologists observe and
measure the orientation of geologic features,
such as layers, fractures, and folds. In this
view, a geologist is using a level on a hand-
held compass to measure how much the sed-
imentary layers have been tilted.
⊲ SURFACE FEATURES: Most geologists

use topographic and other maps to mark
locations of data, but some geologists use
precise surveying instruments to study
geologic phenomena. Such measurements
can document the movement of the land
surface before or after an earthquake or
volcanic eruption.
02.05.b3 Augustine volcano, AK 02.05.b4 Yellowstone NP, WY

⊳ GAS COMPOSITION: Volcanoes emit vari-
ous gases, and the quantity and composition
of these gases change over time. Gas mea-
surements provide valuable clues about
whether a volcano is preparing to erupt.
⊲ WATER FLOW AND CHEMISTRY: We can

measure the velocity and volume of flowing
water in rivers and groundwater, and chemical
analyses, including some performed in the
field, document what the water contains.
What Quantitative Properties Do We Measure in the Laboratory?

Some data collection requires laboratory environments for preparation of samples and for analysis with sophisticated
scientific instruments. Laboratory measurements are the main source of our understanding of the physical properties,
chemical composition, and ages of rocks, soils, and other geologic materials.
02.05.c1 State College, PA 02.05.c2 Buckskin Mtns., AZ 02.05.c3 Syracuse, NY
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES: Density, strength, and COMPOSITION: Chemical analyses and the AGE: Certain rocks can be dated using pre-
other physical properties of a rock, as mea- percentage of different materials in a rock, as cise analytical instruments that measure the
sured in the laboratory, form the basis for measured in the lab, provide information ratios between different types of radioactive
evaluating how rocks behave when subjected about the composition of the rock and the elements. Magnetic measurements also help
to forces, such as during earthquakes. conditions under which the rock formed. infer the age of some sequences of rocks.
How Do We Calculate Density, and How Does It Differ from Weight?

Density is a very important quantitative property for understanding the interior of Earth. It controls regional elevations and
causes forces that result in earthquakes. We determine or estimate the density of earth materials by directly measuring a rock
in the laboratory, by using instruments to measure the pull of gravity, or by numerically analyzing how fast seismic waves
pass through materials between an earthquake and a seismic-recording device.
Density Weight
1. Density refers to how much mass (substance) is 3. The weight of an object is how much downward force it exerts under the pull of gravity. Weight
present in a given volume. Below, a wooden depends on how much mass the object contains and the strength of the gravity field.
block, a “cube” of water, and a stone block all
have the same shape and volume but different 4. A person has the same mass, whether
amounts of mass. The wood is less dense than standing on Earth or on the Moon. If the
water and floats, but the stone is more dense and person weighs 180 pounds on Earth, he
sinks. The cube of water has the same density as or she will weigh only 30 pounds on the
the surrounding water and so does not sink to the Moon (because of the Moon’s lower grav-
bottom or float on the surface. ity). When addressing scientific issues, sci-
entists rarely talk about weight, instead
referring to mass and using metric-system
units like g/cm3.
02.05.d3
02.05.d1
2. We calculate density using the following formula:
Explain how qualitative data differ
density = mass/volume from quantitative data.
We measure mass in grams or kilograms, and vol- Describe several types of quantitative
ume in cubic centimeters, cubic meters, or liters. data that geologists use.
Density is therefore in units of g/cm3 or g/L. Water
Describe what density is, how it is
2.5
has a density of 1 g/cm3 at room temperature and

pressure, whereas ice, which floats on water, is calculated, and how it differs
02.05.d2 from weight.
slightly less dense at 0.92 g/cm3. Granite has a
higher density of 2.65 g/cm3.
36
2.6 How Do Geologists Refer to Rates and Time?

TIME IS ONE OF THE MOST IMPORTANT ASPECTS of geology and is one of the key things that makes geology
different from most other sciences. Geologists commonly investigate events that happened thousands, millions, or
billions of years ago. Many geologic events and processes occur over long periods of time and at rates that are so slow
as to be nearly imperceptible. The magnitude of geologic time is immense, and it is difficult for even some geologists
to comprehend. So geologic time needs a special language and calendar.
How Do We Refer to Rates of Geologic Events and Processes?

We calculate the rates of geologic processes in a way similar to how we calculate the speed of a car or a runner. The major
difference is that most geologic rates are measured using metric units of millimeters per year or centimeters per year instead
of miles per hour or feet per second. Many geologic rates, like uplift of a mountain range, are generally quite slow, but
others, like earthquakes, are rapid.
1. A runner (⊲) provides a good 3. Geologic processes faster than the runner
reminder of how to calculate rates. include the motion of the energy formed
A rate is how much something by earthquakes (5 km/s) or the speed of
changed divided by the time an explosive volcanic eruption (100s km/hr).
required for the change to occur.
2. If this runner sprinted 40 meters 4. Geologic processes slower than the runner
in 5 seconds, the runner’s average include the movement of groundwater (m/
speed is calculated as follows: day), the motion of continents (cm/yr), and
02.06.a1 uplift and erosion of the land surface (as fast
distance/time = 40 m/5 s = 8 m/s as mm/yr, but typically much slower).
How Do We Subdivide Geologic Time?

The geologic history of Earth is long, so geologists commonly refer to time spans in millions of years (m.y.) or billions of
years (b.y.). If we are referring to times before the present, we use the abbreviation Ma (mega-annum) for millions of years
before present and Ga (giga-annum) for billions of years before present. We also use a special calendar to refer to the four
main chapters of Earth’s geologic history.
5. Each of the four

1. The most recent chapter in Earth history is chapters represents a
the Cenozoic Era, which began at 66 Ma different amount of
(66 m.y. ago) and continues to the present. geologic time.
6. The figure to the left

2. The next oldest chapter is the Mesozoic omits much of the Pre-
Era, which refers to the time interval from cambrian because that
252 Ma to 66 Ma. It largely coincides with time interval is so long
the time when dinosaurs roamed the planet. compared to the other
three chapters.
3. The Paleozoic Era started at 541 Ma, a 7. The figure to the
date that marks the widespread appearance right is drawn to scale
of abundant creatures with shells and other and shows all of the
hard body parts. It ended at 252 Ma when Precambrian. The Pre-
many Paleozoic organisms became extinct. cambrian, often divided
into early and late
parts, represents
4. The oldest chapter in Earth’s history is the approximately 90% of
Precambrian. It includes most of Earth’s history geologic time, whereas
and extends from about 4,500 Ma (that is, the Cenozoic Era repre-
4.5 billion years before the present, or 4.5 Ga) sents only 1.4% of geo-
to 541 Ma, the start of the Paleozoic Era. 02.06.b1 logic time.
02.06.b2
What Are Some Important Times in Earth’s History?

1. If the entire 4.5-billion-year-long history of Earth is scaled to a 2. On this calendar, the oldest dated rocks (about 3.9 to 4.0 b.y. old) would
single calendar year, the Precambrian takes up the first 10 fall in early March. The oldest known fossils are only a little younger (in late
months and part of November. On this geologic calendar, Earth March). Both are within Precambrian time, a long time interval before the
formed on January 1. Paleozoic Era. This calendar shows the Precambrian in light brown.
02.06.c1
3. Animals having hard shells became commonplace at about 541 4. Earth’s final two chapters began in December. The Paleozoic Era ended
Ma. On our calendar, this is the middle of November. This event is and the Mesozoic Era started at 252 Ma, in mid-December. The Mesozoic
used to define the beginning of the Paleozoic Era, the second of Era ended and the Cenozoic Era began at 66 Ma, equivalent to December
Earth’s main chapters. 26. The first humans show up in the last 15 minutes of the last day.
Fossils, Numeric Ages, and the Geologic Timescale
M
any rocks include fossils, which are of a rock involves precisely measuring the provide ages for the boundaries between the
shells, bones, leaf impressions, and abundance of both types of atoms (K and Ar). divisions of the geologic timescale shown
other evidence of prehistoric ani- Measurements are done in a laboratory using here. When referring to a geologic event, we
mals and plants. Geologists discovered that high-precision instruments. Such calculations, use the name of the time period, such as the
the types of fossils change from one layer to when combined with a knowledge of fossils, Mississippian, or the age in millions of years
another in a sequence of sedimentary rocks. before present (359-323 Ma). The
Younger rocks lie on top of older rocks, so by timescale is revised when new
comparing one location to another, geologists data become available, as evi-
defined certain age periods on the basis of denced by a recent change (⊳) in
their fossils. Geologists named these age peri- the subdivisions of the Ceno-
ods for the places where they were first recog- zoic, replacing the Tertiary
nized, such as the Pennsylvanian Period for Period with the Paleogene and
Pennsylvania. When arranged in their proper Neogene Periods.
order, these periods and their subdivisions
constitute the geologic timescale (⊲).
The timescale has the four main divisions Before You Leave This Page
discussed above: the Precambrian, Paleo-
zoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic, from oldest to Be able to calculate a rate, and
youngest. These four divisions of geologic give an example of how a rate
time appear throughout this book and are an is calculated.
essential part of the vocabulary of geology. List the four main chapters of Earth
Geologists calculate the actual or numeric history, from oldest to youngest,
age of rocks and events in thousands, millions, showing which chapter is longest and
or billions of years before the present. Many which one is shortest.
rocks contain atoms that change by natural
2.6
radioactive decay into a different type of atom, Discuss the geologic timescale and
the kinds of data that were used to
such as atoms of potassium (K) decaying to
construct it.
form argon (Ar). Calculating the numeric age 02.06.t1
38
2.7 How Do We Investigate Geologic Questions?

GEOLOGY IS A FIELD OF SCIENCE and aims to solve scientific questions. Every region has a wealth of interesting
questions with answers of importance to society. To answer the questions, geologists use their senses and scientific
instruments to observe Earth and its processes. They use the resulting observations to answer questions and then,
through a series of logical steps, build from observations to explanations.
What Are Observations?

We learn about our world by making observations. We look, listen, smell, and feel so we can record and analyze what is
around us. Scientific instruments provide additional information about aspects of the world that we cannot sense, and they
allow us to discriminate fine details. For example, we might sense that the temperature outside is near freezing, but if we
use a thermometer we can measure a precise value. Every day we make judgments about whether our observations are
worth remembering and reliable enough to plan a course of action.
1. Geologists, like other 3. Evaluating the validity
scientists, take special of observations is critical,
care to make valid so geologists commonly
observations, such as repeat measurements to
when examining these compare values. They
layers of volcanic ash. may bring other geolo-
An observation that is gists out to the field to
judged to be valid check and discuss their
becomes a piece of observations, measure-
data that can be used ments, and ideas (▼).
to develop possible
explanations.
2. Compasses and other

scientific instruments pro- 02.07.a1 Gray Mtn., AZ
vide quantitative informa-
tion, provided they are checked and calibrated to ensure that measurements represent valid
and trustworthy data. Geologists record data in a field notebook, tablet, or portable computer and
collect samples to permit later reexamination and analysis.
02.07.a2 Gray Mtn., AZ
How Are Interpretations Different from Data?

Data, by themselves, are not very useful until we analyze them in the context of existing ideas. Perhaps the data will
confirm old ideas, or perhaps they will point out a need for a new interpretation. The recent history of volcanic eruptions
near Yellowstone National Park illustrates the difference between data and interpretations.
DATA: This map DATA: The belt of smooth topography ends near
shows a belt of rela- Yellowstone, a recently active volcanic area in
tively smooth, lower the northwestern corner of Wyoming.
elevation terrain that
trends northeast INTERPRETATION: Recent volcanism at
across the mountains Yellowstone may be related to the process
of southern Idaho and that smoothed the topography of the belt.
northern Nevada. It
contains mostly volca- DATA: Samples of volcanic rock analyzed in the
nic rocks. laboratory provide ages for when the rock
formed. The ages, shown in white as millions of
INTERPRETATION: years (m.y.), get younger toward the northeast,
Some process related from 15 million years in Nevada to less than one
to volcanism formed a million years near Yellowstone.
belt of low topogra-
phy and volcanic INTERPRETATION: The very recent volcanism
rocks in the belt out- at Yellowstone occurred for the same reasons
lined in red. as the older volcanism to the southwest.
02.07.b1
What Is an Explanation?
When geologists examine a collection of related data, several interpretations may fit together to make a coherent story or
explanation. The table below summarizes data-interpretation pairs from part B. The bottom row in the table is a new piece
of data obtained from other studies. These data and interpretations combine to form a possible explanation, or hypothesis,
for how the belt of smooth topography formed.
Data Interpretation A Possible Explanation
A belt of smoothed topography, mostly The belt of smoothed topography is related to some process that also For 15 million years, North America and its
in volcanic rocks, extends in a northeast produced volcanic eruptions. lithosphere have been moving southwest
direction and cuts across the region. over a deep thermal disturbance called
a hot spot. The hot spot involves melting
The belt ends at Yellowstone National Park. Volcanism at Yellowstone is related to the smoothed topography.
of rocks at depth, resulting in volcanism
Volcanic rocks along the belt get younger The smoothed belt did not form all at once but rather sequentially, on the surface. As North America moves
to the northeast. from southwest to northeast. southwestward over the hot spot, new
volcanoes erupt and then become inactive
The North American continent is moving There is a source of magma beneath Earth’s crust. The continent has once that area moves past the hot spot.
slowly to the southwest based on satellite moved over the magma source, causing volcanic activity to occur in a If North America continues to move
observations. narrow belt. Volcanism initially occurred in the southwest but migrated southwestward, the hot spot may cause
to the northeast over time as North America moved to the southwest. new volcanoes northeast of Yellowstone.
What Is Happening at Yellowstone National Park?

Geologists have long recognized that several huge volcanic eruptions occurred in Yellowstone during the past two million
years. Geologist Bob Smith studied Yellowstone for decades and in 1973 noticed that lake levels along the southern side of
Yellowstone Lake had risen, drowning trees. How did he investigate his observations?
1. To check his observation, Smith and 2. This view shows Yellowstone 3. Smith concluded that
colleagues conducted a new, detailed Lake, with north to the left. When the rising area north
survey of the area’s topography using Smith compared the new survey of the lake caused
high-precision surveying equipment. with the last survey done in the lake to spill
1920, he discovered that the over its southern
elevation of the area shaded shoreline, drown-
orange had increased (the ing trees in the
area had risen) in a areas shown
remarkably short period in purple.
of time. What was caus-
ing this area along the
north side of the lake
to rise in elevation?
02.07.d1 Yellowstone NP, WY
02.07.d2
Observations, Interpretations, and Hypotheses
D
iscovery of drowned trees along had displaced water that drowned trees along
Yellowstone Lake and the follow-up the southern shore. Before You Leave This Page
studies illustrate how we develop This example illustrates the strategy of
and investigate questions. An observation considering different types of data and dif- Explain what observations are and
(the drowned trees) led to the question, What ferent scales of observation. Smith inter- how they become valid.
is going on here? The question led to a pos- preted local uplift north of Yellowstone Describe how data differ from an
sible interpretation that parts of the land Lake to be the result of a large magma interpretation, and provide one
around the lake may be actively rising or chamber beneath the surface. One interpre- example of each.
sinking. An explanation that is developed to tation is that the magma originated by deep
explain observations and that allows testing melting related to a hot spot in the mantle. Summarize how data and
is a hypothesis. To test his predictions, As the North American continent and litho- interpretations lead to new
explanations.
Smith used precise surveying equipment to sphere moved over the hot spot, volcanism
collect new observations of the land surface. and faulting formed the belt of smoothed Describe how a series of observations
2.7
He scrutinized and validated the new data topography along the Snake River Plain. led to an explanation for regional and
and proposed a new hypothesis that rising Many geologists accept this explanation but local processes at Yellowstone.
land beneath the northern part of the lake still consider other explanations.
40
2.8 How Do Scientific Ideas Get Established?

HOW DOES A SCIENTIFIC EXPLANATION move through the steps from an initial idea to a testable hypothesis
and finally to a widely accepted theory supported by a rigorous body of knowledge? Geologists and other scientists
begin with observations, propose possible explanations (hypotheses), make predictions based on each hypothesis, and
conduct investigations to test each prediction. Science is a way to evaluate which hypotheses are most likely to be cor-
rect and which are not. It is a body of knowledge based on supported hypotheses and on accepted theories that have
been examined and tested many times.
How Do We Test Alternative Explanations?
Science proceeds as scientists explore the unknown — making observations and then systematically investigating questions
that arise from observations that are puzzling or unexpected. Often, we try to develop several possible explanations and then
devise ways to test each one. The normal steps in this process are illustrated below, using an investigation of groundwater
contaminated by gasoline.
Steps in the
Investigation 1. Someone makes the observation that groundwater from a local well (on the
left side of the figure) contains gasoline, near an old buried gasoline tank. The
first step in any investigation is to make observations, recognize a problem,
Observations
and state the problem clearly and succinctly. Stating the problem as simply as
possible simplifies it into a more manageable form and helps focus our thinking
on its most important aspects.
2. The observation leads to a question — Did the gasoline in the groundwa-
Questions Derived
ter come from a leak in the buried tank? Questions may be about what is
from Observations
happening c urrently, what happened in the past, or, in this case, who or what
caused a problem.
3. Scientists often propose several explanations,

referred to as hypotheses, to explain what they
observe. A hypothesis is a causal explanation that can
Proposed be tested, either by conducting additional investigations
Explanations and or by examining data that already exist. Drawing a
Predictions from sketch or other type of figure often helps us better
Each Explanation conceptualize the alternatives.
5. Another explanation is 6. We develop predictions for each explanation. For
4. One explanation
that the buried tank is not the first option, the tank should have some kind of leak
is that the buried
the source of the contami- and should be surrounded by gasoline. Also, the type
tank is the source of
nation. Instead, the source of gasoline in the tank should be the same as in the
contamination.
is somewhere else, and groundwater. Next, we plan some way to test the pre-
contamination flowed into dictions, such as by inspecting the tank or analyzing
the area. the gasoline in the tank and groundwater.
Results of
Investigation 7. The investigation discovered no holes in the tank or any gasoline in the soil around
the tank. Records show that the tank held unleaded gasoline, but gasoline in the
groundwater is leaded. We compare the results of any investigation with the predictions
to determine which possible explanation is most consistent with the new data.
Conclusions 8. Data collected d

uring the investigation s upport the conclusion that the buried tank is
not the source of c ontamination. Any explanation that is inconsistent with data is probably
incorrect, so we pursue other explanations. In this example, a nearby abandoned gas sta-
tion may be the source of the gasoline. We can devise ways to evaluate this new hypoth-
esis by investigating the site near the older gas station. We also can revisit the previously
02.08.a1 rejected hypothesis if we discover a new way in which it might explain the data.
How Does a Hypothesis Become an Established Theory?

A hypothesis that survives scientific scrutiny can be elevated to the higher standard of acceptability of a theory. Like a
hypothesis, a theory explains existing data and helps predict data not yet collected, but a theory encompasses a more
extensive body of knowledge. The scientific process rejects many hypotheses, and few hypotheses survive the intense
investigation, experimentation, and testing of predictions to become theories accepted by a majority of scientists. The testing
and rejecting of ideas distinguishes science from ways of knowing based on faith.
1. Scientists found fossils of 2. If the land bridges once existed, then the South Atlantic
the same land animals in Ocean should contain submerged ridges, or remnants of
South America and Africa, ridges, that once connected the two continents. When
even though these continents surveys of the ocean floor failed to find land bridges, the
are separated by an ocean. hypothesis had to be abandoned. So scientists had to
To explain these observa- look for another way to explain the similarity of fossils in
tions, scientists proposed a South America and Africa.
hypothesis that long ridges
of land, called land bridges, 3. A land-bridge hypothesis was also proposed as a
once linked the two conti- way to explain the migration of animals and humans
nents but were now under from Asia to North America during the Ice Ages. This
water. The hypothetical hypothesis, unlike the hypothesis about the Atlantic
land bridges would have Ocean, is supported by a lot of data and by a cred-
allowed land animals to ible explanation of why a land bridge existed. A sub-
walk from one continent merged ridge does link Alaska and Asia, and it
to the other. According would have been dry land when the growth of
to the hypothesis, the glaciers lowered sea level. So the hypothesis that a
bridges later collapsed land bridge existed off Alaska evolved into a the-
or were submerged ory, while the hypothesis that one existed in the
beneath the oceans. South Atlantic was rejected.
02.08.b1
How and Why Scientific Understandings Change Over Time
G
eology, like other sciences, is a way eliminated. There are no final answers, just We have gained much understanding
of investigating the world around us. logical, well-tested explanations based on the using the methods of science, but we still do
It is an evolving framework of best data available. not know many things about the universe.
knowledge and methods, not a static collec- In the 1700s, for example, the most influ- There are countless interesting questions left
tion of facts. Explanations and theories ential scientists of the time could not accept to investigate, and many important theories
accepted by the geologic community can that stones (meteorites), such as the one left to imagine. We not only lack reasonable
change over time as new data, new scien- shown here, fell out of the sky. For a time, explanations for many scientific phenomena,
tific instruments, and new ideas become in many cases we do not yet know the right
available. questions to ask or what data to collect.
Although many scientific explanations are Some hypotheses we currently accept will
considered to be “correct” and are supported be proven wrong by future studies. There is
by many lines of evidence, the history of sci- still much to learn.
ence warns us not to trust any explanation as
“final truth.” There is so much evidence sup-
porting some theories that they probably will
never be shown to be wrong. On the other Before You Leave This Page
hand, scientific scrutiny has caused many 02.08.t1
proposed hypotheses or theories to be Explain the logical steps taken to
rejected or greatly modified based on new scientists and others believed that meteors evaluate an explanation.
data. Some accepted scientific explanations and meteorites resulted from lightning that
Describe how a hypothesis becomes
needed only to be revised slightly to account fused dust with other particles in the air. This
an established theory.
for new data or other scientific advances. In explanation was rejected when chemists
other cases, the science of the time was not noted that some meteorites consisted of iron- Describe what causes changes in
sophisticated enough to produce explanations nickel alloys that were not found in any Earth scientific understandings, and discuss
2.8
that could hold up under scrutiny. Scientists rocks. Also, some meteorites fell in plain why scientific explanations are never
operate under the principle that no explana- view when there were no lightning storms. proven to be “true.”
tion in science is ever proven, but some are Stones really were falling from the sky!
42
2.9 What Does a Geologist Do?

GEOLOGISTS ADDRESS A WIDE RANGE OF PROBLEMS important to society. Because the problems are so
diverse, there are many types of geologists, each with different questions to answer and interesting problems to explore.
Some issues can be explored directly in the field, whereas others require sophisticated computers or other technology.
Some problems involve studying places that are inaccessible, such as other planets or the interior of Earth. Many ques-
tions address active ongoing processes, and others focus on the interpretation of ancient processes based on rocks,
structures, fossils, and other geologic data.
How Do Geologists Investigate Questions in the Field and Laboratory?

The traditional view of a geologist is of a field geologist, a person outdoors with backpack, hiking boots, and rock hammer
traversing a scenic mountain ridge, but there are other types of geologists. Geologists produce descriptions, maps, and other
data needed to reconstruct Earth history and to determine how this history is important to us today. They also investigate
questions using laboratories, outdoor experimental facilities, numerical modeling, and other strategies.
02.09.a1 Antarctica 02.09.a2 Hawaii
1. During field studies, 2. Some field geologists
geologists observe vari- study volcanoes, earth-
ous aspects of the natural quakes, landslides,
environment, record these floods, or other natural
observations, and propose hazards. To help us
explanations for these avoid these hazards,
observations. A common geologists study the pro-
goal is to understand the cesses that are operat-
area’s geologic processes ing, determine how often
and history, commonly by hazardous events occur,
producing a geologic map and identify areas that
and geologic cross are most likely to be
sections. Sometimes, just affected. This geologist
getting to the field site is (⊳) is extracting samples
an outdoor adventure (⊲). of molten lava on Hawaii.
02.09.a3 South Africa

4. Some geologic sys-
tems must be investi-
gated in the laboratory
using scientific devices
that simulate conditions
deep within Earth’s crust
or mantle (⊳). The device
shown here subjects
geologic materials to
very high pressures,
equivalent to those in the
mantle. The scientist then
observes the resulting
material with a micro-
scope to document how
the material changed and
perhaps under what con-
3. Geologists find most energy and mineral resources that we use. ditions it melted. Such
They conduct field studies to find areas likely to contain a certain experiments are a main
resource, and then through drilling or using other techniques deter- way we investigate the
mine if the resource is there and how much can be produced. materials and processes
Energy and mineral companies employ many geologists, sending that occur within the
them to various parts of the world. Besides searching Earth’s sur- deep crust and mantle.
face, geologists go deep underground, perhaps 3 km (10,000 ft)
below the ground in a South African gold mine (▲), or up in heli-
copters to take photos and collect other kinds of data. 02.09.a4 Tempe, AZ
How Do Geologists Study Inaccessible Places?

Many geologic questions involve places where we cannot do field studies. Geologists study magma chambers beneath
volcanoes, rock layers that are kilometers beneath the seafloor, or the geology of Mars and other objects in the solar system.
To conduct these sorts of studies, geologists use telescopes, high-resolution imaging devices, various scientific instruments,
and remote probes to collect pertinent data.
02.09.b1 Mars 02.09.b2 02.09.b3
An exciting field of geology is exploring other ▲ Most oil, gas, and coal reside within sedi- ▲ Studying Earth’s hidden interior utilizes indi-
planets and their moons, principally by send- mentary rocks, and much lies offshore, rect means of observation, such as instruments
ing spacecraft that orbit a planet or that land beneath the seafloor. Exploration for these that measure seismic energy from earthquakes.
on its surface. From such observations, plan- resources focuses on understanding the Seismologists, scientists who study seismic
etary geologists try to understand what pro- sequence and geometry of rock layers and waves, analyze when and how these waves
cesses are reshaping the surface of the moon the conditions that deposited each layer. arrive and then use powerful computers and
or planet and whether there is a possibility of Petroleum geologists image layers beneath sophisticated programs to model subsurface
water and life. This recent image (▲) shows the land and seafloor, commonly using parameters, such as temperature. The model
channels on Mars interpreted to have been sophisticated computers and virtual-reality above shows the configuration of a boundary
carved by water that flowed on the surface a environments to visualize data in in the mantle at a depth of about 400 km
very long time ago. three dimensions. beneath South America.
Geologic Studies of Ecosystems
S
ome geoscientists study ecosystems to chemical constituents among the soil, plants,
understand the geologic processes that and water. Geologists and other geoscientists
are operating and to determine how dif- investigate these factors in order to understand
ferent geologic factors affect the health of the processes that affect the system and how the
system. These studies help ecologists and oth- system responds to environmental changes that
ers to better protect the ecosystems. The types are the result of natural or human causes. Geo-
of research that these geoscientists do are scientists work with ecologists to then under-
as diverse as the ecosystems, which range stand how any changes will affect the plants
from deserts to rain forests to icy glaciers. In and animals that live in the ecosystem.
such studies, geoscientists commonly work
with biologists, climate specialists, and gov-
ernment agencies that decide how the land will Before You Leave This Page
be managed or protected. 02.09.t1 Ten Thousand Islands NWR, FL
The most important factor controlling the Discuss the kinds of questions
viability of many ecosystems is the availability water, pinpointing sources of contamination, geologists investigate with field
of clean water. In most geologic settings, water and predicting which way the contamination is studies, and contrast those with
moves between the surface and subsurface, and likely to move in the future. questions studied using techniques
geologic studies are the primary basis for In addition to water, the viability of an eco- other than field studies.
determining how much water is available, how system generally depends on the health of its
soils. Geologic studies document how soils Describe how geologists find energy
water flows, and the purity of water. Geolo-
and mineral resources.
gists study rock layers and other materials on develop, how they are changing, and the best
2.9
and beneath the surface to understand how ways to prevent erosion or other types of soil Discuss how geologists and other
these materials influence the flow of water. deterioration. Such studies also determine the geoscientists study ecosystems.
Geoscientists guide cleanup efforts by sampling natural fluxes of organic material and other
44
CONNECTIONS
2.10 How Did This Crater Form?
A CRATER ON THE PLATEAU OF NORTHERN ARIZONA is similar to those on the Moon. The crater is a huge pit,
more than 1,250 m (4,100 ft) across and 170 m (560 ft) deep, with a raised rim of broken rocks. Some dramatic geo-
logic event must have occurred here. What could it be? We explore this mystery to connect different ideas in this
chapter and to illustrate how to evaluate competing explanations for this unusual feature.
What Would You Observe at the Crater?

Observe the photographs below and make a list of what you think are the most important features. From your observations,
consider how this crater might have formed and how your observations might support alternative explanations. What other
types of information would help you have a better understanding of the crater’s origin?
02.10.a1 Northern AZ
⊲ The raised rim of the crater con- ⊳ Shattered rocks in the

sists of large, angular blocks of walls of the crater contain
limestone and sandstone, many of unusual microscopic miner-
which are fractured and shattered. als, which laboratory experi-
These blocks are pieces of the ments show form only at
rock layers that underlie the region extremely high pressures.
and are exposed in the crater These minerals are not
walls, so we interpret them to present in rocks away from
somehow have been thrown or the crater or elsewhere in
blasted out of the crater. the region.
02.10.a2 Northern AZ 02.10.a3 Northern AZ
What Is the Geologic Setting of This Crater?

1. This geologic block diagram 2. Meteorites are scattered on the surface
shows the geometry of rock around the crater. Geologists collect small
layers near the crater. A geolo- and large pieces to understand what infor-
gist constructed this cross sec- mation the meteorites provide about the
tion by observing the rocks formation of the crater, as well as the ori-
exposed in the crater and in gin of the solar system.
the surrounding plains, by
examining results from drilling 3. Layers of sandstone and limestone are
in the floor of the crater, and by nearly horizontal away from the crater, but
extrapolating these observa- along the rim of the crater they have been
tions into the subsurface. bent backward, away from the crater. In
places, the layers have been overturned
02.10.b1 relative to how they started.
44
What Are Some Possible Explanations for the Origin of the Crater?
Since the crater was discovered, geologists have proposed and tested several explanations for its origin. Among these
explanations are a volcanic explosion, warping by a rising mass of salt, and excavation by a meteoroid impact.
Volcanic Explosion Warping by a Rising Meteoroid Impact

Mass of Salt
02.10.c1–3
A volcanic explosion blasts A rising mass of salt warps up A large meteoroid streaks through Earth’s
Possible open the crater during a the rock layers as it rises toward atmosphere and blasts the crater when it
Explanation violent eruption of gas the surface. Rainwater later dis- collides with the surface.
and magma. solves the salt to form the crater.
Volcanic materials, such as A mass of salt should exist Fragments of a meteoroid might remain
ash, should be present directly beneath the floor of beneath the crater or on the surrounding
around the crater, and solidi- the crater. plains, but much of the meteoroid could
Predictions fied magma might underlie have been vaporized during the blast.
the crater floor. Meteoroid impacts cause very high pres-
sures in rocks near the collision.
No volcanic material was found No salt was found beneath the Drilling did not encounter a large mass of
around the crater or by drilling crater, despite extensive drilling meteorite beneath the crater, but small
Results beneath the crater, so this into the crater floor. meteorite fragments are scattered across
of Testing explanation seems improbable. the surrounding plains. Minerals formed by
high pressures exist within rocks in the
walls of the crater.
An Incident 50,000 Years Ago
O
f the three explanations, only the oids, such as the one required to form this area to observe the fireball blazing across
meteoroid-impact explanation crater, are mostly vaporized by the impact. the sky, but animals, such as the woolly
seems possible because the crater Therefore, little of the meteoroid would mammoth, were around to witness this
does not contain the rock types predicted by remain in the crater, but scattered pieces unexpected catastrophe.
the other two explanations. Other types of might survive around the crater. It is esti-
data also support an origin by meteoroid mated that collectors have gathered 30 tons
impact. Laboratory experiments show that of meteorite specimens from around the site.
the unusual minerals in the walls of the cra- The accepted origin for this crater is reflected Before You Leave This Page
ter can form only at very high pressures, in its famous name, Meteor Crater.
such as those caused when a meteoroid From the currently available information, Describe or sketch the three
strikes Earth. These experiments and sophis- geologists conclude that the crater formed explanations for the origin of the
ticated computer modeling also show that about 50,000 years ago when a meteoroid crater and which observations support
or do not support each possible
such impacts shatter rocks near the collision 30 to 50 meters in diameter smashed onto
explanation.
2.10
and bend back rock layers away from the the surface at a speed of about 11 km/s
point of impact, as is exhibited by rock lay- (25,000 mi/hr). A recent study suggests that Describe how geologists interpret
ers around the crater. Computer models of the meteoroid broke apart and slowed before Meteor Crater to have formed.
meteoroid impacts predict that large meteor- it hit. Humans were not yet living in this
2.11
What Is the Geologic History
of Upheaval Dome?
A PERPLEXING GEOLOGIC FEATURE CALLED UPHEAVAL DOME forms a conspicuous feature within
Canyonlands National Park of Utah. In most of Canyonlands, colorful sedimentary rocks are nearly horizontal, but
around Upheaval Dome they are abruptly warped upward and eroded into a very unusual circular structure. The feature
continues to puzzle geologists as to how and when it formed.

• Make some observations and develop some questions about Upheaval Dome.
• Determine the sequence of geologic events that formed the rock layers in the dome.
• Suggest some ways to test possible explanations for the origin of the dome.
02.11.a2 Upheaval Dome, UT
What Are Some Observations and Questions About the Dome?

The three-dimensional perspective below shows an unusual circular feature called Upheaval
Dome, the eastern half of which is shown in the photograph to the right. Make some
observations about this landscape, and record your observations on a sheet of paper or on
the worksheet. As you study this landscape, record any questions or ideas that you have.
The rocks shown in this image

are all sedimentary layers of
Mesozoic age. The rock layers
away from the dome are
nearly horizontal and
form various benches,
flat-topped mesas,
and valleys.
Some layers are resistant to erosion and form cliffs, whereas The rock layers in the dome form a large 02.11.a1
others are less resistant and erode into slopes. In some areas, ring-shaped feature and are tilted outward in all directions,
erosion of the layers has formed buttes and rounded hills. as shown in the geologic cross section on the next page.
46
What Sequence of Geologic Events Formed the Rocks and the Dome?
Shown below are a stratigraphic section with the sequence of rock layers, and a geologic cross section across
the dome. Using these two figures and the strategies in section 2.2, determine the order in which the layers
were formed, and write your answers on the worksheet.
Stratigraphic Section Cross Section

The letters A–G mark the units shown in the stratigraphic section to the left. The let-
Unit A: upper sandstone ters are assigned in order from top to bottom, not necessarily in the order in which
the units formed. Some units, such as B and D, contain a series of related sedimen-
Unit B: mudstone with thin
tary rock layers rather than just a single type of rock.
sandstone layers
Unit C: middle sandstone
Unit D: mudstone with

pebble-rich layers
Unit E: lower mudstone
Unit F: lower sandstone

Unit G: sandstone with 02.11.b2
abundant pebbles
02.11.b1 It is uncertain what All of the rock units have Many faults and folds (not
types of rocks lie at been folded into the dome. shown here) have thickened
Units A, B, and C have a Jurassic age, whereas depth below the Any layers deposited after the rock layers in some
units D and E are Triassic. Units F and G are dome (i.e., below the dome was formed have places and thinned them
Permian (see timescale in section 2.6). units F and G). been eroded away. in others.
How Would You Test Possible Explanations for the Origin of the Dome?
The origin of Upheaval Dome is controversial, and geologists currently debate three competing explanations.
No single explanation has yet gained widespread acceptance by the geologic community.
1. A rising mass of salt warped the rock layers upward. A thick salt layer is known to be present beneath much of the Canyonlands
region, and the salt may have risen upward because it is less dense than the surrounding rocks.
2. The dome formed as a result of rising magma. Igneous rocks formed from magma are common elsewhere in the region, where they
have bowed up and baked the surrounding rock layers.
3. The dome is part of a larger, circular crater formed by a meteoroid impact. Many of the larger meteoroid-impact craters on the Moon
and elsewhere contain a central peak or dome, which is interpreted to form by converging shock waves. In this case, Upheaval Dome
only represents the center of a larger crater.
The age of the dome is poorly constrained. The dome must be younger than all of the rock layers in the vicinity because all of the layers are
warped by the dome. When the dome formed, the currently exposed rocks were several kilometers deep, buried beneath overlying rock layers
that have since eroded away. This erosion, therefore, removed some key evidence for the origin of the dome.
Procedures for Possible Explanations of the Dome

A. For each of the three explanations, draw a simple sketch on the worksheet illustrating which types of rocks you predict to
find at depth.
2.11
B. List a prediction that follows from each explanation. Then, explain how that prediction could be tested.
C. List the types of information you would like to know about this location to further constrain the origin of the dome.
CHAPTER
3 Plate Tectonics
THE SURFACE OF EARTH IS NOTABLE for its dramatic mountains, beautiful valleys, and intricate coastlines.
Beneath the sea are unexpected features, such as undersea mountain ranges, deep ocean trenches, and thousands of
submarine mountains. In this chapter, we examine the distribution of these features, along with the locations of earth-
quakes and volcanoes, to explore the theory of plate tectonics.
These images of the world show large topographic features on the land, colored
using satellite data that show areas of vegetation, rocks, and sand. Colors on the
seafloor indicate depths below sea level, ranging from light blue for seafloor that is
at relatively shallow depths to dark blue for seafloor that is deep.
The seafloor west of North America displays a long, fairly straight fracture that
trends east-west and ends abruptly at the coastline. North of this fracture,
a ridge called the Juan de Fuca Ridge zigzags across the seafloor.
What are these features on the seafloor and how did they form?
South America has two very different sides. The mountainous

Andes parallel the western coast, but a wide expanse of lowlands,
including the Amazon Basin, makes up the rest of the continent.
The western edge of the continent drops steeply into the Pacific
Ocean and is flanked by a deep trench. The eastern edge of
the continent continues well beyond the shoreline and forms a
broad bench covered by shallow waters (shown in light blue).
03.00.a1
Why are the two sides of the continent so d
ifferent?
A huge mountain range, longer than any on land, is hidden beneath the
waters of the Atlantic Ocean. The part of the range shown here is halfway
between South America and Africa. The ridge zigzags across the seafloor,
mimicking the shape of the two continents.
What is this underwater mountain range, and why is it almost exactly

in the middle of the ocean?
48
P l a t e Te c t o n i c s 49
3.1 What Are the Major Features of Earth? 50 3.7 What Happens Along Transform Boundaries? 62
3.2 Why Do Some Continents Have Matching 3.8 How Do Plates Move and Interact? 64
Shapes? 52 3.9 How Is Paleomagnetism Used to Determine
3.3 Where Do Earthquakes and Volcanoes Occur? 54 Rates of Seafloor Spreading? 66
3.4 What Causes Tectonic Activity 3.10 What Geologic Features Does Plate
to Occur in Belts? 56 Tectonics Help Explain? 68
3.5 What Happens at Divergent Boundaries? 58 3.11 CONNECTIONS: Why Is South America Lopsided? 70
3.6 What Happens at Convergent Boundaries? 60 3.12 INVESTIGATION: Where Is the Safest Place to Live? 72
The Tibetan Plateau of southern Asia rises many kilometers above the
lowlands of India and Bangladesh to the south. The Himalaya mountain
range with Mount Everest, the highest mountain on Earth, is perched
on the southern edge of this plateau.
Why does this region have such a high elevation?
Japan lies along the intersection of large, curving ridges

that are mostly submerged beneath the ocean. Each
ridge is flanked to the east by a deep trench in the
seafloor. This area is well known for its destructive
earthquakes and for Japan’s picturesque volcano,
Mount Fuji.
Do submarine ridges and trenches play a role in

earthquake and volcanic activity?
The Arabian Peninsula and nearby areas provide much of the world’s
oil. East of the peninsula, the Persian Gulf has a shallow and smooth
seafloor and is flanked by the world’s largest oil fields. West of the pen-
insula, the Red Sea has a well-defined trough or fissure down its center.
3.0
How did the Red Sea form, and what processes are causing its seafloor
to be disrupted?
50
3.1 What Are the Major Features of Earth?

OCEANS COVER 71% OF EARTH’S SURFACE. Seven major continents make up most of the rest of the surface,
and islands account for less than 2%. We are all familiar with the continents and their remarkable diversity of land-
forms, from broad coastal plains to steep, snow-capped mountains. Features of the ocean floor, not generally seen by
people, are just as diverse and include deep trenches and submarine mountain ranges. Islands exhibit great diversity,
too. Some are large and isolated, but other islands define arcs, ragged lines, or irregular clusters. What are the char-
acteristics of each type of feature, and how did these features form?
03.01.a1
1. This map shows large features on land and on
the seafloor. The colors on land are from images
taken by satellites orbiting Earth and show
vegetated areas (green), rocky areas (brown),
and sandy areas (tan). Greenland and Antarctica
are white and light gray because they are
mostly covered with ice and snow. Ocean
colors show the depth of the seafloor and
range from light blue where the seafloor is
shallow to darker blue where it is deep.
2. Parts of the seafloor have mountains, the

largest of which form islands like Hawaii.
Most mountains on the seafloor do not
reach sea level and are termed seamounts.
Some islands and seamounts, like Hawaii,
are in long belts, which we refer to as
island and seamount chains. Other
islands and seamounts are isolated or
form irregular clusters.
3. Some large islands, such as New

Zealand, look like a small version
of a continent.
4. Much of the ocean floor is

moderately deep — 3 to 5 km
(9,800–16,000 ft) — and has a
fairly smooth surface. These
deep, smooth regions are
abyssal plains.
5. Mid-ocean ridges are broad,

symmetrical ridges that cross
the ocean basins. They are
2 to 3 km (6,600–9,800 ft) higher than the average depth of the seafloor. One long ridge, 6. Cracks and steps cross the seafloor mostly
named the East Pacific Rise, crosses the eastern Pacific and heads toward North America. at right angles to the mid-ocean ridges.
Another occupies the middle of the Atlantic Ocean. These features are oceanic fracture zones.
7. Some continents con- 8. All continents con- Before You Leave This Page
tinue outward from the tain large interior 9. Most continental areas have
shoreline under shallow regions with gentle elevations of less than 1 to 2 km
seawater (light blue in this topography. Some con- Identify on a world map the named
(3,300 to 6,600 ft). Broad, high
image) for hundreds of tinents have flat coastal regions, called plateaus, reach continents and oceans.
kilometers, forming sub- plains, while others higher elevations, such as the Identify on a world map the main
merged benches known have mountains along Tibetan Plateau of southern Asia. types of features on the continents
as continental shelves. their edges. Some Continents also contain mountain and in the oceans.
Which coastlines have mountains, like the Ural chains and individual mountains.
broad continental shelves, Mountains, are in the Mount Everest, the highest point Describe the main characteristics
like those surrounding middle of continents. in the world, is almost 9 km for each type of feature, including
Great Britain? (30,000 ft) in elevation. whether it occurs in the oceans,
on continents, or as islands.
10. Deep ocean trenches make up

the deepest parts of the ocean.
Some ocean trenches follow the
edges of continents, whereas oth-
ers form isolated, curving troughs
out in the ocean. Most ocean
trenches are in the Pacific Ocean.
Why are they so common here?
11. Curving chains of islands,

known as island arcs, cross the
seafloor. Most of the islands are
volcanoes, and many are active
and dangerous. Most island
arcs are flanked on one side
by an ocean trench. Offshore
of the Mariana island arc,
located south of Japan, is the
Mariana Trench, the deepest
in the world.
12. Some continents (such as

South America) are flanked
by an ocean trench, but
other continents, such as
Australia and Africa, have
no nearby trenches.
3.1
14. Mid-ocean ridges and their associated fracture zones encircle 13. The oceans contain several broad, elevated regions called
much of the globe. In the Atlantic and Southern oceans, they oceanic plateaus. The Kerguelen Plateau near Antarctica is one
occupy a position halfway between the adjacent continents. example, and another oceanic plateau lies northeast of Australia.
52
3.2 Why Do Some Continents

Have Matching Shapes?
SOME CONTINENTS HAVE MATCHING SHAPES that appear to fit together like the pieces of a giant jigsaw
puzzle. Alfred Wegener (1880 –1930) observed the fit of these continents and tried to explain this and other data with
a new hypothesis called continental drift. Wegener argued that the continents were once joined together but later drifted
apart. The hypothesis of continental drift was an important historical step that led to current theories that explain the
distribution and shapes of the continents.
Were the Continents Once Joined Together?

Fairly accurate world maps became available during the 1800s and scientists, including Alfred Wegener, noted that some
continents, especially the southern continents, appeared to fit together. After considering many types of data, Wegener
arrived at a creative explanation for this pattern.
1. This figure shows how the southern 3. This “cut-and-paste” fit of the continents is intrigu-
continents are interpreted to have fit ing and leads to predictions for testing the hypoth-
together 150 million years ago. In this esis of continental drift. If continents were once
figure, we included the continental joined, they should have similar rocks and geologic
shelves because they are parts of structures. Geologists find such similarities when
continents that are currently underwa- they compare the rocks and structures in south-
ter. In this arrangement, the bulge on ern Australia with the rocks and structures
the eastern side of South America fits exposed around the edges of ice sheets on
nicely into the embayment on the Antarctica. Similarly, the geology of western Africa
western coast of Africa. closely matches that of eastern South America,
and these two areas are adjacent to each
2. The fit of the continents and other other in Wegener’s reconstruction.
supporting evidence preserved in
rocks and fossils inspired Wegener and 4. Geologists gave the name
others to suggest that South America, Gondwana to this hypothetical
Africa, Antarctica, Australia, and most of combination of the southern
India were once joined but later drifted apart. 03.02.a1 continents into a single
Even Madagascar can fit into the puzzle. large supercontinent.
Is the Distribution of Fossils Consistent with Continental Drift?

Another piece of evidence supporting continental drift is the correspondence of the fossils of plants and land animals on
continents now several thousand kilometers apart and separated by wide oceans.
1. This figure illustrates that fossils 2. The distribution of plant and animal fossils is consistent with the
of some land animals exist on idea that the continents were once joined. It was a key piece of
several continents that are evidence in favor of continental drift. The hypothesis of continen-
now separated by wide tal drift provided an alternative to the hypothesis of land bridges
oceans. The animals, including (discussed in section 2.8), and it explained why identical plant
a reptile named Mesosaurus, and animal fossils are found on different continents. The plants
lived more than 150 million and animals were originally on a single huge supercontinent
years ago and are now that later split into separate smaller continents. Two conti-
extinct. These land animals nents could share plants and land animals before they split,
could not swim across the but not after.
wide oceans that currently
separate the continents. 3. Other fossil data suggest that Antarctica was once
Another key fossil linking farther north, away from the South Pole. Such data
the land areas of include coal beds interpreted to have formed from
Gondwana are fossilized plants that grew in warm-weather swamps. One
leaves of Glossopteris, a seed- explanation is that Antarctica moved to its pres-
bearing plant that was widespread during ent polar location after the coal formed more
late Paleozoic time (before 252 Ma). 03.02.b1 than 150 million years ago.
How Did Continental Drift Explain Glacial Deposits in Unusual Places?

Geologists studying continents in the Southern Hemisphere were puzzled by evidence that ancient glaciers
had once covered places that today are close to the equator, and much too warm to have major glaciers.
1. This rounded outcrop in 4. The overall direc-
03.02.c3
South Africa has a polished tions of glacial
and scratched surface that is movement
identical to those observed at inferred from the
the bases of modern glaciers. scratch marks
This observation is surprising made it seem as
because South Africa is cur- if the glaciers
rently a fairly warm and dry had come
region without any glaciers. from the
oceans,
03.02.c1 Kimberly, South Africa
something
2. Sedimentary rocks above the polished that is not
surface contain an unsorted collection of seen today.
03.02.c2 Kimberly, South Africa
rocks of various sizes. Some of the rocks Wegener
have scratch marks, like those seen near discovered
modern-day glaciers. that these
data made more sense
3. The scratch marks on the polished when the continents were
surface tell geologists the direction that pieced back together into a
glaciers moved across the land as they larger, ancient continent, as shown in
gouged the bedrock. Geologists interpret this illustration. According to this model, a
the scratch marks and other observations polar ice cap was centered over South Africa and Antarctica
as evidence that glaciers moved across the 280 million years ago, and the directions of glacial ice move-
area about 280 million years ago. ment were those shown by the blue arrows.
Old and New Ideas About Continental Drift
T
he hypothesis of continental drift abandoned the hypothesis, in spite of its first time, that the ocean floor had long sub-
received mixed reviews at first from other appeals. The hypothesis probably marine mountain belts, such as the Mid-
geologists and other scientists. Geolo- would have been more widely accepted if Atlantic Ridge in the middle of the Atlantic
gists working in the Southern Hemisphere Wegener or another scientist of that time had Ocean. Harry Hess and Robert Dietz, two
were intrigued by the idea because it proposed a viable mechanism that explained geologists familiar with Wegener’s work,
explained the observed similarities in rocks, how continents could move. examined the new data on ocean depths, and
fossils, and geologic structures on opposite In the late 1950s, the idea of drifting con- also new data on magnetism of the seafloor.
sides of the Atlantic and Indian oceans. tinents again surfaced with the availability of Hess and Dietz both p roposed that oceanic
Geologists working in the Northern Hemi- new information about the topography (▼), crust was spreading apart at underwater
sphere were more skeptical, in part because age, and magnetism of the seafloor. The mountain belts, carrying the continents apart.
many had not seen the Southern Hemisphere magnetic data had largely been acquired in This process of seafloor spreading rekindled
data for themselves. the search for enemy submarines during interest in Alfred Wegener’s idea of conti-
We now know that Wegener, with the evi- World War II. These data showed, for the nental drift. Wegener’s hypothesis morphed
dence he considered, was on the right track. into the theory of plate tectonics, which is
A crucial weakness of his hypothesis was 03.02.t1 described later in this chapter.
that he could not explain how or why the
continents moved. Wegener imagined that
continents plowed through or over oceanic Before You Leave This Page
crust in the same way that a ship plows
through the ocean. Scientists of his day, how-
Describe observations Wegener used
ever, could demonstrate that this mechanism to support continental drift.
was not feasible. Continental crust is not
strong enough to survive the forces needed Discuss why the hypothesis was not
to move a large mass across such a great dis- widely accepted.
tance while pushing aside oceanic crust.
3.2
List some discoveries about the

Because scientists of Wegener’s time could seafloor that brought a renewed
show with experiments and calculations that interest in the idea of continental drift.
this mechanism was unlikely, they practically
54
3.3 Where Do Earthquakes and Volcanoes Occur?

EARTHQUAKES AND VOLCANOES are spectacular manifestations of geology. Many of these are in distant places,
but some are close to where we live. The distributions of e arthquakes and volcanoes are not random, but instead define
clear patterns and show a close association with mountain belts and other regional features. These patterns reflect
important, large-scale Earth processes.
Where Do Most Earthquakes Occur?

On this map, yellow circles show the locations of recent moderate to strong earthquakes. Observe the distribution of
earthquakes before reading the text surrounding the map below. What patterns do you notice? Which regions have many
earthquakes and which have few? Are earthquakes associated with certain types of features?
1. Earthquakes are not distributed uniformly across 2. Most earthquakes in the oceans occur 3. Earthquakes are sparse in some
the planet. Most are concentrated in discrete belts, along the winding crests of mid-ocean continental interiors but are abun-
such as one that runs along the western coasts of ridges. Where the ridges curve or zigzag, dant in others, like the Middle East,
North and South America. so do the patterns of earthquakes. China, and Tibet.
03.03.a1
4. Large areas of the 5. Some continental 6. Ocean trenches and
seafloor, especially edges experience many associated island arcs
the abyssal plains, earthquakes, but other have numerous earth-
have few earth- edges have few. Earth- quakes. In fact, many of
quakes. Volcanically quakes are common along the world’s largest and Before You Leave These Pages
active islands, like the western coasts of most deadly earthquakes
Hawaii, in the middle South America and North occur near ocean Show on a world relief map the major
of the Pacific Ocean, America, and these edges trenches. Recent exam- belts of earthquakes and volcanoes.
do have earthquakes. also have narrow continen- ples were the large
tal shelves. There are few earthquakes that pro- Describe how the distribution of
earthquakes along the duced deadly ocean volcanoes corresponds to that of
eastern coasts of the waves (tsunamis) in the earthquakes.
Americas, where the conti- Indian Ocean in 2004 Compare the distributions of earthquakes,
nental shelves are wide. and in Japan in 2011. volcanoes, and high elevations.
Which Areas Have Volcanoes?

On the map below, orange triangles show the locations of volcanoes that have been active in the last several million years.
Observe the distribution of volcanoes and note which areas have volcanoes and which have none. How does this distribution
compare with the distribution of earthquakes?
1. Volcanoes, like earthquakes, are 2. Some volcanoes occur in the centers of 3. Volcanoes occur along the western edge of the
widespread, but commonly occur in oceans, such as the volcanoes near Iceland. Pacific Ocean, extending from north of Australia
belts. One belt extends along the Iceland is a large volcanic island along the through the Philippines and Japan. Many are part of
western coasts of North and mid-ocean ridge in the center of the island arcs, associated with ocean trenches
South America. North Atlantic Ocean. and earthquakes.
03.03.b1
4. Volcanic eruptions occur beneath the oceans, but this 5. Some volcanoes form in 6. This map (▼) shows the topography of Earth’s
map shows only the largest submarine volcanic mountains. the middle of continents, such surface and seafloor, with high elevations in
Volcanism is widespread along mid-ocean ridges, but it as in the eastern part of Africa brown, low land elevations in green, shallow
generally does not form mountains. and China. seafloor in light blue, and deep seafloor in dark
blue. Using the
three maps shown
here, compare the
distributions of
earthquakes, volca-
noes, and high ele-
vations. Identify
areas where
there are
(1) mountains but
no earthquakes,
(2) mountains but
no volcanoes, and
(3) earthquakes but
no volcanoes.
Make a list of these
areas, or mark the
3.3
areas on a map.
03.03.b2
56
3.4 What Causes Tectonic Activity

to Occur in Belts?
WHY DO EARTHQUAKES AND VOLCANOES occur in belts around Earth’s surface? Why are there vast regions
that have comparatively little of this activity? What underlying processes cause these observed p atterns? These and
other questions helped lead to the theory of plate tectonics.
What Do Earthquake and Volcanic Activity Tell Us About Earth’s Lithosphere?

1. Examine the map below, which shows the locations of 2. On the upper map, there are large regions that have few earthquakes
recent earthquakes (yellow circles) and volcanoes (orange and volcanoes. These regions are relatively stable and intact pieces of
triangles). After noting the patterns, compare this map with Earth’s outer layers. There are a dozen or so of these regions, each having
the lower map and then read the associated text. edges defined by belts of earthquakes and, to a lesser extent, volcanoes.
3. Earthquakes, volca-

noes, and other pro-
cesses that deform the
crust and mantle are
called tectonic activity,
or simply tectonics. The
belts of yellow and
orange on the map
are areas of active
tectonics. The regions
between the belts
are relatively stable.
03.04.a1
4. This lower map shows

how geoscientists interpret
the patterns on the upper
map. Earth’s strong upper
layer, the lithosphere, is
broken into a dozen or
so fairly rigid pieces,
called tectonic plates.
This map shows names
and boundaries of the
larger plates. This book
refers to these plates
in later chapters, so
spend some time
learning the names
and locations of the
larger plates.
6. Some earthquakes occur in the middle of plates, so the situation is more com- 5. Compare the two maps and note how the distribution of tec-
plicated than a simple plate-tectonic model, in part because some parts of a plate tonic activity, especially earthquakes, outlines the shapes of the
are weaker than others. Forces can be transmitted through the strong parts, caus- plates. Earthquakes are a better guide to plate boundaries than
ing weaker parts to break and slip, generating an earthquake within the plate. are volcanoes. Most, but not all, volcanoes are near plate
Generally, though, most tectonic activity occurs near plate boundaries. boundaries, but many plate boundaries have no volcanoes.
How Do Plates Move Relative to One Another?

Plate boundaries have tectonic activity because plates are moving relative to one another. For this reason, we talk about the
relative motion of plates across a plate boundary. Two plates can move away, toward, or sideways relative to one another,
resulting in three types of plate boundaries: divergent, convergent, and transform.
Divergent Boundary Convergent Boundary Transform Boundary
03.04.b3
03.04.b1
03.04.b2
At a divergent boundary, two plates move At a convergent boundary, two plates move At a transform boundary, two plates move
apart relative to one another. In most cases, toward one another. A typical result is that horizontally past one another, as shown by
magma fills the space between the plates. one plate slides under the other. the white arrows on the top surface.
Where Are the Three Types of Plate Boundaries?

03.04.c1
This map shows plate
boundaries according
to type. Compare this
map with the maps in
part A and with those
shown earlier in the
chapter. For each major
plate, note the types of
boundaries between
this plate and other
plates it contacts. Then
use the various maps
to determine whether
each type of plate
boundary has the fol-
lowing features:
• Earthquakes
• Volcanoes
• Mountain belts
• Mid-ocean ridges
• Ocean trenches

Describe plate tectonics and how it explains the distribution of tectonic activity.
Sketch and explain the three types of plate boundaries.
3.4
Compare the three types of plate boundaries with the distributions of earthquakes, volcanoes, mountain belts, mid-ocean ridges,
and ocean trenches.
58
3.5 What Happens at Divergent Boundaries?

AT MID-OCEAN RIDGES, Earth’s tectonic plates diverge (move apart). Ridges are the sites of many small to moderate-
sized earthquakes and much submarine volcanism. On the continents, divergent motion can split a continent into two pieces,
commonly forming a new ocean basin as the pieces move apart.
What Happens at Mid-Ocean Ridges?

Mid-ocean ridges are divergent plate boundaries where new oceanic lithosphere forms as two oceanic plates move apart.
These boundaries are also called spreading centers because of the way the plates spread apart.
1. A narrow trough, or rift, runs along the axis of most mid-ocean ridges. 3. Much of the magma solidifies at depth, but some erupts onto
The rift forms because large blocks of crust slip down as spreading the seafloor, forming submarine lava flows. These eruptions create
occurs. The divergence and movement of fault blocks cause faulting, new ocean crust that is incorporated into the oceanic plates
resulting in frequent small- to moderate-sized earthquakes. as they move apart.
2. As the plates move 4. Mid-ocean ridges are elevated above
apart, solid mantle in the surrounding seafloor because they con-
the asthenosphere rises sist of hotter, less dense materials, including
toward the surface. It magma. They also are higher because the
partially melts in underlying lithosphere is thinner beneath
response to a decrease ridges than beneath typical seafloor. Lower
in pressure. The molten density materials and thin lithosphere mean
rock (magma) rises that the plate “floats” higher above the
along narrow conduits, underlying asthenosphere. The elevation of
accumulates in magma the seafloor decreases away from the ridge
chambers beneath the because the rock cools and contracts, and
rift, and eventually because the less dense asthenosphere
becomes part of the cools enough to become part of the more
oceanic lithosphere. dense lithosphere.
03.05.a1–2
What Happens When Divergence Splits a Continent Apart?

Most divergent plate boundaries are beneath oceans, but a divergent boundary may also form within a continent. This
process, called continental rifting, creates a continental rift, such as the Great Rift Valley in East Africa. Rifting can
lead to seafloor spreading and formation of a new ocean
basin, following the progression shown here.
03.05.b1– 4
1. The initial stage of continental rifting commonly includes broad uplift of the
land surface as mantle-derived magma ascends into and pushes up the crust.
The magma heats and can melt parts of the continental crust, producing
additional magma. Heating of the crust causes it to expand, which results
in further uplift.
2. Stretching of the crust causes large crustal blocks to drop down along
faults, forming a continental rift, like in the Great Rift Valley. The down
dropped blocks may form basins that can trap sediment and water, resulting
in lakes. Deep rifting causes solid mantle material in the asthenosphere to
flow upward and partially melt. The resulting magma may solidify beneath
the surface or may erupt from volcanoes and long fissures on the surface.
The entire crust thins as it is pulled apart, so the central rift becomes lower
in elevation over time.
3. If rifting continues, the continent splits into two pieces, and a narrow
ocean basin forms as seafloor spreading takes place. A modern example
of this is the narrow Red Sea, which runs between Africa and the Arabian
Peninsula. As the edges of the continents move away from the heat associ-
ated with active spreading, the thinned crust cools and drops in elevation,
eventually dropping below sea level. The continental margin ceases to be
a plate boundary. A continental edge that lacks tectonic activity is called
a passive margin.
4. With continuing seafloor spreading, the ocean basin becomes pro-
gressively wider, eventually becoming a broad ocean like the modern-
day Atlantic Ocean. The Atlantic Ocean basin formed when North and
South America rifted away from Europe and Africa, following the
sequence shown here. Continental edges on both sides of the Atlantic
are currently passive margins. Seafloor spreading continues today along
the ridge in the middle of the Atlantic Ocean, so the Americas continue
to move away from Europe and Africa.
Continental Rifting in East Africa

5. East Africa and adjacent seas illustrate the different
stages of continental rifting. Here, a piece of continent has
been rifted away from Africa,
and another piece is in the 7. The Red Sea represents
early stages of possibly the early stages of seafloor
doing the same (⊲). spreading. It began forming
about 50 million years ago Before You Leave This Page
6. Early stages of rifting when the Arabian Penin-
occur along the East Afri- sula rifted away from Sketch, label, and explain the features
can Rift, a long continental Africa. The Red Sea con- and processes of an oceanic
rift that begins near the tinues to spread and divergent boundary.
Red Sea and extends into slowly grow wider.
central Africa. The rift is Sketch and label the characteristics of
within an elevated a continental rift (i.e., a divergent
(uplifted) region and boundary within a continent).
has several different
segments, each featur- Sketch, label, and explain the stages
3.5
ing a downdropped rift. of continental rifting, using East Africa

Some parts of the rift and the Red Sea as examples
contain large lakes. of stages.
03.05.b5
60
3.6 What Happens at Convergent Boundaries?

CONVERGENT BOUNDARIES FORM when two plates move toward each other. Convergence can involve two oceanic
plates, an oceanic plate and a continental plate, or two continental plates. Oceanic trenches, island arcs, and Earth’s
largest mountain belts form at convergent boundaries. Many of Earth’s most dangerous volcanoes and largest earthquakes
also occur along these boundaries.
What Happens When Two Oceanic Plates Converge?

1. Convergence of two oceanic plates forms an ocean-ocean convergent boundary. One plate 4. Some magma erupts, initially under the
bends and slides beneath the other plate along an inclined zone. The process of one plate ocean and later as dangerous, explosive
sliding beneath another plate is subduction, and the zone around the downward-moving plate volcanoes that rise above the sea. With
is a subduction zone. Many large earthquakes occur in subduction zones. continued activity, the erupted lava and
exploded volcanic fragments construct a
2. An oceanic trench forms as the curving belt of islands in an island arc.
subducting plate bends down. An example is the arc-shaped belt of
Sediment and slices of oceanic the Aleutian Islands of Alaska. The
crust collect in the trench, form- area between the island arc and the
ing a wedge called an ocean trench accumulates sediment,
accretionary prism. This most of which comes from volcanic
name signifies that mate- eruptions and from the erosion of
rial is being added volcanic materials in the arc.
(accreted) over time to
the wedge- or prism-
shaped region. 5. Magma that solidifies at depth
adds to the volume of the crust.
Over time, the crust gets thicker
3. As the plate subducts, and becomes transitional in char-
its temperature increases, acter between oceanic and conti-
releasing water from miner- nental crust. Volcanic islands join
als in the oceanic crust. This to form more continuous strips of
water causes melting in the land, as occurred to form the
overlying asthenosphere, and the resulting magma island of Java in Indonesia.
is buoyant and rises into the overlying plate. 03.06.a1
What Happens When an Oceanic Plate and a Continental Plate Converge?

1. The convergence of an oceanic and a 3. Volcanoes form on the surface of the overriding continental plate in the same way the vol-
continental plate forms an ocean-continent canoes form in an ocean-ocean convergent boundary. These volcanoes erupt, often violently,
convergent boundary. Along this boundary, producing large amounts of volcanic ash, lava, and mudflows, which pose a hazard for people
the denser oceanic plate subducts who live nearby. Examples include large volcanoes of the Andes of South America and the
beneath the more buoyant Cascade Range of Washington, Oregon,
continental plate. northern California, and southern
British Columbia.
2. An oceanic trench marks
the plate boundary and 4. Compression associated with the con-
receives sediment vergent boundary squeezes the crust for
from the adjacent hundreds of kilometers into the conti-
continent. This nent. The crust deforms and thickens,
sediment and resulting in uplift of the region. Uplift
material scraped and volcanism may produce a high
off the oceanic mountain range, such as the Andes.
plate form an
accretionary prism.
5. Magma forms by melting of the
asthenosphere above the subduction
zone. It can solidify at depth, rise into
the overlying continental crust before
solidifying, or reach the surface and
03.06.b1 cause a volcanic eruption.
What Causes the Pacific Ring of Fire?

Volcanoes surround the Pacific Ocean, forming the Pacific Ring of Fire, as shown in the map below. The volcanoes extend
from the southwestern Pacific, through the Philippine Islands, Japan, and Alaska, and then down the western coasts of the
Americas. The Ring of Fire results from subduction on both sides of the Pacific Ocean.
1. In the Pacific, new oceanic lithosphere forms 2. Oceanic lithosphere subducts beneath the
along a mid-ocean ridge, the East Pacific Rise. Americas, forming oceanic trenches on the
Once formed, new lithosphere moves away from seafloor and volcanoes on the overriding,
the ridge as seafloor spreading continues. mostly continental, plates.
03.06.c2
3. Subduction of oceanic lithosphere also 4. More oceanic plate is subducted than is
occurs to the west, beneath Japan and produced along the East Pacific Rise, so the
03.06.c1 island arcs of the western Pacific. width of the Pacific Ocean is shrinking with time.
What Happens When Two Continents Collide?

Two continental masses may converge along a continent-continent convergent boundary. This type of boundary
is commonly called a continental collision, and it
produces huge mountain ranges.
The large plate in the figure to the right is partly oceanic and partly
continental, and the oceanic part is being subducted to the right,
under another continent at a convergent boundary.
03.06.d1
As the oceanic part of the plate continues to subduct, the two

continents become closer to each other. Magmatic activity occurs
in the overriding plate above the subduction zone. The edge of
the approaching continent has no such activity because it is not
a plate boundary, yet.
When the converging continent arrives at the subduction zone, it may 03.06.d2
partially slide under the other continent or simply clog the subduc-
tion zone as the two continents collide. The two continents are thick
and have the same density so neither can be easily subducted
beneath the other and into the asthenosphere. Along the boundary,
faults slice up the continental crust, stacking one slice on top of
another. These slices are distinct from the accretionary prism that
formed along the convergent boundary prior to the actual continental
collision. Continental collisions form enormous mountain belts and 03.06.d3
high plateaus, such as the Himalaya and Tibetan Plateau of southern
Asia. The Himalaya and Tibetan Plateau are still forming today,
as continental crust of India collides with the southern edge of Asia.

3.6
Sketch, label, and explain the features and processes associated with ocean-ocean and ocean-continent convergent boundaries.
Sketch, label, and explain the steps leading to a continental collision (continent-continent convergent boundary).
62
3.7 What Happens Along Transform Boundaries?

AT TRANSFORM BOUNDARIES, PLATES SLIP HORIZONTALLY past each other along transform faults. In the
oceans, transform faults are associated with mid-ocean ridges. Transform faults combine with spreading centers to form
a zigzag pattern on the seafloor. A transform fault can link different types of plate boundaries, such as a mid-ocean
ridge and an ocean trench. Some transform boundaries occur beside or within a continent, sliding one large crustal
block past another, as occurs along the San Andreas fault in California.
Why Do Mid-Ocean Ridges Have a Zigzag Pattern?

1. To understand the zigzag character of mid-ocean ridges, examine how the two parts
of this pizza have pulled apart, just like two diverging plates.
2. The break in the pizza did not follow a straight line. It took jogs to the left and the
right, following cuts where the pizza was the weakest.
3. Openings created where the pizza pulled apart represent the segments of a mid-
ocean ridge that are spreading apart. However, unlike a pizza, at a mid-ocean ridge, no
open gaps exist because new material, much of it molten, derived from the underlying
mantle fills the space as fast as it opens, forming new oceanic crust.
4. The openings are linked by breaks, or faults, where the two parts of the pizza sim-
ply slide by one another. There are no gaps along these breaks, only horizontal move-
ment of one plate sliding past the other. Arrows show the direction of relative motion. A
fault that accommodates the horizontal movement of one tectonic plate past another is
a transform fault. The spreading direction must be parallel to the transform faults and
03.07.a1
perpendicular to the spreading segments, so a zigzag pattern is required to allow a
plate boundary to be curved.
Transform Faults Along the Mid-Ocean Ridge

5. Mid-ocean ridges, such as this one in the South Atlantic Ocean, have a zigzag pattern similar to the broken pizza.
6. In this region, spreading occurs 9. Continuing outward from most trans-
along north-south ridges. The direc- form faults is an oceanic fracture
tion of spreading is east-west, per- zone, which is a step in the eleva-
pendicular to the ridges. tion of the seafloor. A fracture zone
is a former transform fault that now
7. East-west offsets are transform has no relative motion across it. It
faults along which the two diverg- no longer separates two plates
ing plates simply slide past one and instead is within a single
another, like the breaks in the plate. Opposite sides of the
pizza. The transform faults link fracture zone have d ifferent
the spreading segments and elevations because they
have the relative motion formed by seafloor spreading
shown by the small, at different times in the
white arrows. past, so they have had dif-
ferent amounts of time to
8. Transform faults cool and subside after
along mid-ocean ridges forming at the spread
are generally perpen- ing center. Younger
dicular to the axis of parts of the plate are
the ridge. As in the warmer and higher than
pizza example, trans- older parts.
form faults are parallel 03.07.a2
to the direction in
which the two plates 10. The zigzag pattern of mid-ocean ridges reflects the alternation of spreading segments with transform faults.
are spreading apart. In this example, the overall shape of the ridge mimics the edges of Africa and South America and so was largely
inherited from the shape of the original rift that split the two continents apart.
What Are Some Other Types of Transform Boundaries?

The Pacific seafloor and western North America contain several different transform boundaries. The boundary between the
Pacific plate and the North American plate is mostly a transform boundary, with the Pacific plate moving northwest relative
to the main part of North America.
1. The Queen Charlotte transform fault, shown as a long 2. The zigzag boundary between the Pacific plate and the small Juan de Fuca
green line, lies along the edge of the continent, from plate has three transform faults, shown here as green lines. These transform faults
north of Vancouver Island to southeastern Alaska. link three ridge segments that are spreading (shown here as yellow lines).
03.07.b1
3. The Mendocino fracture 4. A transform fault links a spreading 5. The San Andreas transform fault extends from north of
zone originated as a trans- center (between the Pacific plate and the San Francisco to southeast of Los Angeles. The part of California
form fault, but it is now Juan de Fuca plate) with the Cascadia west of the fault is on the Pacific plate and is moving approxi-
entirely within the Pacific subduction zone and the San Andreas mately 5 cm/yr to the northwest relative to the rest of North
plate and is no longer fault. The place where the three plate America. South of this map area, the transform boundary contin-
active. Oceanic crust to the boundaries meet is a triple junction. The ues across southern California and into the Gulf of California.
north is higher because it is Mendocino triple junction is the meeting
younger than oceanic crust place of two different transform faults 03.07.b2 Carrizo Plain, CA
to the south. and a subduction zone.
6. Californians have a transform fault in

their backyard. In central California, the
San Andreas fault forms linear valleys,
Before You Leave This Page abrupt mountain fronts, and lines of lakes.
In the Carrizo Plain (⊲), the fault is a linear
gash in the topography. Some streams fol-
Sketch, label, and explain an oceanic
low the fault and others jog to the right as
transform boundary related to seafloor they cross the fault, recording relative
spreading at a mid-ocean ridge. movement of the two sides. In this view,
Sketch, label, and explain the motion the North American plate is to the left, and
3.7
of transform faults along the west the Pacific plate is to the right and is being
coast of North America. displaced toward the viewer at several
centimeters per year.
64
3.8 How Do Plates Move and Interact?

THE PROCESS OF PLATE TECTONICS circulates material back and forth between the asthenosphere and the litho-
sphere. Some asthenosphere becomes lithosphere at mid-ocean spreading centers and then takes a slow trip across the
ocean floor before going back down into the asthenosphere at a subduction zone. Besides creating and destroying
lithosphere, this process is the major way that Earth transports heat to the surface.
What Moves the Plates?

How exactly do plates move? To move, an object must be subjected to a driving force (a force that drives the motion).
The driving force must exceed the resisting forces (those forces that resist the movement), such as friction and any
resistance from other material that is in the way. What forces drive the plates?
1. Slab Pull — Subducting 2. Ridge Push — The mid-ocean ridge is higher than the ocean floor away from 3. Mantle Convection — The
oceanic lithosphere is the ridge because lithosphere near the ridge is thinner and hotter. Gravity causes asthenosphere, although a solid, is
more dense than the plate to slide away from the topographically high capable of flow. It experiences
asthenosphere, so ridge and push the plate outward — ridge push. convection, where hot material
gravity pulls the plate rises due to its lower density, while
downward into the cold material sinks because it is
asthenosphere. This more dense. Hot material rises at
pulling, called slab pull, mid-ocean ridges, cools, and
is a significant force, and eventually sinks back into the
a plate being subducted asthenosphere at a subduction
generally moves faster zone. Convection also occurs at
than a plate not being centers of upwelling mantle
subducted. Subduction material called hot spots, and it
sets up other forces in can help or hinder the motion of a
the mantle that can work plate. Another important source of
with or against slab pull. forces is the motion of a plate with
respect to the underlying mantle.
03.08.a1
How Fast and in What Directions Do Plates Move Relative to One Another?
Plates move at 1 to 15 cm/yr, about as fast as your fingernails grow. This map shows velocities and relative motions
along major plate boundaries, based on long-term rates. Arrows indicate whether the plate boundary has divergent
(outward pointing), convergent (inward pointing), or transform (side by side) motion.
03.08.b1
Is There a Way to Directly Measure Plate Motions?

Modern technology allows direct measurement of plate motions using satellites, lasers, and other tools. The measured
directions and rates of plate motions are consistent with our current concept of lithospheric plates and with the theory
of plate tectonics.
Global Positioning Note the
System (GPS) is an motions of dif-
accurate location ferent plates.
technique that uses Africa is moving
small radio receivers to the northeast,
to record signals from away from South
several dozen Earth- America. North
orbiting satellites. By America is mov-
attaching GPS receiving westward
ers to sites on land and rotating
and then monitoring counterclock-
changes in position wise in this view.
over time, geologists These motions
produce maps show- match predic-
ing motions for each tions from the
plate. Arrows point in theory of plate
the direction of tectonics.
motion, and longer
arrows indicate 50 mm/yr
faster motion.
03.08.c1
What Happens Where Plate Boundaries Change Their Orientation?

The boundary between two plates may be of a different type in different places. It can change from divergent to transform or
from convergent to transform, for example, as its orientation varies compared to the direction of relative plate movement.
Nearly all plate boundaries contain curves or abrupt bends, so most boundaries change type as they cross Earth’s surface.
1. As these two interlocking blocks pull 3. The boundary between the North American and Pacific plates illus- 4. To the southeast,
apart (▼), two gaps (equivalent to trates how a plate boundary changes its character as it changes orien- the plate boundary
spreading centers) form, linked by a tation. In most of Alaska, the two plates converge, and the Pacific bends and becomes
transform boundary where the blocks plate subducts beneath North America. parallel to the edge
slip horizontally by one another. The of the continent. As it
boundary changes its type as it bends, the plate
changes its orientation. boundary changes
from being conver-
gent to largely having
a transform motion.
The transform fault,
named the Queen
Charlotte fault, allows
the Pacific plate to
slide northwestward
past North America at
a rate of 5 cm/yr.
03.08.d3
03.08.d1 03.08.d2

2. A small-scale example of
this type of change in motion Sketch and explain the driving forces of plate tectonics.
occurred along a fault in
Alaska (⊲), where lateral Describe the typical rates of relative motion between plates.
motion on the fault during an Describe one way to directly measure plate motion.
3.8
earthquake caused local pull-

ing apart of the rock and ice Sketch, label, and explain how a plate boundary can change
as the fault curved around its type as its orientation changes.
several bends.
66
3.9 How Is Paleomagnetism Used to Determine

Rates of Seafloor Spreading?
PALEOMAGNETISM IS THE RECORD OF PAST CHANGES in Earth’s magnetic field, as recorded in rocks and other
materials. The magnetic field is strong enough to orient magnetism in certain minerals, especially the iron-rich mineral
magnetite, in the direction of the prevailing magnetic field. Magnetic directions preserved in volcanic rocks, intrusive
rocks, and some sedimentary rocks provide an important way to determine the rates of seafloor spreading.
What Causes Earth’s Magnetic Field?

Earth has a metallic iron core, which is composed of a solid inner core surrounded by a liquid outer core. The liquid core
flows and behaves like a dynamo (an electrical generator), creating a magnetic field around Earth.
1. The inner core transfers heat and less 03.09.a1 3. Earth’s magnetic field currently
dense material to the liquid outer core. flows from south to north (⊲), causing
This transfer causes liquid in the the magnetic ends of a compass nee-
outer core to rise, forming convec- dle to point toward the north. This ori-
tion currents. These convection entation is called a normal polarity.
currents are limited to the molten
outer core and are not the same
as those in the upper mantle.
03.09.a2
2. Movement of the molten iron
is affected by forces associated 4. Many times in the past, the magnetic
with Earth’s rotation. The result- field has had a reversed polarity (⊳), so
ing movement of liquid iron and that a compass needle would point
electrical currents generates the south. The switch between normal
magnetic field. polarity and reversed polarity is a
magnetic reversal.
03.09.a3
How Do Magnetic Reversals Help Us Infer the Age of Rocks?

The north and south magnetic poles have switched many times, typically remaining either normal or reversed anywhere from
100,000 years to a few million years. Geoscientists have constructed a magnetic timescale by isotopically dating sequences
of rocks that contain magnetic reversals. This geomagnetic polarity timescale then serves
as a reference to compare against other sequences of rocks.
1. Geoscientists measure the direction and 2. This figure (⊲) shows the series of magnetic reversals during
strength of the magnetism preserved in rocks with the last 10 million years, the most recent part of the Cenozoic
an instrument called a magnetometer (▼). With this Era. This time period is within the Neogene and Quaternary
device, we can tell whether the magnetic field had Periods. In older geologic literature, this time period included
a normal polarity or a reversed polarity when an the Quaternary and part of the Tertiary.
igneous rock solidified and cooled or when a
sedimentary layer accumulated.
3. The timescale shows periods of normal magnetization (N) in

black and those of reversed magnetization (R) in white. Variability
in the spacing and duration of magnetic reversals produced a
unique pattern through time. Geologists can measure the pattern
of reversals in a rock sequence and compare this pattern to the
magnetic timescale to see where the patterns match. This allows
an estimate of the age of the rock or sediment. Geoscientists
use other age constraints, including isotopic ages or fossils, to
further refine the age of the magnetized rocks. The magnetic
timescale is best documented for the last 180 million years
because seafloor of this age is widely preserved and can have
its magnetic polarity measured. 03.09.b2
03.09.b1
How Are Magnetic Reversals Expressed at Mid-Ocean Ridges, and How Do

Magnetic Patterns on the Seafloor Help Us Study Plate Tectonics?
In the 1950s, geoscientists discovered that the ocean floor displayed magnetic variations in the form of matching stripes on
either side of the mid-ocean ridge. Geoscientists Frederick Vine, Drummond Mathews, and Lawrence Morley interpreted the
patterns to represent a magnetic field that had reversed its polarity. This Vine-Mathews-Morley hypothesis led to the theory
of plate tectonics. Magnetic patterns allow us to estimate the ages of large areas of seafloor and to calculate the rates at
which two diverging oceanic plates spread apart.
1. As the oceanic plates spread apart at a mid-ocean ridge, basaltic lava erupts onto the surface or
solidifies at depth. As the rocks cool, the orientation of Earth’s magnetic field is recorded by the iron-
rich mineral magnetite contained within the rocks. In this example, the magnetite records normal
polarity (shown with a reddish color) at the time the rock forms.
2. If the magnetic field reverses, new rocks that form will acquire a reversed polarity (shown in white).
Rocks forming all along the axis of the mid-ocean ridge will have the same magnetic direction, form-
ing a stripe of similarly magnetized rocks parallel to the ridge. Once the rocks have cooled, they
retain their original magnetic direction, unless they are heated significantly or altered by certain types
of fluids. In most cases, the magnetic polarity is preserved by the seafloor.
3. The magnetic polarity switches many times, and continued seafloor spreading produces a pattern
of alternating magnetic stripes on the ocean floor. This pattern is strong enough to be detected by
magnetic instruments, called magnetometers, towed behind a ship or a plane.
Positive Magnetic Anomaly
Earth’s Magnetic Field

03.09.c1
Negative Magnetic Anomaly
4. As magnetic instruments are towed behind a ship, the strength of the magnetic
4 3 2 1 Present 1 2 3 4 Age Before Present
(Millions of Years) field is measured and plotted. Stronger measurements plot high on the graph and
are called positive magnetic anomalies. The stronger magnetic signal occurs
because the normal-polarity magnetization of the rocks is adding to the strength of
Crest of Mid-Ocean Ridge
the Earth’s modern magnetic field in that area. The magnetic signal is weaker over
Normal Reversed crust that was formed under a reversed magnetic field, because the magnetic direc-
tion in such rocks is opposite to — and works to counteract — the modern magnetic
field. The reverse magnetization of the rocks slightly weakens the measured mag-
03.09.c2
4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 netic signal and will plot low on the graph, forming a negative magnetic anomaly.
5. The patterns of positive and negative magnetic anomalies on the seafloor are
compared with the patterns on the geomagnetic polarity timescale to assign ages
Magnetic Stripes 50 km to each reversal. Geologists simplify and visualize these data as reversely and nor-
mally magnetized stripes on the seafloor, as shown in this illustration.
6. We can calculate rates of seafloor spreading by measuring the width of a specific
magnetic stripe in map or cross-section view and then dividing that distance by
the length of time the stripe represents:
rate of spreading for stripe = width of stripe / time duration

7. If a magnetic stripe is 60 km wide and formed over 2 million years, then the aver-
age rate at which spreading formed the stripe was 30 km/m.y. This rate is equivalent Describe how Earth’s magnetic field
to 3 cm/yr. Spreading added an equal width of oceanic crust to a plate on the other is generated.
side of the mid-ocean ridge, so the total rate of spreading across the ridge was 60
km/m.y. (6 cm/yr), a typical rate of seafloor spreading. Describe how magnetic reversals help with
determining the age of rocks.
8. The magnetic patterns on the seafloor, in addition to magnetic measurements on Describe or sketch how magnetic patterns
sequences of rocks and sediment on the seafloor and on land, demonstrate that develop on the seafloor.
Earth’s magnetic field has reversed many times. Scientists are currently debating
Calculate the rate of seafloor spreading if
3.9
the possible causes of the reversals, with most explanations attributing reversals
to chaotic flow in the molten outer core, which add to or subtract from the patterns given the width and duration of
caused by the dynamo, disrupting the prevailing magnetic field and causing a magnetic stripe.
a magnetic reversal.
68
3.10 What Geologic Features Does

Plate Tectonics Help Explain?
MANY OF EARTH’S LARGE FEATURES, including mountains, mid-ocean ridges, and ocean trenches, are the result
of plate tectonics. Ridges and trenches are in predictable places on the ocean floor, and most mountain ranges are
situated along continental margins. The theory of plate tectonics explains many other features, such as island and sea-
mount chains, continents that look like they would fit together, and variations in the age of the seafloor. The theory
built upon earlier ideas about continental drift and seafloor spreading.
Is the Age of the Seafloor Consistent with Plate Tectonics?

According to plate tectonics, oceanic crust forms from upwelling magma and spreading at a mid-ocean ridge and then
moves away from the ridge with further spreading. If so, the crust should be youngest near the ridge, where it was just
formed, and should be progressively older away from the ridge. Also, oceanic crust near the ridge will not have had time
to accumulate much sediment, but the sediment cover should thicken outward from the ridge.
Since 1968, ocean-drilling Drill core samples reveal
ships have drilled hundreds that sediment is thin or
of deep holes into the absent on a mid-ocean
seafloor. Geologists use drill ridge but becomes
cores and other drilling thicker away from the
results to measure the ridge. Age determina-
thickness of sediment and tions from fossils in the
examine the underlying sediment and from
volcanic rocks (basalt). underlying volcanic rocks
They analyze samples of show that oceanic crust
sediment and rock, study gets systematically older
fossils, and measure paleo- away from mid-ocean
magnetism to determine ridges. Drilling results
the age, character, and ori- from many parts of the
gin of the materials. From oceans therefore
this, they interpret the strongly support the
geologic history. theory of plate tectonics.
03.10.a1
If Continents Have Rifted Apart, Do Their Outlines and Geology Match?

1. According to the theory of plate tectonics and the 3. If the continents were once joined, they should have common geo-
earlier hypothesis of continental drift, the South logic features, including the same ages and types of rocks and
Atlantic Ocean formed when South America fossils. If restored back to their joined positions, the rocks
rifted away from Africa. If the continents are and other features should match from one continent to
moved back together, their outlines should another. Examine this map, which has brown areas
match. In this figure, we have moved the showing large blocks composed of ancient (Precam-
continents most of the way back brian) crust. Green areas and black lines mark younger
together so their outlines can be com- rocks and geologic structures (faults and folds), respec-
pared. Note that where one conti- tively. Do the features on the two continents match?
nent juts out, the other
curves in.
4. A wealth of geologic data demonstrate a good
match between the geology of South America
2. In 1973, geologist Edward and Africa. Detailed geologic comparisons of the
Bullard showed that conti- age and character of the Precambrian rocks in
nents fit together better if South America with those in central Africa confirm the
we include the continental similarities in nature and age of the two areas. These
shelves. Bullard pointed out results are consistent with the theory of plate tectonics and
that the shelves are parts of provide an excellent test of its validity. The concept of match-
each continent, although hidden ing geology between the two continents has been very
beneath shallow seas. If included important to the mining industry. When precious minerals, such
here, the continental shelves as diamonds, are discovered on one continent, geologists under-
would mostly fill the gaps between stand that they should also look for these commodities on the other
the continents. 03.10.b1 continent, if the minerals formed before the continents rifted apart.
How Does Plate Tectonics Help Explain Island and Seamount Chains?
Fairly straight lines of oceanic islands and submarine mountains (seamounts) cross some parts of the ocean floor. These
island and seamount chains are different in character and origin from curved island arcs, which are related to subduction.
How do linear chains of islands and seamounts form?
2. Volcanoes are active on the Big Island today, but not on the
other Hawaiian islands, including Kauai, the northwesternmost
island. Ages of volcanic rocks in the island and seamount chain
increase systemati- 03.10.c2
cally to the north- Midway
AGE OF ISLAND/SEAMOUNT
west. When we plot 30
the ages of these
rocks as a function
of distance from 20
Kilauea (the active
volcano on the Big
03.10.c1
Island), there is a 10
clear relationship Kauai
1. Most island and seamount chains are in the Pacific Ocean. One between age
begins on Hawaii’s Big Island and continues northwest more than 2,000 and distance. How 0
kilometers, passing through Midway Island, the site of a pivotal air and can we explain 1000 2000
sea battle during World War II. this pattern? DISTANCE FROM KILAUEA (km)
A Model for the Formation of Island and Seamount Chains

Island and seamount chains and most clusters of islands in the oceans have two key things in common: they were formed by volcanism and they
are near sites that geologists interpret to be above unusually high-temperature regions in the deep crust and upper mantle. Geologists refer to these
anomalously hot regions as hot spots.
03.10.c4 Haleakala, Maui, HI
1. This figure shows how linear island and seamount chains can be 2. Magma generated by a hot spot
related to a plate moving over a hot spot. At a hot spot, hot mantle may solidify at depth or form a volca-
rises and melts, forming magma that ascends into the overlying plate. nic mountain on the ocean floor. If the
If the plate above the hot spot is moving relative to the hot spot, vol- submarine volcano grows high enough
canism constructs a chain of volcanoes. above the seafloor, it becomes a vol-
canic island. Each of the Hawaiian
Islands, including the
island of Maui (⊲),
consists of volca-
noes. Geologists
consider the hot
spot to be cur-
rently below or
near the eastern
side of the Big
Island, near
Kilauea volcano.
3. As an area on
the plate moves beyond the hot
spot, it cools, subsides, and erodes, so volca- 03.10.c3 Before You Leave This Page
noes that start out as islands may sink beneath the sea
to become seamounts. In this way, a hot spot makes a 4. If a plate Predict the relative ages of seafloor from
chain of volcanic islands and seamounts, each created is not moving or
place to place using a map of an ocean with
when it was over the hot spot. According to this model, is moving very slowly,
a mid-ocean ridge.
volcanoes above the hot spot may be erupting today, the hot spot forms a
those close to but not above the hot spot are relatively cluster of volcanic Discuss how plate tectonics can explain
young, and those farthest from the hot spot are older. islands and seamounts similar continental outlines and geology on
The present volcanic activity and pattern of ages on the instead of a linear chain. opposite sides of an ocean.
graph presented earlier are consistent with the hot-spot The Galápagos, a cluster
3.10
model and with the calculated motion of the Pacific plate of volcanic islands in the Describe the characteristics of an island and
on which Hawaii rides. Lines of hot-spot-generated sea- eastern Pacific, are inter- seamount chain, and how it is interpreted to
mounts allow us to determine past directions and rates preted to be above be related to a hot spot.
of plate motions. a hot spot.
CONNECTIONS
3.11 Why Is South America Lopsided?
THE TWO SIDES OF SOUTH AMERICA are very different. The western margin is mountainous while the eastern
side and center of the continent have much less relief. The differences are a reflection of the present plate boundaries
and of the continent’s geologic history during the last 200 million years. South America nicely illustrates many aspects
of plate tectonics, including the connections between tectonics of the land and seafloor. It also is an excellent example
of how to analyze the major features of a region.
What Is the Present Setting of South America?

The perspective view below shows South America and the surrounding oceans. Observe the topography of the continent, its
margins, and the adjacent seafloor. See if you can find mid-ocean ridges, transform faults, ocean trenches, oceanic fracture
zones, and other plate-tectonic features. From these features, infer the locations of plate boundaries in the oceans, and
predict what type of motion (divergent, convergent, or transform) is likely along each boundary. Make your observations and
predictions before reading the accompanying text.
1. The Galápagos Islands are located in the 9. The center of the South American conti- 8. In the South Atlantic, the Mid-Atlantic
Pacific Ocean, west of South America. They nent has low, subdued topography because Ridge is a divergent boundary between the
consist of a cluster of about 20 volcanic it is away from any plate boundaries. It is a South American and African plates. Seafloor
islands, flanked by seamounts. Some of the relatively stable region that has no large vol- spreading creates new oceanic lithosphere
islands are volcanically active and are inter- canoes and few significant earthquakes. It is and moves the continents farther apart at a
preted to be over a hot spot. not tectonically active. rate of 3 cm/yr.
7. The eastern side of
2. The Andes moun- South America has a
tain range follows the continental shelf that
west coast of the con- slopes gently toward
tinent and is the site the adjacent seafloor.
of many dangerous There is no trench, no
earthquakes and vol- significant tectonic
canoes. A deep activity, or other evi-
ocean trench along dence for a plate
the edge of the boundary. Instead,
continent marks the continent and
where an oceanic adjacent seafloor to
plate subducts the east are part of
eastward beneath the same plate,
South America. and this edge of
the continent is a
3. The Pacific passive margin.
seafloor contains
mid-ocean 6. The curved
ridges with the Scotia Island arc
characteristic is related to a
zigzag pattern trench to the
of a divergent east and the
boundary with westward sub-
offsets along duction of the
transform oceanic part
faults. The of the South
Nazca plate American
lies north of plate.
this ridge,
and the Ant-
arctic plate
is to the
south.
03.11.a1
4. Many oceanic fracture zones cross the 5. The southern edge of the continent is very abrupt and has a curving “tail” extending to
seafloor and were formed along transform faults, the east. This edge of the South American plate is a transform boundary where South
but they are no longer plate boundaries. America is moving west relative to oceanic plates to the south.
70
What Is the Geometry of the South American Plate and Its Neighbors?
This cross section shows how geologists interpret the configuration of plates beneath South America
and the adjacent oceans. Compare this cross section with the plate boundaries you inferred in part A.
1. At the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, new oceanic lith-

osphere is added to the African and South
American plates as they move apart. As this
occurs, the oceanic part of the South
American plate gets wider. The Atlan-
tic Ocean is therefore also getting
wider with time.
2. Along the eastern edge of South
America, continental and oceanic
03.11.b1
parts of the plate are simply joined
3. A subduction zone dips under western South America, carrying oceanic together along a passive margin. There is no subduction, no
lithosphere beneath the continent. Subduction causes large earthquakes seafloor spreading, or any type of plate boundary. As a result, the
and produces magma that feeds dangerous volcanoes in the Andes. eastern continental margin of South America lacks volcanoes, earth-
quakes, and mountains.
How Did South America Develop Its Present Plate-Tectonic Situation?

If South America is on a moving plate, where was it in the past? When did it
become a separate continent, and when did its current plate boundaries develop?
Here is one commonly agreed-upon interpretation.
1. Around 140 million years ago, Africa and South America were part of a single
large supercontinent called Gondwana. At about this time, a continental rift devel-
oped, starting to split South America away from the rest of Gondwana and causing it
to become a separate continent. Rifting was instigated by one or more hot spots.
2. By 100 million years ago, Africa and South America were completely separated by
the South Atlantic Ocean. Spreading along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge moved the two
continents farther apart with time. While the Atlantic Ocean was opening, oceanic
plates in the Pacific were subducting beneath western South America. This subduc-
tion thickened the crust by compressing it horizontally and by adding magma, result-
ing in the formation and rise of the Andes mountain range.
3. Today, Africa and South America are still moving apart at a rate of several centi-
meters per year. As spreading along the mid-ocean ridge continues, the Atlantic
Ocean gets wider. Earth, however, is not growing through time, and the expanding
Atlantic Ocean is balanced by shrinking of the Pacific Ocean, whose oceanic litho-
sphere disappears into subduction zones along the Pacific Ring of Fire.
03.11.c1–3
4. These photographs contrast the rugged Patagonian Andes of western

South America with landscapes farther east that have more gentle relief and
are not tectonically active.
03.11.c4 Cuernos del Paine, Chile 03.11.c5 Central Argentina
Sketch and describe the present

plate-tectonic setting of South
America, and explain the main
features on the continent and
adjacent seafloor.
3.11
Discuss the plate-tectonic evolution of

South America over the last
140 million years.
3.12 Where Is the Safest Place to Live?
AN UNDERSTANDING OF PLATE TECTONICS allows us to predict which places are at most risk from earthquakes
and volcanoes. The most important things to know in this context are the locations and types of plate boundaries. In
this exercise, you will examine an unknown ocean between two continents, make observations of the land and seafloor,
and identify plate boundaries and other features. Using this information, you will predict the risk for earthquakes and
volcanoes and determine the safest places to live.
• Use the features of an ocean and two continental margins to identify possible plate boundaries and their types.
• Use the types of plate boundaries to predict the likelihood of earthquakes and volcanoes.
• Determine the safest sites for two cities, considering the potential for earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.
• Draw a cross section that shows the geometry of the plates at depth.
Procedures for the Map

This perspective view shows two continents, labeled
Continent A and Continent B, and an intervening
ocean. Use the topography on the land and seafloor
to identify possible plate boundaries and then com-
plete the following steps. Mark your answers on the
map on the worksheet, which will be provided to you
by your instructor in either paper or electronic form.
Alternatively, your instructor may have you complete
the investigation online.
A. Use the topographic features on land and the
depths of the seafloor to identify possible plate
boundaries. Draw lines showing the location of
each plate boundary on the map in the worksheet.
Label the boundaries as either divergent,
convergent, or transform. Use colored pencils or
different types of lines to better distinguish the
different types of boundaries. Provide a legend
that explains your colors and lines.
B. Draw circles [O], or use color shading, to show
places, on land or in the ocean, where you think
earthquakes are likely.
C. Draw triangles [▲] at places, on land or in the
ocean, where you think volcanoes are likely.
Remember that not all volcanoes form directly
on the plate boundary; some form off to one
side. For different plate-tectonic settings,
consider where volcanoes form relative to
that type of plate boundary.
D. Determine a relatively safe place to
build one city on e
ach continent. Show
each location with a large plus sign [+]
on the map. On the worksheet,
explain your reasons for choosing
these as the safest sites.
72
Procedures for the Cross Section

The worksheet contains a modified version of this figure for you to use as a starting point for making a cross section.
Add lines and colors to the front of the diagram to show the geology in the subsurface. Use other figures in this
chapter as guides to the thicknesses of the lithosphere and to the subsurface geometries typical for each type of
plate boundary. Your cross section should only show features on the front of the block diagram, not features that
do not reach the front edge. Your cross section should clearly do the following:
A. Identify the crust, mantle, lithosphere, and asthenosphere, and show an accurate representation of their relative thicknesses.
B. Show the locations and relationships between lithospheric plates at any spreading center or subduction zone.
C. Include arrows to indicate which way the plates are moving relative to each other.
D. Show where melting is occurring at depth to form volcanoes on the surface.
03.12.a1
3.12
CHAPTER
4 Earth Materials
EARTH’S SURFACE IS COMPOSED of many kinds of materials: black lava flows, white sandy beaches, red cliffs,
and gray granite hills. Some regions of Earth provide a treasury of gemstones and other mineral resources, many of
which are essential to modern society. What kinds of materials are common on Earth, and how did the less common
ones, such as gemstones, form? Here, we explore Earth materials from landscapes to atoms.
This perspective view (⊲) shows satellite data superimposed over topography for south-
ernmost California and adjacent Baja California, Mexico. The Peninsular Ranges, a forested 04.00.a1
mountainous area east of San Diego, are in greens and browns in the center of the image.
The white line across the image, added for reference, marks the border between the
United States and Mexico.
What are the rocks that make up the hills and mountains
of the Peninsular Ranges (▼)?
04.00.a2 Jacumba, CA
The Peninsular Ranges contain many outcrops of

grayish-colored rocks, most of which are igneous
rocks like granite. When viewed up close (▼), the
granite displays four different kinds of crystals:
whitish, light pink, transparent gray, and black.
What are rocks made of, and what controls

the color and other properties of a rock?
04.00.a3 Anza-Borrego Desert SP, CA

04.00.a4
San Diego County is a famous source

of beautiful minerals, including tourma-
line crystals (⊳), that can be pink, pur-
ple, green, or all three colors.
What are crystals, how do they form,

and where do we find them?
E a r t h M a t e r i a l s 75
4.1 What Is the Difference Between 4.9 What Are Some Common
a Rock and a Mineral? 76 Nonsilicate Minerals? 92
4.2 How Are Minerals Put Together in Rocks? 78 4.10 Where Are Different Minerals Abundant? 94
4.3 How Do We Distinguish One Mineral 4.11 What Are the Building Blocks of Minerals? 96
from Another? 80 4.12 How Do Atoms Bond Together? 98
4.4 What Controls a Crystal’s Shape? 82 4.13 How Do Chemical Reactions Help Minerals
4.5 What Causes Cleavage in Minerals? 84 Grow or Dissolve? 100
4.6 How Are Minerals Classified? 86 4.14 CONNECTIONS: How Are Minerals
4.7 What Is the Crystalline Structure Used in Society? 102
of Silicate Minerals? 88 4.15 INVESTIGATION: What Minerals Would You
4.8 What Are Some Common Silicate Minerals? 90 Use to Build a House? 104
The Peninsular Ranges
T
he area called the Peninsular Ranges is a broad, upland region
that stretches 1,500 km across southernmost California and
southward onto the Baja Peninsula of Mexico. In this image,
the mountains appear green because they are mostly covered by for-
ests and other types of vegetation. The lowlands of the Salton Trough
east (right) of the mountains receive much less rain and have a lighter
color in this image because vegetation is sparse and sand and rocks
cover the surface.
The mountains and lowlands contain a variety of rocks and other
Earth materials. Gray granite and darker igneous rocks form most of
the mountain range, and these formed at depths of 10 or more kilo-
meters. They crystallized from magma that solidified deep within the
crust, mostly between 130 and 80 million years ago. The range also
includes similar-aged metamorphic rocks, many of which formed
when sedimentary rocks were buried, heated, and deformed. The
magma and metamorphism are related to subduction of oceanic
plates beneath the western edge of North America (an ocean-conti-
nent convergent boundary).
Uplift of the Peninsular Range occurred during the last 10 million
years, long after the granite and metamorphic rocks formed. Uplift
and tilting of the range brought these deep rocks to the surface, in
part at the same time that faulting downdropped large blocks in the
Salton Trough. Once exposed at the surface, the granite and meta-
morphic rocks were weathered and eroded to produce sand, gravel,
and other sediments that were transported into the lowlands to the
east and west by streams, gravity, and wind. The sediments and
sedimentary rocks (▼) are soft and unconsolidated, and therefore eas-
ily eroded. Harder rocks, similar to those exposed in the mountains,
underlie the sediments. The contrast of landscapes between the flat,
sediment-covered lowlands and the more rugged, granitic mountains
reflects differences in the geologic history, the types of geologic
materials exposed at the surface, and the climate.
East of the Peninsular Ranges, the land drops down into the lowlands of
the Salton Trough, which is characterized by sandy deserts, farmlands of the
Imperial Valley, and several large, salty lakes, including the blue Salton Sea.
4.0
The sand in the Salton Trough was eroded from the adjacent mountains
and carried to the area by rivers or strong winds.
What are most sand grains composed of?
04.00.a5 Rancho Vallecito, CA

76
4.1 What Is the Difference Between

a Rock and a Mineral?
WHAT MATERIALS MAKE UP THE WORLD around us? What do we see if we look closely at a rock outcrop?
How does the rock look when viewed with a magnifying glass? We investigate these questions using the beautiful
scenery of Yosemite National Park in California.
What Materials Make Up a Landscape?

04.01.a1 Yosemite NP, CA
1. Observe this photo-
graph of Yosemite Valley,
the heart of Yosemite
National Park in the Sierra
Nevada range of Califor-
nia. What do you notice
about the landscape?
2. This landscape is dom-

inated by dramatic cliffs
and steep slopes of mas-
sive gray rock perched
above a green, forested
valley. The valley is
famous for waterfalls and
for huge rock faces. The
appropriately named Half
Dome is in the right side
of the photograph. What
would we see if we got
closer to this landscape?
04.01.a2 Yosemite NP, CA 04.01.a3 Sierra Nevada, CA
04.01.a4
5. When examined with a magnifying glass or

hand lens, the rock contains different minerals
with distinct appearances. The clear gray crys-
3. From several meters away, the rock mak- 4. Closer examination reveals several different- tals all have similar chemical composition and
ing up Yosemite’s cliffs looks fairly homoge- colored grains in the rock: whitish, pinkish, physical properties, and so represent one kind
neous. It all seems to be the same kind of clear gray, and black. To better observe a of mineral. The whitish crystals are a different
gray rock, a kind of igneous rock called rock at this scale, a geologist may collect a kind of mineral, as are the black crystals.
granite. The granite is cut by fractures. hand-sized piece, called a hand specimen.
6. To examine the rock in 04.01.a5 04.01.a6

7. When polarized light
even more detail, a geologist shines through a thin
will cut a very thin slice from section and optical fil-
a hand specimen and glue it ters, the internal struc-
to a glass slide to make a ture of crystals interacts
thin section. The slice is so with the light in ways
thin that light can pass that allow us to observe
through it. Geologists then diagnostic characteris-
examine the thin section tics, to identify minerals,
using a microscope that has and to estimate percent-
polarizing filters. ages of each mineral.
What Is and What Is Not a Mineral?

What characteristics define a mineral? To be considered a mineral, a substance must fulfill all of the criteria listed below.
A mineral is a naturally occurring, inorganic, crystalline solid with a relatively consistent composition.
Natural Inorganic Solid
04.01.b1 Apophyllite/Stilbite 04.01.b2 04.01.b3 Calcite 04.01.b4

04.01.b5 04.01.b6
A mineral must be natural. Crystals on the left The crystal on the left is inorganic and a min-
grew naturally from warm water flowing eral. The shells on the right have the same All minerals are solid, not liquid or gaseous.
through a rock, but synthetic crystals on the composition as the crystal, but they were Ice, a solid, is a mineral, but liquid water is
right grew in a laboratory. Natural diamonds made by creatures; the shells are not consid- not, even though it has the same composition.
are minerals, but synthetic diamonds grown in ered to be a mineral by most geologists Liquid mercury, although natural and found in
the lab are not. because the shells are not inorganic. rocks, is not considered a mineral.
Ordered Internal Structure Specific Chemical Composition
04.01.b7 Calcite 04.01.b8 Obsidian 04.01.b9 Halite and Table Salt 04.01.b10 Conglomerate
A mineral has an ordered internal structure, which means that atoms Minerals are homogeneous and so have specific chemical compositions
are arranged in a regular, repeating way. Such substances are consid- that do not depend on the size of the sample that is analyzed. Table salt,
ered to be crystalline, and they can form well-defined geometric crys- which is the mineral halite, contains atoms of the chemical elements
tals. The mineral on the left is crystalline, and the shape of the crys- sodium (Na) and chlorine (Cl) in equal proportions, no matter how big or
tals reflects the internal arrangement of its atoms. The volcanic glass small the specimen. The rock on the right is not a mineral because differ-
(obsidian) on the right is not crystalline. Its atoms are arranged in a ent parts of the rock have very different compositions. Most minerals
random way, so volcanic glass is not a mineral. have a specific chemical formula, like NaCl for halite.
Rocks, Minerals, and “Minerals”
W
hen we hear the word mineral used The mineral diamond, for example, consists
in the context of vitamins and min- entirely of the element carbon.
erals, are these minerals the same as Some rocks contain only a single mineral. Before You Leave This Page
the minerals described above? The answer is Limestone may be 100% of the mineral calcite.
no. In a kitchen or pharmacy, the term mineral Sandstone may be 100% quartz. Most rocks, Explain the relationship between
refers to a chemical element, such as potassium like the granites from Yosemite National Park, rocks, minerals, and chemical
(K). This type of (nutritional) mineral is differ- include several different minerals, and each elements.
ent from the crystalline mineral of geologists. mineral is made of one or more elements. So,
In geology, most minerals consist of at least rocks are made of minerals, and minerals are Explain each characteristic that a
two different chemical elements, i.e., naturally made of elements. Although the vitamin pill material must have to be a mineral,
occurring chemical compounds, such as the you take with breakfast may not contain any listing an example that is a mineral
sodium (Na) and chlorine (Cl) that make up the geologic minerals, most of the nutritional ele- and an example that is not.
mineral halite (salt). Many minerals have three, ments in the pill were extracted from Explain the difference between
4.1
four, or even more chemical elements. A few geologic minerals. a mineral in a vitamin pill and a
minerals, however, include only one chemical geologic mineral.
element, and these are called native elements.
78
4.2 How Are Minerals Put Together in Rocks?

THERE ARE MANY KINDS OF ROCKS, varying greatly in texture, color, and the minerals they contain. Geologists
use the term texture to refer not only to the roughness or smoothness of a rock, but also to the way its grains and min-
erals are arranged. What controls the texture of a rock? How are minerals in a rock connected to one another? What
can we determine about a rock, including how it formed, from its texture and the types of minerals it contains?
How Are Minerals Put Together in Rocks?

Minerals compose igneous, sedimentary, metamorphic, and hydrothermal rocks. The beautiful and geologically interesting
Engineer Mountain in the San Juan Mountains of southwestern Colorado contains two different types of rocks, providing
examples of the two main ways that minerals occur in rocks.
04.02.a1 Engineer Mtn., CO
1. The main mountain has an upper gray part and a lower red-
dish-brown part (⊳). Loose pieces of the upper gray part tum-
ble down the hillside, forming gray slopes that cover some of
the red rocks.
2. A closer view of the mountainside reveals (▲) differences

between the gray and reddish parts. Both parts contain vertical
fractures, but the reddish-brown part also has well-defined,
nearly horizontal layers, whereas the gray part does not.

Two Types of Rocks 04.02.a4 Engineer Mtn., CO
3. Crystalline — The 4. Clastic — A close
gray rock displays look at the reddish-
light-colored crystals brown layer reveals
surrounded by a that it includes dis-
gray, fine-grained tinct pieces of rock
material (called a derived from older
matrix) with crystals weathered and
too small to see in eroded rocks. These
this photograph. A pieces, called clasts,
rock composed of range from small
interlocking minerals sand grains to larger
that grew together is pebbles. A rock con-
a crystalline rock. sisting of pieces
Crystalline rocks typi- derived from other
cally form in high-temperature environments by crystallization of magma, rocks is a clastic rock. Most clastic rocks form on Earth’s surface in
by metamorphism, or by precipitation from hot water. Some crystalline low-temperature environments, such as sand dunes, rivers, and
rocks consist of crystals formed from the precipitation of minerals in beaches — any place sediment is deposited. Clasts also compose some
cooler waters, like when a lake evaporates. volcanic rocks, including those formed by explosive volcanic eruptions.
What Different Attributes Do Rocks Display?

Crystalline rocks and clastic rocks can have various attributes, depending on the sizes and shapes of crystals and clasts in the
rocks and on how the crystals and clasts are arranged. The photographs below display some common rock textures. Some
are of natural exposures of rocks and some are cut and polished rock slabs, like you would find on a kitchen countertop.
The slabs are 5 to 30 cm (2 to 12 in.) across.
Crystalline Rocks Clastic Rocks
Types of Minerals
Rocks can consist of one mineral or many miner-
als, but most contain more than one mineral. This
crystalline rock (⊳) is an igneous rock with sev-
eral types of minerals, each having a distinctly
04.02.b2 Moab, UT
different color. This clastic sedimentary rock (⊲)
04.02.b1 Brazil
also includes different types of minerals, includ-

ing pebbles of quartz in various shades of gray,
brown, and off white.
Sizes of Crystals or Clasts

Rocks can contain various sizes of crystals and
clasts. This granitic crystalline rock (⊳) has coarse
crystals, including some whitish ones that are
more than 5 to 10 cm (2 to 4 in.) in diameter.
04.02.b3 Alaska
This clastic sedimentary rock (⊲) includes various
04.02.b4 Brazil
sizes of larger clasts in a matrix of smaller
pebbles and sand.
Shapes of Crystals or Clasts

Crystals and clasts in rocks can have various
shapes. This c rystalline igneous rock (⊳) includes
04.02.b6 Smoky Mtns., TN

some large, nearly rectangular crystals surrounded
by smaller, more irregularly shaped crystals. This
clastic sedimentary rock (⊲) includes mostly
04.02.b5 Brazil
rounded pebbles (clasts) in a matrix of sand and

smaller clasts. Some clastic rocks contain clasts
that are sharp and angular.
Layers or No Layers
Crystalline rocks and clastic rocks may or may
04.02.b8 Gaviota Beach, CA

not have distinct layers. Most granites (⊳) do not
04.02.b7 Stone Mtn., GA
have obvious layers or compositional variations.

In contrast, this clastic rock (⊲), which is mostly
composed of sand grains, displays a sequence
of layers. An important first observation about
any rock is whether it has layers and a variable
composition or it lacks layers or variation.

Explain the difference between a clastic rock and a crystalline rock and the differences between the general environments in which
4.2
clastic and crystalline rocks form.

Describe or sketch four general characteristics to observe in crystalline and clastic rocks.
80
4.3 How Do We Distinguish One Mineral

from Another?
MINERALS HAVE MANY PROPERTIES that allow us to distinguish them from each other. Some properties are
reflected by the shape of the mineral or the way the mineral breaks. Others are physical properties, like hardness and
magnetism, that we can evaluate with simple tests.
What Clues Does the Appearance of a Mineral Provide?

The first thing that we notice about a mineral is usually its outward appearance. We may note its size, shape, color, or how
light reflects from its surface. These properties provide clues about the identity of a mineral. The figures below illustrate
some physical properties that are relevant for identifying a mineral.
04.03.a1 04.03.a4 Quartz
Crystal Shape — A mineral that grows unobstructed by its sur- Color — The color of a mineral is a useful, but not always reliable, property
roundings can have a distinctive geometric shape. The shape of for mineral identification. Bright or unique colors are easily noticed, but a
the crystal reflects the arrangement of atoms within the mineral mineral can occur in several color varieties, such as the different-colored
and therefore provides a clue about the mineral’s identity. Com- versions of quartz shown here. Other minerals always have the same
mon crystal shapes include, but are not limited to, cubes, rectan- color. It is the color and the crystal shape that make some minerals so
gular prisms, and hexagons (six-sided shapes). beautiful and so highly valued as gemstones or mineral specimens.
Cleavage — Some minerals break in Luster — The way

04.03.a5 Talc/Galena/Hematite
specific ways because of their inter- that light bounces
nal arrangement of atoms. If a off a mineral is a
mineral breaks preferentially property called lus-
along a specific set of planes, ter. A mineral can
the mineral has cleavage. Some be highly reflective,
minerals, like the ones shown dull, or somewhere
here, break along one set of cleav- in between. It can
age planes and cleave into thin be partially transparent or opaque. It can look like metal, a pearly shell, a
sheets, but other minerals break silky material, or a simple piece of earth. The names of different types of
along several sets of cleavage 04.03.a2 Mica luster reflect the quality and intensity of the reflection. Luster terms
planes having different orientations. include metallic, nonmetallic, glassy, pearly, silky, resinous, and earthy.
04.03.a6 Olivine/Pyroxene
No Cleavage — Some minerals have an internal Microscopic Observations —
atomic arrangement that does not contain To identify minerals in rocks,
planes along which the mineral especially fine-grained
breaks. These minerals do not rocks, we often examine a
have cleavage but instead break thin section (⊳) using a
along fractures. Fractures in microscope. When a thin
minerals tend to have rough, section is viewed between
irregular surfaces, like ones two polarizing filters, light
shown here cutting a quartz shining through the thin
crystal. In contrast, cleavage section causes the different
planes tend to be more planar 04.03.a3 Quartz minerals to exhibit distinc-
and regular. tive and diagnostic colors.
What Tests Can We Perform to Help Us Identify a Mineral?

We determine some mineral properties by conducting tests. We may touch a mineral with a magnet to check its magnetism,
or we may try to scratch it to determine its hardness.
04.03.b1 Gypsum 04.03.b3 Calcite
1. Hardness — Some minerals 3. Effervescence — If a drop of
are very hard, and some are dilute hydrochloric acid (HCl) is
quite soft. A mineral can be placed on a mineral, a reaction
scratched by a material that is may cause vigorous bubbling,
harder than the mineral but not or effervescing. The mineral
by one that is softer. To esti- calcite, which is the main min-
mate mineral hardness, we eral in limestone, effervesces
often conduct scratch tests strongly with HCl, but no other
using common objects, such as common minerals do. Any sam-
a fingernail, penny, or knife ple that effervesces when
blade. We may also use other tested with hydrochloric acid is
minerals of known hardness most likely to be calcite.
for comparison.
2. Streak — If a mineral is 4. Magnetism — A few iron-bearing

rubbed against an unglazed minerals are naturally magnetic.
porcelain plate (called a streak The mineral magnetite is the stron-
plate), it may leave a trail of gest natural magnet. It is attracted
powdered material called a to other magnets, and its magne-
streak. Some minerals have a tism can be strong enough to
diagnostic streak color. The deflect a compass needle. Other
iron-oxide mineral hematite, for magnetic minerals are less mag-
example, has a reddish streak. netic than magnetite, but magne-
tism may still help us identify them.
04.03.b2 Hematite 04.03.b4 Magnetite
5. Density — Some minerals are more dense than others. This property can often be
detected by simply holding a mineral and noting how heavy it feels. We call this approach a
heft test. In the lab, scientists precisely determine the ratio of the density of a substance to
the density of freshwater, a property called specific gravity.
6. In this example (⊲), crushed crystals are placed into a glass beaker on one side of a bal-
ance scale and weigh as much as two beakers of water. This sample of dry, crushed crystals
is therefore twice as dense as water and has a specific gravity of 2. It would be more dense
if it were a solid crystal without air between the crushed pieces. A typical specific gravity of
rock is 2.7 (i.e., 2.7 times more dense than freshwater).
04.03.b5
Mohs Hardness Scale Hardness

and Mineral
Common
Objects
M
1 Talc
ohs Hardness Scale (⊲) consists of
10 common minerals ranked in order 2 Gypsum Before You Leave This Page
Fingernail (2.5)
of hardness, from 1 to 10. The soft- 3 Calcite
est mineral (talc) is 1, and the hardest mineral Copper wire (3.5) Explain the properties of a mineral
4 Fluorite that can be observed without using
(diamond) is 10. These numbers describe the
5 Apatite a test.
relative hardnesses of the minerals, but the Window glass or knife
numbers do not provide a real comparison of 6 K-feldspar blade (5.5) Describe how to test for hardness,
their actual hardnesses. Quartz (hardness of 7) 7 Quartz streak, effervescence, and magnetism.
is twice as hard as apatite (hardness of 5), and
8 Topaz Explain the meaning of a mineral’s
diamond (hardness of 10) is about five times
4.3
specific gravity.
as hard as corundum (hardness of 9). 9 Corundum
1 0 Diamond Explain Mohs Hardness Scale.
82
4.4 What Controls a Crystal’s Shape?

CRYSTALS CAN HAVE BEAUTIFUL SHAPES. The outward shape of a crystal reflects a combination of factors,
including the arrangement of atoms in the crystal and how the crystal’s growth was affected by the material around it.
What, at an atomic scale, controls the shape of a crystal?
How Is the Shape of a Mineral Related to Its Internal Structure?

If the growth of a mineral is unconstrained by surrounding materials, the outward shape of the crystal mimics the mineral’s
internal structure of atoms. The relatively simple outward shape and internal structure of halite nicely illustrate this
relationship between the interior and the exterior of a mineral.
1. The photograph below shows natural crystals of table salt, 04.04.a3
which is the mineral halite (NaCl). These crystals grew together 3. In a crystal, one part of
and look like a number of cubes connected together. the atomic arrangement
repeats indefinitely to
make the entire crystal. In
halite, the smallest part is
one pair of sodium (Na)
and chlorine (Cl) atoms.
Sodium and chlorine atoms
alternate in three perpen-
dicular directions. Note
that in this figure, whether
you go up-down, left-to-
right, or front-to-back, Na
and Cl alternate in the
crystalline structure.
4. A different way to represent crys-

tals is to show atoms as spheres that
04.04.a1 Halite
fit together and touch (⊳). This type of
model more accurately represents the
2. Mineralogists (geologists and other scientists who study relationship between adjacent atoms
minerals) have documented that halite consists of equal pro- and their electrons, but it is more dif-
portions of sodium (Na) and chlorine (Cl) atoms. It has the ficult to see the internal structure.
chemical formula NaCl. Mineralogists have investigated the Note that for halite, the relative sizes
atomic arrangement of atoms within halite and find that sodium of sodium (Na) and chlorine (Cl) atoms
and chlorine atoms have a geometric arrangement that is like allow them to pack together tightly in
a cube. In this figure, sodium atoms are y ellow, chlorine atoms a cube-shaped arrangement. The
04.04.a4 atoms in halite are so tiny that a one-
are green, and chemical bonds that link adjacent atoms are
represented by stick-like connectors. Note that the green chlo- inch cube of halite contains more than
rine atom in the 100,000,000,000,000,000,000,000
center of the struc- [1023] pairs of Na and Cl atoms.
ture is surrounded
04.04.a5 Halite
by and bonded with
six sodium atoms. 5. In addition to growing as cubic
Other minerals have crystals, halite will also cleave into
more complicated cube-shaped or shoebox-shaped
shapes or chemical fragments. If you examine table salt
formulas, but we use with a magnifying glass, you will
halite here because observe that most salt grains are
it is so simple. tiny cubes or slightly elongated
boxes, like the halite crystal shown
here. Note the cube-shaped to
rectangular steps left behind when
pieces broke off the front corner of
04.04.a2 the crystal, a result of the cleavage
characteristic of halite.
How Are Atoms Arranged in a Mineral?

Atoms fit together in a limited number of ways. How closely atoms can be packed together depends on their electrical
charge (positive versus negative) and the relative sizes of different kinds of atoms (e.g., smaller Na atoms fit between larger
Cl atoms). A single atom typically bonds to 3, 4, 6, 8, or even more atoms. Atoms of similar charge repel each other,
whereas atoms of opposite charge attract, and so atoms are generally arranged in geometric patterns. Three common
arrangements of atoms are shown below, but other, more complicated, arrangements are common.
Atoms can be arranged in One atom can be surrounded by Atoms can be arranged
the shape of a cube. This four other atoms, arranged as in a shape that is like
type of struc- a pyramid with two oppositely
ture is three sides and pointing, four-
referred to a base. This sided pyramids
as cubic. arrangement joined at their
and four-sided bases. This shape
shape is called is an octahedron
a tetrahedron (octa = eight).
(tetra = four).
04.04.b2 04.04.b3
04.04.b1
How Is the Shape of a Crystal Affected by the Environment in Which It Grows?

For a crystal to attain a perfect shape, it must grow unimpeded by surrounding material. Most nicely shaped crystals grew
in an open space, in water or in magma, and so did not grow into other preexisting crystals. When crystals grow within
solid rock or around preexisting crystals, they generally do not have such well-formed shapes.
These crystals have In this rock, partially trans-

well-defined shapes, parent gray quartz is in
flat crystal faces, irregularly shaped masses
and sharp ends that fill the spaces
called terminations. between and around the
Most such crystals white and red minerals.
grew into a space The quartz grew after the
filled with hot or other minerals were
cold water rather already there, so it had to
than solid rock. conform to their shapes.
04.04.c1 Calcite 04.04.c2
States of Matter: Solids, Liquids, and Gases
T
he most fundamental attribute of a together, but weakly enough that the material
material is its state of matter: whether is mobile and can change shape. A liquid Before You Leave This Page
it is a solid, liquid, or gas. Materials maintains a relatively constant volume, unless
that are solid have a relatively fixed shape and it is subjected to changes in temperature Explain what it means to say that
volume because their atoms are packed closely (heated or cooled) or in pressure, as occurs to crystals have an ordered atomic
together and connected, or bonded, to one waters below the earth’s surface. arrangement, using the crystal form of
another, like the crystals shown below. Rock, In a gas, atoms and molecules are even less halite as an example.
minerals, and glasses are solids and retain connected and more mobile. A gas Sketch and describe three common
their shape and volume unless they does not have a constant shape or ways in which atoms are arranged in
are being actively deformed, constant volume; it will conform a mineral.
dissolved, or perturbed in to the shape of its container and
some other way. expand or contract according to Explain how the shape of a crystal is
In contrast, a liquid easily how much space is available. affected by the environment in which
4.4
the crystal grows.

changes shape, conforming to
its surroundings, as when water Summarize the three states of matter.
fills a glass. Atoms in a liquid are held 04.04.t1 Apophyllite/Stilbite
84
4.5 What Causes Cleavage in Minerals?

CLEAVAGE IS THE TENDENCY OF MINERALS TO BREAK along parallel planes. Some minerals cleave into
cubes, and others cleave into thin sheets. Still other minerals break along irregular fractures instead of cleavage planes.
Cleavage is controlled by the arrangement of atoms in a mineral and the strengths of the bonds between atoms.
What Happens at an Atomic Scale When a Mineral Cleaves?

The same orderly arrangement of atoms that causes crystals to form with specific shapes can also affect the way crystals
break. Breaking a mineral requires applying enough force to break the links — bonds between adjacent atoms. In many
minerals, different bonds have different strengths, so the mineral breaks (cleaves) preferentially along the easiest directions
and through the weakest links.
1. This mineral consists of three kinds of atoms shown here in brown, blue, and gray.
2. The brown atoms are linked with (bonded to) the blue atoms, forming flat sheets.
3. Adjacent sheets are joined together by long bonds between the gray atoms and the
brown atoms in the sheets on either side.
04.05.a2 Biotite
4. Bonds between the brown and blue
atoms (within the sheets) are stronger than
bonds between the brown and gray atoms
(linking the sheets). If the mineral is sub-
jected to sufficient force, the force will
break the weakest bonds (those between
the brown and gray atoms). The breaks
will occur along the cleavage planes
shown in yellow.
5. With this type of arrangement of atoms

and bonds, the mineral will cleave along
one set of planes, splitting into thin
04.05.a1 sheets, like the cleaved pieces of mineral
shown to the right (⊲).
What Happens if All of the Bonds Have the Same Strength?

In the example above, one set of bonds is relatively weak and so forms a natural place for breaking across the mineral. How
does the mineral break if all the bonds have similar strengths or if the arrangement of atoms and bonds does not allow the
crystal to break along any planes?
04.05.b2 Quartz The bonds in this
mineral are not
04.05.b1 arranged into a
The bonds in this configuration that
mineral (⊳) all have allows any cleav-
a similar strength age planes to
but are arranged form. Instead, the
in such a way that crystal has broken
the mineral can like glass, along
break along three irregular curved
sets of planes fractures instead
without passing of along cleavage
through an atom. In planes. A crystal
this example, the that fractures in
three planes are this irregular way
mutually perpendic- can still contain well-defined planes, called crystal faces, that formed
ular (at 90° to during the growth of the crystal. In such minerals, the way in which
each other). the crystal grows can be different than the way in which it breaks.
What Are Some Common Types of Cleavage?

If a mineral has cleavage, it can cleave along one or more sets of parallel planes. Two sets of planes might be perpendicular
(90°) to one another or might intersect at some other angle. In the diagrams below, colored planes show the orientation of
possible cleavage planes.
One Direction of Cleavage Three Perpendicular Directions of Cleavage
04.05.c1
If a mineral has a single direction of cleavage, it cleaves along one

set of parallel planes, forming thin sheets. Examples of a single 04.05.c4
direction of cleavage are minerals of the mica family.
If a mineral cleaves along three perpendicular sets of planes,

broken faces have a stair-step geometry and the mineral com-
Two Perpendicular Directions of Cleavage monly breaks into cubes, as is typical of halite.
Three Non-Perpendicular Directions of Cleavage
04.05.c2
Many minerals cleave along two sets of planes that are perpendicu-
lar to one another. This type of cleavage results in right-angle (90°) 04.05.c5
steps along broken crystal faces. The pyroxene mineral group has
right-angle cleavage.
Minerals that cleave along three directions of planes that are not
Two Non-Perpendicular Directions of Cleavage mutually perpendicular break into pieces that are shaped like a
rhomb, or a sheared box. Calcite is the most common mineral
that cleaves into rhombs.

Explain or sketch the relationship between cleavage and
04.05.c3 the arrangement and strengths of bonds.
Explain what happens if a mineral lacks planes along which
4.5
Two planes of cleavage can intersect at angles other than 90°. Min- it may cleave.
erals with this type of cleavage can break into pieces having cor-
ners that do not form right angles. The amphibole group of minerals Sketch and describe five types of cleavage.
has this type of cleavage.
86
4.6 How Are Minerals Classified?

WITH NEARLY 100 NATURALLY OCCURRING ELEMENTS, it should not be a surprise that there are thousands
of different minerals. Some minerals are so rare that they occur only in unusual e nvironments, but others are so com-
mon they are almost everywhere on Earth’s surface. Here, we concentrate on minerals that are very common and are
critical to our understanding of Earth’s landscapes and processes.
How Are Similar Chemical Elements Grouped in the Periodic Table?

Chemical elements are the fundamental building blocks of minerals, so geologists classify minerals into several mineral
groups based on the main chemical components within those minerals. Before discussing these mineral groups, we take a
tour of the chemical elements via the Periodic Table, a useful way to organize the elements.
1. Each element in the Periodic Table has an atomic symbol, one or two letters repre- 5. The elements 6. The last column
senting the name of the element (commonly the name in Latin) and an atomic number colored green are includes elements
(shown to the upper left of the symbol). Elements that share a background color on the nonmetals and called noble gases
table share some similar chemical properties. include carbon (C), because they are
silicon (Si), and oxy- gases that do not
2. The table begins with hydrogen (H), the lightest gen (O). The non- readily combine with
element, and advances to higher atomic numbers 4. Elements colored metals typically other elements.
and heavier elements from left to right and from top yellow are called bond with both
to bottom. transition metals. types of metallic
They include many elements to form
3. Elements shaded orange are the familiar metals, such minerals.
alkali and alkali earth metals and as chromium (Cr),
include sodium (Na), potassium (K), iron (Fe), nickel (Ni),
calcium (Ca), and magnesium (Mg) copper (Cu), zinc
on the left side of the table and (Zn), silver (Ag), and
aluminum (Al) and some other ele- gold (Au).
ments in the right half of the table.
04.06.a1
7. The elements colored

purple and blue include
some familiar elements,
such as uranium (U), and
many that are less familiar. 8. The lightest and simplest elements, hydro-
Elements with atomic num- gen (H) and helium (He), are the most abundant
bers higher than 92 are not elements in the universe. The elements oxygen
known in natural settings (O) and silicon (Si) make up 74% of Earth’s crust,
(these are produced only in with the rest being mostly aluminum (Al), iron
the laboratory), except for (Fe), calcium (Ca), sodium (Na), potassium (K),
plutonium (Pu), which is and magnesium (Mg). Consequently, the most
produced naturally only in common minerals that we see are made of oxy-
unusual circumstances by gen and silicon, with lesser amounts of the
natural nuclear reactions. other common elements 04.06.a2
What Are the Major Classes of Rock-Forming Minerals?

The most important rock-forming minerals can be divided into several classes based on their chemistry.
The Periodic Table provides a useful framework.
1. Silicates, including 2. Carbonates contain carbon

the mineral quartz (⊳), and oxygen bonded together in a
are the most important triangular arrangement. The trian-
mineral group on Earth. gles are linked together by other
They contain s ilicon elements, most commonly the
and oxygen, the two metal calcium (Ca). An example is 04.06.b3 Calcite
most abundant ele- the mineral calcite (CaCO3). ⊲
04.06.b2 Quartz ments in the crust, and
so are very common. In
3. Oxides consist of
silicates, each silicon atom is bonded only to
oxygen bonded with a
oxygen. In most silicate minerals, the silicon-
metal, such as iron in
oxygen units are linked by bonds to met-
the mineral hematite
als, such as Fe, Mg, Na, K, Ca, and Al.
(Fe2O3). ⊲ 04.06.b4 Hematite
4. Halides contain

7. Native minerals chlorine (Cl) or fluorine
are minerals that (F), both of which
contain only a sin- are nonmetals that
gle element. The typically bond with
metals copper (Cu), a metal from the
silver (Ag), and gold left side of the table.
(Au) can occur as Halite (NaCl) is a
native minerals or 04.06.b1
halide mineral (⊲).
in combinations, 04.06.b5 Halite
called alloys, with 6. Sulfides contain 5. Sulfates contain
other metals. Non- sulfur (S) bonded sulfur (S) that is only
metallic elements with a metal, such bonded to oxygen. The
that occur as native as iron (Fe) or cop- sulfur-oxygen units are
minerals include per (Cu). The min- bonded to a metal,
sulfur (S) as native eral pyrite (FeS2), such as calcium (Ca) or
sulfur and carbon also called “fool’s iron (Fe). Gypsum
(C) as graphite gold,” is a common (CaSO4.2H2O) is a
and diamond. sulfide (⊲). common sulfate (⊲).
04.06.b7 Pyrite 04.06.b6 Gypsum
Asbestos: The Importance of Mineral Classification
A
sbestos has long had the reputation of In contrast, the type of asbestos most com- spent, perhaps needlessly, removing chrysotile
being a dangerous material. Asbestos monly used in the United States is chrysotile, asbestos from schools, businesses, and other
was used on pipes, ceilings, and ships a fibrous form of the silicate mineral serpen- facilities. What do you think about how this
because of its excellent fire-retarding and tine. Chrysotile has a totally different mineral issue should be approached?
insulating properties. Some health studies structure than the other types of asbestos and
have shown that asbestos dust, when inhaled, occurs in fibers that are curved and form inter- Before You Leave This Page
can cause cancer and other serious health locking bundles. Studies of this “white”
problems. But what is asbestos, and is the chrysotile asbestos indicate that it is much less Describe the Periodic Table, including
health story simple? hazardous than blue asbestos, mostly causing the locations of the main groups of
The term asbestos does not refer to a single problems if breathed in large amounts for a chemical elements (metals, transition
mineral, but instead refers to a number of sili- long time, as occurs with chrysotile miners. metals, nonmetals, and noble gases).
cate minerals whose common characteristic is The medical community and Environmental
that they tend to form fibers. Five types of Protection Agency (EPA) are at odds with List the major classes of minerals and
asbestos belong to a group of silicate minerals many scientists because the medical studies and discuss the main chemical
called amphiboles, including a variety known as the EPA traditionally have lumped all asbestos characteristic of each class.
4.6
“blue” asbestos, which forms individual, straight into the same category rather than considering Describe two types of asbestos and
fibers. Medical studies have shown conclusively the health risks of each kind separately. As a the health controversy over asbestos.
that “blue” asbestos poses a severe health risk. result, hundreds of billions of dollars may be
88
4.7 What Is the Crystalline Structure

of Silicate Minerals?
SILICATE MINERALS ARE THE MOST IMPORTANT rock-forming minerals because they comprise most of Earth’s
crust and mantle. There are different groups of silicate minerals, and the different groups have distinctive cleavage and
other mineral characteristics. Here, we explore the types of silicate minerals, from atoms to crystals.
What Do Silicate Minerals Contain?

In most silicates, one silicon atom is bonded with four oxygen atoms to form the negatively charged SiO4-4 complex.
This SiO4-4 complex has a very important shape, called a tetrahedron, that controls many aspects of silicate minerals,
including the shape, internal structure, and cleavage of a mineral. The silicon-oxygen tetrahedron forms a building block
for the vast majority of the minerals on Earth.
Silicon-Oxygen Tetrahedron Linked Silicon-Oxygen Tetrahedra

1. The four oxygen atoms and one silicon atom combine in an SiO4-4 complex, 5. A silicon-oxygen
which can be represented by a four-pointed pyramid called a tetrahedron. tetrahedron has a
negative electric
charge that allows it
2. An oxygen atom is at each corner to bond with other tet-
of the pyramid. rahedra. Each oxygen
atom in the tetrahe-
3. A much smaller silicon atom dron is a naturally
is in the center of the pyramid. protruding site ready
to bond to other ele-
ments and chemical
4. The SiO4-4 complex takes the complexes.
shape of a tetrahedron because the
four oxygen atoms have similar
atomic charges and so repel each 6. An oxygen atom
other. The oxygen atoms move as can be shared by two
04.07.a1
far as possible from each other, tak- adjacent tetrahedra. In
ing positions that define the shape this manner, silicon-
of a tetrahedron. oxygen tetrahedra
can link together to
form different types of
04.07.a2
silicate minerals.
Silicon-Oxygen Tetrahedra and Metallic Elements
7. In addition to bonding to one 9. A huge variety of minerals results

another, silicon-oxygen tetrahedra from the ability of silicon-oxygen tet-
bond with other elements, such as rahedra to bond with other
the green atoms shown in this figure. silicon-oxygen tetrahedra, with vari-
The bonds to the green atoms ous cations, and with other chemical
are not shown. substances. There are more than
5,000 known minerals, but most are
uncommon to rare. Several dozen
minerals, many of which are silicate
8. Silicon-oxygen tetrahedra have a minerals, compose most rocks we
negative electrical charge and so encounter at the surface. A typical
attract positively charged atoms, rock contains one to five main min-
called cations (the green atoms). erals, with a small number of less
abundant minerals, many of which
are visible only under a microscope.
So learning a few minerals helps
04.07.a3 you to identify most rocks.
What Are the Different Types of Silicate Minerals?

Silicon-oxygen tetrahedra can be connected in five main ways, each producing a major group of silicate minerals that share
common characteristics. Bonds that link one tetrahedron to another are strong, but bonds to other elements between
tetrahedra provide planes of weaker bonds, allowing most silicate minerals to cleave. A silicate mineral’s cleavage, or lack
of cleavage, reflects how the tetrahedra are arranged. The silicon-oxygen tetrahedra are shown below with the oxygen
atoms on each corner.
Independent Tetrahedra Single Chains Double Chains
04.07.b2
04.07.b3
04.07.b1
2. Tetrahedra may form single chains by
1. Some minerals contain silicon-oxygen sharing two oxygen atoms. The chains are
tetrahedra that are bonded to other ele- strongly bonded and difficult to break, so 3. Tetrahedra can also form double chains if
ments (not shown), but not to other tetra- cleavage cuts parallel to, rather than across, half the tetrahedra share two oxygen atoms and
hedra. Minerals in this group, including the chains. This results in two planes of half share three, as shown here. Such minerals
olivine, do not break along clearly defined cleavage that are nearly perpendicular (90° cleave parallel to the double chains and along
planes because bonds are more or less angle) to each other. Minerals that belong two planes of cleavage separated by angles of
equally strong in all directions. to this group are called pyroxene minerals, 60° and 120°. Minerals of this group are called
or simply pyroxenes. amphibole minerals, or simply amphiboles.
04.07.b4 Sheets Frameworks

04.07.b5
4. In sheet silicates, tetrahedra 5. Tetrahedra in framework
share three oxygen atoms to silicates share all four oxygen
form continuous sheets. Other atoms, forming a structure
elements and water molecules bonded well in three dimen-
can fit between the sheets, sions. Quartz, and a few rarer
forming minerals with layered framework silicates, contain
structures. Bonds between only silicon-oxygen tetrahedra
sheets are weak, so these bonded to each other. Quartz
minerals have one main direc- is hard and has no cleavage,
tion of cleavage p arallel to the so it fractures instead. Some
sheet structure. The most com- framework silicates have other
mon sheet-silicate minerals are elements in the structure between the silicon-oxygen tetrahedra,
micas and clay minerals. providing several planes of cleavage. Minerals belonging to
the feldspar group are good examples.
Silicon, Silica, and Silicone
T
hese three similar words can be con- Although each silicon atom in quartz is bonded
fusing, so let’s explore what each to four oxygen, each oxygen is shared between Sketch or explain a silicon-oxygen
one means. two silicon, so the ratio Si:O is 1:2. Geologists tetrahedron and how one can join
Silicon is the fourteenth element of the speak about silica more than about silicon with another tetrahedron or a cation.
Periodic Table, having atomic symbol Si. The because silicon is nearly always bonded with
name silicon also is used for a synthetic oxygen in rocks and minerals. Explain or sketch how silicon-oxygen
material — a material produced by humans that Silicone is a synthetic material in which tetrahedra link in five different
does not occur naturally. Synthetic silicon is a carbon is bonded to silicon atoms to keep the geometries to produce five silicate
semiconductor used to make computer chips. material in long chains. These chains make mineral groups.
4.7
Silica refers to a compound containing only silicone a material that can be used as a type Explain the differences between
silicon and oxygen in a ratio of 1:2, so it has of grease or as caulk for sealing around win- silicon, silica, and silicone.
the formula SiO2. Quartz is 100% silica. dows and doors.
90
4.8 What Are Some Common Silicate Minerals?

SILICATE MINERALS ACCOUNT FOR OVER 90% of the minerals in Earth’s crust. Most silicate minerals also
contain other elements, commonly aluminum (Al), calcium (Ca), sodium (Na), potassium (K), iron (Fe), and magne-
sium (Mg). The presence and amounts of these elements influence the crystalline structure, which in turn determines
mineral properties, such as color and cleavage.
What Are Some Light-Colored Silicate Minerals?

The most common silicate minerals in the upper part of the continental crust have light colors and typically are white, light
gray, and light pink. Some of these minerals are almost transparent, and some have a reflective, silvery color. Light-colored
silicate minerals predominate in the upper continental crust and are present in smaller amounts in rocks of the oceanic crust
and the mantle. Such light-colored silicate minerals are called felsic, a term combining the words “feldspar” (a family of
minerals described below) and “silica.”
04.08.a1 04.08.a2
Quartz — This very com- Potassium Feldspar —
mon mineral, with a for- Potassium feldspar,
mula of SiO2, is generally often just called K-feldspar,
transparent to nearly contains potassium (K), alu-
white, but it can be pink, minum (Al), silicon, and oxy-
brown, or purple. Its silicon gen, with lesser amounts
(Si) and oxygen (O) atoms of sodium (Na) and calcium
are strongly bonded in a (Ca). It generally is a pink
tight, three-dimensional to cream-colored mineral,
framework, so quartz is but in volcanic rocks it can
hard (Mohs hardness of be nearly transparent. Many
7) and does not cleave. K-feldspar crystals display
Instead, it breaks along two directions of cleavage,
fractures that have irregular or smoothly curving surfaces that are and some show wavy, light-colored lines on crystal surfaces, as shown
described as being conchoidal, as on the broken, front face of the right here. K-feldspar is abundant in all granites, and it is common in many other
crystal. The front crystal has well-developed crystal faces that formed igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks.
during growth of the crystal, but the bottom is a rough fracture.
04.08.a3 04.08.a4
Plagioclase — Plagioclase Muscovite — This sheet-
is one of the two most silicate mineral is part of
common feldspar miner- the mica family, whose
als. Feldspars are a group members all have one
of framework silicates direction of cleavage and
that contain varying so break into flakes and
amounts of potassium sheets. It typically is par-
(K), sodium (Na), calcium tially transparent, a clear
(Ca), and aluminum (Al), to silvery-gray color, and
in addition to silicon and somewhat shiny because
oxygen. In plagioclase, the flat surfaces of the
the potassium content sheets reflect light. Musco-
is close to zero percent. vite contains potassium (K)
Plagioclase exhibits a complete gradation from Na-rich varieties, which and aluminum (Al), in addition to silicon and oxygen. Its atomic structure
are nearly white to cream colored, to Ca-rich varieties, which are dark contains a component of water, expressed in its chemical formula as
gray or brown. However, most plagioclase has a whitish to light-gray (OH)−. The bonds holding the sheets together are stronger than the
color. Some crystal faces display straight lines called striations, bonds between sheets, so sheets can be peeled apart with your fingers.
as shown here.
Before You Leave These Pages

Describe the main light- and dark-colored silicate minerals, including their general characteristics, such as cleavage and main elements.
Discuss the characteristics of clay minerals and how they form.
What Are Some Dark-Colored Silicate Minerals?

Dark silicate minerals predominate in dark igneous and metamorphic rocks and also are many of the dark crystals scattered
within otherwise light-colored rocks. They form most of the oceanic crust and the mantle and are present in variable
amounts in continental crust, especially the lower crust. Dark-colored silicate minerals are also called mafic minerals to
acknowledge their high magnesium (Mg) and iron (Fe) content.
04.08.b1 04.08.b2
Amphibole — The term Pyroxene — The term pyrox-
amphibole refers to a ene refers to a group of
group of related silicate single-chain silicate miner-
minerals. Amphibole min- als that share a similar
erals can contain magne- crystal structure. Pyroxene
sium, iron, calcium, minerals can include vari-
sodium, and aluminum, in ous amounts of calcium,
addition to silicon and sodium, aluminum, iron, and
oxygen. They can be magnesium in addition to
black, dark green, pale silicon and oxygen. Their
green, or nearly white. color can be black, dark
They commonly form brown, green, or nearly
crystals that are long compared to their width, like the long green white. Most pyroxenes tend to form crystals that are roughly equant,
crystals that are present in the back specimen. Amphiboles are meaning that all dimensions are about the same. Pyroxenes have two
double-chain silicates and so cleave along planes that meet to form nearly perpendicular directions of cleavage (90° angles), which helps
angles of 60° and 120°. distinguish them from amphiboles.
04.08.b3 04.08.b4 04.08.b5
Olivine — Olivine is the most common min- Garnet — Garnets are silicates that can be just Biotite — Biotite is a dark-colored mica (sheet
eral in the upper mantle and usually has a about any color, but a deep red color is very silicate) that is typically black or brown. All bio-
distinctive olive-green color. It has indepen- common. The crystals are distinctive, having tite contains potassium, aluminum, silicon, and
dent tetrahedra linked by iron or magnesium, 12 diamond-shaped faces when perfectly oxygen, with variable amounts of iron and
and no cleavage. Its composition varies formed. The reason color is so variable is magnesium. Brown biotite, commonly having a
between iron-rich and magnesium-rich end because chemistry is variable. Garnets contain tint of bronze, is rich in magnesium and con-
members, but samples from the mantle are silica with variable amounts of calcium, iron, tains little iron. Like all micas, biotite has one
magnesium rich. magnesium, manganese, and aluminum. dominant direction of cleavage.
Clay Minerals
T
he term clay is used in two ways in When some clay minerals get wet, water pushes feldspar, volcanic ash, and other reactive mate-
geology. It refers either to a family of apart the weakly bonded sheets, causing the rials. Fine grain size and low density mean that
minerals or to any very fine sedimen- clay to expand. clay particles are easily transported. Fine par-
tary particles that are less than 0.002 mil- Most clay minerals have light ticles of clay can be picked up by wind and
limeters in diameter. Clay minerals colors but may appear dark if water and then transported long distances. Clay
have a sheet-silicate structure simi- mixed with other material, espe- can be deposited on land by streams, wind, and
lar to that of mica, but the bonds cially dark minerals or organic other agents of transport, but some clay makes
holding the atoms together are debris. Most clay minerals form it to the open ocean, where it finally settles to
much weaker. The sheets in clays by weathering of rocks at Earth’s the ocean floor, forming extensive deposits of
4.8
are weakly held together, so they surface or from chemical reac- submarine mud.
easily slip past one another, giv- tions that occur when hot water
ing clays their slippery feel. interacts with rocks containing
04.08.t1
92
4.9 What Are Some Common Nonsilicate Minerals?

MANY MINERALS DO NOT INCLUDE SILICON and so are classified as nonsilicates. Some of the most common
nonsilicate minerals are carbonates and halides, which typically form by precipitation from water. Oxides and sulfides
form when metal atoms bond with oxygen or sulfur, respectively. Nonsilicate minerals are an important resource for
our society and are used widely in industry, highways, and homes.
Carbonates
Carbonate minerals contain a metallic element, such as calcium (Ca) or magnesium (Mg), linked with a carbon-oxygen
combination called carbonate (CO3)–2. The most common carbonate minerals are calcite and dolomite. Others include malachite
and azurite, striking green and blue copper carbonates. Trona, a sodium carbonate, is an important mineral used to manufacture
many products. Carbonates typically precipitate from water or have an organic origin (e.g., corals).
04.09.a1 04.09.a2 04.09.a3 Hunt Valley MD
Calcite — This mineral is the most common Dolomite — This mineral is similar to calcite, Most limestones are nearly 100% calcite, and
calcium-carbonate mineral (CaCO3) and but magnesium (Mg) substitutes in the struc- some carbonate rocks contain a mix of calcite
occurs in a variety of water-related environ- ture for some calcium (Ca). It has the formula and dolomite. Carbonate minerals also occur
ments. It may be almost clear but commonly CaMg(CO3)2. The mineral is cream-colored, in coral and shells, including the mineral
has a cream to light gray color. It is the only light gray, tan, or brown and may not effer- aragonite, which has the same composition
common mineral that effervesces with dilute vesce with HCl unless pulverized into a fine as calcite but a different atomic arrangement.
hydrochloric acid (HCl) because HCl breaks powder. A rock composed mostly of the min- When limestone is heated and metamor-
bonds in calcite and releases carbon dioxide eral dolomite is a dolostone. Rocks that con- phosed, calcite grows into larger crystals
(CO2) gas. tain dolomite also commonly contain calcite. and the limestone becomes marble (▲).
Oxides
Oxide minerals consist of oxygen bonded with iron (Fe), titanium (Ti), aluminum (Al), or other metals. Iron-oxide minerals are
the most common oxides, except for ice, which is a hydrogen-oxide mineral (the solid phase of H2O).
04.09.a4 04.09.a5 04.09.a6 Sherman Mine, Ontario, Canada
Hematite — This iron oxide (Fe2O3) can be Magnetite — This iron oxide (Fe3O4) is typically Magnetite and hematite occur together in
black, brown, silvery gray, or earthy red, but it black and is strongly magnetic, here attracting beautifully layered sedimentary rocks called
consistently has a red streak. Hematite is the a circular magnet. It is present as small black banded iron formations. Some Precambrian
red color in rust, provides color in some grains in many kinds of igneous, sedimentary, iron formations are mined for iron in the
paints, and is responsible for many red-rock and metamorphic rocks, as well as in beach Great Lakes region of the United States and
landscapes. It commonly forms when other sands and other sediments. Canada and elsewhere.
iron-bearing minerals oxidize.
Sulfides
Sulfide minerals contain sulfide ions (S)–2 bonded with iron (Fe), lead (Pb), zinc (Zn), or copper (Cu). Sulfide minerals, including
the copper-iron sulfide mineral chalcopyrite, are the principal metal ores in many large mines. Most sulfide minerals have a
metallic luster and can occur as well-formed crystals or irregular masses.
04.09.a7 04.09.a8, Nova Scotia, Canada
Pyrite — Pyrite is a com- Small crystals of brass-
mon iron-sulfide mineral colored pyrite, as
(FeS2). It has a pale shown here, are com-
bronze to brass-yellow monly deposited by hot
color for which it earns (hydrothermal) water.
the name “fool’s gold.” Weathering of pyrite
It commonly forms can cause adjacent
cube-shaped crystals rocks to become
with faces showing coated with yellow and
straight lines (striations). orange, sulfur-rich
material, like the
stained quartz in this
photograph.
Galena — This mineral is There are many other

a lead sulfide (PbS). It important sulfide min-
forms distinctive metal- erals, including iron
lic-gray cubes with a sulfides, copper sul-
cubic cleavage. It has a fides, lead sulfides,
high density (specific and zinc sulfides. We
gravity), which can be mine sulfides because
felt easily by picking up of their high metal con-
a sample (i.e., a heft tents. Most sulfide-rich
test). In the United mineral deposits
States, many galena formed when hydro-
crystals are from lead thermal fluids passed
mines near the through rock.
Mississippi Valley. 04.09.a9 04.09.a10
Salt and Related Minerals (Halides and Sulfates)

Halide minerals (salts) consist of a metallic element, such as sodium (Na) or potassium (K), and a halide element, usually
chlorine (Cl). Sulfate minerals, especially gypsum, commonly occur with salt. They consist of an element such as calcium (Ca)
and a sulfur-oxygen complex ion called sulfate (SO4)–2. Many halides and sulfates form when water evaporates in a lake or from
precipitation in a shallow sea with limited connection to the ocean.
04.09.a11 Trona, CA 04.09.a12
Gypsum — This hydrated calcium-sulfate mineral
(CaSO4 . 2H2O) is typically gray, white, or clear and can
be scratched with a fingernail. Most gypsum forms in
environments similar to those in which halite forms
(evaporation of salty water), and the two minerals
commonly occur together. Gypsum also precipitates
from hot or warm water that circulated underground
through fractures in rocks. Like salt, it is an important
mineral to society, such as being used in wallboard to
sheath framed walls, in plaster, and as a component
of certain types of cement.
Halite — Halite (NaCl) has cubic cleavage and a Before You Leave This Page
salty taste. It generally forms from the evapora-
tion of salty water, such as a drying lake or a Discuss the key chemical constituents for each of the five nonsilicate mineral groups.
4.9
part of a sea that becomes cut off from the rest

of the oceans. When concentrated in thick beds Describe the major nonsilicate minerals, including their general characteristics such as
to make a rock, it is called rock salt. We use salt color, cleavage, and any diagnostic attributes.
for many household and industrial applications.
94
4.10 Where Are Different Minerals Abundant?

MINERALS ARE NOT UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED within Earth’s interior or on its surface. Some are common in
many different geologic settings on the surface and at various depths within Earth, whereas others are restricted to a
relatively small number of places. Knowing where different kinds of minerals occur provides a useful framework for
understanding the composition of Earth’s interior and surface.
What Types of Minerals Compose Different Parts of Earth?

Most of Earth consists of minerals. Some small parts of the crust and mantle, and all of the outer core, are liquid and so are
not minerals. Small amounts of water, volcanic glass, and organic matter are also present in places, but overall, Earth is a
complex mix of various crystals of minerals.
1. Earth’s solid surface displays a wide variety of 3. The oceanic crust generally has a thin veneer of soft,
minerals and other materials. The surface of Earth weakly consolidated sediment overlying igneous rocks. Oceanic
is mineralogically diverse because it is sediments can contain carbon-
compositionally diverse and exposes rocks and ate, oxide, and sulfide minerals,
minerals formed under many different conditions, and organic materials that are
some on Earth’s surface and some from deep not minerals. Beneath the soft
within Earth. Once on the surface, these materials sediments, the oceanic crust is
are exposed to water, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and basalt, an igneous rock domi-
different climates. This diversity in ingredients and nated by plagioclase and mafic
environments produces a huge suite of minerals silicate minerals, including black
for us to examine. pyroxene and green olivine.
Oceanic crust also contains the
igneous rock gabbro (⊲), which
2. In most places, the uppermost part of the continen- contains silicate minerals, includ-
tal crust consists of sedimentary rocks. These rocks ing dark-colored pyroxene and 04.10.a3 Gabbro
typically contain some combination of quartz, clays, amphibole and lesser amounts
feldspars, and carbonate minerals, with small amounts of whitish plagioclase feldspar.
of oxides and other minerals. In other places, the
exposed bedrock is igneous and metamorphic rocks. 4. The upper mantle, in both the lithosphere and astheno-
Much of the continen- sphere, is mostly solid and consists of silicate minerals similar
tal crust is granite to those found in oceanic crust: plagioclase, pyroxene, and
or rock close to olivine. It also contains oxides and related minerals. With
granite, which is increasing depth, the amount of plagioclase decreases until it
mostly composed of eventually disappears, and oliv-
the light-colored sili- ine and pyroxenes make up
cate minerals quartz most of the upper mantle. This
and feldspar (⊳). piece of upper mantle (⊲),
The sample shown brought up in a volcano, con-
here also contains sists almost entirely of the
black biotite and green silicate mineral olivine.
04.10.a2 Granite oxide minerals. The abundance of this mineral
in the upper mantle is the rea-
son why the illustrations in this
book show the mantle with a
greenish-brown color. 04.10.a4 Olivine
5. The lower mantle consists of minerals stable only

at very high pressures. We have no real samples, 6. We do not have any samples of the core, but the outer core
but synthetic equivalents are produced in special is interpreted to be molten and composed mostly of molten
laboratories where lower mantle conditions can be iron, with lesser amounts of nickel and other elements. It likely
re-created. These experiments show that the most contains scattered crystals,
common minerals in the lower mantle are Fe-Mg sili- but they are not abundant.
cates and oxides. The inner core is inter-
preted to be composed of
a crystalline iron and iron-
nickel alloy, similar to what
makes up some iron-rich
meteorites (⊲).
04.10.a1
04.10.a5
What Elements Are Common in the Crust, Whole Earth, and Universe?
What chemical elements are common in Earth’s crust, the entire Earth, and the universe? Examine the figures below, and
see if some of the elemental abundances surprise you.
Average Abundances in Earth’s Crust

2. The most abundant element in the
The crust consists almost entirely of the dozen elements highlighted below. crust is oxygen (O). Although oxygen is a
Those that stick up highest on this figure are most abundant. The other ele- gas in Earth’s atmosphere, in the crust it is
ments, although locally very important and sometimes essential to life, add up almost all tied up in minerals.
to less than 1% of the crust.
3. The second most abun-
dant element in the crust is
1. The most abundant silicon (Si), which combines
alkali and alkali-earth with oxygen (O) to form
metals are calcium silicon-oxygen tetrahedra in
(Ca), potassium (K), silicate minerals. As a result,
sodium (Na), and mag- silicate minerals (especially
nesium (Mg), all of quartz and feldspar) are
which combine with sil- widespread in the crust.
icon (Si), oxygen (O),
and aluminum (Al) in
silicate minerals, such 4. The most abundant transition metal is iron (Fe), a key element in a num-
04.10.b1
as feldspar and mica. ber of silicate and iron-oxide minerals, like hematite and magnetite.
Average Abundances for the Entire Earth

If we consider the composition of the whole Earth, we get a different picture. 2. Silicon is the third most abundant element
Geologists and chemists estimate that Earth consists mostly of four elements on Earth and is nearly all bonded with oxygen
with only two others that are abundant enough to show here. in silicate minerals.
3. Oxygen is one of the two most
abundant elements in the Earth, just
as it is in the crust. Almost all of it
1. Magnesium (Mg) is
is in s ilicate and oxide minerals.
one of the m ost abun-
dant metals. In the 4. Sulfur is common in alloys
crust and upper mantle, and magmas in the core. It is
it occurs mostly in sili- also present in sulfide minerals
cate minerals, such as in both the crust and mantle,
olivine and pyroxene. In and in some sulfate minerals at
the lower mantle, it is or near Earth’s surface.
also present in
04.10.b2 5. Iron (Fe) and nickel (Ni) are especially abundant in Earth’s core, where they occur in
oxide minerals.
magma, as native metals, or in alloys, some including sulfur (S) and oxygen (O). Iron and very
small amounts of nickel also occur in silicate and oxide minerals in the mantle and crust.
Average Abundances for the Universe

6. The overall composition of the universe is dominated by hydro-
gen (H) and helium (He), because these two lightest elements are
the main component in suns, nebulae, and many other large astro-
nomical objects. The universe contains much smaller amounts of Before You Leave This Page
carbon (C), nitrogen (N), oxygen (O), and neon (Ne).
Identify the most common class of
minerals in the crust, mantle, and
inner core.
List the three most abundant elements
4.10
in the crust and in Earth as a whole,

and explain why silicate minerals are so
abundant in the crust and mantle.
04.10.b3
96
4.11 What Are the Building Blocks of Minerals?

MINERALS ARE COMPOSED OF CHEMICALLY BONDED ELEMENTS. An element is a type of atom that has
a specific number of protons (e.g., all hydrogen atoms have one proton, whereas all oxygen atoms have eight protons).
The mineral halite can be broken into smaller pieces of halite, but if separated into its chlorine and sodium atoms,
it is no longer halite.
How Are Minerals Related to Elements and Atoms?

An atom is the smallest unit of an element that retains the characteristics of the element. Atoms are made of even smaller
particles (including electrons, protons, and neutrons), but if, for example, a single atom of gold could somehow be broken
apart, its pieces would no longer be gold.
⊳ The mineral halite con- Chlorine (Cl) 04.11.a3
sists of atoms of two and sodium
chemical elements — (Na) atoms (⊲)
chlorine and sodium. If each have a
halite is dissolved in water, central nucleus
it dissolves (⊲) to produce surrounded by
salt water containing indi- electrons at vari-
vidual atoms of chlorine 04.11.a2 ous distances
and sodium. from the nucleus.
04.11.a1 Halite
What Is a Model for the Structure of an Atom?

Atoms are too small to observe, so we use conceptual models to visualize them. The simple two-dimensional model of
atoms shown in the previous figure does not fully represent atoms, which are three-dimensional spheres.
1. Atoms have a tiny central core called the nucleus. The nucleus is 4. Negatively charged (−) electrons, shown in red, sur-
much smaller than the entire atom but is shown enlarged here. round the nucleus and can be thought of as orbiting
the nucleus. To be electrically neutral, an atom
2. The nucleus has two kinds of fundamental must have the same number of electrons (−) and
particles — protons and neutrons. Protons, shown
protons (+). The proton’s positive charges attract
in blue, have a p ositive (+) electrical charge, and
the atom’s electrons, binding them to the
neutrons, shown in red, do not have a charge.
nucleus. The area where the electrons travel is
3. The number of protons is called the atomic number called the electron cloud, but it really is not a
of an element. The number of neutrons and protons is cloud. It is simply a way of showing the area in
the atom’s atomic mass. For any element, the number of pro- which the electrons can reside. The outer edge of
tons is consistent, but the number of neutrons can vary. the cloud defines the size of an atom, but nearly all
04.11.b1 of the atom is empty space.
Electron Shells
5. Groups of electrons orbit the nucleus at different distances, called electron shells. Each shell has a different
level of energy, increasing away from the nucleus. The atom below has three shells, numbered 1, 2, and 3.
6. The inner shell (1), closest to the nucleus, can hold 8. This chlorine atom has seven electrons in its outer shell and so
two electrons. Moving outward, successive shells can can accommodate one more. It would try to gain an electron to fill
hold 8, 18, and 32 electrons. Electrons fill inner its outer shell (3).
shells before they fill outer shells, so the inner
shells are full but the outermost shell may only 9. This atom (sodium) has only one electron
be partially full. in its outer shell and so has a tendency
to lose or loan this electron, perhaps
7. Atoms are most stable when their outermost donating it to an atom such as the
shell is full, so atoms with only a few electrons chlorine atom on the left.
in an unfilled outer shell may donate electrons 10. If an atom gains an electron, it
to another atom in order to become more stable. acquires an overall negative charge.
Alternatively, atoms with a nearly full outer shell If it loses an electron, it acquires a
may borrow electrons from another atom to get a full positive charge. Charged atoms are
04.11.b2
shell and become stable. called ions.
04.11.b3
How Does the Periodic Table Organize the Characteristics of Elements?

Chemists use the Periodic Table to organize the elements according to the elements’ atomic number and electron shells. The
table begins with the lightest element (hydrogen) and advances to the heaviest elements. Below we consider the two left-
hand columns and the six right-hand columns because these are the most straightforward.
1. The columns are numbered from I to VII 4. The first shell can hold only two electrons, 5. The last column is reserved for noble gases,
with Roman numerals to indicate the num- which is why a large gap exists between the which do not easily gain or lose an electron
ber of electrons in the outermost shell. right and left sides of the first row. because they have complete outer shells.
This column could be numbered with both II
2. The rows correspond to and VIII—helium (He) only has two electrons,
the number of electron enough to fill its outer shell, whereas other
shells. Elements in the top noble gases in the column have eight or more
row have one shell, those in electrons filling their outer shell.
the second row have two
shells, and so forth. 6. Fluorine (F), in the second row, has two
shells. It has seven electrons in its outer shell
3. Elements in the first col- and so is in column VII. If it could borrow
umn have only one elec- another electron, its outer shell would be full.
tron in their outer shell.
Hydrogen (H) only has one 7. Oxygen (O) has two shells and six electrons
shell (it is in row one), in its outer shell; it needs two more electrons to
whereas sodium (Na) is in fill this shell. Two oxygen atoms can fill their
the third row and so has outer shells by bonding with a silicon atom,
three shells. Recall that the which has four electrons in its outer shell.
number of outer electrons
influences whether an atom 8. Transition metals, such as iron, occupy columns in the central part of the table (not
04.11.c1
loses or gains electrons. shown). They lose and gain electrons from several shells, not just the outermost shell.
Some Practice with the Periodic Table

We can use the Periodic Table to predict how many shells each element has and how
Lithium (Li) – 2 shells, 1 electron in outer shell
many electrons are in its outer shell. Try this for lithium, magnesium, nitrogen, and potas-
sium. After you are done, check your answers in the table to the right. In the text below, Magnesium (Mg) – 3 shells, 2 electrons in outer shell
we try out this procedure for chlorine to show how it works.
Nitrogen (N) – 2 shells, 5 electrons in outer shell
Chlorine (Cl): Chlorine is in the third row, so it has three shells. It is in the seventh column (VII), so
it has seven electrons in its outer shell. It seeks one more electron to complete its outer shell, Potassium (K)– 4 shells, 1 electron in outer shell
and this can be accomplished by borrowing an electron from sodium (Na), as in halite (NaCl).
Portraying the Atom
A
toms are tiny, but they can be detected A second problem is how to show the between solid objects than between fuzzy,
by high-powered electron micro- electrons. They are in motion but do not partially overlapping clouds. Such depic-
scopes. We cannot look down an travel around the nucleus in a regular man- tions, however, are incorrect in detail. As
optical microscope and see an atom with its ner. It is tempting to draw electron orbitals is common in science, such models help us
nucleus and electrons. Our view of an atom the same way we draw planets orbiting our visualize the most important aspects of an
is a model — a human-generated representa- Sun. In reality, an electron can be nearly abstract concept, even if it is just a model.
tion, or approximation, of what we think is anywhere within the cloud of electrons,
there. Many tests have confirmed that the although at any instant it is most likely to
basic model is valid, but there are limitations. be somewhere near the center of its shell. Before You Leave This Page
In particular, drawing an atom presents Electron shells represent different energy
unavoidable problems. levels more than they represent specific Describe the relationship between
The first problem is one of scale. The nucleus distances away from the nucleus. a mineral and the elements of which it
is so tiny compared to the size of the atom that Finally, atoms are not hard spheres with is composed.
you cannot show an accurately scaled nucleus well-defined edges. Atoms are more empty Explain or sketch the structure of
and still fit the atom on a page. A hydrogen space than matter, and their edges are an atom, including its main particles.
atom, for example, is nearly 150,000 times defined by how far out the outermost elec-
4.11
larger than its nucleus. The electrons, too, are trons travel away from the nucleus. We Sketch the general shape of the
extremely small when compared to an entire often show atoms as hard-edged spheres Periodic Table and explain the
significance of its rows and columns.
atom and so cannot be plotted to scale. because it is easier to see relationships
98
4.12 How Do Atoms Bond Together?

ELEMENTS COMBINE TO FORM MINERALS. The kind of bond that develops to hold two atoms together depends
on the way in which the two atoms borrow, donate, or share electrons. The Periodic Table helps explain whether an
element will gain, lose, or share electrons, and therefore how the element will bond with other atoms to form a mineral.
How Do Atoms Bond Together?

Two atoms bond together by sharing, donating, or borrowing electrons from their outermost orbital shells. This process,
called chemical bonding, can be illustrated by the ways people in a room might share or transfer money.
04.12.a1– 4
1. Two people in the same 3. One person could loan 5. If we had many dollar bills, 7. If we stack the bills they
room could both hold, or share, one (or more) dollars to we could keep passing may cling together a little, but
a single bill. The people have another person. A bond (transferring) them around so we can easily pull the bills
to stay close together to hold formed by loaning money is that each person had a few. apart. This type of bond, where
the bill, so sharing a bill forms not as strong as one formed People and bills could move the bills are neither shared nor
a strong bond. by sharing money, but it is around freely while staying loaned, is very weak.
still a bond. in the room.
Covalent Bond Ionic Bond Metallic Bond Intermolecular Force

2. When two atoms share an 4. An ionic bond forms 6. Electrons in a metallic 8. Several types of weak
electron, the bond is a covalent because of the attraction of bond are shared widely by bonds can attract a molecule
bond. The figure below shows a two oppositely charged ions, many atoms. This holds the (a combination of atoms) to
covalent bond between hydro- such as when one atom material together in a non- another molecule. Such
gen and oxygen. Together the loans one or more electrons rigid way, which is why many bonds are relatively weak,
two hydrogen and one oxygen to another atom. metals are pliable (bendable). such as those that connect
atom make the compound H2O, sheets in micas and clays.
or water.
04.12.a5
04.12.a7 04.12.a8
04.12.a6
Bond Type Strength Mechanism Mineral Examples

Covalent Bond Strongest Sharing of electrons between atoms Diamond, bonds within sheets of graphite
Ionic Bond Moderate Transfer (loaning) of electrons from one atom to another, resulting in Halite, fluorite
attraction between opposite charges
Metallic Bond Low Widespread sharing of electrons among many atoms Gold, copper
Intermolecular Force Lowest Attraction due to polarity of molecules, which are bonded combinations Water ice, and bonds between sheets of
of atoms mica, clay, and graphite
How Does the Periodic Table Reflect These Bond Types?

The Periodic Table provides general guidance about which type of bond two elements are likely to form. If one element is
much better at attracting and holding onto electrons than the other element, the bond will be ionic. When two elements
have nearly equal ability to attract and hold electrons, they share the electrons and the bond is covalent. A measure of this
ability to attract electrons is called electronegativity. Electronegativity changes predictably across the Periodic Table, as
shown by the relative height of each element in the figure below. A greater height indicates a greater ability to pull electrons
(higher electronegativity).
04.12.b3
1. Elements on the left side 2. A water molecule (H2O) forms 3. Elements on the right side, except for the very
have only one or two electrons when two hydrogen (H) atoms share last column, have a strong ability to attract electrons
in their outer shell. So, except for electrons with one oxygen (O) atom. because their outer shells have one or
hydrogen, they easily give up The electronegativities of hydrogen two vacancies available for electrons.
those electrons and oxygen are about the same, so the The mineral fluorite forms when a cal-
and do not have bond is covalent. When frozen, water molecules cium atom transfers electrons to two
a strong a bility to combine in an orderly structure to form fluorine atoms, and
attract other elec- the mineral ice. the bonds are ionic.
trons. When they Elements in the last col-
04.12.b2 04.12.b4
combine with ele- umn to the right have com-
ments on the pletely filled shells and so do
right side (group VII), which do not attract electrons.
exert a strong attraction, an ionic
bond forms. Halite (NaCl) forms 4. Some elements have
when sodium (Na) transfers an similar abilities to attract
electron to chlorine (Cl), resulting electrons (similar
in two oppositely charged ions heights in this
that attract each other. Halite is table) and can
one of the minerals that is nearly join via covalent
04.12.b1
100% ionically bonded. bonds. A silicon
atom can share
5. In calcite (CaCO3), bonds between the electrons with
6. Metals in the center of the table, like carbon atom and three surrounding four oxygen 04.12.b5
gold (Au) and copper (Cu), share electrons oxygens are covalent, but bonds atoms, forming
freely among their atoms to form metallic between the calcium atom and the strong, covalent bonds in
bonds. This makes many of these ele- carbonate group (CO3) are ionic an SiO4 tetrahedron.
ments, especially copper, good conduc- because the calcium atom transfers 04.12.b6
04.12.b7 tors of electricity. two electrons to the carbonate group.
How Do Bonds Explain the Difference Between Diamond and Graphite?

The type and arrangement of bonds that hold a mineral together control many of the mineral’s physical properties, like hardness.
The minerals diamond and graphite both consist solely of carbon. Diamond is a very hard crystal, whereas graphite is soft and
feels greasy. Why are these two minerals so different?
Diamond contains strong covalent carbon- Graphite has several kinds of bonds. It con-
to-carbon bonds that form a strong inter- tains sheets that are covalently bonded and
connected framework. Diamond is the therefore strong, but weak intermolecular Before You Leave This Page
hardest naturally occurring mineral, with bonds hold adjacent sheets together. These
a Mohs hardness of 10, and is suitable weak bonds allow sheets to slide apart eas- Explain the different types of bonds
for cutting and ily, making and how electrons cause each type.
polishing graphite feel
into sparkling slippery and Explain how the Periodic Table helps
gemstones. soft enough predict which kind of bond will form,
to use as and provide a mineral example for
the “lead” in each kind of bond.
pencils and as
4.12
Explain how differences in bonds

an industrial
cause diamond and graphite to have
04.12.c1 lubricant.
very different properties.
04.12.c2
100
4.13 How Do Chemical Reactions Help

Minerals Grow or Dissolve?
ELEMENTS COMBINE TO FORM MINERALS under various temperatures and pressures, but minerals also can be
destroyed under a wide variety of conditions. The types of chemical bonds in a mineral determine whether the mineral
grows, dissolves, or is unaffected by its physical and chemical environment. Water is often a key factor, so here we
discuss how minerals crystallize or dissolve in water.
What Are the Properties of Water, and How Does It Dissolve Some Solid Materials?
H2O can be a gas, a liquid, or a solid. It has some unusual properties, setting it apart from many other chemical compounds.
A water molecule consists of two hydrogen atoms covalently bonded to one oxygen atom.
The Water Molecule and Its Polarity Hydrogen Bonding

1. In a water molecule, the two hydrogen atoms are on one side of 4. Water molecules are attracted to each other as well as to ions. In
the oxygen. The water molecule has no overall charge (because the water, a weak bond called a hydrogen bond forms between one
10 protons are balanced by 10 electrons), but the electrons are not molecule’s hydrogen atom and another molecule’s oxygen atom. The
evenly distributed. hydrogen bond is responsible for some of water’s unique properties
(e.g., viscosity, surface tension, etc.).
2. Oxygen more strongly attracts electrons,
so the shared electrons spend more time
around the oxygen. 5. This bond forms as
04.13.a3
hydrogen is attracted in
3. The molecule therefore has a two different directions.
polarity, with a negative side and two The covalent bond inside
04.13.a1 positive ends on the other side (▼). the water molecule pulls
This polarity the hydrogen inward,
causes water keeping the molecule
molecules to be together.
attracted to
charged atoms 6. Hydrogen bonds from another
(ions). water molecule pull the atoms outward,
04.13.a2 causing a weak bond to form between the molecules.
The Ability of Water to Dissolve Minerals 8. The negatively charged chlorine anion is attracted to the posi-
tively charged (H) end of the water molecule. If this attraction is
7. We all know that strong enough, it can pull the chlorine away from the halite crys-
water can dissolve tal and into the water.
some solid materi-
als, like salt, but 9. In a similar manner, sodium in halite is a positively charged
how does water do cation (Na+ ) and so is attracted to the negative side of any
this? When we add adjacent water molecule. This attraction can pull the sodium ion
salt crystals, like the away from the halite crystal and into the water.
one in the center of
this block, to a pot 10. Once dissolved in water, the
of water, each crys- positively charged sodium cation
tal is surrounded by (Na+) will be surrounded by the
water molecules. In negative sides of water mole-
halite, sodium 04.13.a4 cules. The encircling water mol-
atoms have loaned ecule may prevent sodium from
an electron and so rejoining the halite crystal.
have a positive
charge (Na+). Such posi-
tively charged ions are called cations. 11. The negatively charged chlorine anion (Cl− ) is likewise sur-
Chlorine has gained an electron and so rounded by the positive side of the encircling water molecules.
has a negative charge (Cl−). Such nega- It is water’s polarity that enables it to dissolve some solid mate- 04.13.a5
tively charged ions are called anions. rials and makes it a good solvent and cleaning agent.
How Do Minerals Precipitate from Water?

To understand how a mineral can grow, we need to think about the environment where it is growing. Minerals on Earth are
always surrounded by other materials, perhaps other minerals, magma, water, or air. Minerals contain specific atoms, and a
crystal needs a nearby source of these atoms in order to grow. A growing crystal of halite (NaCl) needs additional sodium
and chlorine ions. So the environment in which crystallization occurs is important because it places physical constraints and
chemical constraints on crystal growth.
1. What happens if salty water evapo- 3. As the water evaporates into the air,
rates? Over time, salt crystals precipitate sodium and c hlorine are left behind and
(grow) on the bottom and sides of the so become more concentrated in the
container. How did the salt crystals form, remaining water. As a result, the two
and where did the material come from? ions begin to find each other and
begin to bond.
2. If there is lots of water, the few sodium 4. The resulting NaCl pairs combine
(Na+) ions and chloride (Cl−) ions are kept and, to keep local charges balanced,
apart by the water molecules and by the begin to organize into an ordered struc-
constant movement of the ions. As a ture with alternating cations and anions,
result, the ions rarely come into direct forming a salt c rystal.
contact with each other. 04.13.b1
Writing a Chemical Reaction for Salt in Water

5. Dissolving halite in water, or precipitat- 7. Whether halite precipitates or dissolves depends on how
ing halite crystals from water, like any much halite is in the water. If we add more NaCl, the reaction
chemical reaction, can be expressed with indicates that halite crystals will dissolve into Na+ and Cl− ions,
an equation that describes what is hap- unless the water solution is already saturated with the two
pening. For this reaction, we put halite 6. This reaction can go either way ions. If there is too much dissolved Na+ and Cl− in the solu-
(NaCl) on one side of the equation and (halite may dissolve or precipitate), tion, halite will not dissolve and can instead crystallize. Tem-
the sodium (Na+) and chlorine (Cl−) ions so we link the two sides of the perature is also important. Most minerals dissolve more easily
on the other side. equation with a two-headed arrow. in hot water than in cold water.
The Properties of Ice
D
epending on pressure and tempera dense as they melt, so the liquid form is less repeat until the lake was frozen solid, from
ture, water molecules can exist as dense than the solid form. top to bottom. Few creatures could survive
a gas, liquid, or solid. The solid The lower density of ice has many impor- freezing of all the water in a lake. Our world
form of water (H 2O) is ice, which is a min- tant implications for landscapes and life. would be very different if ice was more dense
eral with an orderly crystalline structure. Ice Water that freezes and expands can pry apart than water and sank rather than floated.
is clear when pure but generally is cloudy or rocks and soil, loosening pieces that can be
blue because of trapped air bubbles. It is a transported away. If ice was more dense than
soft mineral, but it can erode into landscapes water, ice that formed on the surface of a lake
if it carries harder rocks, as it does would sink to the bottom, allowing new ice Before You Leave This Page
in glaciers. to form on the surface. This process would
When water freezes, the weak hydrogen 04.13.t1 Antarctica Sketch a water molecule and
bonds form as the molecules rearrange to illustrate why it has polarity.
form a crystal. This rearrangement of bonds Describe the properties of water
results in water molecules that are farther that are attributable to polarity and
away from each other in ice than they are in those that are attributable to
liquid water. As a result, ice is less dense hydrogen bonding.
than water and so floats in water, whether it
is ice cubes in our glass or icebergs adrift in Describe how halite dissolves and
the sea ( ⊲ ). Water is one of the few com- crystallizes in water.
4.13
pounds that has a solid form that is less Describe why ice is less dense than
dense than the liquid form. Most other mate- water and why this is important.
rials, including most rocks, become less
CONNECTIONS
4.14 How Are Minerals Used in Society?
PEOPLE HAVE ALWAYS USED MINERALS, and minerals have become essential to our modern society. We need
minerals to build our houses, cars, roadways, and buildings. Sometimes we use minerals in their natural form. Other
times, we extract key elements from the minerals and use them for manufacturing. On average, each American uses,
either directly or indirectly, 22 metric tons of minerals and rock per year.
How Are Minerals Used for Their Chemical Components?

One of the major uses of minerals is as a source of elements and compounds that we then use to manufacture other
products. We mine minerals and then process them to extract the required elements or compounds. The resulting materials
are used in the manufacture of materials, such as glass, metals, and computers, or are then combined with other elements to
create new useful compounds.
04.14.a1 Jasper Knob, Ishpeming, MI 04.14.a2 Kidd Creek Mine, Ontario, Canada
Iron — This element is mostly Copper — Copper conducts elec-
mined from iron formations tricity and so is used for electrical
(⊲) containing hematite and wires in telephones, computers,
magnetite— both minerals of which automobiles, and nearly everything
are iron oxides. Iron is the main that is electric. It is also used in
ingredient in steel, which is used brass and bronze. Most copper
in many products, from kitchen comes from copper-sulfide miner-
utensils and appliances to auto- als (⊳) and from various blue-green
mobiles, construction equipment, copper minerals.
skyscrapers, railroads, and ships.
04.14.a3 Puna de Atacama, Argentina 04.14.a4 Central Florida

Sodium and Halite — Sodium has Phosphorus — We use phosphorus
some uses as a pure element, and in fertilizers, soft drinks, and con-
it is extracted from halite (NaCl) sumer devices, including some
and from the mineral trona, a televisions. Many large phosphate
sodium carbonate. Halite is used mineral deposits form by accumu-
in human and animal diets, as a lations of marine sediments. The
highway deicer, and in water soft- main phosphorus ore mineral
eners. It and trona are used to is apatite, a calcium phosphate
make soaps, metals, and many mineral similar in composition
household items. Trona is impor- to human teeth.
tant for manufacturing glass.
04.14.a5 04.14.a6
Silicon — The element silicon, used to Calcium — Calcite, the most common
create computer chips (⊲) and solar pan- carbonate mineral, is the chief source of
els, is mostly derived from quartz, a very calcium and is used to help construct
common silicon-oxide mineral. Although many parts of our infrastructure. Calcite
quartz is present in granite and other is processed into the main ingredient in
rocks, it is most concentrated in certain cement, which is used in roadways,
sandstones, loose sands, and quartz sidewalks, bridges, airports, large build-
veins, so that is where most silicon-rich ings, the foundations of homes, and
materials are mined. backyard patios (⊳).
Minerals in Your Medicine Cabinet
M
inerals are used to make many items carbonate, in some cases derived from ground-up Mohs Hardness Scale. Finally, the medicine cab-
you find in a house, and you may be calcite. The abrasive material on nonmetallic nail inet is composed of steel, derived from hematite
surprised at some of the unexpected files, or emery boards, is finely ground garnet or and magnetite, or aluminum, derived from fine-
places minerals show up, such as in your medi- the mineral corundum, which also occurs as grained, clay-like materials. The mirror of the
cine cabinet. Most toothpastes contain calcite as rubies and sapphires. Most makeup consists of cabinet consists mostly of glass derived from
the “scouring agent,” and they also contain fluo- clay minerals but may also include small flakes quartz and is coated with a silver compound or
ride, derived from the mineral fluorite, and vari- of mica as a glitter. Foot and body powders, also some other reflective substance.
ous sodium compounds derived from trona. The called talcum powder, may contain kaolinite (a
major ingredient in many antacids is calcium clay mineral) and talc, the softest mineral in
102
How Are Minerals Used for Their Physical Properties?

In addition to being sources of chemicals, we use many minerals intact because of some special property they possess.
Minerals are used because of their color, density, resistance to heat or abrasion, shininess, or the ease with which they can
be shaped. We use minerals for ceramics and as fillers to thicken and extend the volume of materials like paint, and we use
huge volumes of crushed stone from rocks containing quartz, feldspar, or calcite.
04.14.b1 04.14.b2
Quartz — Large quantities of Clay Minerals — We use many clay
quartz are melted and mixed with minerals, all of which are sheet sili-
other materials to make glass cates. Clay is used to produce
windows and glass block (⊲). Quartz brick, cement, and ceramics (such
is used as filler materials in paint, as bathtubs), as well as tile for
paper, and in some food and vita- roofs (⊳), floors, and walls. Large
min products (listed as silicon diox- quantities are also used for cat lit-
ide). Synthetically grown quartz ter and as fillers in paper, paint,
crystals are used in halogen bulbs and food products.
and timing devices.
Feldspars — These very common Gypsum — Gypsum is a sulfate min-

silicate minerals are used in ceram- eral that mostly forms from the
ics, including tile (⊲) and china, evaporation of water in salty lakes
and in glass-fiber insulation. They or some inland sea. It is mostly
are also used in glass production used in construction (⊳) for wall-
to improve hardness and durability. board (sheetrock) and plaster prod-
In the United States, most feldspar ucts. Additionally, it is used for
is mined from granite and other cement production, agricultural
igneous rocks. applications, glass making, and
other industrial processes.
04.14.b3 04.14.b4
In What Geologic Environments Do Gem-Quality Minerals Form?

Most gems are minerals — very beautiful ones! Some gems are not minerals because they are not natural (e.g., cubic
zirconium) or they do not have an ordered crystalline structure. Some organic materials, including pearls and amber, are
sometimes considered gems. What environments enable beautiful gem minerals to grow?
1. Diamonds form deep in the mantle under condi- 3. Opal shimmers as it moves in light, showing various shades of blue, green, red, and
tions of high temperature and extremely high pres- other colors. Opal is not a mineral because it does not have an orderly crystalline struc-
sures. They are brought to the surface through volca- ture. It consists of microscopic spheres of silica that include trapped water, giving opals
nic conduits called kimberlite pipes. Diamond is mined their distinctive spectrum of color. Opal commonly forms in volcanic rocks and some
in pipes or in sediment eroded from diamond pipes. sedimentary rocks that have fractures and other natural openings (called voids). Silicon-
rich water fills these fractures and voids and deposits the opal.
2. Ruby and sapphire
are both varieties of
the mineral corundum
(aluminum oxide). Before You Leave This Page
Emerald and aquama-
rine are varieties of Distinguish the two main ways that
the mineral beryl (an minerals are used in society.
aluminum silicate). All
four gemstones mostly Describe some chemical uses of
form in pegmatites, common minerals.
which are coarse-
grained igneous rocks Describe how minerals are used in
that crystallized from some of the products that are in your
magma containing rela- medicine cabinet.
tively high amounts of Describe some ways we use the
water. Extra water promotes the physical properties of minerals.
4.14
growth of very large crystals. Ruby,

sapphire, emerald, and aquamarine may Describe the geologic environments
also form during metamorphism 04.14.c1 in which some gemstones form.
of some sedimentary rocks.
4.15 What Minerals Would You Use to Build a House?
MINERALS AND ROCKS ARE USED to make many objects around us. Minerals, rocks, and products derived
from them compose our homes, cars, streets, buildings, electrical grid, and water-supply system. If something is not
grown, it comes from rocks, minerals, or petroleum. In this exercise, you will decide what minerals are used in materials
to build the important parts of a house.

• Make some observations about minerals based on their appearance in a photograph or from samples provided
by your instructor.
• Identify minerals based on their appearance and diagnostic properties.
• Determine, based on each mineral’s characteristics and how it is commonly used, which mineral(s) to use
for each part of a house.
Describe and Identify These Minerals

Examine each mineral in the photographs below or from samples provided by your instructor. For each mineral, make
observations, such as crystal form, luster, color, and cleavage. Write these observations on the accompanying worksheet or a
sheet of paper. Then, read the accompanying text blocks that provide additional information about each mineral. If you have
access to mineral samples, perform tests, such as determining hardness, on each mineral. For each mineral, the worksheet
contains additional important information that will help in identification.
04.15.a1 04.15.a2 04.15.a3
1. These six-sided crystals have a hardness 2. This mineral is partially transparent, has a 3. This mineral is very soft, feels sticky when
of 7 and a conchoidal fracture instead of hardness of 3, cleaves into rhombs, and effer- wet, and does not effervesce. It contains
cleavage. The mineral does not effervesce. vesces with dilute HCl. very fine material. It is not talc or graphite.
4. Each of these spherical 5. This mineral has one

masses consists of a number direction of cleavage
of intergrown crystals of a and flakes into thin
cream-colored to partially sheets (⊳). It is nonmag-
transparent mineral. The min- netic and does not
eral can be scratched with a effervesce. When held
fingernail and does not up to the light, thin
effervesce (⊲). sheets are partially
transparent and have a
silvery-gray color.
04.15.a4 04.15.a5
04.15.a6 04.15.a7
6. These blue-green and copper-colored 7. This mineral has a
minerals (⊳) contain copper. They include metallic luster and a
copper-carbonate minerals, such as mala- distinctive red streak.
chite (green) and azurite (blue). The It is nonmagnetic and
metallic material is native copper. These in some samples has
minerals were not discussed in detail. a reddish tint (⊲).
Devise Ways to Build a House Using Minerals and Mineral Products

This illustration shows parts of a house for which you need to find a mineral or mineral-derived product. Using the minerals
that you identified in part A along with information about the uses of minerals in the chapter and in the worksheet, consider
options for which mineral or mineral product you will use to construct different parts of the house. Identify the mineral by
name and list the properties this mineral had that were useful for the house.
Roof — A roof is a barrier to rain and snow. Insulation — To keep the house at a comfort-
Some type of mineral product is used to able temperature, a material that conducts
cover the plywood sheets on the roof. heat slowly is placed outside, inside, or within
the exterior walls. Commonly, this material is Exterior Walls — The outside walls act as a
fiberglass, which is produced by melting a barrier to rain and snow and support the roof
Mineral Name and Useful Mineral Properties: and the rest of the structure.
common and inexpensive silicate rock and
____________________________________ turning the melt into glass fibers.
Mineral Name and Useful Mineral Properties:
____________________________________
____________________________________
____________________________________
____________________________________
____________________________________
Windows — These let in visible light and

other solar energy and provide visibility to
the outside.
____________________________________
____________________________________
Electrical Wiring — A material that conducts

electricity is used for electrical wiring. Most
wire is made from a metal because metals
are conductive and ductile (can be shaped
easily into wire).

____________________________________
04.15.b1 ____________________________________
Plumbing — Metal pipes are commonly used to

carry freshwater into the house and from one
Cement Slab — Cement is used to make a Inside of Walls — Interior walls separate the part of the house to another.
fairly smooth, stable base for floor tile, wood, house into rooms but commonly do not sup-
or carpet. It is also used as a foundation to port the structure. They typically have vertical
support the walls. beams (called studs) of a strong material that Mineral Name and Useful Mineral Properties:
supports sheets of wallboard that form the
____________________________________
actual wall. The covering sheets should be
soft enough so that holes can be cut for ____________________________________
____________________________________ electrical outlets and switches.
____________________________________
4.15
____________________________________
____________________________________
CHAPTER
5 Igneous Environments
MOLTEN ROCK MAY REACH EARTH’S SURFACE and erupt in a volcano, or it may solidify underground, later
to be uplifted and exposed by erosion. Igneous rocks form some very distinctive landscapes, including huge gray
mountains, cone-shaped volcanoes, and precipitous volcanic buttes. How does molten rock form, move, and solidify,
and what is the relationship, if any, between the formation of magma and plate tectonics? Finally, what types of land-
scape features do igneous rocks and processes produce?
An unusual circular depression crowns the top of the The Valles Caldera formed when a huge magma chamber erupted, covering the region
Jemez Mountains near Los Alamos, New Mexico. This with hot, suffocating volcanic ash. As the ash erupted, the roof of the underground
feature, called the Valles Caldera, is outlined by a magma chamber collapsed, forming the circular caldera. After the main collapse, slow-
dashed line in the figure below. The rocks within and moving lava flows built up dome-shaped hills within and next to the caldera. Note how
near the caldera are of volcanic origin, and most are these lava-formed hills form a nearly circular ring within the caldera.
less than two million years old. Examine this feature
and the other features shown on this satellite image. How do igneous features such as calderas form, and how
do we recognize them in the landscape?
How did this caldera form, and what is its relationship
to the nearby, relatively recent volcanic rocks?
In this satellite image, green colors show areas

covered by trees and bushes, mostly in the
mountains. Yellow and orange colors in the
Cerros del Rio area represent volcanic
rocks that have less plant cover. Tan,
brown, and some orange colors are
areas of other rock types, loosely
consolidated sediment, and soil.
05.00.a1
05.00.a2 Bandelier NM, NM
Bandelier National Monument

on the flanks of the Jemez Mountains
contains famous cliff ruins and other dwellings constructed within
and next to imposing cliffs of compacted volcanic ash (⊳). The ash resulted
from the eruption that formed the caldera, long before humans were in this area.
How do we recognize volcanic ash, and what makes some ash strong enough to form a cliff?
Igneous Environments 107
5.1 What Textures Do Igneous Rocks Display? 108 5.10 How Does Magma Form Along
5.2 How Are Igneous Rocks Classified? 110 Convergent Plate Boundaries? 126
5.3 What Are Some Other Igneous Rocks? 112 5.11 How Is Magma Generated at Hot Spots
and Other Sites Away from Plate Boundaries? 128
5.4 How Do Temperature and Pressure
Vary Inside Earth? 114 5.12 How Do Large Magma Chambers Form
and How Are They Expressed in Landscapes? 130
5.5 How Do Rocks Melt? 116
5.13 How Are Small Intrusions Formed
5.6 How Do Igneous Rocks Form? 118
and Expressed in Landscapes? 132
5.7 How Does Magma Move? 120
5.14 CONNECTIONS: How Did the Sierra
5.8 How Does Magma Solidify? 122 Nevada Form? 134
5.9 How Does Magma Form Along 5.15 INVESTIGATION: What Types of Igneous
Divergent Plate Boundaries? 124 Processes Are Occurring Here? 136
The Harding Pegmatite Mine, east of the Rio Grande, has igneous rocks (▼) with large
crystals, some as long as two meters (about six feet). Compare the size of the long crys- Valles Caldera and Bandelier
tals with the rock hammer in the photograph below. These unusual rocks must have
formed in a very d ifferent igneous e
nvironment than the volcanic rocks to the west. National Monument
T
What factors control whether crystals in igneous he Valles Caldera of the Jemez Mountains is
rocks are microscopic or are meters long? one of the most studied volcanic features in
05.00.a3 Harding Pegmatite Mine, NM the world. It was here that geologists first
figured out how the collapse of a caldera is related
to explosive eruptions of volcanic ash. The caldera
has been explored using deep drill holes to study its
subsurface geometry, to better understand these large
volcanic features, and to investigate the potential for
geothermal energy. Geologists use the volcanic erup-
tions and collapse of the Valles Caldera as a model
of what could occur in future eruptions in Yellowstone
National Park of Wyoming.
About 1.2 million years ago, a huge volume of
magma rose from deep in the crust and accumulated
in a magma chamber several kilometers below the
surface. Subsequently, some of the magma reached
the surface and erupted explosively, forming a turbu-
Many small volcanoes and dark lava flows form lent cloud of pumice, volcanic ash, rock fragments,
the small Cerros del Rio volcanic field across the and hot, toxic gases that raced outward at speeds of
Rio Grande from Bandelier National Monument. hundreds of kilometers per hour. As magma escaped
Unlike the explosive eruptions of the Valles Caldera,
from the underground chamber, the roof of the cham-
magma from the smaller volcanoes flowed onto the
surface in a less violent m
anner and constructed
ber collapsed, forming the roughly circular depression
dark volcanic layers, like these exposed along the visible today. After the main explosive eruption,

Rio Grande in the photo below (▼). smaller volumes of magma reached the surface, pro-
ducing slow-moving lava that piled up into dome-
Where and how does magma form, and what factors shaped mounds within the caldera.
determine whether magma erupts as an explosion Volcanic ash that was erupted from the caldera
of hot ash or an outpouring of less explosive lava? blanketed most of the area. Some ash layers became
compacted by the weight of a dditional ash that accu-
mulated on top. Streams later eroded steep canyons,
within which the ancient Puebloan peoples of the
Southwest built the cliff dwellings and other struc-
tures preserved within Bandelier National Monument.
5.0
05.00.a4 Rio Grande Gorge, NM

108
5.1 What Textures Do Igneous Rocks Display?

IGNEOUS ROCKS FORM BY SOLIDIFICATION OF MAGMA. Most igneous rocks have millimeter- to centimeter-
sized crystals, but some have meter-long crystals, and others are noncrystalline glass. Igneous rocks vary from nearly
white to nearly black, or they can have mixed colors. They may contain holes, fragments, or ash that has been compacted.
What do the different textures tell us about how the magma solidified?
What Textures Are Common in Igneous Rocks?

The texture of a rock refers to the sizes, shapes, and arrangement of different components. The texture of an igneous rock
depends mostly on overall crystal size, the variation in crystal size within that rock, and the presence of other features, such
as holes and rock fragments.
05.01.a1 Polished Slab 05.01.a2 Wickenburg, AZ
1. The most obvious textural dis- 2. Some igneous rocks, like
tinction among igneous rocks is the one here, do not contain
whether or not a rock has crystals crystals that are visible to the
that are visible to the unaided eye unaided eye. Instead, such
(i.e., without using a hand lens or rocks consist of microscopic
microscope). The crystals in the crystals, fine-grained volcanic
rock shown here are large and ash, volcanic glass without any
easily observed without a hand crystals, or a combination of
lens or microscope. Igneous rocks these. These rocks are apha-
with crystals that are visible to the nitic and result from magma
unaided eye are called phaneritic. that solidifies too rapidly to
grow crystals visible in outcrop.
05.01.a3 Black Hills, SD 05.01.a4 Harquahala Mtns., AZ 05.01.a5 South Africa
3. Some igneous rocks contain very large 4. This rock is coarsely crystalline (also 5. Medium-grained rocks have crystals that
crystals, which may be centimeters to meters described as being coarse grained). Most are easily visible to the unaided eye. Crystals
long. We call very coarse igneous rocks, like crystals are larger than several millimeters, in such rocks are typically millimeters across,
the one shown above, pegmatite. and many are several centimeters across. but not centimeters across.
05.01.a6 White Tank Mtns., AZ 05.01.a7 Greece 05.01.a8 Maui, HI
6. Crystals in fine-grained igneous rocks can 7. Some igneous rocks consist of glass rather 8. Igneous rocks that include larger crystals
be too small to see without a hand lens. In than crystals of minerals. A rock may be 100% in a finer grained matrix are porphyritic.
some fine-grained rocks, the crystals are vis- volcanic glass or may be mostly glassy with The crystals in a porphyritic rock are
ible only with a microscope. some crystals or rock fragments. termed phenocrysts.
I g n e o u s E n v i r o n m e n t s 109
05.01.a9 Grants NM 05.01.a10 Superior, AZ 05.01.a11 Mule Creek, AZ
9. Many volcanic rocks contain small holes 10. Volcanic ash and pumice, when still hot, 11. Some volcanic rocks, called a volcanic
known as vesicles, and we describe such can be compacted by overlying materials, breccia, contain angular fragments in a matrix
rocks with the adjective vesicular. becoming a hard rock with a welded texture, composed of smaller fragments, volcanic ash,
marked by flattened, lens-shaped objects. or fine-grained solidified magma.
In What Settings Do the Different Igneous Textures Form?

The different textures of igneous rocks reflect the environment in which the magma solidified. Magma can solidify at depth,
erupt onto the surface as molten lava, or be explosively erupted as volcanic ash. Examine the figure below and think about
where each texture in the photographs on these two pages might form. Then read on.
1. Vesicles form when gases dissolved in magma accumulate as 6. Some volcanic ash erupts vertically
bubbles. They can form only under low pressures on the surface in a column and settles back to Earth.
or very near the surface. Many lavas are vesicular, and much This ash cools significantly before
of the material in volcanic ash forms when the thin walls accumulating on the s urface. Because
between vesicles burst, shattering partially solidified magma it is relatively cool and strong, the ash may
into sharp particles. Most volcanic ash is broken vesicles. not become welded; thus it is said
to be nonwelded.
2. Volcanic breccia can form in many ways,
including from explosive eruptions of ash and 7. Other volcanic ash erupts in thick clouds
rock fragments, from a lava flow that breaks apart of hot gas, ash, and rock fragments, called
as it partially solidifies while flowing, or from vol- pyroclastic flows, that flow rapidly downhill
cano-triggered mudflows and landslides on the under the influence of gravity. The ash depos-
steep and unstable slopes of the volcano. ited by pyroclastic flows is very hot, and so
most parts are welded to some extent.
3. Volcanic glass forms when magma erupts on
8. For a porphyritic texture to form, magma
the surface and cools so quickly that crystals do
needs sufficient time in a subsurface magma
not have time to form. This can happen in a lava
chamber to grow visible crystals. Later, the
flow or in volcanic ash.
magma rises to just below or on the surface,
where the remaining magma solidifies rapidly
4. Fine-grained igneous rocks
into the fine-grained matrix around the
form if the magma only has
larger crystals (phenocrysts).
enough time to grow small
crystals. This commonly
9. Pegmatite may form if magma is relatively water
occurs when magma
rich. The dissolved water allows atoms to migrate
solidifies on the surface
farther and faster and so helps large crystals to
in a thick lava flow or at
grow. This generally occurs near the sides and top
shallow depths beneath
of a magma chamber and in local pockets within
the surface, because
the magma. Most pegmatite forms at moderate to
cooling in these settings
deep levels within Earth’s crust.
is fairly rapid. Medium-
grained rocks form deeper,
where cooling occurs
more slowly. Before You Leave This Page
5. Coarse-grained igneous
Sketch or describe the various textures
rocks form at greater
displayed by igneous rocks.
depths, where magma
5.1
cools at a rate that is slow 05.01.b1 Sketch an igneous system and show

enough to allow large where the main igneous textures form.
crystals to grow.
110
5.2 How Are Igneous Rocks Classified?

IGNEOUS ROCKS VARY IN chemical composition and therefore in mineral content. Some are composed entirely of
dark minerals, whereas others contain only light-colored minerals. We classify igneous rocks so that we can use a
single name to identify rocks that form in a similar way and have a similar composition.
How Do the Characteristics of Igneous Rocks Vary?

Compare the colors and sizes of crystals in these rock samples, each of which is 5 to 10 cm (2 to 4 in.) across. What
criteria would you use to sort these rocks if you wanted to classify them or give them names? Go ahead, try it!
05.02.a1
How Do We Examine and Identify Different Minerals?

To better identify the minerals in a rock and to estimate their percentages, geologists observe coarse-grained rocks by cutting a
slab and by using a hand lens. Fine-grained or glassy rocks require a microscope.
Rocks we call granite are all dominated by feldspar and quartz, but they can differ in overall
crystal size, in the other minerals they contain, and in their proportion of quartz, feldspar,
and these other minerals.
This photograph shows part of a slab of

very coarse-grained granite. The rock
has several distinct minerals as well as Before You Leave These Pages
less distinct areas stained yellowish
brown by iron oxide minerals. How many
different kinds of minerals do you see in Sketch and describe how igneous
the rock, and what percentage of each rocks are classified.
are present? Examine the photograph List some common igneous rocks
and then read the list of minerals below. and a few characteristics of each.
F: Feldspar (cream colored) Describe the main differences
Q: Quartz (gray, transparent) between felsic and mafic rocks.
T: Tourmaline (black crystals)
05.02.b1 Polished Slab
How Does the Composition of Igneous Rocks Vary?

Geologists organize igneous rocks according to the size of crystals and the kinds of minerals in a rock. Below, images in the
left column feature rocks with coarse crystals. Each rock in the right column has a composition similar to the rock on the
left but a smaller grain size. From top to bottom, the rocks contain lower percentages of light-colored minerals. Rocks with
a light color and abundant quartz and feldspar are felsic rocks, whereas rocks that are dark and contain minerals rich in
magnesium and iron are mafic or ultramafic rocks. Intermediate rocks are in between in mineral and chemical composition.
Coarsely Crystalline Finely Crystalline or Glassy

Granite is a coarsely Rhyolite is the fine-
crystalline, light-colored grained equivalent of
igneous rock. The light granite. It is mostly a
color is due to an abun- finely crystalline rock,
Felsic
dance of the light- but it can contain glass,

colored, felsic minerals volcanic ash, pieces of
feldspar and quartz. Most pumice, and variable
granites also contain amounts of visible crys-
some biotite (black mica), tals (phenocrysts) of
and some contain light- quartz, K-feldspar,
colored mica (muscovite) or biotite.
and garnet.
05.02.c1 Enchanted Rock SNA, TX 05.02.c2 Superstition Mtns., AZ
Diorite contains more Andesite is the fine-

mafic minerals than does grained equivalent of
granite. It is intermediate diorite. It is commonly
Intermediate
between felsic and mafic gray or greenish, but it

compositions. It generally can also have a slight
contains plagioclase feld- maroon or purplish tint.
spar and amphibole, and Andesite commonly has
it can contain biotite or phenocrysts of cream-
pyroxene. A rock in colored feldspar or
between diorite and gran- dark amphibole.
ite is granodiorite.
05.02.c3 Smarthville, CA 05.02.c4 Flagstaff, AZ
Gabbro is a coarsely Basalt is a dark mafic

crystalline, mafic rock. It lava rock. Most basalt
typically is dark and con- is dark gray to nearly
sists of pyroxene and black, and many out-
Mafic
other mafic minerals, crops have vesicles, as

along with light-gray, cal- shown here. Basalts
cium-rich plagioclase can contain some
feldspar. Feldspar-rich phenocrysts of dark
varieties are lighter col- pyroxene, green olivine,
ored, and some gabbro or cream-colored pla-
has olivine. gioclase feldspar.
05.02.c5 Selway, ID 05.02.c6 Grants, NM
Peridotite is the main Ultramafic lavas erupted

coarsely crystalline ultra- early in Earth’s history,
Ultramafic
mafic rock. Compared and so such rocks are

to mafic rocks, it con- preserved only in the
tains more magnesium- oldest parts of some
rich and iron-rich miner- continents. The magma
als, especially green was very hot and com-
olivine and dark pyrox- monly grew olivine or
5.2
ene. The variety shown pyroxene crystals that

here is all olivine. The are unusually long for
upper mantle is com- a lava flow.
posed of peridotite.
05.02.c7 San Carlos, AZ 05.02.c8 South Africa
112
5.3 What Are Some Other Igneous Rocks?

SOME IGNEOUS ROCKS HAVE DISTINCTIVE TEXTURES that allow them to be identified with a unique name
and mode of origin. Such characteristics include holes, fragments, or extremely large crystals. These textures are more
common in some igneous compositions than in others.
What Are Some Other Common Igneous Rocks?

Some common igneous rocks fit into the classification system presented on the previous two pages, appropriately being
called granite or basalt, but they possess some attribute that caused geologists to assign the rock a special name to convey
the texture and, by inference, the specific way in which the rock formed.
Obsidian is a shiny volca- Tuff is a volcanic rock

nic glass that is normally composed of a mix of
a medium gray to black volcanic ash, pumice,
color. Most obsidian has crystals, and rock frag-
a composition equivalent ments. If the particles of
to that of rhyolite. It forms ash and pumice cool
when a lava flow cools before being buried by
too rapidly to form crys- overlying materials, the
tals. Obsidian commonly rock remains only weakly
has bands, and some consolidated and is
contain phenocrysts nonwelded tuff, as photo-
or fragments. graphed here.
05.03.a1 Newberry Volcano, OR 05.03.a2 Northern NM
Volcanic glass is unsta- If tuff gets buried while

ble, eventually changing still hot, as within a thick
from noncrystalline glass pyroclastic flow, the
into rhyolite consisting of weight of overlying mate-
very small crystals. The rials compacts the ash
conversion to rhyolite can and pumice into lenses,
produce blobby or lay- as shown here, forming
ered patches of glass welded tuff. Tuff com-
and rhyolite, commonly monly contains angular
giving the rocks a some- fragments of older rocks,
what mottled appearance. which do not compact.
05.03.a3 Wickenburg, AZ 05.03.a4 Shoshone, CA
Pumice is a volcanic Volcanic rocks with frag-

rock containing many ments form in other
vesicles (holes). The ways, such as the break-
holes are so numerous ing apart of lava that
that most pumice floats solidifies during flow.
on water. The solid Fragmental rocks also
material in pumice form from mixtures of vol-
begins as volcanic canic rock, ash, and mud.
glass, but over time it In either case, the result-
can convert into micro- ing fragmental rock is a
scopic crystals. volcanic breccia.
05.03.a5 Katmai, AK 05.03.a6 Tushar Mtns., UT
Scoria is a dark gray, When magma crystallizes

black, or reddish volcanic deep within the crust, a
rock that contains many crystallizing magma may
vesicles. It usually has contain enough dissolved
the composition of basalt water that it grows
or andesite. In outcrops, exceptionally large crys-
scoria consists of a jum- tals. If the crystals are
bled mass of rock frag- larger than several centi-
ments as large as several meters (they can be
meters across. meters across), the rock
is pegmatite.
05.03.a7 Winona, AZ 05.03.a8 Polished Slab
How Do Mineral Abundances and Igneous Rocks Relate to Our Classification?

Our classification of igneous rocks mostly considers the composition of the rocks (e.g., percentage of felsic versus mafic
minerals) and the size of crystals in the rock. How do rocks such as scoria and tuff fit into this classification system? The
table below places scoria, obsidian, and other rocks into this classification system and also illustrates how the abundance of
common minerals varies for different igneous rocks.
1. Pegmatite can be any composition, but most is felsic (granitic), containing 2. Mafic and ultramafic magmas do form pegmatite, but such
large crystals of feldspar and quartz. Granitic pegmatite typically also contains pegmatite is less common than granitic ones. Mafic and
one or more mica minerals (muscovite and biotite). Some includes less com- ultramafic pegmatite are important in some parts of the world
mon minerals, which can form gemstones, like garnet, tourmaline, and beryl because they contain chromium, platinum, and other important
(emerald and aquamarine). mineral resources.
3. Obsidian is mostly felsic FELSIC INTERMEDIATE MAFIC ULTRAMAFIC

(rhyolite), but some is barely
ROCK TYPES GRAINED GRAINED
COARSE
Granite 6. Volcanic breccia can

into the intermediate field Diorite Gabbro Peridotite be almost any composi-
on this graph. Intermediate Pegmatite
tion, since forming one
and mafic volcanic rocks
only requires that a vol-
FINE
can be glassy, but most Rhyolite Andesite Basalt Komatiite canic material break
geologists do not call such
into angular fragments
rocks obsidian. Obsidian during or soon after an
OTHER
Pumice eruption. Rhyolite and

4. Pumice is light-colored Scoria
Tuff andesite produce
and felsic to intermediate. Volcanic Breccia
breccia because their
The silica-rich magmas trap silicate-rich magmas do
Quartz
MINERALS
gas, forming abundant vesi- not flow easily and so

cles. Pumice is usually pres- Potassium Feldspar
break apart during flow
ent as millimeter- to Biotite or are fragmented by
centimeter-sized pieces Na-Rich Plagioclase Feldspar Ca-Rich explosive eruptions
within tuff, but it can also from trapped gas. Mafic
form volcanic units that are Amphibole
magma can flow more
nearly all pumice. Highly Pyroxene easily, but mafic lava
vesicular basalt is scoria. flows can cool, partly
Olivine
solidify, and break apart
05.03.b1
PERCENT
5. Like pumice, most tuff is

SILICA
70 60 50 40 during flow, forming vol-

felsic to intermediate, espe- canic breccia.
cially tuff formed by Lighter COLOR Darker
pyroclastic flows or huge
eruption columns. Tuff can 7. Minerals present in igneous rocks vary as a function of composition, as does the silica (SiO2)
also be mafic (basaltic), but content. Light-colored (felsic) minerals, like quartz, K-feldspar, and Na-rich plagioclase feldspar,
this type of tuff mostly forms reside in silica-rich felsic and some intermediate rocks, but they are uncommon in mafic rocks,
from ash particles that settle which contain less silica. Biotite is present in many felsic rocks, but it and amphibole are more
out of the air from smaller abundant in intermediate rocks. Mafic minerals pyroxene and olivine, along with Ca-rich
eruption columns. plagioclase, are the dominant minerals in mafic and ultramafic rocks.
The Chemical Composition of Igneous Rocks
T
he chemical composition of a rock gabbro, but at lower concentrations (44% to
largely determines the percentages of 50% SiO2). Compared to felsic rocks, mafic
different minerals in the rock. Silica is rocks contain more magnesium, iron, and cal- Before You Leave This Page
the main ingredient in most igneous rocks, cium, and these elements cause darker, mafic
which are typically between 44% and 77% SiO2 minerals, such as pyroxene and olivine, to be List the main characteristics of
(see figure above). Granite and related felsic more abundant. obsidian, pumice, scoria, tuff, breccia,
igneous rocks contain high amounts of silica Intermediate rocks, including andesite and and pegmatite, and indicate where
(SiO2), commonly 70% to 77%, and they con- diorite, contain intermediate amounts of silica each of these rock types fits into an
sist mostly of quartz and feldspar. Rhyolite and (about 60% SiO2) compared to felsic and mafic igneous classification system based
some obsidian have the same chemical compo- rocks. They also contain intermediate amounts on composition.
sition as granite but contain mostly micro- of magnesium, iron, calcium, potassium, and
5.3
Summarize the main minerals that are

scopic mineral grains or glass, respectively. other elements. They contain abundant feld-
present in felsic, intermediate, mafic,
Silica is also the dominant chemical con- spar, with variable amounts of quartz and mafic and ultramafic rocks.
stituent of mafic rocks, such as basalt and minerals, especially amphibole and biotite.
114
5.4 How Do Temperature and Pressure

Vary Inside Earth?
THE INTERIOR OF EARTH IS HOT. Heat, which is a transfer of thermal energy, flows from deeper, hotter regions
of Earth to the cooler surface. This heat drives plate tectonics and provides the energy required to melt rocks. All
igneous rocks are a direct result of Earth’s internal heat. Where does this heat come from?
How Did Earth Get So Hot, and Why Hasn’t It Cooled Off More?
Earth is 4.5 billion years old, so why is Earth’s interior still hot? Although the early history of Earth included several events
that increased its temperature, geologists infer that these early events only account for 20% of Earth’s overall heat today.
Most of Earth’s high internal temperature is instead due to energy released by radioactive decay of naturally occurring
unstable atoms, such as uranium and potassium.
Why the Early Earth Was Hot

05.04.a1 05.04.a2 05.04.a3
1. Earth is still hot partly as a result of its 2. As Earth grew in size it became a larger 3. Early in its history, Earth was mostly mol-
formation about 4.5 billion years ago. The target for asteroids and meteoroids that ten. Masses of iron and nickel, which are
materials that formed the early planet became were attracted by its gravity. As these very dense materials, were pulled by gravity
hot as they collided, coalesced, and were objects collided with Earth, the energy of toward the planet’s core, adding heat as
compressed under the force of gravity. the impacts heated the surface even more. they sank.
Heating of Earth by Radioactive Decay

Radioactive decay of elements heats Earth’s interior. This process began early in Earth’s history and accounts for most of Earth’s total thermal
energy today. Three types of radioactive decay can occur: alpha, beta, and gamma decay. Alpha decay is the most important heating process in
Earth today, so it is discussed in more detail below.
1. The nucleus of an atom consists of protons 3. The original atom lost two protons and two neutrons
and neutrons. Some nuclei are unstable and and so becomes a different element (different atomic
undergo radioactive decay, becoming number). For example, u ranium-238 (uranium with an
more stable by losing a proton or neu- atomic weight of 238) decays to form a completely
tron, and in the process releasing different element, thorium-234, by alpha decay.
energy in the form of particles or
electromagnetic radiation. 4. The new element may be stable or may
itself undergo radioactive decay by alpha,
2. During alpha decay, an beta, or gamma decay. Each step in the
unstable atom releases a decay process generates additional thermal
speedy particle that impacts energy. Beta decay involves an atom los-
and heats surrounding materi- ing a beta particle, which is an electron.
als. The ejected particle is In gamma decay, an atom emits an ener-
equivalent to a helium nucleus getic particle called a photon. Alpha
05.04.a4
(two protons and two neutrons, decay, however, is the main source of
but no electrons). heat energy for Earth’s hot interior.
How Do Pressure and Temperature Change with Depth?

Earth’s layers vary in composition, pressure, and temperature. Overall, pressure and temperature increase with depth. The
temperature increase with depth is called the geothermal gradient, and is somewhat variable. Temperature generally increases
by 20–40°C per kilometer of depth into the crust.
⊳ 4. This plot
0
1. Rocks on the surface are typically 10°C to
2000 4000 shows how
35°C (air temperature). Temperature gradually
TEMPERATURE (°C) temperature
increases with depth, from these low tempera
tures near the surface to 900°C in the lower and pressure
crust. Hotter areas exist in some places, espe- increase down-
ward from the
Te
cially those associated with magma.
2000
m
surface to the
pe
DEPTH (km)
ra
2. Mantle temperatures are typically 1,400°C to core. Pressure is
tur
1,500°C, but melting is uncommon because in units of giga-
e
pascals (GPa).
Pr
high pressures keep most of the mantle solid.
es
Radioactive decay occurs in the crust and core,
4000
su
05.04.b3
re
but radioactive decay in the mantle accounts
for most of Earth’s thermal energy. 5. The term pressure refers to the force that com-
presses a rock. The pressure on a rock at some
3. The hottest part of Earth is its metallic core, PRESSURE (GPa) depth in Earth is the force exerted by the weight of
which is 3,000°C to 5,000°C. The outer part is
6000
100 200 300 rock above it. This force increases with depth and is
molten, but the inner core is solid. 05.04.b1 mostly balanced by forces pushing in from the sides.
05.04.b2
Transferring Thermal Energy from One Place to Another

Heat is the transfer of thermal energy from high-temperature to low-temperature objects. In Earth, heat moves from the hotter interior to the cooler
surface. Heat transfer, or heat flow, results when two adjacent masses have different temperatures. The three mechanisms of heat transfer are conduc-
tion, radiant heat transfer, and convection.
3. Convection — Water near the bottom of the pan
1. Conduction — A water-filled pan gets warmer, expands, and rises because it is less
placed directly on the burner gets hot dense than the cooler water around it. When the
as thermal energy is transferred by rising water reaches the surface, it cools and flows
direct contact between the burner and back down the sides. This type of heat transfer by
pan, and the pan and water. Heat trans- flow of a liquid or by a solid but weak material is
fer by direct contact is conduction. convection. If the material flows in a circular path, as
in the pan, we use the term convection cell.
2. Radiant Heat Transfer — A hot burner
on a stove can warm your hands a short 4. Moving a pan full of hot water away from the
distance away. Such warming occurs stove also transfers heat from one place to
because heat from the burner radiates another. In this case, the movement of the heated
through the air, a process called radiant material does not follow a circular path and so is
heat transfer or thermal radiation. not part of a convection cell.
05.04.b4
Transferring Thermal Energy Via Plate Tectonics

5. As solid astheno- 6. Seawater is drawn into the hot crust of the mid-ocean ridge,
sphere rises beneath where it gets hotter and rises, forming a convection cell of seawater
a mid-ocean ridge, (too small to show here). This helps cool the oceanic crust. Before You Leave This Page
it brings hot rocks 05.04.b5
upward by convec- Describe the events that made
tion, adding mate- the early Earth hot.
rial to the oceanic
Describe alpha decay and how
lithosphere.
radioactivity heats Earth.
Describe three ways that heat is
7. The hot, newly created lithosphere begins 8. The cooled oceanic lithosphere subducts transferred from a warmer mass
to a cooler one and an example
5.4
to cool by conduction of heat to adjacent back into the asthenosphere. This downward
cooler rocks and to seawater. Some of the motion, coupled with upward motion of of conduction and convection by
underlying asthenosphere cools, hardens, and material beneath mid-ocean ridges, com- plate tectonics.
becomes part of the lithosphere. pletes a kind of c onvection cell.
116
5.5 How Do Rocks Melt?

IGNEOUS ROCKS FORM when magma (molten rock) solidifies, changing from a liquid state to a solid state. Where
does such magma come from? How do rocks melt, under what conditions do they melt, and where in Earth does
melting occur? Understanding the process of melting helps us better grasp other aspects of the world around us, like
melting of an ice cube in a cold beverage.
What Happens When a Substance Changes from a Solid to a Liquid?

What is the difference between a solid and a liquid, and what happens at a molecular level when a solid melts?
05.05.a1 05.05.a2 05.05.a3
In solids, atoms and bonds are always vibrating. A mineral or rock will remain solid if the When bond strength and pressure are inade-
A temperature increase causes the vibrations to pressure and bond strength are sufficient quate to hold a solid material together, melting
increase, eventually to the point where bonds to overcome vibrations due to temperature. will begin. Different bonds break at different
break and melting begins. An increase in pres- Beneath Earth’s surface, pressure arises temperatures, so magma generally contains
sure has the opposite effect, compressing the mostly from the weight of overlying rocks, some partially bonded, or weakly bonded, mol-
solid and making it more resistant to melting. gradually increasing with depth of burial. ecules and material within the melt.
Under What Conditions Is a Material Solid or Liquid?

If pressure tends to keep a rock solid, while increasing temperature causes it to melt, which one prevails? The graph below
shows temperatures and pressures under which a material can exist either as a solid or as a liquid.
1. Temperature is plotted on 4. A rock at the low temperature and low 5. A rock at point B is at the same low pressure as the rock
the horizontal axis, and pres- pressure represented by point A is solid. at point A, but it has a higher temperature. It plots in the liq-
sure is plotted on the vertical uid field and so under these conditions is liquid (magma).
axis. The conditions for any TEMPERATURE
place within Earth can be Low High 6. A rock at point C is at the same high temperature as the
shown as a point, such as point magma at point B, but it is solid because the higher pressure
A B
A, that represents a specific helps hold the atoms together and prevents melting.
Low
temperature and pressure.

PRESSURE
7. If pressure-temperature conditions for a rock plot directly

2. Pressure increases down-
D on the melting curve, like at point D, the rock is in the pro-
ward within the earth, so pres- C cess of melting or solidifying. Under these conditions, some
sure is plotted on this graph as solid rock and some magma are present.
LIQ
increasing from top to bottom.

SO
UID
In this manner, the graph mim-

05.05.b1
LID
8. Take a moment to think about the following questions,

High
ics the Earth, with p

ressure
considering that rocks plotting at points A and C are solid
increasing with depth, but it is
whereas point B represents conditions under which the
a graph, not a cross section.
rock would melt:
3. A line, called the melting curve or solidus, divides the graph into two areas, •W
hat changes in temperature or pressure are
called fields. If a rock is at a pressure and temperature that plot to the left of required to move from point A to point B?
the line, the rock remains solid. If the pressure-temperature conditions plot to
•W
hat changes are needed to change the
the right of the line, the rock will be completely melted (magma). The melting
conditions from point C to point B?
curve slopes down to the right because higher temperatures are needed to
melt a rock under higher pressure. The position of the melting curve depends •B
oth of these changes, from A to B, and from
on the composition of the rock, shifting to the left (lower melting temperature) C to B, will cause melting. Think about what
for more felsic compositions. Also, different minerals have different melting processes within the earth could cause a rock
curves, so not all minerals will melt at once. to follow one of these two paths.
What Causes a Rock to Melt?

When we think of melting, we normally think of heating something, an ice cube for example, until it turns into a liquid.
Heating does cause rocks to melt, but there are complicating factors. Rock melting is influenced by three main factors:
temperature, pressure, and water content.
TEMPERATURE
1. When a rock is heated, some or all of its Low High 2. If an increase in temperature is
minerals can melt. On this graph, melting A B accompanied by an increase in pres-
Low
Heating
would occur if a rock were heated so that sure, as from point A to point C, the
Melting by
PRESSURE
Heating
its temperature increased from point A to higher pressure may be enough to
He
point B. Therefore, a temperature increase keep the rock from melting. The path
ati uria
caused by heating can melt a rock. Most from point A to point C is similar to the
ng l
B
LIQ ID
rocks contain different minerals with differ- change in conditions that occurs when
Du
SO
ent melting temperatures, so an increase in a rock is simply b uried — temperature
UID
rin
05.05.c1
L
temperature causes only partial melting, increases, but the rock does not melt
High
g
unless temperature becomes very high. C because pressure also increases.
TEMPERATURE
Low High 4. For decompression melting to occur,
3. Pressure decreases if a rock moves B the rock has to be fairly hot and must
Decompression
Low
up from depth, getting closer to the sur- A be uplifted fast enough so that it cannot
Melting by
face. So a rock that is uplifted will experi- PRESSURE cool significantly during uplift. If a rock is
Decompression
ence a decrease in pressure, as from uplifted slowly, it can cool enough to
point C to point B. If the rock is already stay solid. A hot, deeply buried rock fol-
hot (point C ), it may melt as the pressure lowing a path from point C to point A
LIQ ID
decreases (to point B), a process called (cooling during uplift) would stay within
SO
05.05.c2
UID
the solid field on the diagram. In other
High
decompression melting.
L
C words, the rock would not melt.
TEMPERATURE
5. Adding water can significantly lower, Low High 6. A hot rock can melt, therefore, if
by as much as 500°C, the temperature at water moves into the system, even with
Low
Adding Water
which a rock will melt. On this graph, the no change in pressure or temperature. A
Melting by
rock at point E will be solid under nor-

PRESSURE
dashed line shows the position of the

LIQ ID
LIQUID
SOLID
SOL
melting curve if the rock contains water. mal, dry conditions (it is to the left of the
UID
Adding water moves the melting curve non-dashed melting curve). If a small
to lower temperatures. So, adding water amount of water is added to the small
to a dry rock at point E puts it on the spaces within and between crystals, the
05.05.c3
High
liquid side of the melting curve, and the E boundary between solid and liquid shifts
rock will melt. position to the dashed curve, so the
Dry
Wet
rock at point E now begins to melt.
Determining the Conditions Under Which Rocks Melt

7. Laboratory exper- 8. The rock is then heated to a specific temperature (T1) and held at
iments let scientists this temperature and pressure (position B) for days or weeks. At the
determine the end of the time, scientists Before You Leave This Page
conditions under INCREASING TEMPERATURE inspect the sample for signs
which a particular T0 T1 T2 T3 T4 that it melted. If the rock did Describe how thermal vibrations and
rock melts. Scien- not melt, the scientists repeat pressure affect crystalline structure.
tists place a small the experiment at higher tem-
INCREASING PRESSURE
sample of the rock A B C peratures until melting is Draw graphs showing how increasing
P1
in a special oven detected. The procedure is temperature, decreasing pressure
and raise the pres- repeated for different (decompression), or adding water to
sure to an amount P2 temperatures (T2, T3, and T4) hot rocks causes melting.
equal to some pres- and pressures (P1, P2, and
Describe how the temperatures and
5.5
sure, like P1 (rock is P3) until enough data points

P3 pressures of melting are determined
at condition A on define the liquid-solid
LIQ LID
the graph). boundary line for the rock in the laboratory.

SO
UI
being investigated.
D
05.05.c4
118
5.6 How Do Igneous Rocks Form?

DIFFERENT IGNEOUS ROCK COMPOSITIONS AND TEXTURES reflect the type of material that was melted, the
way the magma solidified, and whether the magma solidified at depth or was erupted onto the surface. How do geologic
processes create so many different types of igneous rocks, and how can we use the composition and texture of an igne-
ous rock to infer something about the rock’s origin?
What Processes Are Involved in the Formation of Igneous Rocks?

The igneous process begins when magma forms by melting at depth, followed by movement of the magma toward the
surface and then solidification of the magma into solid rock. Given this sequence of processes, igneous systems are best
described from the bottom up, so begin with number 1 at the bottom of this page.
05.06.a2 Laki, Iceland
6. Magma that reaches the surface erupts as lava (molten

rock that flows on the surface) or as volcanic ash. Volcanic
ash forms when dissolved gases in the magma expand and
blow the magma apart into small fragments of volcanic glass.
Any igneous rock that forms on the surface is called an extru-
sive rock because it forms from magma extruded onto the
surface (⊲). More commonly, we simply call it a volcanic rock.
5. Many magma chambers are only several kilometers

below the surface, as beneath a volcano. Magma may be 05.06.a3 Wickenburg, AZ
added a little at a time to the chamber, and some magma
may solidify before the next batch arrives. Some of the
magma may crystallize in the chamber, while some rises to
the surface. In this case, the rising magma may carry some
of the early-formed crystals all the way to the surface, form-
ing a porphyritic volcanic rock (⊲).
4. As magma rises through the crust, it may stop in, or pass
through, a series of magma chambers. A body of molten rock
in the subsurface is referred to as an intrusion because of the
way the magma intrudes into (invades) the surrounding rocks.
Any igneous rock that solidifies below the surface is called an 05.06.a4 Christmas Mine, AZ
intrusive rock. Although there is a subtle difference, most geol-
ogists use the terms plutonic and intrusive synonymously.
3. Magma can accumulate to form a magma chamber. Some

magma chambers represent a large batch of magma
emplaced at approximately the same time, but most grow in
discrete increments, from the injection of smaller batches of
magma in sheetlike bodies. The magma may solidify in this
chamber and never reach the surface, or it may reside in the
chamber temporarily before continuing its journey upward. An
igneous rock (⊲) that solidified at a considerable depth (more
than several kilometers) is referred to as a plutonic rock, and
the body of rock that forms is called a pluton. Granite and
granodiorite are very common plutonic rock and form plutons.
2. Once magma begins to form, separate pockets of magma
may accumulate to make a larger volume of magma. The Sketch and describe the processes
magma rises because it is less dense than rocks around it. involved in forming igneous rocks.
Sketch or describe how melting can
1. The first stage in the formation of an igneous rock is melt- influence magma composition.
ing, typically 40 –150 km beneath the surface, in the deeper
parts of the crust or in the mantle. The place where melting Sketch or describe how partial
occurs is called the source area. Complete melting is rare, crystallization, assimilation, and magma
and most magmas result from partial melting, leaving most of mixing can change a magma.
05.06.a1
the source area unmelted.
What Processes Influence the Composition of a Magma?

The initial composition of a magma depends on the kind of rock that was melted in the source area and whether rocks in
the source area were completely melted or only partially melted. Once a magma forms, its composition can be changed by
several processes, including the formation of crystals, melting of rocks adjacent to the magma chamber, and mixing of two
different types of magma.
Partial and Nearly Complete Melting Type of Source Area

1. If a magma was generated 4. If a more felsic source area,
by complete melting of the 05.06.b1 05.06.b2 such as continental crust, is
source region, it would have melted, the magma will be
a composition identical to felsic. If an intermediate source
that of the source. For a isalmost completely melted,
number of reasons, complete the magma will have an inter
melting is not common. mediate composition, but par-
tial melting of such a source
more commonly produces a
2. Most rocks melt by felsic magma.
partial melting as some minerals
melt before others. Felsic minerals
melt at lower temperatures than mafic miner-
als, so partial melting produces a magma that is 3. The overall composition of the mantle is ultramafic but, due to par-
more felsic than the source. For example, partial melting tial melting, magmas generated in the mantle are mostly mafic. Most
of a mafic source can yield an intermediate magma. mafic magma is derived by partial melting of the mantle.
Crystallization 7. Felsic crystals may be

05.06.b4 South Africa
5. Magma cools and solidifies from the out- less dense than magma
side in. As magma cools, mafic minerals crys- and so may float upward.
tallize first, which makes the composition of This makes the top of
the remaining magma less mafic (more felsic). the magma chamber
Consequently, partial crystallization of a mafic more felsic.
magma typically produces a magma of more
intermediate composition. 8. In this rock (⊲), light-
colored, less dense feld-
6. Once formed, heavy mafic m inerals may spar crystals floated to
settle (sink) through the magma and collect the top of the magma that
in layers at the bottom of the magma cham- formed these rocks, while
05.06.b3
ber. This process, called crystal settling, will the heavier, dark-colored
make lower parts of the magma chamber minerals settled to the
more mafic, leaving the remaining magma bottom.
more felsic.
Assimilation and Magma Mixing

10. Mafic magma is hotter than the melting temper-
9. If two different magmas come into contact, they ature of felsic rocks, so mafic magma can melt fel-
may mix, a process called magma mixing. Magma mix- sic wall rocks. If wall rocks around a magma melt,
ing produces a magma that has a composition inter- they may be incorporated into the magma, a pro-
mediate between the cess called assimilation. The gray metamorphic
two magmas that mixed. rocks below have been incorporated and partly
In this photograph (⊳), assimilated into a lighter colored intrusion.
felsic magma, repre-
sented by the light-col-
ored rocks, mixed with
mafic magma, repre-
sented by the dark basalt.
The boundary between 05.06.b6
the two materials is
extremely irregular, indi-
5.6
cating that both materials

were molten when they
came into contact.
05.06.b5 Marshall Point, ME 05.06.b7 South Africa
120
5.7 How Does Magma Move?

MAGMA RISES, MOVING CLOSER TO EARTH’S SURFACE, after it forms. What processes cause magma
to begin moving, and what processes allow it to rise through the solid mantle or crust? How does a rising magma make
space for itself, and how does it accumulate in underground magma chambers?
How Does Magma Rise Through the Crust?

When a rock melts, the volume of melt produced is about 10% greater than the volume of the original rock. The magma
therefore is less dense and will rise if the overlying rock will let it through. Pressures from the magma and tectonic forces,
which pull and push crustal rocks, help produce fractures and other weaknesses through which magma can move.
05.07.a1 Franklin Mtns., El Paso, TX 05.07.a2 Joshua Tree NP, CA
Magma can travel through Magma can also
and fill a fracture, forming move through the
a fissure. If magma solidi- crust by removing
fies within the fissure, it the overlying rocks,
forms a sheetlike feature commonly piece by
called a dike, like the light- piece. Solid rocks
colored ones shown here. above a magma
A fissure generally forms chamber can break
when the pressure of the off and drop down
magma is enough to push into the magma, pro-
apart the rocks, forming a viding space and let-
fracture into which the ting the magma
magma can then flow. Such fractures can also be caused, or aided, by move up. The dark fragments shown here broke off the walls of a
tectonic forces, like the pulling forces that accompany stretching of the magma chamber and were incorporated into the light-colored magma.
crust. Many fissures and dikes show the influence of both magmatic and Such fragments can remain as relatively intact fragments, like the
tectonic forces; the magma provides the pressure to pry open the frac- ones here, or they can be partially or completely melted and
ture, but the tectonic forces (i.e., the direction in which the rocks are absorbed into the magma. In either case, removal of the rocks above
tectonically pulled) control the orientation of the fracture. and next to a magma chamber allows the magma room to grow.
What Determines How Far a Magma Can Rise Toward Earth’s Surface?
Most magmas solidify at depth. Magma gets trapped and crystallizes at depth because of the difficulty of rising through
solid rock. There are four main constraints on how magma ascends.
Magma Pressure Gas Pressure

Pressure from the weight of the overly- Magma contains dissolved gases,
ing rocks is directed in toward the such as carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide,
magma from all sides. The pressure and water vapor (steam). As magma
pushes the magma into any available rises to shallower levels, decreasing
openings and drives it toward the sur- pressure allows the gases to form
face. The confining pressure exerted on bubbles in the magma. If this occurs,
the magma decreases as the magma the density of the magma decreases
rises higher into the crust. and the magma rises faster. If magma
initially has a low content of dissolved
gases, bubbles may not form or assist
Density the magma upward.
Differences in density drive the flow of

magma. Mafic magma generated from Stress
partial melting of the mantle is less dense Tectonic stress can help the magma
than the surrounding solid rocks and so to open steep fractures that provide a
rises. When the rising mafic magma reaches pathway to the surface. Alternatively,
the base of the crust, its density may be stress can trap a magma at depth by
greater than that of the crustal rocks. The keeping fractures closed or by creat-
mafic magma may then stop and form a ing horizontal fractures that direct a
magma chamber within or below the crust. magma sideways.
05.07.b1
What Controls How Easily Magma Moves?

Viscosity is a measure of a material’s resistance to flow. A viscous magma does not flow easily, whereas a less viscous
(more fluid) magma flows more easily. Magmas are considerably more viscous than most other hot liquids with which
you are familiar. A magma’s viscosity is controlled by its temperature, composition, and crystal content.
1. Viscous magma strongly resists flowing. When viscous magma 2. Less viscous (more fluid) magma flows more easily and may spread out
erupts on the surface, it does not spread out but piles up, in thin layers on the surface. This magma can travel longer distances from
forming mounds or domes of lava. its source and cover large areas with lava.
Temperature Composition
3. Low Temperature — The 5. Abundant Silicate Chains — Silicon and oxygen tetra-
temperature of a magma is the hedra in magma can link into long silicate chains that do
most important control of not bend or move easily out of the way of one another.
viscosity. Magma at relatively Felsic and most intermediate magmas have a high sili-
low temperature, such as one con and oxygen content, and the resulting long silicate
barely hot enough to be chains make the magmas very viscous.
molten, flows only with great
difficulty — it is very viscous. 6. Few Silicate Chains — Mafic magma contains less sili-
con and oxygen than intermediate or felsic magma.
4. High Temperature — Consequently, silicon-oxygen tetrahedra are less con-
Magma that is very hot has nected or are in short chains. This allows the magma to
low viscosity and so flows flow more easily — it is less viscous.
very easily. Mafic magma is
hotter than felsic magma, 7. Volatiles — Silicon content and the abundance of sili-
and it is less viscous than cate chains may be the most significant compositional
felsic magma if the two are variable controlling viscosity, but water dissolved in
at the same temperature. magma disrupts long chains, decreasing the viscosity.
Water and other volatiles decrease viscosity in other
ways not discussed here.
05.07.c1
Percentage of Crystals
05.07.c2 05.07.c3
8. Abundant Crystals — As a magma cools, crystals begin to form. The crystals in the flowing magma
get in each other’s way and cause the magma to flow more slowly. A magma with abundant crystals
is more viscous (has more resistance to flow) than a magma with fewer crystals.
9. Few Crystals — A magma that has few crystals has few internal obstructions and flows more eas-
ily (is less viscous). Such magma flows more smoothly and thus can flow faster and farther. Recall
that the amount of crystals in a magma is partly controlled by how much time the magma spends
cooling in a magma chamber, so this part of a magma’s history influences how the magma flows
later, like when it reaches the surface.
Abundant Crystals Few Crystals
How Viscous Is Your Breakfast?
O
ne way to think about viscosity is to move past one another, like adding water to
examine a typical Sunday breakfast that scattered crystals in a magma.
might be eaten by a student while visit- Pancakes, next on the agenda, will be
ing a relative’s well-stocked home. The fluids topped with butter and maple syrup. If a stick Before You Leave This Page
you encounter at breakfast are much less vis- of butter is out on the counter too long, it soft-
cous than magma, but they illustrate important ens, becoming less viscous, and starts to flow. Describe two ways in which magmas
aspects of viscosity. It was firmer and more viscous when cold. rise through the crust.
The orange juice that begins the feast has Likewise, maple syrup flows very slowly Discuss factors that influence how far
low viscosity and so pours easily, like a very hot when cold but is more fluid when heated. a magma rises toward the surface.
basalt without many crystals. Next on the menu Temperature clearly has an effect on viscosity.
is oatmeal, which is more viscous, like a crystal- Now, what to put on the hash brown Explain the factors that control the
rich, felsic magma with long silicate chains. potatoes — low-viscosity catsup, low-viscosity viscosity of a magma.
When thick, it piles up in a dome-shaped mound salsa, or high-viscosity chunky salsa? Who Describe what factors might be
5.7
that slowly spreads out over time. Adding milk knew that thinking about viscosity could be combined to form very high-viscosity
separates the oatmeal flakes, allowing them to such an important part of breakfast? magma or very low-viscosity magma.
122
5.8 How Does Magma Solidify?

MAGMAS EVENTUALLY COOL AND SOLIDIFY. The general term solidify is used here instead of the more specific
term crystallize because a magma can cool so rapidly that crystals do not have time to form. Such rapidly cooling
magma instead solidifies to a volcanic glass. The rate of cooling affects the size and shape of any crystals that form.
The temperature at which a magma solidifies depends largely on its composition — mafic magma begins solidifying at
higher temperatures (>1,100°C) than does an intermediate magma (~950°C), and felsic magma begins solidifying at
even lower temperatures (~800°C). Other variables, such as amount of water, influence temperatures of solidification.
Under What Conditions Does Magma Solidify?

For a magma to solidify, it must lose enough thermal energy to its surroundings that it can cool and change from a liquid to
a solid. This generally happens when a hot magma has risen to a place that is cooler, whether on the land surface, on the
seafloor, or still underground.
1. When magma reaches the 3. Magma also loses heat when it releases gases, including
land surface, it transfers thermal water vapor, into wall rocks or at the surface.
energy, through conduction and
radiation, to the atmosphere, to 4. Water in rocks near the magma receives heat by conduc-
materials below the volcanic tion from the magma or from hot wall rocks near the magma.
unit, and to any water that is As the water gets h otter, its density decreases and the water
present on the surface. rises. The upward-flowing water is replaced by an inflow of
cooler water, causing convection. Such convection of water
may be the primary way some magma cools.
2. At depth, magma loses ther- 5. A magma solidifies when minerals crystallize or glass
mal energy to s urrounding forms. The size of any crystals largely reflects the rate at
rocks by conduction. As the which the magma cools. Magma cools slowly when it is in hot
wall rocks are heated, their tem- surroundings or is insulated by wall rocks. The photographs
perature increases, possibly below show four rocks, all of which are felsic to intermediate
causing them to be metamor- and contain similar minerals (mostly feldspar and quartz). The
phosed or even melted. four rocks have different-sized crystals because the magmas
05.08.a1 had different cooling histories.
Slow Cooling Medium Cooling Very Fast Cooling Slow Then Fast Cooling
05.08.a3 Acadia NP, ME
05.08.a4 Lake Pleasant, AZ
05.08.a5 Copper Creek, AZ

05.08.a2 Sandia Mtns., NM
Coarse-Grained Granite Medium-Grained Granitic Rock Very Fine-Grained Rhyolite Porphyritic Intrusive Rock
Cooling History of a Magma

TEMPERATURE 10. At some later time, the now-solidified magma and its
6. This graph shows condi- Low wall rocks are uplifted to the surface, where they cool to
High
tions of temperature versus low temperature and where we can inspect them for clues
Surface
05.08.a6
depth. Pressure is propor- about their history.

Shallow
tional to depth, increasing Conditions

9. The magma cools by losing thermal energy to the sur-
LIQU
with greater depths. We

SOLID
rounding wall rocks. It crosses the melting curve along

can track the history of a 4
ID
magma by plotting path 3 on the graph, and so it crystallizes.

DEPTH
temperature-depth points Magma 8. Some of the magma rises some distance in the mantle
that show the path it follows 3
or crust, along path 2 on the graph, and so it is in a place
as it cools and reaches the Wall Rocks
where it is surrounded by cooler rocks.
surface. Follow the num- 2
bered changes by starting 7. A magma forms at depth, where temperature is high
Deep
Origin of
at the bottom. 1 Magma enough to overcome pressure and to cause melting.
In What Order Do Minerals Commonly Crystallize?

Minerals melt at different temperatures — felsic minerals melt before mafic ones. Minerals crystallize in the opposite order
from which they melt— mafic minerals generally crystallize before felsic ones. One way to think about how minerals
crystallize is through an idealized sequence of mineral crystallization called Bowen’s Reaction Series.
1. Mafic minerals, like olivine and pyroxene (⊳), are the first to crystallize 3. Plagioclase feldspar (⊲) may be
from a mafic magma. They typically do not crystallize from a felsic magma calcium-rich (Ca) or sodium-rich (Na),
because felsic magmas lack sufficient magnesium to form these minerals. or somewhere between. Calcium-
rich plagioclase crystallizes at high
temperature, sometimes with oliv-
ine and pyroxene. Plagioclase with
less calcium crystallizes at lower 05.08.b4 Plagioclase
temperatures.
05.08.b2 Pyroxene 4. The light-colored felsic minerals
quartz (⊲), K-feldspar (▼), and
2. Amphibole (▼) and biotite are muscovite crystallize at the low-
most common in rocks of intermedi- est temperatures. These miner-
ate composition but are also present als, along with Na-rich plagioclase,
in mafic rocks or felsic rocks. They may be the only minerals formed
crystallize at temperatures lower from felsic magmas, which lack
than olivine and pyroxene, but the chemical components 05.08.b5 Quartz
before most of the felsic minerals. required to grow abundant

mafic minerals. Felsic
minerals rarely grow
from mafic mag-
mas, which lack
sufficient silicon.
05.08.b3 Amphibole 05.08.b6 K-feldspar
05.08.b1
5. Minerals that crystallize very early in the crystallization sequence can grow
unimpeded in the magma and so commonly have well-defined crystal shapes,
like these well-formed crystals of light-colored feldspar (⊳).
6. Minerals that crystallize late in the sequence must grow around preexisting
crystals, so they may grow in irregular, poorly defined crystal shapes. The white
crystals (⊲) in this rock grew late and so had to fill around dark mafic crystals
that formed early.
05.08.b7 Pilanesberg, South Africa 05.08.b8 Palabora, South Africa
How Crystallization Changes the Composition of Magma
A
s minerals crystallize from a cooling MgO) and silicon content (expressed as SiO2)
magma, they remove the chemical for a series of rocks produced by a crystallizing
Explain or sketch the processes by
constituents that are incorporated into magma. This example is typical: the magma
which a magma cools.
the crystals. Therefore, the chemical composi- starts out crystallizing the Mg-rich minerals
tion of the remaining magma changes as min- olivine and pyroxene, causing the Mg content Describe or sketch the cooling history
erals crystallize. of the remaining magma to decrease over time. of a magma as it rises in the crust.
When mafic minerals crystallize from a In other words, crystallization of mafic minerals Explain the order in which minerals
magma, they extract the mafic components, is making the remaining magma less mafic. crystallize from a magma (Bowen’s
such as magnesium, iron, and calcium. As these Reaction Series), and compare it to
crystals are removed from the magma, the 05.08.t1
the order in which they melt.
remaining magma contains less of the elements
20 Early
18
MgO (% wt)
that were used to grow the mafic minerals. That 16

Describe how the rate of magma
is, the magma becomes less mafic (more inter- 14 cooling affects the size of crystals.
12
mediate or felsic). Late
5.8
10 Explain how the crystallization of

The graph to the right illustrates the effects 8 minerals can change the composition
of crystallization on a magma. It shows magne- 6
46 47 48 49 50 of remaining magma.
sium content (expressed as magnesium oxide, SiO (% wt)
124
5.9 How Does Magma Form Along Divergent

Plate Boundaries?
ABOUT 60% OF EARTH’S MAGMA forms at mid-ocean ridges, where two oceanic plates spread apart. Magma also
forms during the rifting of continents. What causes melting in these two settings, and what types of igneous rocks form
when these magmas solidify?
What Causes Melting Along Mid-Ocean Ridges?

Two plates move away from one another (diverge) along mid-ocean ridges. To understand how melting occurs here, examine
the magmatic system, beginning with processes at the bottom, within the mantle.
5. Older oceanic crust moves away from the ridge in a conveyor-belt manner as
new oceanic crust forms along the axis of the ridge.
4. Magma rises upward through magma-filled fractures that form as the plates
pull apart. Some magma erupts as lava within the rift.
3. The buoyant, mafic magma rises away from the unmelted residue in the mantle
and accumulates in magma chambers in the crust and upper mantle.
2. As the plates separate, solid asthenosphere rises to fill the area between the
plates. As the asthenosphere rises, pressure decreases and the rock partially melts
(decompression melting). A plot of decompression melting is on the next page
under the heading Melting in the Mantle.
1. Mantle rocks, including those in the asthenosphere, are mostly solid and crystal-
05.09.a1 line, not molten. In spite of the high pressures, the mantle’s high temperatures allow
these rocks to flow as a weak solid while maintaining a crystalline structure. Parts of
the asthenosphere are close to their melting temperature.
What Types of Igneous Rocks Form Along Mid-Ocean Ridges?

New oceanic crust formed at mid-ocean ridges consists of several different kinds of rocks. The rocks are
all mafic, but they have different textures and features depending on how and where the magma solidified.
The mafic magma forms by partial melting of the ultramafic mantle. Begin at the top, and work your way
down through the oceanic crust. 05.09.b2 San Juan Islands, WA
1. The upper part of oceanic crust consists of basaltic lava flows. When
such lavas are erupted into water, they form a series of overlapping
mounds called pillows. These distinctive rocks, called pillow basalts (⊲),
have in some cases become uplifted above sea level, where we can
now observe them. The pillows in this photograph are about 0.5 to 1
meter across.
2. Countless thin, vertical intrusions of finely crystalline basalt cut across the
pillow basalts from below. These thin intrusions, called dikes, are so closely
spaced that they are called sheeted dikes. Each dike represents a thin, tab-
ular conduit through which magma passed. Most dikes are oriented parallel
to the oceanic rift and perpendicular to the direction of spreading.
05.09.b3 Smartville, CA
3. Sheeted dikes merge downward into gabbro, the coarsely c rystalline
equivalent of basalt. The gabbro represents magma chambers beneath the
rift and locally d
isplays layers (⊲) formed by settling of light-colored and
dark crystals.
4. The base of the gabbro is the base of the oceanic crust, below which
are ultramafic rocks of the mantle. The mantle rocks show evidence of
having been p artially melted to form all of the o
verlying mafic rocks in the
crust (pillow basalt, sheeted dikes, and gabbro).
05.09.b1
How Are Magmas Generated in Continental Rifts?

Continental rifts form where tectonic forces attempt, perhaps successfully, to split a continent apart. Such rifts have a central
trough where faults drop down huge crustal blocks. Rifts are characterized by a diverse suite of igneous rocks because
melting takes place in both the mantle and the crust. The sequence of events begins in the mantle, so start reading at the
bottom left of the figure.
Continental Rift
4. Some felsic and intermediate magmas solidify underground
as granite and related igneous rocks, while others erupt on the
surface in potentially explosive volcanoes.
3. Heat from the hot mafic magma melts the adjacent continental
crust, producing felsic magma. Intermediate magma forms
from mixing of felsic and mafic magmas or from the assimilation
of continental crust by a mafic magma.
2. The mantle-derived mafic magma rises into the upper

mantle and lower continental crust and accumulates in
large magma chambers. Some of the mafic magma reaches
the surface and erupts as mafic (basaltic) lava flows.
1. Solid asthenosphere rises beneath the rift and starts to melt via
decompression melting (see graph below for melting in the man- 05.09.c1
tle). Partial melting of the ultramafic mantle source rock yields
mafic magma.
5. Melting of mantle Melting in the Mantle Melting in the Crust 6. This graph (⊳) shows a melting
beneath rifts is caused curve for mafic rock (basalt) and a
by decompression. The TEMPERATURE TEMPERATURE lower temperature melting curve
Low High Low High
asthenosphere rises into for felsic rock (granite). A hot, man-
Low
LIQ LID
LIQ SOLID
shallower, lower pres- tle-derived mafic magma (at point
Low
SO
UID
sure regions, and a A) rises into continental crust and
UID
P (DEPTH)
P (DEPTH)
LIQ
decrease in p ressure (⊲) is hotter than adjacent crust (at

UID
allows the rocks to melt. point C). The hot mafic magma
SO
This produces mafic heats the continental crust (from

C B A
LID
magma that can erupt C to B). As the temperature of the

onto the surface, form- crust crosses the felsic melting
05.09.c2
05.09.c3
Mafi
Fels
High
High
ing basalt. line, the granitic crust melts to pro-

c
ic
duce felsic magma. The mafic

magma loses heat to the crust
(from A to B) and solidifies.
Ophiolites — Slices of Oceanic Crust on Land
H
ow do we know what is in oceanic tonic movements have sliced off pieces of oce-
crust? After all, it is hidden deep beneath anic crust and thrust them onto the edges of Before You Leave This Page
the sea. The sequence of rocks in oce- continents and onto islands. These slices con-
anic crust has been reconstructed by dredging tain a consistent sequence, from top to bottom, Sketch or describe why melting
samples from the seafloor, by drilling into oce- of oceanic sediment, pillow basalt, sheeted occurs along mid-ocean ridges and
anic crust, and by studying ancient examples on dikes, and gabbro. This distinctive sequence is why the resulting magmas are basaltic
land. Perhaps of most significance, geologists called an ophiolite complex and is identical to (mafic).
have gained much data by using research ships the sequence of newly formed oceanic crust
Describe the types of igneous rocks
that have completed thousands of drill holes, shown on the previous page, except it contains that form along mid-ocean ridges.
some more than 1,400 meters (nearly a mile) an additional layer of oceanic sediment on top.
deep. Drill cores retrieved from these sites are Such sediment accumulates on top of the pillow Describe how melting occurs in
important because they provide samples of oce- basalts, and the sedimentary cover gets thicker continental rifts and how it results in
anic crust from the surface to moderate depths. with time. Many ophiolites are probably sec- diverse igneous rocks.
5.9
If we know the right places, we can examine tions of oceanic crust created at long-vanished Discuss how an ophiolite compares to
oceanic crust on a hike across dry land. Tec- mid-ocean ridges. a section through oceanic crust.
126
5.10 How Does Magma Form Along

Convergent Plate Boundaries?
MANY MAGMAS ARE GENERATED ALONG CONVERGENT BOUNDARIES, especially at subduction zones,
which produce dangerous, explosive volcanoes. What type of melting produces this magma? Are there differences in
the causes of melting and the resulting magmas at the three types of convergent boundaries: ocean-ocean, ocean-
continent, and continent-continent?
How Is Magma Generated Along Subduction Zones?

About a fifth of Earth’s magma forms where an oceanic plate subducts into the mantle, at an ocean-ocean
or ocean-continent convergent boundary.
TEMPERATURE
Low High
1. When an oceanic plate, composed of
Low
oceanic crust and lithospheric mantle, con-
verges with another oceanic plate, or with
LIQ
P (DEPTH)
a continental plate, subduction occurs.
UID
SOL
As the subducted plate descends,
LIQUID
SOLID
ID
both pressure and temperature
gradually increase.
05.10.a2
High
2. In response to the changes in
Wet
Dry
pressure and temperature, existing
minerals in the subducting plate
convert into new ones through 3. The added water lowers the melt-
the process of metamorphism. ing temperature of the mantle above
Water-bearing minerals, such as mica, the subducting plate (▲). If the temper-
break down, which forces water out ature is high enough, melting occurs,
of the crystalline structures. The water and mantle-derived magmas rise into
liberated from minerals then rises into the overriding plate. The magma then
the overlying asthenosphere. may crystallize at depth or eventually
05.10.a1
erupt at the surface.
What Happens When Subduction-Derived Magmas Encounter the Crust?

Subduction-derived magmas rise into the overriding plate, which may be an oceanic plate or a continental plate. The
magmas interact with and modify the crust they encounter and may themselves be modified by that interaction. Begin
with step 1 at the bottom.
3. Most subduction-related magma probably
never reaches the surface, but some erupts,
forming clusters or belts of volcanoes. If the
overlying crust is continental, the volcanoes are
usually part of a mountain belt. If the overlying
crust is oceanic (as shown above in part A),
subduction-generated magma creates individual
volcanoes along an island arc. In both settings,
the subduction-generated magma mostly has an
intermediate composition (andesite). Island arcs
can erupt mafic magma, and continental magma
can be felsic. In both cases, magmas added at
depth and on the land surface thicken the crust.
05.10.b1
1. Most magma generated above the subducting slab begins 2. If the overriding plate is a continental plate, the rising magma encoun-
with a mafic composition because it forms by partial melting of ters thick continental crust that slows its upward journey. The magma heats
the ultramafic mantle. Less commonly, partial melting may gener- the surrounding rocks, commonly causing localized partial melting that pro-
ate magma of intermediate composition. duces felsic or intermediate magma.
How Does Water Get into a Subduction Zone?

During subduction and collision, water is released by sediments and minerals in the descending crust.
Where does the water come from?
The oceanic crust with
An oceanic plate being subducted was its liquid water within
formed originally along a mid-ocean ridge, the sediment and the
where seawater flows into the hot crust and water bound within min-
forms water-bearing metamorphic minerals. erals can eventually
These water-bearing m inerals, shown with reach a subduction
blue spots in the oceanic crust, travel with zone, where the oce-
the plate as it moves away from the ridge. anic crust is subducted.
Once formed, oceanic crust is slowly c overed Only the water trapped
by sediment derived from continents, islands, in minerals gets deep
and creatures living in the sea. As time enough to cause melt-
passes, the sedimentary layer thickens. This ing. Liquid water within
sediment contains trapped seawater and min- sediment probably is
erals, including clay, that have water in their driven off farther up the
mineral structure. subduction zone.
05.10.c1
What Magmatism Accompanies Continental Collisions?

When two continents, such as Asia and India, converge, the encounter is best described as a collision because continental
crust is buoyant and difficult to subduct. One plate may partially slide beneath the other but, because the descending plate is
continental rather than oceanic, continental collisions result in different types of magmas than those in a typical subduction
zone. Examine the figure below, then start reading at the bottom.
3. Magmas produced by continental c ollisions typically do not
reach the surface, partly because they have to pass through
thick continental crust. Also, some magmas produced have a
relatively high water content compared to mantle-derived mag-
mas and so pass through the wet solidus (and therefore solidify)
as they rise. So, continental c ollisions, unlike other convergent
boundaries, do not have many v olcanoes.
2. Water may be released by metamorphism of water-bearing

minerals and, if the descending continental crust gets hot
enough, it undergoes partial melting, producing felsic magmas.
1. During a continental collision, one continental plate may slide

beneath another continental plate. The descending continental
crust gets hotter and experiences increased pressure. 05.10.d1
Partial Melting of Continental Crust Before You Leave This Page
M
ost rocks include more than one min- and will form igneous rocks rich in quartz and Describe and sketch how magma is
eral, each of which melts at a differ- feldspar, like granite. If some mafic minerals also generated in a subduction zone.
ent temperature. Rocks within conti- melt, the resulting magma has an intermediate
nental crust typically include plagioclase composition. Therefore, different compositions of Describe what happens when
feldspar, K-feldspar, quartz, mica, and amphi- magma can form, depending on the amount of subduction-derived magma
bole. Of these minerals, quartz and K-feldspar partial melting (how much of the rock melts). encounters overlying crust.
melt at the lowest temperatures and so melt first As felsic magma forms and rises, it carries Describe how water gets into
as a rock is heated. If only the low-melting- felsic material upward into the upper crust, a subduction zone.
temperature minerals melt, the rock undergoes which becomes more felsic. Partial melting
partial melting. leaves behind mafic minerals and so makes the Explain and sketch how magma forms
As quartz and K-feldspar melt, the first small lower crust more mafic. Over time, partial melt- during continental collisions.
5.10
amount of magma will contain relatively high ing has helped remake the continental crust into Explain partial melting of continental
amounts of silicon, potassium, and other elements an upper, felsic part and a lower, intermediate crust, the kinds of magma formed,
common in these minerals. Such magma is felsic to mafic part. and the effect on the crust.
128
5.11 How Is Magma Generated at Hot Spots

and Other Sites Away from Plate Boundaries?
SOME MAGMATISM OCCURS AWAY FROM PLATE BOUNDARIES. For example, magma is associated with hot
spots and with places where a continent is beginning to rift apart. What causes rock to melt at these sites, and what
type of magma results from these settings?
What Type of Magmatic Activity Occurs at Hot Spots?

A hot spot is a site of intense magmatic activity that has certain types of igneous activity that cannot be explained easily
by its plate-tectonic setting (e.g., not near a subduction zone or mid-ocean ridge). Many hot spots, like Hawaii, do not
coincide with a plate boundary, but some, like Ireland and the Galápagos Islands, are close to a plate boundary. Hot spots
have different igneous manifestations depending on whether the hot spot is within a continental plate or an oceanic plate.
Hot Spots and Mantle Plumes

1. Most hot spots are considered to be the crustal expression of a rising plume of hot mantle
material (⊳). There is current debate about how deep in the mantle such plumes originate, but
some may begin at the core-mantle boundary and ascend all the way through the lower mantle
and into the asthenosphere.
2. The movement of plumes through the mantle is commonly compared to the rising blobs
within a lava lamp (⊲). The teardrop shape of the blobs nicely matches experimental models of
mantle plumes, but, unlike the liquid substance in lava lamps, the plume and surrounding mantle
are both solid. Like the blobs in the lamp, a mantle plume rises because it is hotter and less
05.11.a1
dense than material around it.
05.11.a2
Hot Spots in Oceans

3. When magma generated by a mantle plume encounters the litho-
sphere (⊳), it spreads out along the boundary. There, it causes melting of
the overlying lithosphere, and additional melting occurs by decompres-
sion. Magma from the lithosphere and plume can reach the surface,
creating large volcanoes on the seafloor. This is occurring on the Big
Island in Hawaii and on the seafloor farther to the southeast.
4. A lithospheric plate may be moving above a plume that is anchored in

the deep mantle. An active volcano overlies the hot spot (⊲), but volcanic
activity will cease once the volcano has moved off the hot spot. The hot
spot creates a succession of volcanoes along a linear chain of islands and
05.11.a3 05.11.a4
seamounts as the overlying plate moves across the hot spot.
Hot Spots in Continents

5. When a rising mantle plume encounters continental lithosphere, its high
temperatures cause melting. If the melting occurs in the lower part of the
lithosphere (in the mantle), it produces mostly mafic magma (⊳). If the
mantle-derived magma causes melting in the upper part of the lithosphere
(in the crust), it can generate felsic magma.
6. Mafic and felsic magmas may mix in the crust to produce intermedi-
ate magmas. Consequently, when crustally derived magmas make it to
the surface, the resulting eruptions may be of many types. If the magma
is felsic, there is a tendency for the eruptions to be explosive and to
form a large volcanic depression called a caldera (⊲). If the magma is
05.11.a5 more mafic, the eruptions will be less explosive.
05.11.a6
Where Does Magmatism Occur Away from Plate Boundaries?

Magmatism occurs in a variety of settings not associated with plate boundaries. Tectonic forces may cause faults, fractures,
and other structural features totally within a plate. Faulting and fracturing create rifts in the crust and provide a pathway
for the easy ascent of mantle-derived or crustal magmas. Such rifts are commonly associated with magmatism that is not
directly related to a plate boundary and may not be related to a hot spot.
1. Rifts in continental interiors (⊳) commonly produce basaltic lava flows interpreted to
be derived from melting of the lithosphere or asthenosphere. The magmatism could
be caused by decompression melting as the asthenosphere rises in response to
stretching and thinning of the overlying plate. Rifting can eventually split the continent
in two, as the rift evolves to become a divergent plate boundary.
2. In the southwestern United

States, some volcanism appears to
05.11.b1
be caused by asthenosphere
encroaching on and melting the litho-
sphere (⊲). This process is expressed
on the surface by basalt derived from
melting of the lower lithosphere and by
intermediate to felsic rocks derived
from partial melting of the continental
crust. The crust and mantle part of the
lithosphere have been stretched and
thinned in part of the region, breaking
the landscape into a series of basins
05.11.b2
(valleys) and mountain ranges.
3. If mantle-derived magma accumulates in magma chambers in the conti-

nental crust (⊳), it may heat the crust and melt parts of it. Such melting
05.11.b3 yields felsic magmas that may or may not make it to the surface. Much
mafic magma gets trapped in the lower part of the continental crust
because it loses heat and solidifies as it melts the crust.
Investigating the Sources of Magma
H
ow can we infer the tectonic setting points used to originally define the line are
in which ancient volcanic rocks not shown. The blue boxes are analyses of
formed? One approach is to analyze basalt samples collected by drilling in the
the chemistry of the volcanic rocks and com- Philippine Sea. The samples are similar to
pare these results with analyses of modern basalts from mid-ocean ridges, so we inter-
volcanic rocks for which the tectonic setting pret the samples to have probably formed Sketch or explain a mantle plume and
is known. in this setting. its magmatic expression in both
The graph on the right is based on vana- oceanic and continental plates.
05.11.t1
400
dium (V) and titanium (Ti) analyses of many Philippine Sea Sketch or describe how a hot spot
V (PARTS PER MILLION)
mid-ocean ridge basalts and many oceanic Samples can form a sequence of volcanic
island (i.e., hot-spot-related) basalts. The 300
e ine islands on a moving oceanic plate.
idg e L t)
two different kinds of basalts have different a n R ve th Spo ine
ce bo Hot e L Sketch or describe how magmatism
chemistries. Samples of mid-ocean ridge 200 d-O t A ( th
Mi s Plo land low occurs away from plate boundaries.
basalt typically plot above the line because a l t c Is Be
s i t
Ba cean s Plo
5.11
they have relatively high amounts of vana- 100 O salt Sketch or explain how we infer from
dium compared to oceanic island basalts. Ba chemical analyses the tectonic setting
Likewise, samples of oceanic island basalts 0 of an ancient basalt.
0 5,000 10,000 15,000 20,000
generally plot below the line. The many data Ti (PARTS PER MILLION)
130
5.12 How Do Large Magma Chambers Form

and How Are They Expressed in Landscapes?
MAGMA OFTEN ACCUMULATES UNDERGROUND IN CHAMBERS containing thousands of cubic kilometers of
molten rock. How do these chambers form, what are their shapes, and what processes occur within them? What do
they look like after they have solidified and are uplifted to the surface?
What Is a Magma Chamber and What Processes Occur in Large Chambers?

A magma chamber is an underground body of molten rock. Think of it as an always-full reservoir or holding tank that
allows magma to enter from below and perhaps exit out the top. Magma chambers are very dynamic, with magmas
evolving, crystallizing, and being replenished by additions of new magma. The figure below, which represents a cubic
kilometer beneath the earth’s surface, illustrates some of the main processes.
1. Large magma chambers can 5. The magma can heat and par-
consist of a single magma type tially melt the wall rocks, forming a
but generally involve more than new magma with a different compo-
one influx of magma. sition. This melting is aided by heat
brought into the chamber by new
2. During crystallization, early- batches of magma from below.
formed minerals that remove
chemical components from the 6. Magma produced by partial melt-
magma may rise or sink (crystal ing of the wall rocks can be assimi-
settling) within the chamber. lated into the existing magma or
can rise out of the chamber without
3. As a new pulse of magma interacting chemically with the origi-
rises into the chamber, it may nal magma.
mix with existing magma or
may remain distinct, but it adds 7. How two magmas mix depends
a new pulse of thermal energy. on their relative densities, crystal
content, viscosities, and the temper-
4. A partially crystallized magma atures at which they crystallize. Mag-
could be heated by a new, hotter mas of similar density may form
pulse of magma. The additional well-mixed magma, whereas mag-
heat may cause minerals to melt mas of different densities may form
back into the magma. a patchwork of magma types.
05.12.a1
In What Settings Do Large Magma Chambers Form?

A large influx of magma is required to form a large magma chamber. This, in turn, requires melting on a large scale, which
is possible only in certain tectonic settings.
3. Hot spots and rifts within 4. Continental collisions
1. In oceanic lithosphere, large 2. Large magma chambers, including thick continents produce large cause crustal thickening,
magma chambers form above hot dikes, of intermediate and felsic composi- amounts of mantle-derived which can lead to melting
spots and within mid-ocean tion form above subduction zones, either magma that can melt conti- of continental crust. Large
ridges. In both cases, the mantle- within magmatic arcs on continents or nental crust to form large amounts of felsic magma
derived magma is mafic. within oceanic island arcs. felsic magmas and plutons. may be trapped at depth.
05.12.b1
Igneous Environments 131
How Are Large, Solidified Magma Chambers Exposed at the Surface?

A solidified magma chamber is called a pluton. A pluton can be cylindrical, sheetlike, or very irregular in shape. Several
generations of magma may intrude into the same region, forming a complex mass of plutons with various compositions,
textures, and shapes. Plutons are classified according to their size and geometry.
Irregular Plutons Sheetlike Plutons Batholiths

1. Many plutons have irregular shapes, some- 5. Some plutons have a tabular shape, like a 9. A batholith is one or more contiguous
what like vertical cylinders. A pluton with an thin or thick sheet. The sheet can be vertical, plutons that cover more than 100 km2. Most
exposed area of less than 100 km2 is a stock. horizontal, or at some other angle. batholiths include a number of rock types.
2. Most stocks are 6. Plutonic sheets 10. Most batholiths
irregularly shaped. can be horizontal, form from multiple
Many have a shape vertical, or inclined, magmas emplaced
like a steeply and may be parallel into the same part
oriented cylinder or to or cutting across of the crust over a
downward-widening, layers in the wall long time.
bumpy mass. rocks.
3. On the surface, 7. When horizontal 11. Exposed batho-

most stocks have sheets are exposed liths are character-
steep sides and at the surface, their ized by plutonic
may resist erosion tops and bottoms rocks that cover a
more than surround- may be visible. huge region.
ing rocks.
05.12.c1–2 05.12.c4–5 05.12.c7–8
05.12.c3 Joshua Tree NP, CA 05.12.c6 Cuernos del Paine, Chile 05.12.c9 Sierra Nevada, Lone Pine, CA
4. The top of a pluton of light-colored granite 8. The gray granitic rocks were a horizontal 12. A huge expanse of gray granite character-
protruded into overlying dark-colored metamor- sheet of magma that squeezed between dark izes the Sierra Nevada batholith of California,
phic rocks, and both rocks were later uplifted metamorphic rocks that are above and below. seen here from the east. The Sierra Nevada
and exposed by erosion. batholith solidified at depth and was later
uplifted in several phases, the latest of which
formed the present-day mountain range.
The White Mountain Batholith of New England
T
he White Mountain batholith is centered Geologists interpret the White Mountain
in the middle of New Hampshire. Gra- batholith as being related to a hot spot that
nitic rocks of the batholith form high melted its way into continental crust. The age Before You Leave This Page
peaks of the White Mountains and of the batholith coincides with rifting as North
many of the area’s most America pulled away from Describe what a magma chamber is
scenic natural landmarks. Africa when the central and the processes that occur in one.
The batholith consists Atlantic Ocean formed. A
Sketch or summarize the tectonic
of several dozen individ- line of submerged volcanic settings in which large magma
ual plutons (shown in red mountains in the Atlantic chambers form.
and yellow) that were Ocean, called the New
emplaced between 200 and England Seamount Sketch the different geometries
155 million years ago. The Chain, is interpreted of large magma chambers and
plutons represent sep arate to mark the path summarize how these are expressed
injections of magma, some of the North in the landscape.
emplaced at somewhat differ- American plate
5.12
Describe the character of the White

ent times. Some plutons are over the hot spot. Mountain batholith and how it is
cylindrical; others are like interpreted to have formed.
curved dikes. 05.12.t1
132
5.13 How Are Small Intrusions Formed

and Expressed in Landscapes?
MANY INTRUSIONS ARE RELATIVELY SMALL OR THIN FEATURES, small enough to be exposed on a single
small hill or in a roadcut. Small intrusions can have a sheetlike, pipelike, or even lumpy geometry. Where exposed at
the surface, small intrusions can form distinctive landscape features, like a volcanic neck.
What Features Form When Magma Is Injected as Sheets?

Many small intrusions have the shape of thin or thick sheets, typically ranging in thickness from several centimeters to
several tens of meters. These form when underground forces allow magma to generate new fractures or to open up and
inject into existing fractures. In some cases, magma squeezes between preexisting layers in the wall rocks, commonly
between the horizontal layers of sedimentary rocks.
Dike
05.13.a2 Spanish Peaks, CO
1. A dike is a sheetlike intrusion (⊳) that cuts
across any layers present in the host rocks.
Most dikes are steep because the magma
pushes apart the rocks in a horizontal direc-
tion as it rises vertically and fills the resulting
crack to form a dike. In some dikes, magma
flows into the dike horizontally, and the dike
grows sideways with time. Dikes are also
common within larger plutons.
05.13.a1 2. In front of this mountain (⊲) is a dike that
formed under the surface but was later uncov-
ered by erosion, forming a resistant natural wall.
Sill 05.13.a4 Salt River Canyon, AZ
3. An intrusion that is parallel to layers in the

host rocks (⊳) is called a sill. Most sills are sub-
horizontal and form by pushing adjacent rocks
upward rather than sideways.
4. These dark-colored mafic sills (⊲) intruded

parallel to layers of light-colored, sedimentary
wall rocks. Like most sills, these contain steep
05.13.a3 fractures formed by cooling of the sills after
they solidified.
Laccolith
5. In some areas, ascending magma encounters gently inclined layers and begins squeezing paral-
lel to them, forming a sill. The magma then begins inflating a lump- or bulge-shaped magma body 05.13.a6 Henry Mtns, UT
called a laccolith. As the magma chamber grows, the layers over the laccolith tilt outward and
eventually define a dome-shaped feature (▼).
6. The Four Corners region of the American
Southwest contains some of the world’s most
famous stocks and laccoliths, including these in
the Henry Mountains of southern Utah (⊲). The
laccoliths formed 25 million years ago at
a depth of several k ilometers and were later
uncovered by erosion. Igneous rocks of the
laccolith form the dark central mountain.
05.13.a5
What Kinds of Magma Chambers Form Within and Beneath Volcanoes?

Magma that erupts from volcanoes is fed through conduits that may be circular, dike shaped, or both. After the volcano
erodes away, the solidified conduit can form a steep topographic feature called a volcanic neck.
05.13.b3 Mount Taylor, NM
1. Many volcanic necks form as erosion
wears down a volcano, exposing the
harder, more resistant rocks that solidi-
fied inside the magmatic conduit of
the volcano (⊳).
05.13.b1 2. A small volcano has been partially

eroded, revealing a cross section
through the volcano (⊲). A resistant
and jointed volcanic conduit marks
the center of the volcano. This scene
represents an intermediate stage in the
sequence of events portrayed in the
05.13.b2 figures to the left.
3. Some volcanic necks were not origi-

nally inside a volcano but instead were
magmatic conduits that formed well
beneath the volcano. In these cases,
the volcano was not a mountain, but a
crater (pit) excavated by a violent
05.13.b4
explosion (⊳). Such explosions occur
when magma ascending up a conduit
encounters groundwater and generates
huge amounts of steam, which expand
violently, causing an explosion. After
the volcanic eruption, erosion removes
the crater and hundreds of meters of
05.13.b5 rock that once overlay the area around
the conduit.
4. Shiprock is a famous volcanic neck 05.13.b6 Shiprock, NM

that rises above the landscape of New
Mexico (▲). It consists of fragmented mafic rocks (breccia), and it connects to dikes (not shown)
that radiate out from the conduit. It formed beneath an explosion-caused crater, not within a
volcano that was a mountain.
Columnar Joints
M
05.13.t1 Columbia River Gorge, OR
any igneous rock bodies display dis-
tinctive fracture-bounded columns of
rocks, like the ones shown here (⊲).
These fractures, known as columnar joints,
form when a hot but solid igneous rock con-
Sketch the difference between a dike
tracts as it cools. The fractures carve out col-
and a sill, and explain why each has
umns that commonly have five or six sides.
the orientation that it does.
Columnar joints are common in basaltic lava
flows, felsic ash flows, sills, dikes, and some Sketch or discuss the geometry
laccoliths. In a tabular unit, like a flow, sill, or of a laccolith.
dike, columnar joints tend to be perpendicular
Sketch and explain two ways that
5.13
to the tabular unit — they are vertical in a hori- a volcanic neck can form.
zontal lava flow, ash flow, or sill, but horizontal
in a vertical dike. Describe how columnar joints form.
CONNECTIONS
5.14 How Did the Sierra Nevada Form?
ONE OF THE WORLD’S MOST STUDIED BATHOLITHS makes up the scenic granite peaks of the Sierra Nevada
of central California. The batholith contains a diverse suite of plutonic rocks that cover an area of 40,000 km2 (16,000
mi2). It nicely illustrates the connections between tectonic setting, cause of melting, processes within magma chambers,
and the resulting rock types and scenery.
What Is the Nature of the Sierra Nevada Batholith?

The Sierra Nevada batholith includes hundreds of individual plutons, some of which cover more than 1,000 km2
(380 mi2). The batholith includes small stocks that are only hundreds of meters across, as well as countless dikes and sills
of various compositions. The batholith was constructed by separate pulses of magma that invaded the crust, mostly between
140 and 80 million years ago. Rocks within and around the batholith tell its geologic story.
05.14.a2 Yosemite NP, CA 05.14.a3 Sierra Nevada, Lone Pine, CA

1. The scenery of 2. The figure below shows the
the Sierra landscape of the region col-
Nevada is domi- ored according to rock type.
nated by peaks, The Sierra Nevada is the
cliffs, and rounded broad, high mountain range
domes of massive and is mostly granitic rocks
gray granite (⊳). (colored gray) with smaller
It also contains areas of metamorphic rocks
intermediate and (colored green). Patches of vol-
mafic rocks in canic rocks much younger than
stocks, dikes, and the batholith are shown in red
sills. and pink. The valley 3. The most common rocks in the batholith are
east of the Sierra Nevada is light- to medium-gray granite (▲) and other
the Owens Valley, which is plutonic rocks that form gray, rocky outcrops.
underlain by recent sediments The plutons solidified slowly, so they have
(colored yellow). medium-grained to coarse-grained crystals.
05.14.a4 Sierra Nevada, CA
7. Metamorphic rocks within and

adjacent to the Sierra Nevada batholith
were baked by heat from the intru- 4. Some outcrops, including this one (▲),
sions, and some were metamorphosed show great diversity in composition, including
by earlier events. These generally dark- light-gray granite, dark intermediate and mafic
colored metamorphic rocks (▼) are cut rocks, and thin, cream-colored felsic dikes.
by light-colored dikes and sills of gran- 05.14.a1 The different rock types represent distinct mag-
ite and coarse-grained pegmatite. mas, mostly emplaced at different times.
05.14.a6 Sierra Nevada, CA 05.14.a5 Sierra Nevada, CA

6. The steep east side of the 5. Some plutons display
Sierra Nevada is a fault that compositional variations
downdropped Owens Valley that record crystallization
relative to the mountains. and settling of early-
During faulting, the entire formed crystals. In this
Sierra was tilted, raising the photograph (⊲) a lighter
eastern side of the range so colored, intermediate part
that it is now higher and is to the left and a darker
steeper than the western side. mafic one is to the right.
What Is the Tectonic History of the Batholith and Surrounding Areas?

The Sierra Nevada batholith is a product of plate tectonics — it formed by subduction-related partial melting of mantle
and lower continental crust. Its origin illustrates how different magmas are generated.
Plate-Tectonic History of the Batholith 5. While the batholith formed

underground, large volumes of
1. This figure shows the interpreted setting of the batholith 100 m
illion years ago, when North America was con- magma reached the surface and
verging with oceanic plates in the Pacific Ocean. Most of the batholith formed between 140 and 80 million years erupted in explosive volcanoes.
ago when oceanic plates in the Pacific Ocean were being subducted eastward beneath North America. The volcanoes were mostly
eroded away, but their record is
2. Water driven from min- preserved in sedimentary rocks
erals in the subducting deposited between the batholith
slab rose into the overly- and the offshore trench, in what
ing mantle, causing partial is now the Great Valley of central
melting because the California. The Great Valley and
water lowered the melting Coast Ranges also contain rocks
temperature. Melting of from the accretionary prism that
ultramafic mantle gener- formed near the trench.
ated mafic magma that
rose through the lower 4. Magma rose in the crust, and
lithosphere and toward large volumes solidified at depth
the overlying crust. as plutons and dikes in the
future site of the Sierra Nevada.
05.14.b1
Sixty million years of sustained
3. Heat transfer from mantle-derived mafic magma caused magmatism, with many discrete
partial melting of continental crust, which generated felsic magma. Mixing of felsic and mafic magmas, constructed the
magmas, along with partial crystallization, produced a wide range of igneous compositions. regional batholith.
6. About 80 million years ago, a change in the 8. During the last 5 to 10 mil-
plate-tectonic setting shut off magmatism in lion years, faulting along the
the Sierra Nevada and shifted magmatism east- eastern side of the batholith
ward into Nevada and Arizona. uplifted the Sierra Nevada
to the majestic mountain
7. Between 80 and 30 million years ago, the range it is today. This
Sierra Nevada batholith (shown here in gray) faulting, part of an episode
was slowly uplifted until the plutonic rocks, of continental rifting, was
which formed at depths of 10 to 20 km, and accompanied by the erup-
their metamorphic wall rocks (shown here in green) tion of felsic domes and
became exposed at the surface. The rocks originally on other volcanic units shown
top of the batholith were eroded away during the uplift. in red and pink.
05.14.b2
How Do Geologists Study the Sierra Nevada?
M
any geologists study the Sierra from the magma. Chemical analyses of the
Nevada batholith to reconstruct samples for potassium, silicon, and other ele- Before You Leave This Page
the geologic history of this special ments document how the magma evolved over
place and to study the processes of time. Analysis of isotopes helps determine the Describe the Sierra Nevada batholith
magma chambers. age of the rocks and the types of source rocks and what rocks it contains.
To study the batholith and its magmatic that were melted to form the magmas. The
Sketch the plate-tectonic setting that
processes, geologists first do geologic field Sierra Nevada batholith is an excellent and
formed the Sierra Nevada batholith.
work by hiking up and down the ridges and scenic place to study igneous processes.
valleys, examining the rocks, identifying Sketch or describe how magmas of
boundaries between different plutons, and 05.14.t1 the batholith formed.
collecting samples for later analysis. From the
Describe how the deep batholithic
field studies, geologists construct geologic
rocks ended up on Earth’s surface.
maps and geologic cross sections that repre-
5.14
sent the distribution of the different plutons. Briefly summarize the kinds of data
Geologists cut thin sections from the rock geologists collect in studying
samples to determine what minerals are pres- the batholith.
ent and in what order the minerals crystallized
5.15 What Types of Igneous Processes
Are Occurring Here?
IGNEOUS ACTIVITY IS NOT DISTRIBUTED UNIFORMLY ON EARTH. As a result, some regions are more likely
to experience volcanic eruptions and other igneous activity. In this exercise, you will investigate five sites to interpret
the types of igneous rocks likely to be present, the style of eruption, and the probable causes of melting.

• Use the regional features of an ocean and two continents to infer the tectonic setting and cause of melting
at five sites.
• Observe and identify nine rock types and infer the cooling history of each rock based on its texture.
• For the volcanic rocks, predict the viscosity of the magma and what type of eruption probably formed the rock.
Tectonic Settings of Igneous Activity

The perspective view below shows two continents and an intervening ocean basin. The area has five sites, labeled A, B, C,
D, and E, where igneous activity has been observed. For each site, investigate the igneous processes responsible for the
activity and enter your results in the worksheet or online using the steps listed below.
1. Use the features on this map to infer whether the tectonic setting of each site is associated with a plate boundary and, if
so, which type of plate boundary is present. The possible tectonic settings for this region are: (1) an oceanic or continental
divergent boundary, (2) one of the three types of convergent boundaries, or (3) a hot spot in a continent, ocean, or both. However,
not all of these settings are present in this area.
2. For each site, determine the likely cause of melting. The options are (1) decompression melting, (2) melting by adding water, and (3)
melting of continental crust caused by an influx of mantle-derived magmas. More than one of these causes might apply to each
site. Think about the kinds of igneous rocks you would expect to find at each site, including those that solidify at depth (plutonic)
and those erupted onto the surface (volcanic). Your instructor may ask you to list the predicted rock types.
Site A: A line of volcanic islands Site D: Volcanoes on top of a

and submarine mountains. Broad mountain belt near the edge of the
volcanoes on the islands are continent. The volcanoes erupt
erupting dark volcanic rocks. light-colored and gray volcanic
[Sample 1] rocks. The mountain range also
exposes older intrusive rocks,
Site B: Circular volcanic some with coarse crystals.
depressions (calderas) on [Samples 5, 6, and 7]
land, which are filled with
light-colored volcanic Site E: A chain of volcanic
ash and other volcanic islands form an island
rocks. arc adjacent to an oce-
[Samples 2 and 3] anic trench. The volca-
noes erupt lava flows
Site C: A mid-ocean and gray volcanic
ridge that zigzags ash, often explo-
across the ocean sively. There are
floor. The sample also some intru-
is dark colored sive rocks.
and is from a [Samples 8
lumpy lava flow and 9]
on the seafloor.
[Sample 4]
05.15.a1
136
Predicting the Types of Igneous Rocks and Eruptions at Each Site

The photographs below show nine different rocks. Your instructor may provide you with samples of each rock or may
substitute a different suite of rocks. Observe each of these rocks and complete the steps below.
1. Your instructor may have you write a short description of each photograph or of actual samples.
2. On the worksheet, indicate (1) whether each rock shown is coarsely crystalline, finely crystalline, or has other distinctive igneous
textures, (2) whether it is probably mafic, intermediate, or felsic, and (3) the name you would apply to such a rock. For certain
samples, some of this information is provided in the text accompanying the photograph below.
3. Predict the cooling and solidification history (slow, moderate, fast, slow then fast, or slow cooling in the presence of water) for each
rock sample based on its texture.
4. For each site, use the rock samples that you interpret to be volcanic to predict whether the magma for that site has a high
or low viscosity, and what type of volcanic eruption probably formed the rock sample.
5. Your instructor may have you use the various types of information to explain how the samples are consistent with the tectonic
setting of each site. Alternatively, your instructor may have you infer the entire sequence of events including (1) what caused the
initial melting event, (2) what processes might have occurred in the magma chamber, (3) where and how the rock cooled and
solidified, and (4) whether uplift and erosion are required to expose the rock.
Descriptions of Rocks
Some descriptions are provided, because it is Rock 2. This light-colored rock is finely crys- Rock 3. This brown-colored rock con-
more difficult to describe and identify rocks from talline and not glassy. It contains some small tains large, light-colored lenses of
a photograph than if you could pick up and gray crystals and a few small holes. A chemi- flattened pumice in a finely crystalline
closely examine each rock. Make your own cal analysis documents that it is a felsic rock. matrix. Under the microscope, the
observations first, and then read the hints here. It was collected on a volcano. matrix contains compacted volcanic
ash, along with small
Rock 1. This rock is crystals and frag-
dark colored, has ments of other
no visible crystals, rocks. The crystals
and is not glassy. It are mostly quartz
does have many and K-feldspar.
vesicles (holes) and
is a volcanic rock. A
chemical analysis Rock 6. This rock
revealed a relatively has very large crys-
low silica content. tals, some of which
are 5 to 10 cm long.
Rock 4. This rock is Most of the rock is
finely crystalline K-feldspar and
and lacks visible quartz, and the dark
crystals. It has a crystals are a type
dark-gray color. A of amphibole that is
chemical analysis most common in fel-
of the sample sic rocks.
indicates that it
is a mafic rock. Rock 9. This rock
contains large crys-
Rock 5. This tals of K-feldspar in
porous rock in the a brown-colored
center of the pho- matrix of small- to
tograph has numer- medium-sized crys-
ous holes and is tals. There is no
extremely light- glass, ash, or vesi-
weight. It is light cles, so the rock is
colored and is probably not a vol-
composed of volca- canic rock.
05.15.b1
nic glass. There are
5.15
no visible crystals, Rock 7. This medium-grained rock is a plutonic rock. It has a Rock 8. This rock has scattered visible crystals of
but the rock is salt-and-pepper appearance, caused by the presence of fel- amphibole and biotite in a medium-gray, finely crystal-
likely to be felsic in sic minerals (feldspar and quartz) and mafic minerals (mostly line matrix. It reportedly was collected either on a vol-
composition. biotite mica). It is intermediate in composition. cano or from dikes exposed near a volcano.
CHAPTER
6 Volcanoes and Volcanic Hazards

A VOLCANIC ERUPTION is one of nature’s most spectacular events. Volcanoes blast scalding volcanic ash into the
air, as orange streams of molten rock pour down the volcano’s flank. Volcanoes represent an obvious geologic hazard,
and eruptions can claim the lives of tens of thousands of people at a time. In this chapter, we explore volcanoes and
their associated landforms and hazards.
06.00.a2
Mount St. Helens in southwestern Washington was once one of the most beautiful and
symmetrical high peaks (▼) in the Cascade Range of the Pacific Northwest. Its shape
changed forever in May 1980 when the sleeping volcano erupted violently. The eruption
blew apart the volcano’s north flank and excavated a huge crater where the mountain peak
used to be. Within the newly formed crater, continuing eruptions built the steaming lava
dome shown in the larger photograph below.
06.00.a1
What is a volcano, and
how do we recognize one?
06.00.a3
138
Vo l c a n o e s a n d Vo l c a n i c H a z a r d s 139
6.1 What Is and Is Not a Volcano? 140 6.9 How Do Volcanic Domes Form? 156
6.2 What Controls the Style of Eruption? 142 6.10 Why Does a Caldera Form? 158
6.3 What Features Characterize Basaltic 6.11 What Disasters Were Related to Calderas? 160
Volcanoes? 144 6.12 What Areas Have the Highest Potential
6.4 How Do Shield Volcanoes Form? 146 for Volcanic Hazards? 162
6.5 What Causes Flood Basalts? 148 6.13 How Do We Monitor Volcanoes? 164
6.6 What Are the Hazards of Basaltic Eruptions? 150 6.14 CONNECTIONS: What Volcanic Hazards
6.7 What Are Composite Volcanoes? 152 Are Posed by Mount Rainier? 166
6.8 What Disasters Were Caused 6.15 INVESTIGATION: How Would You Assess
by Composite Volcanoes? 154 Hazards on This Volcano? 168
06.00.a4 06.00.a5
The May 1980 eruption started
with a northward-directed blast that
knocked over millions of trees and
unleashed a pyroclastic flow, a
swirling, hot cloud of dangerous
gases, volcanic ash, and angular
rock fragments. The pyroclastic
flow swept downhill and across the
landscape, burying and killing
almost all living things in its path.
This was followed immediately by a
huge column of volcanic ash that
rose 25 km (15 mi) into the atmo-
sphere (⊳). The ash was carried
eastward by the wind and blocked
sunlight as it settled back to Earth Since the main eruption, magma rising through the throat
across a large area of Washington, of the volcano collected on top of the vent, forming a
Idaho, and Montana. lava dome (▲). Periodic collapse of part of the unstable
dome unleashed explosions or avalanches of hot volcanic
What are the different ways that ash and rocky fragments.
volcanoes erupt, and what hazards
are associated with each type What factors determine whether magma erupts as an
of eruption? explosion of hot ash or a slow outpouring of lava?
The May 1980 Eruption
W
ith eruptions continuing into 2008, of rock on its north flank. At 8:32 a.m., on May exceeded one billion dollars, making it the
Mount St. Helens is the most active 18, 1980, an earthquake caused the over- most expensive and deadly volcanic eruption in
of the 15 large volcanoes that crown steepened north flank to collapse downhill in a U.S. history.
the Cascade Range of the Pacific Northwest. huge landslide that carried rock pieces as large Although the level of activity at Mount
The mountain is the youngest volcano in the as buildings. This catastrophic removal of rock St. Helens greatly diminished in 2007 and
range, being entirely constructed during the last released pressure on the magma inside the vol- 2008, geoscientists continue to monitor the vol-
40,000 years. Before 1980, a team of geologists cano, which exploded northward in a cloud of cano by keeping track of any ongoing volcanic
from the U.S. Geological Survey studied the scalding and suffocating volcanic ash. The and seismic activity, and carefully measuring
geology of the mountain and recognized that pyroclastic flow raced across the landscape at changes in the mountain. Remotely operated
past eruptions had unleashed vast amounts of speeds of up to 500 km (300 mi) per hour. The cameras keep watch over the crater and the
volcanic ash, lava, and volcanic mudflows. eruption blasted away most of the north flank domes. Geoscientists also use instruments to
Prior to 1980, the volcano last erupted in the of the mountain and forever changed the peak’s monitor temperatures, gas emissions, and tilt-
mid-1800s. appearance. It turned the surrounding country- ing of the land surface. Swarms of small earth-
After more than 100 years of quiescence, side into a barren wasteland smothered by a quakes in 2016 were interpreted as a new batch
6.0
the volcano reawakened in March 1980 when it thick blanket of volcanic ash. Early evacuations of magma rising below the mountain. The vol-
vented steam, shook the area with many helped limit the loss of life, but 57 people per- canic history of this very active volcano is
earthquakes, and pushed out an o minous bulge ished, and damage estimates for the eruption clearly not over yet.
140
6.1 What Is and Is Not a Volcano?

AN ERUPTING VOLCANO IS UNMISTAKABLE — glowing orange lava cascading down a hillside, molten fragments
blasting into the air, or an ominous, billowing plume of gray volcanic ash rising into the atmosphere. But what if a
volcano is not erupting? How do we tell whether a mountain is, or was, a volcano?
What Are the Characteristics of a Volcano?

How would you describe a volcano to someone who had never seen one? Examine the photographs of two volcanoes below
and look for common characteristics, then read the accompanying text.
06.01.a1 Puù Ò̄ ò̄ volcano
1. A volcano is a vent where magma and other volcanic products erupt onto the surface. The volcano on the
left (the Puù Ò̄ ò̄ volcano in Hawaii Volcanoes National Park) produces large volumes of molten lava,
whereas the one on the right (Kanaga 06.01.a2 Mount Kanaga
volcano, Alaska) is erupting volcanic ash.
Many geologists reserve the term vol-
cano for hills or mountains that have
been constructed by volcanic eruptions.
Some eruptions do not produce hills
or mountains, and we consider them
to be volcanoes, too.
2. Most volcanoes have a crater, a

roughly circular depression usually
located near the top of the volcano.
Other volcanoes have no obvious
crater or are nothing but a crater.
3. Volcanoes consist of volcanic rocks,

which form from lava, pumice,
volcanic ash, and other products
of volcanism. 5. Many volcanoes display evidence of having been active during
the last several hundred to several million years, or even during
4. Besides erupting from volcanoes the last several days. Such evidence can include a layer of volca-
that have the classic shape of a cone, nic ash on hillslopes (left side of volcano shown above) or lava
magma erupts from fairly linear cracks and ash flows that are relatively unweathered and that lack a
called fissures and from huge circular well-developed soil. Over time, erosion degrades and disguises
depressions called calderas. volcanoes and volcanic craters, making them less obvious.
Is Every Hill Composed of Volcanic Rocks a Volcano?

If a landscape feature lacks most of the diagnostic features described above, it is probably not a volcano. Many mountains
and hills are not volcanoes, and some volcanoes do not make mountains or hills.
1. The flat-topped hill below (▼), called a 2. Lava erupts from a central volcanic vent or from
mesa, has a cap of volcanic rocks, but it is a linear vent called a fissure. Once erupted, the lava
not a volcano. It did not form over a volcanic spreads outward and cools into a solid rock.
vent. Instead, it is an eroded remnant of a
once extensive lava flow that covered the 3. Erosion removes the
region, as shown in the figures to the right. edges of the lava flow
and works inward toward
06.01.b1 Hopi Buttes, AZ
a central remnant.
4. The past location of the

fissure is marked by a dike
that cuts through the rocks
and across the landscape.
5. The lava flow is more resistant to erosion than u nderlying rocks
and so forms a steep-sided, flat-topped mesa. It is a hill composed
of volcanic rocks, but it is not over the vent and is not a volcano. 06.01.b2–4
What Are Some Different Types of Volcanoes?

Volcanoes have different sizes and shapes and contain different types of rocks. These variations reflect differences in the
composition of the magmas and the style of the eruptions. There are four common types of volcanoes that are shaped like
hills and mountains: scoria cones, shield volcanoes, composite volcanoes, and volcanic domes. Later in this chapter, we
describe other types of volcanoes that are not hills or mountains.
Scoria Cone
⊳ Scoria cones are cone-shaped hills several hundred meters high or higher usually
with a small crater at their summit. They also are called cinder cones because they con-
tain loose black or red, pebble-sized volcanic cinders (scoria), along with larger volcanic
bombs. The scoria is basaltic or, less commonly, andesitic in composition. Some scoria
cones form next to or on the flanks of composite and shield volcanoes.
06.01.c1
Shield Volcano
⊲ Shield volcanoes have broad, gently curved slopes and can be relatively
small (less than a kilometer across) or can form huge mountains tens of kilome-
ters wide and thousands of meters high. They commonly contain a crater or
line of craters and have fissures along their summit. Shield volcanoes consist
mostly of basaltic lava flows with smaller amounts of scoria and volcanic ash.
06.01.c2
Composite Volcano
⊳ Composite volcanoes are typically fairly symmetrical mountains thousands of meters high,
with moderately steep slopes and commonly a crater at the top. They may be large, but are
on average much smaller than shield volcanoes. Their name derives from the interlayering of
lava flows, pyroclastic deposits, and volcanic mudflows. They consist mostly of intermediate-
composition rocks such as andesite, but can also contain felsic and mafic rocks.
06.01.c3
Volcanic Dome
⊲ Volcanic domes are dome-shaped features that may be hundreds of meters
high. They consist of solidified lava, which can be highly fractured or mostly
intact. Domes include some volcanic ash intermixed with rock fragments derived
from solidified lava in the dome. They form where felsic or intermediate magma
erupts and is so viscous that it piles up around a vent. Many domes are within
craters of composite volcanoes or within large calderas.
06.01.c4
The Relative Sizes of Different Types of Volcanoes
V
olcanoes vary from small hills less with small scoria cones. The figure does accu-
than a hundred meters high to broad rately show which volcanoes are the largest
mountains tens of kilometers across. and which ones are the smallest. Before You Leave This Page
Although sizes vary quite a bit, we can make Scoria cones and domes, which typically
some generalizations about the relative sizes form during a single eruptive episode, are the Sketch or describe the diagnostic
of the different volcano types. smallest volcanoes. Shield volcanoes and characteristics of a volcano.
The figure below illustrates that some composite volcanoes are much larger because
Describe or sketch why every hill
types of volcanoes are larger than others. The they are constructed, layer by layer, by mul- composed of volcanic rocks is not
volcanoes on this figure cannot be drawn to tiple eruptions. Shield volcanoes have more a volcano.
their true scale relative to one another because gentle slopes than scoria cones, domes, or
the largest shield volcanoes are so large that composite volcanoes. Sketch and describe the four main
we cannot show them on the same drawing types of volcanoes that construct hills
and mountains.
6.1
Sketch or describe the relative sizes

of different types of volcanoes.
06.01.t1
142
6.2 What Controls the Style of Eruption?

THE DIFFERENT SHAPES OF VOLCANOES reflect differences in the style of eruption. Some eruptions are explo-
sive, whereas others are comparatively calm. What causes these differences? The answer involves magma chemistry
and gas content, both of which control how magma behaves near the surface.
What Are Ways That Magma Erupts?

Magma may behave in several different ways once it reaches Earth’s surface. Explosive pyroclastic eruptions throw bits of
lava, volcanic ash, and other particles into the atmosphere. During nonexplosive eruptions, lava issues from a vent and flows
onto the surface. Both types of eruptions can occur from the same volcano.
Lava Flows and Domes Pyroclastic Eruptions

1. When magma erupts onto 3. Some explosive eruptions
the surface and flows away send molten lava into the air.
from a vent, it creates a lava A lava fountain (⊲), such as
flow (⊲). Erupted lava can be shown here, can accompany
fairly fluid, flowing downhill like basaltic volcanism and results
a fast river of molten rock. from a high initial gas content in
Some lava flows are not so a less viscous lava. The gas
fluid and travel only a short propels the lava and separates
distance before solidifying. it into discrete pieces.
06.02.a1 Kilauea, HI 06.02.a3 Kilauea, HI
2. A lava dome (⊲) forms from 4. Other explosive eruptions
the eruption of highly viscous eject a mixture of volcanic ash,
lava. The high v iscosity of the pumice, and rock fragments into
lava is generally due to a high the air (⊲). Such airborne material
silica content and causes the is called tephra, and tephra par-
lava to pile up around the ticles that are sand-sized or
vent, instead of flowing away. smaller are volcanic ash. Ash
Domes are often accompa- mostly forms when bubbles
nied by several types of blow apart bits of magma.
explosive eruptions. Tephra is derived from pumice,
fragmented volcanic glass, and
06.02.a2 Mount St. Helens, WA shattered preexisting rocks. 06.02.a4 Redoubt volcano, AK
Two Different Eruptions of Tephra from the Same Volcano

The Augustine volcano in Alaska produces tephra in two eruptive styles — an eruption column and a pyroclastic flow.
06.02.a5 06.02.a6
2. Pyroclastic 3. The two kinds of eruptions differ primarily
Flow — Some because of the gas content of 06.02.a7
ash does not the magma. An eruption
jet straight up column forms when
but collapses large volumes of
down the side volcanic gas come
of the volcano out of the magma and
as a dense, hot overcome gravity to
cloud of ash carry the cloud of
particles and tephra up into the
gas (⊳). This atmosphere.
eruption style is
a pyroclastic
flow or simply 4. A
1. Eruption Column — Tephra, which forms an ash flow. A pyroclastic
when magma is blown apart by volcanic pyroclastic flow flow forms
gases, can erupt high into the atmosphere, can be devas- when the
forming an eruption column (▲). The tephra tating because amount of gas is
falls back to Earth as solidified and cooled of its high less and cannot support
pieces of rock. Finer particles of ash drift speeds (more the eruption column, so the column rapidly
many kilometers away from the volcano than 100 km/hr) and very high temperatures collapses and flows downhill under the
and slowly settle down to the ground. (exceeding 500°C). force of gravity.
How Do Gases Affect Magma?

1. To envision dissolved 2. Magma, like the soda, 4. As the magma
06.02.b1
gas in magma, think what contains some dissolved approaches the
happens when you open a gases, including H2O (water surface, the pres-
bottle or can of soda. The vapor), CO2 (carbon diox- sure decreases and
liquid may have no bub- ide), and SO2 (sulfur diox- the gases cannot
bles until it is opened, at ide). These gases have a remain in solution.
which time bubbles appear critical effect on eruption Bubbles of gas
in the liquid, rise to the style and help the magma form in the magma.
top, and perhaps cause rise toward the surface. If enough bubbles
the soda to spill out. The form quickly, the
dissolved gas was always 3. As shown in this expanding bubbles
in the liquid, but it only enlargement of the magma, cause the magma
became visible when you confining pressure at depth to be more buoyant
opened the top and keeps most of the gases in and help it rise
released the pressure that solution and keeps bubbles toward the surface
held the gas in solution. from forming. and erupt out of
the volcano.
06.02.b2
How Does Viscosity Affect Gases in Magma?

Viscosity, the resistance to flow, dictates how fast a magma can flow and how fast crystals and gas can move through the
magma. When gas in a magma comes out of solution, movement of the resulting bubbles is resisted by the magma’s
viscosity. If the bubbles cannot escape, the magma can build up and potentially be more explosive.
06.02.c1 Mount St. Helens, WA
More Viscous
⊳ Felsic magmas contain a lot of silica, and so they are relatively
viscous. The high viscosity prevents gas from escaping easily. Gas
builds up in the magma and, when it expands, greatly increases the
pressure on the surrounding rock. This can cause explosive eruptions.
Less Viscous
⊲ Less viscous magma, such as one with a basaltic composition,
allows gas bubbles to escape relatively easily. This can lead to a fairly
nonexplosive eruption, such as this basaltic lava flow that flows
smoothly downhill from the vent.
06.02.c2 Kilauea, HI
Composition, Viscosity, and Eruptive Style
C
omposition of magma is the main con- tering basaltic scoria and ash relatively close
trol on a volcano’s eruptive style, to the scoria cone.
shape, associated rock types, and Felsic and intermediate magma have more
potential hazards. This is because composi- silicate chains, and the chains are longer,
tion, especially the amount and length of restricting the flow of the magma and making Before You Leave This Page
silicate chains in the melt, controls viscosity it more viscous. The high viscosity of felsic
and whether gas builds up in the magma. and intermediate lavas produces steep volca-
Mafic (basaltic) magma has fewer and nic domes and steep composite volcanoes. Describe four ways that magma erupts.
shorter silicate chains than felsic or interme- Magma in domes, composite volcanoes, and Describe the difference between
diate magma, and so is relatively less viscous. large volcanic calderas can trap gas and erupt an eruption column and a pyroclastic
The lower viscosity allows mafic magma to explosively, producing hot, gas-propelled flow, and the role that gas plays in
flow from the volcano in a relatively fluid pyroclastic eruptions of volcanic ash, tephra, eruptive style.
lava flow. The fluidity of mafic lavas accounts and rock fragments. As a result, these volca-
Explain how gas behaves at different
for the relatively gentle slopes of shield vol- noes produce a mix of pyroclastic rocks and
depths in a magma and how it
canoes, which largely consist of basaltic lava flows, mostly of felsic and intermediate influences eruptive style.
(mafic) lava flows. Explosive gases can build composition. Composition controls viscosity,
6.2
up in mafic magma, as demonstrated by lava eruptive style, the shape of the volcano, and Describe how viscosity influences how
fountains, but the resulting explosive erup- the rock types that compose that volcano. explosive an eruption is.
tions are relatively small and localized, scat-
144
6.3 What Features Characterize Basaltic

Volcanoes?
ERUPTIONS OF BASALTIC MAGMA can form a variety of rock types and landforms. This variety is largely con-
trolled by the gas in the magma, because gas affects the style of eruption and the solidification of lava. A single erup-
tion of basaltic magma can produce a wide range of volcanic features and rock textures. Basalts are erupted on the
seafloor along mid-ocean rifts and early in the history of island arcs. They also are common on continents in associa-
tion with continental rifts, hot spots, and more isolated sites of mantle-derived volcanism within plates.
What Are Scoria Cones and Basalt Flows?

Basaltic magma has a relatively low viscosity compared to other magmas, and it erupts in characteristic ways. A basaltic
eruption can form a fluid lava flow and throw pieces of molten rock into the air, constructing a cone around the vent.
1. Basaltic Eruptions — At the 2. Scoria Cones — Pieces of scoria from the lava fountain gradu-
beginning of many basaltic erup- ally create a cone-shaped hill called a scoria cone (also called
tions, gases carry bits of lava into a cinder cone). Ejected fragments can be as small as sand
the air, forming a lava fountain. grains or as large as huge boulders. Scoria cones typically form
The airborne bits of lava cool in a short amount of time, from a few months to a few years,
and then fall around the vent as and generally are no more than 300 m (~1,000 ft) high.
loose pieces of scoria. The lava
fountain may be followed by or 3. Basaltic Lava Flows — Fluid basaltic lava pours from the vent
accompanied by eruption of and flows downhill. Sometimes, as shown here, the lava fills up
a basaltic lava flow. and overtops the crater in the scoria cone. At other times, a
lava flow issues from cracks near the base of the scoria cone
after most of the cone has been constructed.
06.03.a1 Hawaii
06.03.a2 Pullman, WA 06.03.a5 Hawaii

Rock Types Features of Lava Flows
4. Vesicular basalt (⊳) contains abun- 7. Lava tubes (⊲) form when the sur-
dant gas pockets (vesicles). The vesi- face of a lava flow solidifies to form
cles were gas bubbles that expanded an insulating roof over the hot, still-
in the magma (as pressure decreased) moving interior of the flow. Lava flows
and were trapped when the lava insulated by lava tubes can flow far-
solidified. Vesicles occur in lava flows ther than lava flows on the surface
and in ejected material, such as highly because the lava stays hotter longer.
vesicular scoria, which represents If the tube drains, it becomes a curv-
frothy, gas-rich magma. ing, tube-shaped cave.
06.03.a3 Lewiston, ID 06.03.a6 Hawaii

5. Basaltic magma may not contain 8. AA lava (pronounced “ah-ah”) is a
enough gas to form bubbles, so type of rough-surfaced lava flow,
the lava solidifies into nonvesicular formed when the lava breaks apart
basalt (⊳). A magma that forms non- into a mass of jumbled rocks as it
vesicular basalt may have a low con- flows (⊲). AA flows occur in open
tent of gas because it started out with channels or as irregularly shaped
a low content of dissolved gas or flows. Angular blocks of hardened
because it lost gas somewhere along lava tumble down the front of the
the way. Most basalt has fractures, flow as it moves. An aa flow has a
like the ones shown here. very rough surface covered with dark,
jagged rocks.
06.03.a4 Craters of the Moon NM, ID 06.03.a7 Hawaii
6. Scoria cones contain scoria, 9. Pahoehoe is a type of lava flow
which is highly vesicular (⊳), and that has an upper surface with small
other fragments explosively ejected billowing folds that form a “ropy” tex-
from the volcano during a lava foun- ture (⊲). A pahoehoe lava flow is usu-
tain. The fragments may have been ally fed by a lava tube and grows as
liquid or solid when ejected. Small a series of tongues. As the front of
blobs cool and solidify in the air to the flow solidifies, the lava breaks out
form scoria (cinders). Large blobs of and forms a new tongue, as shown
magma and solid angular blocks are here. Pahoehoe lava flows relatively
ejected as volcanic bombs. smoothly and easily compared to aa.
How Do Scoria Cones and Basalt Flows Form Around the Same Vent?
Early Formation of a Scoria Cone — If basaltic magma The Switch to Lava Flows — After most of the
contains enough dissolved gas, the gas comes out of scoria cone is built, magma that contains less
solution as the magma approaches the surface. gas reaches the surface and erupts
The gas expands dramatically and propels nonexplosively as a lava flow.
clots of frothy lava out of the con- Taking the easiest way out
duit, piling up around the vent of the vent, the magma can
and forming a scoria cone. squeeze out near the base
This generally occurs early in of the scoria cone rather
a basaltic eruption because than rising to erupt from the
the magma has not had time summit crater. Some scoria
to degas in the magma chamber. cones are not accompanied
06.03.b1
by a lava flow, and vice versa.
What Do Scoria Cones and Basalt Flows Look Like?

Scoria cones are loose piles of material that erode rapidly. Basalt flows, on the other hand, are generally solid and
considerably more resistant to weathering and erosion. A number of scoria cones and lava flows can occur together, forming
a basaltic volcanic field.
06.03.c1 Galápagos Islands 06.03.c3 Newberry National Volcanic Monument, OR
Scoria Cones Lava Flows

Most scoria cones begin with a Young lava flows have steep flow
conical shape (⊲) and a central cra- fronts (⊲) commonly with discrete,
ter at the top of the cone. Young protruding lobes and
scoria cones have little soil or veg- embayments. The top of the flow
etation on them, and commonly is typically rough and displays
are associated with dark, fresh- flow features characteristic of aa
looking lava flows. and pahoehoe.
Over time, erosion wears away the Older lava flows are more sub-
summit of a scoria cone (⊲), mak- dued because they are eroded
ing the cone into a rounded hill, and sediment has accumulated in
commonly without a central crater. low spots on the surface. Flow
Erosion cuts into the slopes, and tops lose their small features,
the slopes gradually build up a such as pahoehoe, and become
veneer of soil and plants. In the covered with soil and plants, as
example shown here, erosion has with this overgrown lava flow (⊲).
breached the central crater.
06.03.c2 Springerville, AZ 06.03.c4 Craters of the Moon NM, ID
Battling Lava Flows with Seawater in Iceland
I
n 1973, the volcano Eldfell (“Fire Mountain” fishermen and others began pumping cold seawa-
in Icelandic) erupted next to a fishing village ter on the advancing flow, trying to solidify it and
on the island of Heimaey in Iceland. Scoria save their harbor. By the end of the eruption, Before You Leave This Page
from the basaltic eruption accumulated on roofs 1.5 billion gallons of seawater were pumped onto
and caused houses to col- 06.03.t1
the flow. There is debate Explain the characteristics of scoria
lapse and burn. Blocky about how effective the cones and basalt flows, including the
lava flows (aa) issued from pumped water was in associated rock types and features.
the base of the crater, slowing down the flow,
buried buildings, and but the lava flow did stop Sketch and describe how basaltic
encroached on the harbor, before it totally closed the magma may form a scoria cone,
threatening to destroy the harbor. The town is some- lava flow, or both.
fishing economy of the what back to normal and is
6.3
Describe how you might distinguish

island. As described in the a tourist destination today. between young and old examples
John McPhee book The of scoria cones and lava flows.
Control of Nature, local
146
6.4 How Do Shield Volcanoes Form?

SHIELD VOLCANOES ARE THE LARGEST VOLCANOES on Earth. Many of the world’s volcanic islands, includ-
ing the Hawaiian and Galápagos islands, are shield volcanoes. How do we recognize a shield volcano, how is one
formed, and from where does all the magma come? The largest shield volcanoes form over hot spots, whether situated
in an ocean or on a continent, but smaller versions can form alongside scoria cones in other basaltic volcanic areas.
What Is a Shield Volcano?

Shield volcanoes have a broad, shield-shaped form and fairly gentle slopes when compared to other volcanoes. They are
built up by a succession of basaltic lava flows and lesser amounts of scoria and ash. Shield volcanoes can form in any
tectonic setting that produces basaltic magma, but the largest ones, such as those in Hawaii, form on oceanic plates in
association with hot spots.
06.04.a2 Hawaii
1. This image shows sat- 2. Mauna Loa, the central mountain, 3. Kilauea volcano, probably
ellite data superimposed is the world’s largest volcano. It rises the most active volcano in
on topography of the 9,000 m (29,500 ft) above the the world, is on the south-
Big Island of Hawaii. The seafloor and is 4,170 m (13,680 ft) eastern side of the island.
island consists mainly of above sea level. From seafloor to Recent lava flows (shown in
three large volcanoes. peak, Mauna Loa is Earth’s tallest dark grayish brown) flowed
Green areas are heavily mountain. Nearby Mauna Kea is an eastward, destroying roads
vegetated, and recent inactive shield volcano and the site of and housing subdivisions.
lava flows are dark astronomical observatories.
brown or gray.
4. At Kilauea’s summit is a roughly circular

depression (▲), called a caldera, which in
this case contains a smaller circular crater
(both shown above). A caldera forms when
magma is removed from an underground
chamber, which causes the land above
to collapse downward.
5. Eruptions from

Kilauea issue from linear
fissures that are inter-
preted to form over the
top of vertical, sheetlike
magma chambers (fis-
sures). Magma in the fis-
06.04.a1 sures is fed from below
by larger and deeper
magma chambers.
6. The spine of Mauna Loa is a fissure from which mafic (basaltic) lava flows erupted as recently
as 1984. The fissure is the surface expression of one or more magma-filled fissures at depth.
06.04.a3 Hawaii 06.04.a4 Hawaii

⊳ 7. At the start of the 1983 Kilauea eruption, a new volcanic vent
formed, and early, gas-rich magma shot into the air in a lava fountain.
The partly cooled and hardened pieces fell back around the vent to
form a scoria cone. Such scoria cones are common companions to
shield volcanoes.
8. Kilauea’s basaltic lava flows have low viscosity and flow fluidly
downhill, either on the surface or in lava tubes. Some lava flows
reach the ocean, where the molten rock causes seawater to boil in
rising clouds of steam (⊲). These flows add new land to the island,
extending the island outward.
How Do Shield Volcanoes Erupt?

Shield volcanoes erupt mostly low-viscosity basaltic lava and so are dominated by relatively nonexplosive o utpourings of
lava from fissures and vents. Early phases of eruptions are commonly marked by spectacular lava fountains in which molten
rock is ejected hundreds of meters into the air from fissures or central vents.
06.04.b1 Mauna Loa, HI 06.04.b2 Kilauea, HI
Fissure Eruption — A fissure eruption occurs when magma rises through Lava Flow — Fluid basaltic lava typically flows downhill as a river of
a fracture and erupts onto the surface from a long fissure. Large volumes molten rock. Flows can divide, rejoin, spread out, or constrict as they
of lava can flow out of the fissure, and escaping gas throws smaller encounter variations in topography. They can even have waves and
amounts of molten rock into the air as a fiery curtain. rapids, like those in a river of water.
06.04.b3 06.04.b4 San Juan Islands, WA

Pillow Basalt —
When fluid lava
erupts into
water, the lava
flow grows for-
ward as small,
individual
tongues that
form rounded
shapes called
pillows. Pillows
Shield volcanoes, like Mauna Loa, have broad, gentle slopes because the basaltic magma had a are reliable
relatively low viscosity that allowed it to flow downhill and spread out. Shield volcanoes contain evidence that
mostly dark-colored, basaltic magma with local hills and layers of reddish and black scoria. lava erupted
into water.
Mauna Loa and Kilauea — Two Hawaiian Volcanoes
T
wo volcanoes on the Big Island are historic eruptions. It has erupted 34 times since
extremely active, building and reshap- 1952 and nearly nonstop since 1983. The 1983
ing the island before our eyes. Mauna eruption began with the construction of a new Before You Leave This Page
Loa, which in Hawaiian means “long moun- scoria cone during an initial lava-fountaining
tain,” is the larger of the two and has erupted event. Since that time, lava from the volcano has Describe the type of magma and
33 times since 1843. The most recent eruption flowed down toward the sea. When the molten other general characteristics of a
was in 1984, and the U.S. Geological Survey lava enters the ocean, it cools and solidifies, and shield volcano.
reports that the volcano is “certain to erupt new land is added to the island. All of the Explain how shield volcanoes erupt.
again.” USGS geologists closely monitor the Hawaiian Islands were formed by this process —
volcano to anticipate, or perhaps predict, the the eruption of basaltic lava flows that make Sketch or summarize how you would
next eruption. new land where there once was sea. As of 2017, recognize a shield volcano in
Kilauea volcano, a short distance east of Kilauea was actively erupting and adding to the the landscape.
Mauna Loa, is regarded as the home of Pele, the size of the island, although some new land Discuss volcanic activity of the two
6.4
Hawaiian volcano goddess. Kilauea has been added by eruptions collapses into the sea shortly main volcanoes on Hawaii, Mauna Loa
even more active than Mauna Loa, erupting thereafter. Volcanologists predict that Kilauea and Kilauea.
nearly continuously since the 1800s, with 61 will at some point become more explosive.
148
6.5 What Causes Flood Basalts?

FLOOD BASALTS INVOLVE HUGE VOLUMES OF MAGMA and represent the largest igneous eruptions on Earth.
They cover tens of thousands of square kilometers in Siberia, South Africa, Brazil, India, and the Pacific Northwest.
Flood basalts also form large oceanic plateaus at or below sea level. What causes such huge e ruptions to occur, and
what effects do such large eruptions have on climate and life?
What Are Flood Basalts?

Flood basalts are basaltic lava flows covering vast areas and are commonly several kilometers thick. They generally
involve multiple eruption events, but individual lava flows can cover thousands of square kilometers and contain more than
1,000 cubic kilometers of magma — equal to emptying a cube-shaped magma chamber that is 10 km (over 6 mi) on a side.
Flood basalts are fed by a series of long fissures.
06.05.a1 06.05.a2 Palouse Canyon, WA
1. The Columbia Plateau 3. Many of the Columbia
in Washington, Oregon, Plateau canyons have
and western Idaho con- walls exposing multiple
sists of a thick sequence basalt flows, each forming
of over 300 basalt flows a ledge, resulting in a
that erupted between 17 series of steps in the can-
and 5 million years ago, yon walls. Each flow rep-
with about 85% of the resents a single eruption,
total basalt volume being separated by thousands
formed between 16.5 and of years during which not
14.5 million years ago. much happened.
Some of these flows
cover over 50,000 square 4. This fissure eruption,
miles; one lava flow is at Mauna Loa in Hawaii,
interpreted to have flowed is similar to those that
from Spokane to the formed basalts of the
Pacific Ocean in a little Columbia Plateau. The
over a month (i.e., about volume of lava that
one-half mile per hour). poured from the fissures
on the Columbia Plateau
2. Some of the lava flows were fed by long fissures, now exposed in was much, much greater.
canyons as dikes, shown here as a series of red lines.
06.05.a3
How Do Flood Basalts Erupt onto the Surface?

Instead of erupting from a single, central volcanic vent, flood basalts erupt from one or more long, nearly continuous fissures or
from a discontinuous string of vents. There are typically multiple eruption centers, allowing large volumes of magma to erupt
onto the surface in a geologically short period of time. Examine the figure below, then start your reading on the lower left.
2. The combination of a wide fissure and low-viscosity 3. If a fracture is

magma allows large volumes of magma to reach the more narrow,
surface and erupt along a linear fissure. A large less magma can
volume of rapidly erupting magma results in individ- flow through the
ual lava flows that remain hot and molten for a conduit, and the
longer time, flow long distances, and cover large resulting lava
areas. One basalt flow on the C olumbia Plateau flows have
represents more than 1,000 cubic kilometers of smaller volumes
magma. Isotopic dating studies reveal that it and travel
probably erupted very quickly, perhaps in only shorter distances
several decades. away from
the vent.
1. Mantle-derived basaltic magma rises through
the crust along vertical fissures. Pressure from
the magma pushes outward against the wall 06.05.b1
rocks, holding them apart and allowing magma
to pass through.
Where Does the Magma for Flood Basalts Originate?

Most flood basalts probably begin at hot spots as rising mantle plumes first encounter the lithosphere. Geologists are
investigating how much magma comes from melted lithosphere, melted asthenosphere, or directly from the plume.
06.05.c1 06.05.c2 06.05.c3
1. A mantle plume rising through the mantle 2. When the rising plume encounters the 3. The rising plume can melt because of
is mostly solid and acquires an inverted tear- base of the lithosphere, it meets increased decompression, or the plume can melt the
drop shape as it flows upward. resistance and spreads laterally. adjacent asthenosphere or lithosphere.
Some Important Flood Basalts of the World

4. Flood basalts on 6. Thick sequences of basalt along the margins 7. Flood basalts in Siberia, called the Siberian Traps, erupted 252 mil-
the Columbia Plateau of Greenland and Scotland formed above a hot lion years ago, the same time as a major extinction event that
were probably spot that is currently below Iceland. affected life in the seas and on land. Were these events related?
related to the hot 06.05.c4
spot now beneath 8. Vast oceanic pla-
Yellowstone. teaus of basalt form
the ocean floor in the
5. Large volumes western Pacific
of basalt erupted Ocean but are mostly
about 133 million below sea level.
years ago near the They are interpreted
southeastern coast to have formed over
of South America. oceanic hot spots.
Some of the flows
are on land and 9. Flood basalts
others are offshore. cover large areas of
The magma prob- India, where they are
ably formed when called the Deccan
the continent was Traps. They erupted
over a hot spot that 65 million years ago,
is currently in the at the same time
South Atlantic. the dinosaurs
10. Basaltic eruptions related to a hot spot constructed the huge Kerguelen Plateau near Antarctica. became extinct.
Flood Basalts, Fissure Eruptions, Climate, and Life
E
ruptions of large volumes of flood Deccan Traps of India coincides with the extinc-
basalt can potentially change Earth’s tion of the d inosaurs at the Mesozoic-Cenozoic Before You Leave This Page
climate and negatively impact life. Erup- boundary (66 Ma). Vast quantities of flood
tions release large amounts of sulfur dioxide basalts in Siberia erupted 252 million years ago, Describe the characteristics of flood
(SO2) gas that causes acid rain and reflects sun- a time when more than 90% of marine species basalts and how they erupt.
light, leading to atmospheric cooling. Eruption became extinct. This massive extinction, called Sketch and describe the interpreted
of flood basalt also releases carbon dioxide the Great Dying, defines the boundary between relationship between flood basalts
(CO2) gas, which acts as a greenhouse gas, the Paleozoic and Mesozoic Eras. Geologists and mantle plumes.
causing global warming. It is unclear whether are investigating how flood basalts change
Identify at least three areas on Earth
cooling or warming would dominate, but either regional or global climate, and whether flood
that contain flood basalts.
would impact life. basalts had a role in the extinctions. Recent
6.5
Some of Earth’s largest flood-basalt erup- high-precision dating of flood basalts in Siberia Discuss how flood basalts could affect
tions coincide with times when many marine indicate that much volcanism occurred at the climate and life on Earth.
and land animals went extinct. Eruption of the same time as the extinction event.
150
6.6 What Are the Hazards of Basaltic Eruptions?

BASALTIC ERUPTIONS usually only directly affect areas very close to the vent or more distant areas that are in the
path of lava flows. Basaltic scoria is very localized, but basaltic flows are relatively fluid and can destroy buildings
and crops tens of kilometers away from the volcanic vent. Surprisingly, they can also cause huge floods, if they occur
in areas with ice sheets.
What Is Meant by a Hazard and a Risk?

The terms hazard and risk may seem more appropriate for a lesson about insurance, but geologists frequently apply
these terms when discussing the effects geologic events can have on humans and society. What is the difference
between a hazard and a risk?
06.06.a2 Kilauea, HI
A hazard is the existence of a potentially dangerous situ-

ation or event, such as a potential landslide of a steep
slope or a lava flow erupting from a volcano. The hazard
in this photograph was a basaltic lava flow (⊳).
Risk is an assessment of whether the hazard might have

some s ocietal impact, such as loss of life, damage to
property, loss of employment, destruction of fields and
forests, or implications for local or global climates. Rem-
nants of destroyed houses, cars, and roads demonstrate
that this area had a high risk for volcanic h azards.
The risk was extreme for people living in the Royal Gardens subdivision (▲) on the flanks of Kilauea, one of the
most active volcanoes on the planet. Eruptions of basaltic lava progressively overran and destroyed more and
more of the subdivision, until the last house was abandoned.
06.06.a1 Kilauea, HI
What Hazards Are Associated with Eruptions of Basaltic Scoria and Ash, and Gas?
Basaltic eruptions can be deadly and destructive, especially to nearby areas. They hurl lava and solid rock into the air and
spew out dangerous gases. Fine ash ejected high into the air can cause damage that is more widespread.
Falling Objects Volcanic Ash Gases

06.06.b1 Hawaii
Most scoria falls back Sand-sized cinders and finer particles of ash Volcanic gases are a significant hazard asso-
to Earth near the can bury nearby structures and may cause ciated with many types of volcanoes, including
vent and piles up on breathing problems for people and livestock. those with basaltic eruptions. Gases such as
the scoria cone. Haz- In March and April of 2010, a shield volcano in carbon dioxide (CO2 ) cause asphyxiation if
ards that exist nearby Iceland, called Eyjafjallajökull, erupted large concentrated. Other gases, including hydro-
include being struck amounts of volcanic ash that drifted over gen sulfide (H2S), cause death by paralysis.
and burned by Europe, shutting down most air travel and Gaseous sulfur dioxide (SO2 ), hydrochloric acid
cinders and being stranding hundreds of thousands of passen- (HCl), sulfuric acid (H2SO4 ), and fluorine com-
struck by blobs of gers. Eruption columns from scoria cones pounds expelled during eruptions can destroy
magma and other typically reach lesser heights, of several kilo- crops, kill livestock, and poison drinking water
projectiles. Larger meters, and only impact areas nearby. for people and animals.
ejected pieces, called
06.06.b3 Iceland 06.06.b4 Krafla, Iceland
volcanic bombs (▼),
pose a severe hazard
for anyone close to
the erupting cone.
06.06.b2 Flagstaff, AZ
What Are the Hazards Associated with Lava Flows?

Lava flows usually move slowly enough that people can get out of the way, but such flows can completely destroy any
structures in their path. Destruction may be caused by burning or by burial beneath the encroaching lava.
When Lava Comes to Town

⊳ A lava flow will cause wooden structures and vegetation
to catch fire. This house in Hawaii burst into flames when
touched by a basaltic lava flow from Kilauea. Any s tructure
in the path of a m oving lava flow will likely be engulfed by
fire and then crushed or bulldozed by the weight of the
advancing lava.
⊲ Lava flows, such as these encroaching into a s ubdivision

in Hawaii in 1983, cover the land, vegetation, roads, and
other human structures. The rough, lava-covered terrain
becomes an uninhabitable environment, and communities
rarely can be rebuilt after such an event.
06.06.c1 Kalapana, HI 06.06.c2 Kalapana, HI
How Do Basaltic Eruptions Cause Floods of Water, Ice, and Debris?

A special type of hazard is associated with erupting volcanoes beneath ice sheets. The heat from such eruptions can melt
large quantities of ice and produce huge floods.
06.06.d1 Trolladyngja, Iceland
⊳ Iceland is a land of ice and fire, due to its location near the
Arctic Circle and its position on top of a mid-ocean
ridge and a hot spot. It has many g laciers (the Icelandic
term for glacier is jökull), including a large ice sheet that
covers 25% of the c ountry. Beneath the ice are a half dozen
basaltic volcanoes similar to this snow- and ice-covered one.
⊲ In 1996, a volcanic eruption beneath an ice sheet melted

the ice, releasing a catastrophic flood of meltwater ( jökulhlaup
in Icelandic). The huge flood carried blocks of ice, rock, and
other debris, causing widespread destruction and covering
vast areas with sediment, such as all the dark sediment here.
06.06.d2 Iceland
Laki and the Summer That Wasn’t
I
n 1783, an Icelandic fissure at a place for the next three years because the climate
called Laki unleashed Earth’s largest remained cooler than normal. A recently pro-
known recorded eruption (16 cubic kilome- posed hypothesis is that some of the cooling was
ters of magma). The eruption may have caused related to changes in ocean currents in the Before You Leave This Page
the climate to cool in most of Europe because it Atlantic Ocean, in addition to cooling related to
released a large amount of ash and sulfur dioxide the eruption of Laki. Explain how risk is different from
(SO2 ) gas. Sulfur dioxide gas combines with hazard, and provide an example
water in the atmosphere to form sulfu- of each.
06.06.t1 Laki, Iceland
ric acid (H2SO4 ) in very small drops Describe the difference between
called aerosols. These drops and the hazards associated with scoria cones
volcanic ash drifted over northern and hazards associated with
Europe for eight months and were basaltic flows.
thick enough to dim the sunlight. The
Explain how a volcanic eruption can
summer of the eruption was dismal, cause a flood.
and the winter was unusually cold. The
6.6
following summer was marked by crop Discuss the effects of the Laki
failure and famine, which continued eruption of 1783.
152
6.7 What Are Composite Volcanoes?

COMPOSITE VOLCANOES FORM STEEP, CONICAL MOUNTAINS that are hard to mistake for anything other
than a volcano. They are c ommon above subduction zones and are especially numerous along the Pacific Ring of Fire.
They contain diverse volcanic rock types that reflect different compositions of magma and several styles of eruption.
They are an extremely dangerous type of volcano.
What Are Some Characteristics of a Composite Volcano?

Composite volcanoes earn their name because they are constructed of interlayered lava flows, pyroclastic flows, tephra falls,
and volcano-related mudflows and other debris. They also contain dikes, sills, and other intrusions. Composite volcanoes,
also called stratovolcanoes, erupt over long time periods, which explains their large size and complex internal structure.
06.07.a1 Mount St. Helens, WA
1. Eruption Column — Composite volcanoes produce a distinctive column of tephra and gas that rises upward
many tens of kilometers into the atmosphere (⊳). Coarser pieces of tephra settle around the volcano,
but finer particles (volcanic ash) can drift hundreds of kilometers in the prevailing winds.
06.07.a3 Mount Mayon, Philippines
2. Pyroclastic Flows—
These are the most vio-
lent eruptions from
the volcano. They form
when the eruption col-
umn collapses downward
as a dense, swirling
cloud of hot gases, volca-
nic ash, and angular
rocks (⊲). Pyroclastic
flows are one of the
6. Shape — Composite volcanoes display the classic main mechanisms by
volcano shape because most material erupts out of a which these
central vent and then settles nearby. They have steep volcanoes are
slopes because they form from small eruptions of viscous constructed.
lava flows that pile up on the flanks of the v olcano
and help protect pyroclastic material
from erosion. The shape repre-
sents one snapshot in a series
of stacked volcanic mountains
that have been built over time. 3. Landslides and
Mudflows — Composite
volcanoes can be large
5. Lava Flows and Domes — Lava flows mountains that collect rain
and domes can erupt from any level of or snow. Rain and snowmelt mix
a composite volcano. Lava may erupt from with loose ash and rocks on the volca-
the summit crater or escape through vents on no’s flanks, causing a volcano-related mudflow
the volcano’s sides or base. Most lavas associated called a lahar. There is a high hazard for land-
with composite volcanoes are felsic or intermediate in slides and debris flows (▼) because of the steep
composition, so the lava is moderately to highly viscous, 06.07.a2 slopes, loose rocks, and abundant clay minerals
and moves slowly and with d ifficulty. The lava may break produced when hot water interacts with the
into blocks (▼) that fall, slide, or roll downhill. diversity of volcanic rocks.
06.07.a4 Augustine volcano, AK 06.07.a5 Augustine volcano, AK
4. Rocks — Composite volcanoes consist

of alternating layers of pyroclastic flows,
lava flows, and deposits from landslides
and mudflows. The volcanoes we see
today, formed during eruptions from
long-lived vents, are built on and around
earlier versions of the volcanoes. The
present peaks hide a complex interior
that was c onstructed by multiple erup-
tions over a long time.
What Types of Rocks and Deposits Form on Composite Volcanoes?

Composite volcanoes consist mostly of intermediate composition lava and ash, but they can also include felsic and mafic
materials. The combination of diverse magma compositions and different eruptive styles produces a variety of rock types
and volcanic features. Both modern and ancient examples reflect these complexities.
The most common rock produced by Tuff (⊲) within composite volcanoes is
composite volcanoes is andesite (⊳), mostly intermediate (andesite) to felsic
a mostly gray or greenish-gray volca- (rhyolite) in composition, but lava flows
nic rock that may contain dark- or can also include more mafic rocks, even
light-colored phenocrysts, like these locally some basalt. In addition to repre-
dark amphibole phenocrysts and senting accumulations from an eruption
cream-colored feldspar phenocrysts. column and pyroclastic flows, some tuff
Most andesite forms from lava flows. forms from associated volcanic domes.
06.07.b1 Mount Hood, OR 06.07.b4 Goldfield Mtns., AZ
An eruption column deposits tephra Volcanic domes are a common compo-

(⊳), containing fragments of pumice, nent of composite volcanoes. Recent ver-
crystals, and rock in a matrix of volca- sions consist of glassy rocks of felsic to
nic ash. Consolidation of tephra pro- intermediate composition, but over time
duces a rock called tuff, with distinct the glass converts to nonglassy rhyolite,
layers that record variations in the andesite, and similar rocks. Domes
eruption over time. include volcanic breccia (⊲) formed by
movement and collapse after some parts
of the dome had solidified.
06.07.b2 Gray Mtn., AZ 06.07.b5 Vulture Mtns., AZ
A pyroclastic flow forms ash-flow tuff Volcano-derived mudflows (lahars) and

(⊳), which contains an unsorted col- landslide deposits (⊲) consist of angular
lection of pumice, rock fragments, rock fragments, usually in a matrix of
crystals, and ash. The tuff accumu- finer materials, such as mud. Some
lates while still hot and can be com- mud in these settings is derived from
pacted by overlying ash, becoming volcanic ash and other volcanic materi-
harder and more dense (welded), as als that have been weathered or
in the example shown here. hydrothermally altered.
06.07.b3 Shoshone, CA 06.07.b6 Mount Hood, OR
Some Famous Composite Volcanoes of the World 06.07.t3 Mount Kilimanjaro
C
omposite volcanoes are not distributed Mount Kilimanjaro, the highest mountain in
uniformly on Earth. Most are above sub- Africa (⊲), is a composite volcano located along
duction zones at ocean-ocean or ocean- the East African Rift of Tanzania and Kenya. A
continent convergent boundaries. Many compos- cap of ice and snow forms a white cap atop the
ite volcanoes have names and appearances that volcano, but currently it is melting and shrinking
show up on newscasts, nature shows, or history in extent due to changing climatic conditions.
and geography courses. Here, we describe a few Mount Etna, on the island of Sicily in the
of the more famous or interesting ones. Mediterranean Sea south of the Italian main-
The beautiful and symmetrical Mount Fuji land, is often shown on newscasts as erupting
(▼) is the landmark composite volcano of Japan, r ivers of lava or ejecting glowing volcanic

which is part of the Pacific Ring of Fire. Mount bombs from the crater. Visitors flock to the vol- Before You Leave This Page
Fuji last erupted in 1708 and is above a subduc- cano to witness the spectacle from a distance.
tion zone where the Pacific plate subducts west- Eruptions are visible in this photograph from Describe or sketch the characteristics
ward beneath Japan. the International Space Station (▼). of a composite volcano, including its
internal structure.
06.07.t1 Mount Fuji 06.07.t2 Mount Etna
Describe the processes on composite
volcanoes and the rocks they form.
Describe the tectonic setting of most
composite volcanoes.
6.7
Identify some examples of composite

volcanoes from around the world.
154
6.8 What Disasters Were Caused

by Composite Volcanoes?
COMPOSITE VOLCANOES ARE DANGEROUS because they can be very explosive and can unleash pyroclastic
flows, toxic gases, and other deadly materials. They are responsible for horrific human disasters, including the destruc-
tion of Pompeii in Italy, St. Pierre in Martinique, and the area around Mount St. Helens.
How Did Vesuvius Destroy Pompeii?

Vesuvius is an active composite volcano near the city of Naples in southwestern Italy. In A.D. 79, a series of pyroclastic
flows moved down the flank of the volcano, destroyed the coastal towns of Pompeii and Herculaneum, and killed the cities’
inhabitants, estimated at 20,000 people and 5,000 people, respectively.
1. This image is an artist’s conception of 3. Archeologic and geologic evidence from Pompeii
an explosive Vesuvius eruption striking indicates that the catastrophe began with earthquakes and
the city of Naples, which today covers the formation of an eruption column that deposited a layer
most of the region shown. Naples of loose tephra over Pompeii, killing some inhabitants.
and the surrounding area cur-
rently are home to over 4. The tephra fall was immediately followed
four million people. by six pyroclastic flows that raced down the
mountainside. Three of these flows hit Pom-
peii. The first probably burned most of the
2. The
remaining survivors, and the last was strong
dashed
enough to complete the destruction of standing
red line
buildings. People smothered, suffocated, died from
marks
thermal shock, or
the outward
were crushed by col-
limit of pyroclastic
lapsing buildings. The
flows from Vesuvius, but
bodies of victims in the
tephra from the eruption column
ash decomposed, leav-
covered a wider area. Note how much of
ing mostly hollow molds,
the present city of Naples is within the
06.08.a1 which archeologists
area devastated by the eruption of 79 A.D.
filled with plaster to
make models of the vic-
tims’ last moments (⊲).
What Happened at St. Pierre, Martinique? 06.08.a2 Pompeii, Italy
Mount Pelée, a composite volcano on the Caribbean island 3. During the main eruption, a massive pyroclastic flow,
of Martinique, is part of an island arc over a subduction zone. estimated to have traveled at 500 km/hr, entered the
town. Every building was mostly or completely
On May 8, 1902, the volcano erupted and sent a pyroclastic flow
destroyed (▼). Almost all of the 30,000 residents died
into the town of St. Pierre. within minutes. Most deaths were probably caused by
asphyxiation as people breathed hot gas and ash. After
1. This view shows the island of Martinique, which 2. The coastal town of the main eruption, additional eruptions formed an erup-
consists of several distinct volcanoes, including St. Pierre is in a bay, at the tion column and more pyroclastic flows. The lessons
Mount Pelée, the northernmost peak. Mount Pelée foot of Mount Pelée. Before learned from Mount Pelée and other eruptions saved
is a composite volcano. the main eruption, the vol- lives in 1995, when volcanic eruptions started on
cano gave obvious warning Montserrat, a similar volcanic island to the south.
signs, including noisy explo-
sions, earthquakes,
sulfurous gases, and
small eruptions that
dusted nearby areas
with ash. People from
the surrounding country-
side sought shelter in the
town of St. Pierre, where they
witnessed minor eruptions of ash,
the formation of a lava dome in the
crater, and some small pyroclastic flows.
06.08.b1
06.08.b2 St. Pierre, Martinique
What Events Preceded and Accompanied the Mount St. Helens Eruption?
The Cascade Range of the Pacific Northwest has produced some large and notable eruptions, such as the one at Mount
Lassen in 1915. Geologists consider these volcanoes to be dangerous, and native people remember, through oral traditions,
other cataclysmic eruptions at places like Crater Lake in the Cascades. The eruption of Mount St. Helens in Washington
was the first major composite volcano eruption to occur in the age of television, and the world watched the event.
Geologic Studies Before the Eruption

1. Geologists studied Mount St. Helens before the eruption. They mapped the volcano and its
surroundings and c onstructed a geologic cross section through the mountain (⊲). This cross
section shows that, before the eruption, the v olcano consisted of interlayered lava flows,
pyroclastic rocks, and mudflows, and it had a domelike central conduit. In other words, it was
a typical composite volcano.
2. The geologists mapping and studying the area determined that the volcano’s eruptive
history during the last 40,000 years included pyroclastic flows, tephra falls, mudflows, lava
flows, and dome building. The geologists also recognized evidence for horizontal blasts of 06.08.c1
ash, one of the first places where this style of eruption and threat were recognized.
06.08.c3
06.08.c2 A Volcano Awakens—Precursors to the Eruption
3. In March 1980, Mount St. Helens began to shake from earthquakes that geoscien-
tists interpreted to be caused by magma moving beneath the mountain. These
moderate quakes, including the one recorded on this seismogram (⊳), were the signal
to geologists that something was going to happen at Mount St. Helens.
⊲ 4. In April 1980, a bulge formed on the north side of the mountain and then
continued to grow. Geologists inferred that the bulge was caused by upward-moving
magma, and they recognized that the bulge was dangerous and unstable. They
monitored its growth carefully.
“Vancouver! Vancouver! 7. Pyroclastic

This is it!” flows and other
eruptions contin-
5. David Johnston, the 30-year-old ued on Mount
USGS geologist who spoke these St. Helens until
words, was monitoring Mount St. Helens 1986. After a lull of
from a nearby ridge at the moment of several years, the
the eruption. His observation post was volcano built,
considered to have low risk, provided destroyed, and
that the volcano erupted out the top as rebuilt several
expected. At the time, available data new domes
suggested that an eruption was not before activity
imminent. His last recorded scientific subsided in 2008.
observation, spoken at the catastrophic
start of the eruption, was undeniably
correct. This was it!
06.08.c7
6. On May 18, 1980, at 8:32 a.m., an
earthquake triggered a massive ava-
lanche as the bulge slid off the north
side of the mountain. As this sequence Before You Leave This Page
of figures illustrates (⊳), the lowering of
pressure on the magma caused a lat-
Describe the type of deadly eruption that
eral blast and an upward growth of an
occurred at Vesuvius.
eruption column that spread ash over
several states. Pyroclastic flows moved Discuss the eruption at Mount Pelée
horizontally and ravaged the landscape and events that preceded it.
6.8
near the volcano. In addition to David

Johnston, 56 other people died in the Discuss the eruption of Mount St. Helens,
eruption, mainly from asphyxiation by and the data that warned of its dangers.
hot gas and ash.
06.08.c4-6
156
6.9 How Do Volcanic Domes Form?

MANY VOLCANIC AREAS CONTAIN DOME-SHAPED HILLS called volcanic domes. The domes form when
viscous lava mounds up above and around a vent. When domes collapse, they sometimes release deadly pyroclastic
flows that rush downhill at hundreds of kilometers an hour. Volcanic domes form distinctive rocks and features in the
landscape. Volcanic domes can be associated with subduction zones, either in an island arc or above a subduction
zone beneath a continent, or in association with continental rifts and hot spots.
What Are Some Characteristics of a Volcanic Dome?

Some volcanic domes have a nearly symmetrical dome shape, but most have a more irregular shape because some parts
of the dome have grown more than other parts or because one side of the dome has collapsed downhill. Domes may be
hundreds of meters high and one or several kilometers across, but they can be much smaller.
06.09.a1 06.09.a2
⊳ This rubble-covered dome formed near the end of the 1912 eruption in
the Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes in Alaska. Volcanic domes commonly
have this type of rubbly appearance because their outer surface consists of
angular blocks as large as houses. The blocks form when solidified lava
fractures as it is pushed from below, and when pieces and blocks slide
down steep slopes on the side of a dome.
⊲ Most domes do not form in isolation but occur in clusters or in associa-

tion with another type of v olcano. Domes can form within the craters of
composite volcanoes, like these within the crater in Mount St. Helens, or
within large calderas. In composite volcanoes and calderas, domes com-
monly are minor eruptions of viscous magmas that remain after a major
eruptive event (e.g., the explosion of Mount St. Helens).
How Are Volcanic Domes Formed and Destroyed?

Domes form as viscous lava reaches the surface, flows a short distance, and solidifies near the vent. Domes can
grow in two different ways — from the inside or from the outside. Domes can also be destroyed in two different
ways — collapse or explosion.
Growth of a Dome Collapse or Destruction of a Dome

1. Domes mostly grow from the 2. Domes can also grow 3. Domes can be par-
inside as magma injects into the as magma breaks through tially destroyed when
interior of the dome. This new to the surface and flows steep flanks of the
material causes the dome to outward as thick, slow- dome collapse and
expand upward and outward, moving lava. As the magma break into a jumble of
fracturing the partially solidified advances, the front of the blocks and ash that flow
outer crust of the dome. This pro- flow cools, solidifies, and downhill as small-scale
cess creates the blocks of rubbly, can collapse into angular pyroclastic flows (⊲).
solidified lava that coat the out- blocks and ash.
side of the dome. 06.09.b2
⊳ 4. Domes can also

be destroyed by
explosions originat-
ing within the dome.
These typically occur
when magma solidi-
fies in the conduit
and traps gases that
build up until the
pressure can no
06.09.b3 longer be held.
06.09.b1
What Types of Rocks and Landscapes Characterize Domes?

debris that formed when the dome partially collapsed or was blown apart.
06.09.c1 Newberry volcano, OR Rock Types 06.09.c3 Wickenburg, AZ
1. Some parts of domes cool rapidly 3. The outer parts of domes cool, solid-
into volcanic glass (obsidian) which, ify, and fracture into angular blocks that
although dark, has a felsic composition. can become incorporated into the
Obsidian can be almost entirely glass magma to produce volcanic breccia (⊲).
(⊳) or can contain vesicles, crystals, and Such breccias vary from containing
pumice. This example has layers, called mostly blocks to being mostly intact
2. Obsidian and other volcanic glasses 4. When a volcanic dome collapses,
are unstable and over time begin to avalanches of rock and other debris
change from unordered glass into rhy- can rush downhill in a pyroclastic flow
olite composed of very small crystals. of blocks and ash. The resulting
The conversion, when not complete, deposits are tuff or volcanic breccia
creates a mottled rock (⊳) with lighter (⊲) consisting of pieces of the dome
colored rhyolite and darker areas that in an ash-rich matrix.
are still partially glass.
06.09.c2 Mule Creek, AZ 06.09.c4 Flagstaff, AZ

with lobes that spread out from the magmatic conduit. This flow-dome formed 1,300
⊲ 6. Volcanic layers in this cliff define an arch-shaped feature that is a volcanic dome,
which was formed approximately 20 million years ago and then buried by subsequent
volcanic layers. Over time, the glass has converted to finely crystalline rhyolite.
06.09.c5 Newberry volcano, OR
06.09.c6 Superstition Mtns., AZ
M
06.09.t1
ount Unzen towers above a small city
in southern Japan. The top of
the mountain contains a steep vol Before You Leave This Page
edly between 1990 and 1995. The collapsing Describe the characteristics of a
domes unleashed more than 10,000 small volcanic dome.
pyroclastic flows (top photograph) toward the Explain or sketch the two ways by
city below. In 1991, the opportunity to observe which a volcanic dome can grow.
and film these small pyroclastic flows attracted
volcanologists and other onlookers to the moun- Explain or sketch how a volcanic
tain. Unfortunately, partial collapse of the dome dome can collapse or be destroyed
06.09.t2 by an explosion.
occurred previously. This larger flow killed 43 Describe the types of rocks
journalists and volcanologists and left a path of associated with volcanic domes.
6.9
Describe how you might recognize

a volcanic dome in the landscape.
along valleys that drain the mountains.
158
6.10 Why Does a Caldera Form?

CALDERA ERUPTIONS ARE AMONG NATURE’S most violent phenomena. They can spread volcanic ash over
huge areas, and the largest erupt more than one thousand cubic kilometers of magma. As the magma withdraws from
the magma chamber, the roof of the chamber collapses to form a depression tens of kilometers across. The depression
may then fill with ash, lava flows, and sediment. Many calderas form above subduction zones in an island arc or along
a volcanically active continental margin, but many also form in association with hot spots and continental rifts.
What Is a Caldera?
A caldera is a large, basin-shaped volcanic depression, which typically has a low central part surrounded by a topographic
escarpment, referred to as the wall of the caldera. The Valles Caldera of New Mexico nicely illustrates the important
features of a caldera. It is relatively young and uneroded because it formed only two million years ago. Its subsurface has
been explored by drilling and other geologic studies.
4. Small, rounded
06.10.a1
rhyolite domes
1. This image shows satellite data superim- Valles Caldera
formed within the
posed on topography. The circular Valles caldera after the
Caldera contains a central depression, main pyroclastic
about 22 km (14 mi) across, surrounded eruption. The
by steep walls. domes were fed
by fissures that
2. The caldera formed when a huge vol- tapped leftover
ume of magma erupted from a shallow magma. Some of
magma chamber, producing a large erup- this magma has
tion column and pyroclastic flows. solidified at depth,
forming granite,
but some may still
3. As shown in this cross section, the be molten.
caldera contains a series of faulted
blocks that have been downdropped
relative to rocks outside the caldera.
Faulting and ground subsidence
Valles Caldera
Drill Holes Pre-Caldera
occurred at the same time as the main W Volcanic Dome Dome E
eruption of tephra. As a result, thicker 3,000 3,000
ELEVATION (m)
amounts of tephra (now consolidated into Volcanic Ash
welded tuff and shown in light maroon) and Other
were trapped within the caldera than 0 PRE-CALDERA Caldera Fill 0
accumulated outside the caldera. SEDIMENTARY
ROCKS PRE-CALDERA
PRECAMBRIAN BASEMENT 1 km VOLCANIC ROCKS
-3,000 -3,000
06.10.a2
Crater Lake and the Eruption of Mount Mazama
C Before You Leave

rater Lake National Park in western lapse destroyed the top of a large composite
Oregon contains a spectacular caldera, volcano called Mount Mazama. The eruption These Pages
now filled by a beautiful deep-blue was more than 50 times larger than the 1980
lake. The caldera formed about 7,700 years eruption of Mount St. Helens. As the magma Describe or sketch the characteristics
ago when a huge eruption and associated col- erupted in a huge eruption column, the roof of of a caldera, including its geometry in
the magma chamber subsided, forming the the subsurface.
main crater (caldera). Ash from this erup-
tion can be traced all the way to southern Sketch and explain the stages in the
Canada, 1,200 km (750 mi) from its source. formation of a caldera.
A small scoria cone, named Wizard Island, Describe how you could recognize a
grew on the floor of the caldera after the recent caldera and an ancient caldera.
main explosive eruption. The beauty and
List the kinds of rocks you might find
serenity of Crater Lake today seem incom-
in a caldera from top to bottom.
patible with its fiery, cataclysmic origin
7,700 years ago. Explain the formation of Crater Lake.
06.10.t1
How Does a Caldera Form?

The formation of a caldera and the associated eruption occur simultaneously — the caldera subsides in response to
rapid removal of magma from the underlying chamber. The largest caldera eruptions produced volcanic ash layers
more than 1,000 m thick.
Formation of a Caldera A Section Through a Caldera

1. The first stage is the generation, mostly by 6. The rocks below are arranged from top to
crustal melting, of felsic magma. The magma bottom in the order they occur in a caldera.
rises and accumulates in one or more cham-
bers that can be k ilometers thick and tens of 06.10.b6 Bishop, CA
kilometers across. The chamber or chambers
may be within s everal kilometers of the sur-
06.10.b1
face. This figure shows only the top 4 km of
the crust.
2. Next, magma reaches the surface and

eruptions begin. As the magma chamber
loses material, the roof of the chamber
subsides to occupy the space that is being
vacated. Curved fractures allow crustal blocks
to drop, outlining the edges of the caldera 7. The upper parts of a caldera typically con-
06.10.b2
and providing many conduits for magma to tain tuff (▲) formed when pyroclastic eruptions
reach the surface. emptied the underlying magma chamber.
Pyroclastic deposits from the Long Valley cal-
dera spread over much of the western
3. The erupting felsic magma forms eruption United States.
columns and pyroclastic flows. Much of the 06.10.b7 Shoshone, CA
tephra falls back into the caldera, creating a
thick pile of ash, which becomes tuff. Land-
slides from steep c aldera walls produce large
blocks and fragments that become part of
the caldera deposit. Some ash and other
tephra escapes the caldera and covers sur-
rounding areas in thinner layers of tuff.
06.10.b3
4. As the eruption lessens, magma rises

through fissures along the edges or in the
interior of the caldera, erupting on the sur- 8. Lower down in a caldera, ash and pumice
face to make volcanic domes. If the caldera may become strongly welded into a hard,
remains a closed depression, it may become compact tuff, commonly with irregular, flat-
a lake or become filled with later sedimen- tened fragments of pumice. These units can
tary and volcanic deposits. also contain fragments of older rocks from
06.10.b4
the caldera walls.
06.10.b8 Silverbell, AZ
06.10.b5 Long Valley, CA
5. Calderas that formed recently still

have a clear expression in the land-
scape, but ancient examples are more
difficult to recognize because they may
have been eroded, covered by other
rocks, or disrupted by faulting or other
events. Long Valley caldera (⊳), near the
eastern border of California, formed
760,000 years ago and has a central
6.10
depression containing hills that formed

as domes. Part of the caldera wall forms 9. At the lowest levels in the c aldera, finely
the mountain front on the left. crystalline granite and porphyry represent the
crystallized magma chamber.
160
6.11 What Disasters Were Related to Calderas?

CALDERA ERUPTIONS ARE AMONG THE MOST LETHAL natural disasters. Evidence of their past destruction is
recorded by geology and by historical accounts in many parts of the world. These pages explore two such ancient disas-
ters, Thera and Krakatau, and one possible future disaster. Calderas are also called “supervolcanoes.”
Did the Eruption of a Caldera Destroy a Civilization Near Greece?

Santorini, east of the Greek mainland, is a group of volcanic islands with geology that records a major caldera eruption
3,500 years ago, about the time of the collapse of the Minoan civilization on the island of Crete to the south.
06.11.a1 06.11.a2 Santorini, Greece
⊳ 1. This satellite view shows the islands of San
torini, including Thera, the largest island. Thera and
the other islands encircle a submerged caldera that
formed when the center of a larger v olcanic island
collapsed, leaving the modern islands as remnants.
The steep cliffs around the caldera are eroded seg-
ments of the original wall of the caldera. The curv-
ing cliffs (⊲) expose volcanic layers, products of
explosive volcanism that began one to two million
years ago. Islands in the middle of the caldera were
constructed by more recent eruptions.
06.11.a3 Akrotiri, Santorini, Greece

2. The main eruption produced an ash column
perhaps 40 km (25 mi) high, followed by pyroclastic
flows. The erupted ash buried towns, now exca-
vated (⊲), with up to 50 m of pumice and ash.
Caldera collapse occurred as the eruption of ash
emptied a large magma chamber.
3. The collapse of the caldera evidently unleashed a large destructive wave that traveled southward
across the sea, probably helping lead to the downfall of the Minoan civilization on the island of Crete.
This destruction of the civilization on Santorini and c ollapse of the volcanic island into the sea may
have started legends about the sinking of a landmass and city (Atlantis) into the sea.
What Happened During the Deadly Eruption of Krakatau?

One of the largest historic volcanic eruptions struck the Indonesian island of Krakatau in 1883. A large eruption formed a
caldera, destroying several islands. The eruption and caldera collapse unleashed pyroclastic flows and huge waves that
spread out across the sea, resulting in the deaths of almost 40,000 people. One explosion was heard thousands of kilometers
away and is the loudest sound in recorded history!
06.11.b2 06.11.b3
06.11.b1
1. Before 1883, the area contained three 2. When the eruption began, massive amounts 3. After the eruption, only part of Krakatau
islands, the largest of which, Krakatau, of magma erupted from a magma chamber remained. In 1927, a small volcano began to
was made of three volcanoes. The beneath the islands, forming a high eruption grow within the caldera, forming a new island
region was densely populated, and column and pyroclastic flows. The eruption was called Anak Krakatau (child of Krakatau).
many people lived along the coast of accompanied by huge explosions, landslides, Today, Indonesia is densely populated, with
these and neighboring islands. Both fac- caldera collapse, and destruction of two of the more than 150 volcanoes in a curved line
tors contributed to the heavy death toll volcanoes and nearly half of another. Large across Sumatra, Java, and smaller islands. It
from the 1883 eruption. waves struck ships and adjacent coasts. faces a high risk of future deadly eruptions.
Could the Yellowstone Caldera Cause a Future Disaster?

Yellowstone is one of the world’s largest active volcanic areas and site of a “supervolcano.” Abundant geysers, hot springs,
and other hydrothermal activity are leftovers from its recent volcanic history. During the last two million years, the
Yellowstone region experienced three huge, caldera-forming eruptions. What is the possibility that Yellowstone could erupt
again and rain destructive ash over the Rocky Mountains and onto the Great Plains?
06.11.c2
⊳ 1. This image shows the outline of the youngest
Yellowstone caldera, which formed 640,000 years
ago. The boundaries of the caldera have been Mou
Mo
Mount
unnt
nt Yellowstone
St
S
St.
t. He
H
Hel
Helens
ele
lens
ns Caldera
partially obscured by erosion, deposition of sedi-
ment, and lava flows that erupted after the cal- As
A
Ash
sh 119
98
1980
800
dera formed. Several areas within the caldera
Yell
have been experiencing uplift.
ow
ed 1
sto
ne
Ash 2
Bed
hB
2. Ash from the three Yellowstone eruptions was carried
As
by the wind and deposited over a huge area (⊲) that ne
extends from northern Mexico to southern Canada and sto
Yell ow
as far east as the Mississippi River. A repeat of such an Yello 3
wston
e Ash Bed
eruption could devastate the region around Yellowstone
and cause extensive crop loss in the farmlands of the 400 km
Great Plains and Midwest. It would truly be catastrophic.
06.11.c1
06.11.c4
3. A cross section of the youngest caldera (▼) in Yellowstone shows associated geysers,
111.5° W 111° W 110.5° W 110° W
earthquakes, and magma. In this model, upwelling mafic magmas melted overlying crust,
yielding felsic magma responsible for the large caldera eruptions.
45° N
YELLOWSTONE CALDERA
NW SE 4. To study hazards posed by
the caldera, geologists use satel-
0 Geysers lite-based radar to precisely
measure ground m ovements
over time. Colors on this com-
DEPTH (km)
5
Felsic Magma puter-generated image (⊲) show 44.5° N
10 a bull’s-eye of very recent uplift
Mafic Magma
15
within the caldera, p erhaps indi-
Earthquakes Rising Mafic cating that magma is rising
Magma
20 beneath the surface and could
06.11.c3
erupt in the future.
0 28.3 mm
44° N
30 km RANGE CHANGE
The Yellowstone Hot Spot and Related Volcanic Features
L
arge caldera-forming eruptions in the under Yellowstone. According to this model, as
Yellowstone region occurred three times North America moved southwestward over the
during the last 2.1 million years: 2.1, 1.3, hot spot, the hot spot burned a path across south-
and 0.64 million years ago. The average time ern Idaho, forming the mostly basaltic Snake
between eruptions is about 700,000 years. River Plain. Ages of basaltic and felsic volcanic
Because 640,000 years have passed since the rocks on the Snake River Plain are youngest near Before You Leave This Page
last eruption, Yellowstone Yellowstone, becoming
could perhaps erupt again older to the southwest, Explain how a volcanic eruption
in the next 100,000 years, consistent with the destroyed Santorini.
maybe much sooner. movement of North Describe what happened during
Where is all the magma America over the hot the eruption of Krakatau.
coming from, and is melt- spot. The Columbia Pla-
Describe the volcanic history of
ing still occurring beneath teau flood basalts of
Yellowstone, including the distribution
the region? Is Yellowstone Washington and Oregon
of volcanic ash.
near a plate boundary? could have formed when
6.11
The underlying cause of the same mantle plume Describe how volcanism at Yellow
volcanism is interpreted reached the lithosphere stone could be related to a hot spot.
to be a hot spot currently and spread to the north.
06.11.t1
162
6.12 What Areas Have the Highest Potential

for Volcanic Hazards?
IN SOME PLACES, THE RISK POSED by volcanic hazards is great. In others, it is inconsequential. Volcanic erup-
tions are much more likely in Indonesia than in Nebraska. Additionally, different types of volcanoes have different
eruptive styles, so some volcanoes are more dangerous than others. What factors should we consider when determining
which areas are the most dangerous and which are the safest?
How Do We Assess the Danger Posed by a Volcano?

Potential hazards of a volcano depend on the type of volcano, which we can infer from its shape and rock types, and on its
history. Examine the volcano below for clues about what type of volcano is present and how it might erupt. If your only
piece of data was this photograph, how much could you infer about the volcano’s behavior and hazards?
06.12.a1 Augustine volcano, AK
1. Shape — The shape of a volcano provides 3. Age and History — The age of a vol-
important clues about how dangerous the volcano is essential information. If the vol-
cano might be. Volcanoes with steep slopes, cano has not erupted for a long time,
such as c omposite volcanoes, are more maybe it is dormant. The shape of a
dangerous because they form from potentially volcano, especially whether it still has a
explosive, viscous magma. Also, steep volca- fresh-looking volcano shape or has
noes are prone to landslides. Volcanoes that been eroded, is one indicator of a vol-
have relatively gentle slopes, like most shield cano’s age. Important clues are also
volcanoes, result from less e xplosive basaltic provided by a volcano’s history, if
eruptions and are less likely to have landslides. recorded in historical records, including
oral histories from nearby people. Isoto-
2. Rock Type — The types of rocks on a vol- pic measurements on volcanic units can
cano reflect the magma composition and style provide an accurate indication of a vol-
of eruption. If a volcano contains welded tuffs, cano’s age. Geologic studies of the
it has erupted felsic pyroclastic flows. If it consequence of volcanic layers, combined
sists of rhyolite or andesite, it is more danger- with isotopic ages, provide insight into
ous than a volcano composed of basalt. We can use chemical analyses how often eruptions recur and how often certain types of eruptions
to help classify the rocks and thereby assess a volcano’s potential dan- occur. The volcano above clearly has recent activity, as expressed by
ger. The volcano shown above is a steep, composite volcano composed the recent dark deposits and the steam and other gases escaping
of andesitic lava and pyroclastic rocks. from the summit dome.
What Areas Around a Volcano Have the Highest Risk?

Once we have determined the type of volcano that is present, we consider other factors that help identify which areas
near the volcano have the highest potential risk.
06.12.b1
1. Proximity — The biggest factor determining potential risk is proximity,
closeness to the volcano. The most hazardous place is inside an active
crater. The potential risk decreases with increasing distance away from
the volcano.
2. Valleys — Lava flows, small pyroclastic flows, and mudflows are chan-
neled into valleys carved into the volcano and surrounding areas. Such
valleys are more dangerous than nearby ridges.
3. Wind Direction — Volcanic ash and pumice that are thrown from the
volcano are carried farthest in the direction that the wind is blowingat
the time of the eruption. Most regions have a prevailing wind direction,
so a greater hazard of falling material exists in this direction from a volcano.
4. Particulars — Each volcano has its own peculiarities, and these influence
which part of the volcano is most dangerous. Steeper parts of a volcano
pose special risks, and one side of a volcano may contain a dome that
could collapse and form pyroclastic flows. This image shows three small
villages around a volcano. Is one village at greater risk than the others?
Which one is in the least hazardous place, and what ideas led you to
this conclusion?
What Regions Have the Highest Risk for Volcanic Eruptions?

We can think on a broader regional scale about which regions are most dangerous. In North America, volcanoes are
relatively common along the west coast and virtually absent east of the Rocky Mountains. Tectonic setting, especially
proximity to certain types of plate boundaries or to a hot spot, is the major factor making some places more prone to
volcanic hazards than others. The map below shows locations of recently active volcanoes (orange triangles).
1. The largest concentration of composite volcanoes is along the Pacific 2. Much fluid basaltic lava erupts on the seafloor at mid-ocean ridges.
Ring of Fire. The volcanoes form above subduction zones, either in island Such eruptions pose little risk to humans because almost all of these
arcs or in mountain ranges along active continental margins. Some occur at the bottom of the ocean. The island of Iceland, where a mid-
subduction-zone volcanoes erupt so v igorously that they form calderas. ocean ridge coincides with a hot spot, is an exception.
06.12.c1
3. Many shield volcanoes occur along lines of islands and submarine mountains in the 4. Some volcanic features, including basalt flows, scoria
Pacific and other oceans. Most of these linear island chains, and a few other clusters cones, and composite volcanoes, are in the middle of
of islands, formed above hot spots. Hawaii and the Galápagos Islands are good exam- continents. Most of these form over hot spots or in
ples. Shield volcanoes also occur in other settings, including on continents. continental rifts, like the East African Rift.
Forecasts, Policy, and Publicity
P
redicting volcanic eruptions is currently sidered possible or even likely did not occur. In
an imprecise science, but has greatly other cases, predictions, policy, and publicity
improved over the last several decades. interacted in a bad way, with deadly results. In Before You Leave This Page
There have been some fabulous successes and 1985, geologists working on Nevado del Ruiz, a
some disappointing failures. Volcanologists have composite volcano in the Colombian Andes, Summarize ways to assess the
successfully predicted some eruptions by study- warned of an impending eruption. The city of potential danger of a volcano based
ing clusters of small earthquakes generated as Armero, with an estimated 29,000 inhabitants, on its characteristics.
magma rises through the crust, by measuring lay in a valley that drained the steep volcano.
changes in the amount of gas released by volca- Local government officials downplayed the risk Describe ways to identify which areas
noes, and through other types of investigations. and assured the citizens that there was no dan- around a volcano have the highest
potential hazard.
Some predictions (e.g., Mount St. Helens and ger. A pyroclastic eruption occurred at night,
Mount Pinatubo) have saved lives because melting snow and ice on the volcano and Describe how the plate-tectonic
6.12
government officials and citizens acted on the unleashing a mudflow that moved at hundreds setting of a region influences its
scientific evidence. Some predictions have been of miles per hour, engulfing most of Armero and potential for volcanic hazards.
unsuccessful because an eruption that was con- killing more than 20,000 people.
164
6.13 How Do We Monitor Volcanoes?

GEOSCIENTISTS MONITOR VOLCANOES using instruments that measure changes in topography, ground shaking,
heat flow, gas output, and water chemistry. Any of these changes may indicate that an eruption is imminent. Some
monitoring is conducted by geoscientists in the field area, but much can be done remotely using computer-operated
instruments that transmit data from a volcano to an office or laboratory.
Can Seismic Activity Signal an Eruption?

As magma moves, expands, or contracts, it exerts force on the surrounding rocks and causes them to break, crack, or
bend. This deformation causes ground shaking, which can be recorded with seismic instruments.
06.13.a1 06.13.a2
Seismometers are instruments that measure Magma flowing through conduits pro-
ground shaking, or seismic activity. Such duces several distinctive types of seismic
SEISMIC AMPLITUDE
1500
RELATIVE SEISMIC
activity accompanies movement of magma. activity, including a fairly rhythmic, repeat-
AMPLITUDE
Seismometers allow scientists to monitor 1000 ing pattern on seismic plots, like the one
changes and look for increases in seismic shown here. Such patterns often p recede
500 and accompany a volcanic eruption and
activity. At Mount Pinatubo, Philippines, seis-
mic activity increased before a major erup- so have been used to predict that an
0
tion on June 12, 1991. JUNE 14 15 16 17 18 TIME eruption is imminent.
How Does Gas Output Change Before an Eruption?

Gases dissolved in a rising magma may come out of solution, expand, and provide the driving force for an eruption.
An increased flow of gases from a volcano may indicate that magma is rising and losing its gas.
06.13.b1 Augustine volcano, AK 06.13.b2 Kilauea, HI 06.13.b3
12,000
SO2 (tons/day)
8,000
4,000 Major
Eruption
0
13 17 21 25 29 2 6 10 14 18
MAY JUNE
Sulfur dioxide (SO2) gas emissions have Various ground and airplane-mounted instru- This graph shows measured SO2 emissions
increased just before some volcanic eruptions. ments can measure the amount of SO2 coming just before the 1991 eruption of Mount Pina-
Such increases, when integrated with seismic from a volcano. These instruments allow mea- tubo in the Philippines. The amount of gas
data and other information, may indicate that a surements of the gas flow from a volcano to coming from the volcano increased dramati-
volcanic eruption is likely. be made from a safe distance. cally days before the eruption.
How Are Changes in Heat Flow Measured?

Movement of magma can warm parts of a volcano, indicating a potential eruption. Geoscientists can measure changes
in temperature, and the amount of heat being emitted by a volcano using special instruments. They can also gather this
kind of information by satellites, which are especially useful for measuring temperatures and monitoring volcanoes in
remote locations.
06.13.c1 Mount Spurr, AK 06.13.c2 Augustine volcano, AK
Steam eruptions on v olcanoes Geoscientists processed this
happen when water or ice satellite image to emphasize
comes in c ontact with hot hot areas. Y ellow and red
magma. Heat from the steam mark magma and hot
and magma can be detected tephra. Bright blue marks
by instruments that m easure cooler ash deposits and
thermal energy. volcanic rocks.
How Are Changes in a Volcano’s Topography Monitored?

Before an eruption, the surface of a volcano may change shape by centimeters to hundreds of meters as magma inflates the
mountain. Such changes in Earth’s surface, called ground deformation, alert geoscientists to volcanic activity and can be
measured by several methods.
06.13.d1 Hawaii 06.13.d3
1. Global Positioning Satellite (GPS) 3. Special high-precision surveying
units (⊳) are relatively small devices instruments (⊳) can accurately
that use satellites to determine pre- measure the distance between the
cise locations and elevations. If a instrument and a distant target.
volcano’s surface deforms even
slightly, a GPS station can track its
changing position.
06.13.d2 Mount St. Helens, WA

2. Tiltmeters (⊲) are instru- 4. Geologists use sat
ments used to determine ellite radar maps, like the
whether a measuring station one shown here (⊲), to
is being tilted in one way or map the topography of the
another. This is one of the volcano at two different
oldest methods for monitoring times, perhaps months apart.
the inflation or deflation of a Colorful maps show differences
volcano in response to move- in topography resulting from
ment of magma. ground deformation.
06.13.d4
Can Mudflows Caused By Volcanoes Be Detected Remotely?

Many composite volcanoes are covered with snow and ice that will melt during an eruption and mix with loose volcanic
material on the slopes of the volcano. This thick, muddy mixture, called a mudflow or a lahar, travels down river channels,
destroys houses and bridges, and poses a threat to people downstream.
06.13.e1 Mount St. Helens, WA
⊳ This mudflow, caused by the 1980 eruption of Antenna
Mount St. Helens, destroyed a highway bridge. To
detect such mudflows, geoscientists use a network
of remote monitoring stations (⊲) to detect the char- Solar
Panel
acteristic rumble made by the mudflows as they rush
down valleys. This monitoring allows for rapid warn-
ing and evacuation of downstream communities. The Electronics Vault
1985 mudflow disaster near Nevado del Ruiz, Colum-
bia, highlighted the need for such remotely activated
monitoring systems. Sensor
06.13.e2
Monitoring a Volcano Using Various Approaches
G
eoscientists use as many methods as same time. Collecting some data requires visits Before You Leave This Page
possible to monitor a volcano and bet- to the volcano, including characterization of the
ter understand its behavior and poten- type of material produced by an eruption. Discuss why seismic measurements
tial dangers. Such monitoring, therefore, When an eruption occurs, a geologist knows are helpful for predicting an eruption.
requires a team of geoscientists, each with a what to observe, what data to collect, and Explain why and how volcanic gases
different field of expertise (seismic records, which area is least hazardous. and thermal energy are measured.
volcanic gases, and others). Team members
06.13.t1 Mount St. Helens, WA Discuss how topographic changes on
compare and discuss various data and observa-
tions to develop an interpretation that is consis- a volcano could precede an eruption
and how they are measured.
tent with all of the data.
6.13
Gathering data using satellites or other Briefly discuss how a volcano-related

remote techniques is efficient and allows geo- mudflow can be detected remotely.
scientists to monitor multiple volcanoes at the
CONNECTIONS
6.14 What Volcanic Hazards Are Posed
by Mount Rainier?
MOUNT RAINIER IS PART OF A CHAIN OF VOLCANOES above the Cascadia subduction zone of the Pacific
Northwest. What kind of volcano is Mount Rainier, how did it form, when and how did it last erupt, and what risks
does it pose to the many people living in the valleys below? Mount Rainier provides an opportunity to examine some
important aspects of volcanoes, connecting eruption styles, tectonic setting, and potential hazards.
06.14.a2
What Kind of Volcano Is Mount Rainier?
Mount Rainier rises ominously above the city of Tacoma (⊲). The steep,
symmetrical shape of the mountain identifies it as a dangerous composite
volcano. A composite volcano plus a nearby city equals high risk.
06.14.a1
06.14.a3
▲ A geologic cross section of Mount Rainier
▲ This image shows the position of Mount Rainier and the suburbs of Tacoma. The top of shows that the andesitic composite volcano
the volcano is covered by glacial ice and snow. River valleys, two of which are labeled, was built on an eroded surface of granitic
begin on the flanks of the volcano and continue into the suburbs. These provide a path- rocks and was fed by a pipelike magmatic
way for mudflows and pyroclastic flows from the volcano to the people. conduit. The top of the mountain, largely
covered by ice, is a younger volcanic cone
that was constructed within an older crater.
What Is the Plate-Tectonic Setting of Mount Rainier?

Mount Rainier is one of the volcanoes that cap the Cascade Range. The Cascade volcanoes exist because of melting at
depth associated with the Cascadia subduction zone, which is an ocean-continent convergent boundary.
1. The large composite 06.14.b1
2. The Cascade Range is a north-south belt
volcanoes of the Cas- of mountains and is capped by snow-covered
cades are related to a composite volcanoes, including the three
plate boundary labeled here. Additional Cascade volcanoes
between the continen- are in Canada to the north and in Oregon
tal North American and California to the south. Mount Rainier
plate to the east and and the other Cascade volcanoes have his-
the small oceanic torically erupted mostly viscous, intermedi-
Juan de Fuca plate ate (andesitic) magmas that form thick,
to the west. The slow-moving lava flows, domes, and
Juan de Fuca plate explosive pyroclastic materials.
is moving eastward
with respect to 3. Magma forms by partial melting of
North America and mantle above the subduction zone
subducting into the and rises to interact with overlying con-
mantle, beneath tinental crust. The result is
the edge of the intermediate-composition magma
continent. and dangerous composite volcanoes.
166
What Hazards Does Mount Rainier Pose to the Surrounding Area?

Mount Rainier is considered to be a very dangerous volcano. It has had at least eleven significant pyroclastic eruptions in
the last 10,000 years. The most recent occurred in 1820. According to the U.S. Geological Survey, mudflows from Mount
Rainier constitute the greatest volcanic hazard in the Cascade Range.
1. This large figure shows hazard zones for lava flows, pyroclastic flows, and mudflows. 2. The hazards from lava flows are mostly near the
The green zone around Mount Rainier has the highest hazard for lavas and pyroclastic volcano. Small explosive eruptions also have the
flows. The yellow and orange colors show the potential for mudflows of different sizes most impact close to the summit, but pyroclastic
and different recurrence intervals (how often, on average, they flows can travel tens of kilometers away from the
occur). Yellow is used for least frequent but large summit, in part following valleys. During a major
mudflows, whereas reddish eruption, a large eruption column could spread
orange is used for ash and p umice across the region. Prevailing
more frequent but winds would probably spread the ash to the
small mudflows, east but could blow in any direction
especially near depending on the weather c onditions
the volcano. at the time of the eruption.
4. Mudflows could flow

northwest all the way
into Tacoma and its sub-
urbs. Houses have been
built directly in potential
mudflow paths and even
06.14.c1
on top of a huge mudflow
that occurred only 600
years ago. Besides erup- 3. Mudflows have formed where eruptions melted the
tions, some of these ice cap or where the steep slopes of the volcano pro-
mudflows were caused by duced large landslides. Mudflows form on the volcano
avalanches of rock and ice and then flow down valleys as thick slurries of mud,
unrelated to volcanic activity. pyroclastic material, rocks and almost anything else
The risk posed by mudflows is very great! Would you buy one of these houses? that gets in the way. The hazards are greatest close to
How would you know if a house was at risk? Hazard maps like the one shown the volcano and in valleys that drain the volcano.
here are a good place to start.
Recent Eruptions of Volcanoes in the Cascade Range
M
ount Rainier and Mount St. Helens noes are dangerous composite volcanoes, so hazards exist because the Juan de Fuca plate
are only two of the dangerous vol- living on the flanks or in the valleys below is subducting beneath the continental crust of
canoes in the Cascades. Ten other one of these volcanoes carries the risk of western North America. Farther south, toward
volcanoes in the U.S. part of the Cascades mudflows, ash falls, and even pyroclastic southern California, and farther north, just a
erupted during the last 4,000 years. Cascade flows. All of the volcanoes and the associated bit into Canada, the convergent Cascade
volcanoes also continue a 06.14.t1 boundary becomes a transform boundary and
short distance into Canada. the string of Cascade volcanoes ends.
This figure (⊲) shows the
locations of the large Cas-
cade volcanoes and when
they erupted during the last Before You Leave This Page
4,000 years. Although
Mount St. Helens is the Describe the type of volcano that
most active of the Cascade Mount Rainier represents.
volcanoes, Glacier Peak,
Explain the plate-tectonic setting
Medicine Lake, and Mount of Mount Rainier.
Shasta have each erupted
six or more times during the Discuss the volcanic hazards near
last 4,000 years. Seven of Mount Rainier.
the volcanoes, including
6.14
Briefly summarize how active the

Mount Rainier, have erupted Cascade volcanoes have been during
during the last 200 years. the last 4,000 years.
Nearly all of these volca-
6.15 How Would You Assess Hazards
on This Volcano?
DECIDING WHERE TO LIVE requires careful consideration. An overriding factor is whether a place is safe. In this
exercise, you will investigate a volcanic island to determine what types of eruptions have occurred in the past, to assess
the volcanic hazards, and to find the least dangerous place on the island to live.

• Observe the physical characteristics of the volcano and the rock types it contains.
• Use your observations to determine what type of volcano is present and how it would likely erupt.
• Assess the potential for volcanic hazards in different parts of the island and determine the least
dangerous place to live.
Observing the Characteristics of the Volcano

The study of a volcano begins by observing its physical characteristics, such as its size, shape, steepness of slopes,
locations of ridges and valleys, and any unusual topographic features. The next step is to observe the types of
rocks that are present, determine the aerial distribution of each rock type, and interpret how and in what
order each rock formed. Follow the steps below, and record your answers from each step in the
accompanying worksheet or online.
1. Observe the image to the right. Record any important characteristics of the volcano on the worksheet or
in your notes.
2. Observe the photographs of rock samples and describe each rock’s key attributes, such as whether it
contains fragments. Use these attributes to identify the rock types (basalt, rhyolite, tuff, for example) by
comparing the photographs and descriptions to those in chapters 5 and 6. Alternatively, your instructor
may provide hand specimens of the rocks for you to observe and identify.
3. Use your rock identifications to infer the style of eruption by which each rock formed.
Assessing the Volcanic Hazards of the Island

Assess the general volcanic hazards of the volcano, and then assess the relative hazards
of each part of the island compared to the others. Using your hazard assessments,
determine the most dangerous places and the relatively least dangerous place to live.
1. Consider your rock identifications in the context of the topography and geologic features in the areas where
the samples were collected. From these combined data, interpret what types of volcanic features, such as
craters and domes, are present in different parts of the island. A newspaper account of previous eruptions
(bottom of next page) provides some useful clues.
2. Assess how each volcanic feature contributes to the hazard potential in different parts of the island. On the map in
the worksheet, draw boundaries around and label those areas that have high, medium, or low hazard potential
compared to the rest of the island. The differences between the three hazard zones will be fairly subjective. Use your
best judgment and be consistent.
3. From your investigations, identify the areas you interpret to be the most dangerous and the least dangerous places to live.
When choosing between two sites that are equally safe, you may consider other factors, such as the scenery, whether the
sites are level enough to build on safely, and whether they are subject to storms, landslides, floods, and other natural hazards.
168
06.15.a2 06.15.a3 06.15.a4
Rock 1: Dark gray, glassy igneous rock (▲) with Rock 2: Hard, igneous rock (▲) that contains
some bands produced by flow when the rock flattened pieces of pumice (light gray) and
was molten. A chemical analysis indicates that small crystals of quartz and feldspar. It does
this rock has a felsic composition. not seem to be a recently formed rock. Rock 3: Unit consisting of angular pieces of a
light- to dark-gray igneous rock in a matrix of
powdery volcanic ash and smaller rock pieces
(▲). Many of the dark pieces are glassy and
banded, and contain scattered vesicles. The
volcanic deposit has baked (heated up) the
underlying soil, reddening it.
06.15.a1
The following is a newspaper account: put of steam, an increased smell of sulfur, and a inundated many areas in valleys downstream
series of small earthquakes. from the volcano. After the main eruption, a lava
Volcano Erupts! The first eruption was a single explosive burst dome started growing in the crater.
The Juanannita volcano began erupting in that lasted about three hours and that was accom- All subsequent eruptions have been smaller
early September of 1952, and dozens of small panied by clouds of ash that rose kilometers into and of a different style. They have been similar
eruptions have occurred since that time. For 10 the air. Heavy ash fell around the volcano, and a to one another. In each e ruption, a cloud of ash
years before the 1952 eruption, residents of the light dusting of ash was reported on adjacent and rocks moves rapidly downhill and is mostly
6.15
area observed plumes of white steam rising from islands up to 20 kilometers away. The eruption restricted to stream channels. After each eruption,
the summit of the crater. In the summer of 1952, melted snow and ice high on the crater, forming geologists noted that one side of the dome in the
local inhabitants reported an increase in the out- a mudflow that moved along stream channels and crater had collapsed into a pile of ash and rocks.
CHAPTER
7 Sedimentary Environments
and Rocks
MOST OF EARTH’S EXPOSED SURFACE IS COVERED by sediment and sedimentary rocks. Sediment produced
by weathering and erosion is transported by moving water, ice, and wind, and deposited in a variety of environments,
ranging from dry deserts to the bottoms of deep oceans. The loose sediment hardens, or lithifies, into sedimentary
rock. Sediment and sedimentary rock dominate many of Earth’s landscapes and are important hosts of energy, mineral,
and water resources.
This image shows satellite Valleys in these mountains were Large lakes occupy many of the valleys. The lake waters come mostly
data and topography for the originally carved by glaciers but now from streams draining the mountains next to the lakes.
Coast Range and the Fraser contain lakes and steep mountain
River Valley of southwestern streams. The streams are eroding What happens to sediment being
British Columbia, Canada. into the mountains and transporting carried by a stream when
The river enters the Strait of sand, pebbles, and other sediment the stream enters
Georgia, an inlet of the toward the Fraser River. a lake?
Pacific Ocean. The large
lavender area along the Where is sediment derived and how
river includes the cities of is it transported?
Vancouver, British Columbia,
Bellingham, Washington, and
neighboring communities.
07.00.a1
Sediment
carried by the
river disperses
into the sea and is
shaded light blue in
this image. The sedi-
ment gradually settles to
the sea bottom, building
up a delta near
the mouth of the river. Sedi-
ment deposited offshore
causes the delta to grow seaward People built cities mostly on a broad plain
with time and adds new land to the of sediments deposited along past positions
coast. Vancouver is built on an older of the river, delta, and glaciers.
part of the delta.
What would such river and delta sediments
What types of sediment are in a delta? look like if preserved in ancient rocks?
170
Sedimentary Environments and Rocks 171
7.1 What Sedimentary Environments Occur on Land? 172 7.9 Where Does Sandstone Form? 188
7.2 What Sedimentary Environments Are 7.10 How Do Fine-Grained Clastic Rocks Form? 190
Near Shorelines and in Oceans? 174 7.11 How Do Carbonate Rocks Form? 192
7.3 Where Do Clasts Come From? 176 7.12 How Do Changing Environments Create
7.4 What Are the Characteristics a Sequence of Different Kinds of Sediments? 194
of Clastic Sediments? 178 7.13 How Do We Study Sedimentary Sequences? 196
7.5 What Types of Rocks Do Clastic 7.14 Why Are Sediments and Sedimentary Rocks
Sediments Form? 180 Important to Our Society? 198
7.6 What Are Nonclastic Sedimentary Rocks 7.15 CONNECTIONS: How Did Sedimentary
and How Do They Form? 182 Layers West of Denver Form? 200
7.7 Why Do Sedimentary Rocks Have Layers? 184 7.16 INVESTIGATION: What Is the Sedimentary
7.8 Where Do Breccia and Conglomerate Form? 186 History of This Plateau? 202
07.00.a2 Seton Lake, British Columbia, Canada
The Fraser River
T
he Fraser River, one of Canada’s largest
rivers, winds through mountains and a
broad valley on its journey to the
Pacific Ocean. Tributaries of the river are fed
by lakes, seasonal rains, springs, and melting
snow and glaciers. Rain and snowfall are heavy
because of the region’s coastal location and pre-
vailing winds that bring in moisture-laden ocean
air from the west.
The physical and chemical processes of
Mountains north of Vancouver rise above the weathering act on near-surface materials and
surrounding landscapes and shed sediment loosen pieces of rock to produce sediment.
along their steep flanks (▲). Mount Baker, in Loose pieces of rock and soil can be eroded
Washington, is another large mountain that and transported downhill by streams, glaciers,
sheds sediment into the lowlands. and the force of gravity. The F raser River
What types of sediment are deposited near steep deposits this sediment on riverbanks, in a
mountain fronts, and how would we recognize broad plain near the river’s mouth, and in the
ancient deposits formed in similar settings? delta formed where the river meets the sea.
How does this sediment affect people and
businesses in Vancouver? The location of the city
largely coincides with the broad, sediment-
In this closer view looking covered valley and delta. The sediment forms
upstream of Vancouver fertile farmlands and provides a relatively flat
(⊲), the Fraser River has
surface on which to build. In the subsurface, the
multiple channels that
branch apart and rejoin, sediment contains groundwater that supple-
producing a distinctly ments the large supply of water provided by the
braided appearance. Fraser River Fraser River and surrounding lakes. This chap-
ter explores how sediment forms, how it is
What types of sediment do transported and deposited, and the types of rock
rivers deposit, and do all that sediment becomes. It also examines sedi-
rivers deposit the same mentary rocks in the landscape, how we study
types of sediment?
these rocks, and why sediments and sedimentary
rocks are important to society.
7.0
07.00.a3
172
7.1 What Sedimentary Environments

Occur on Land?
EARTH’S LAND INCLUDES DIFFERENT SEDIMENTARY ENVIRONMENTS, each characterized by distinctive
kinds of sediment. The environments differ because of variations in topography, local geology, and the amount of
available water. Examining these environments, both on land and at sea, helps us interpret modern landscapes, ancient
sedimentary rocks, and energy, mineral, and water resources. These two pages identify the most common sedimentary
environments on land, which are discussed in detail on following pages. Observe the large figure below and envision
what types of materials (sediment) would be present in each setting.
07.01.a2 South Fork, CO

1. Mountain environments are characterized by steep slopes d eveloped
on bedrock. Many mountains, but not all, also have high elevation. Ero-
sion is vigorous on such steep slopes and provides abundant sediment, 07.01.a1
such as the large, angular blocks in this photograph (⊳). Once it is pro-
duced, the sediment can be transported out of the mountains
and into other settings.
07.01.a3 Denali NP, AK
07.01.a4 Death Valley, CA
2. Streams in mountains typically have steep

gradients and are confined by bedrock can-
yons. As streams leave the mountains, they
can develop a braided appearance defined 3. In dry climates, wind picks
by channels that split apart and rejoin (▲). We up and moves sand grains
use the adjective fluvial to refer to the pro- and finer particles. The mov-
cesses and sediment of streams and rivers, as ing grains form fields of sand
in fluvial processes. dunes (⊲), composed almost
entirely of sand, with almost
no other sizes of sediment.
4. In high mountains or at high 5. Streams that

latitudes (close to the North Pole flow over gentle
or South Pole), snow can accu- terrain commonly
mulate faster than it is removed meander grace-
by melting or other processes. fully (⊲). Most
Over time, the snow becomes streams are
compacted into ice, which may flanked by rela-
flow downhill as a glacier (⊳). As tively flat land that
glaciers move, they erode under- may be covered
lying materials and carry sedi- when the stream
ment away. The sediment and floods (a flood-
water are released upon melting plain). Floodplains
07.01.a5 Chamonix, French Alps
of the ice, mostly at the end of of meandering
the glacier. streams are built,
layer upon layer,
by mud and sand
carried by flood-
waters.
07.01.a6
6. Where a stream enters a standing body of water, such

as an ocean or lake, its current slows, which causes
most of its sediment to spread out and be deposited. The
sediment piles up and forms a delta that builds out into
the ocean or lake.
07.01.a7 Lake Superior, Marquette, MI
8. In very wet environments, 7. Lakes contain a range of environments (▲),
such as those adjacent to lakes from quiet, deep water in the center, to more
and in delta areas, the soil may active water with wind-driven waves along
07.01.a8 Ten Thousand Islands NWR, FL
become saturated with water, the shoreline. Beaches along the shoreline
allowing lakes, swamps, bogs, can be sandy or rocky, depending on what
and ponds to form (⊳). Such wet- type of materials are available. Some lakes
lands typically have abundant are always filled with water, but others dry
water-dependent vegetation, completely when the water evaporates or
which may become an important when it seeps into underlying materials.
component of the sediment.
The water may protect the
underlying sediment from
the atmosphere, limiting the Before You Leave This Page
amount of oxidation.
Sketch or describe the main
sedimentary environments on land,
7.1
and describe some characteristics

of each.
174
7.2 What Sedimentary Environments

Are Near Shorelines and in Oceans?
OCEANS AND THEIR SHORELINES are dynamic environments with wind, waves, and ocean currents transporting
sediment eroded from the coastline or brought in from elsewhere. The characteristics of each environment, especially
the types of sediment, depend mostly on the proximity to shore, the availability of sediment, and the depth, temperature,
and clarity of the water. Examine the large figure below and try to envision what you would expect in each setting,
including the type of sediment that would occur there.
07.02.a2 Carmel, CA
1. Beaches are stretches of coastline along which sediment has accu-
mulated (⊳). Most beaches consist of sand, pieces of shells, and
rounded gravel, cobbles, or boulders. The setting determines which of
these components is most abundant. Some shorelines have bedrock
all the way to the ocean and so have little or no beach. Wide, sandy
beaches are more inviting as places to relax and play.
07.02.a1
07.02.a3 Akumal, Mexico

2. The water near the
shoreline may be shel-
tered by offshore reefs or
islands. The sheltered
water, called a lagoon (⊳),
is commonly shallow, calm,
and perhaps warm. The
near-shore parts of lagoons
contain sand, mud, and
stones derived from land,
whereas the outer parts may
have sand and pieces of
coral eroded from a reef.
07.02.a4 Raja Ampat, Indonesia
3. Where ocean water is
shallow, warm, and clear,
coral and other marine
creatures construct reefs
(⊳), which can parallel the
coast, encircle islands, or
form irregular mounds and
platforms. Reefs typically
protect the shoreline from
the energetic, big waves
of the deeper ocean.
4. Away from the shoreline, many landmasses are

flanked by continental shelves and slopes consisting
of layers of mud, sand, and carbonate minerals.
Material from these sites can move down the slope
in landslides or in turbulent, flowing masses of sand, 5. The deep part of the seafloor is a dark, cold
mud, and water called turbidity currents. The slopes nvironment that commonly is s everal kilometers beneath
e
of some continents are incised by branching the surface. It generally receives less sediment than areas
submarine canyons (not shown here) that funnel closer to land, and its sediment is dominated by fine, windblown
sediment toward deeper waters. dust and by remains of mostly single-celled marine organisms.
07.02.a5 Namibia 07.02.a6 Olympic Peninsula, WA

6. Sandy dunes that are 7. Some shorelines
inland from beaches are include low areas,
called coastal dunes (⊳). called tidal flats (⊲),
These dunes commonly form that are flooded by
where sand and finer sedi- the seas during
ment from the beach are high tide but
blown or washed inland and exposed to the air
reshaped by the wind. When during low tide.
strong winds blow onto land, Most tidal flats are
sand can move from the covered by mud
beach to the dunes, and sand and sand or are
can move back toward the rocky. Some low
beach when winds blow parts of the land
toward the sea or lake. adjacent to tidal
flats can accumu-
late salt and other
evaporite minerals as seawater and terrestrial (on-land) waters
evaporate under hot, arid (dry) conditions.
07.02.a7 Mississippi Delta, LA
8. In addition to the parts of deltas overlapping the shore,

submarine deltas extend in some places for tens of kilometers
offshore (▲). The muddy or sandy front of the delta may be
unstable, and material can slide or tumble down the slope,
sending sediment into deeper water.
9. Other accumulations of sand rise above the shallow coastal

waters as long, narrow islands, called barrier islands. Most
barrier islands, such as the one below, are only hundreds of
meters wide. The areas between barrier islands and the shore-
line are commonly shallow lagoons or saltwater marshes (▼).

7.2
Sketch and describe the main sedimentary

environments in oceanic and near-shore environments.
07.02.a8 Santa Rosa Island, FL
176
7.3 Where Do Clasts Come From?

SEDIMENTARY ROCKS CONSIST OF MATERIALS that came mostly from other locations. Most sediment is pieces
of other rocks, or clasts, formed by weathering and transport. Other sediment is extracted from water when dissolved
material is precipitated by chemical reactions or is used by coral and other aquatic creatures for their habitats.
How Do Physical and Chemical Weathering Produce Sediment?

Most sediment forms by weathering, which involves physical and chemical processes that act on rocks at or near Earth’s
surface, loosening pieces and dissolving some material. Different sizes, shapes, and types of sediment form depending on the
material that is weathered and the environmental conditions during weathering. The processes of physical and chemical
weathering are summarized below and are discussed in detail later in the book.
Physical Weathering 3. Thermal Expansion — Rocks are heated by wildfires

and by the sun during the day. As rocks heat
Physical weathering is the physical breaking up, they expand, often irregularly, and
apart of rocks that are exposed to the may crack. This process prob-
environment. There are four major causes ably plays a relatively
of physical weathering. minor role in weather-
ing, and geolo-
gists currently
1. Near-Surface Fracturing — Many processes on debate its
or near the surface break rock into smaller importance.
pieces. For example, rocks are fractured when
they break away from a steep cliff. Fractures also
result when rocks expand as they are uplifted
toward the surface and are progressively exposed
to less pressure.
2. Frost and Mineral Wedging — Rocks can be broken as 4. Biological Activ-
water freezes and expands in fractures. When the ice melts, ity — Roots can grow
the fractured pieces may become dislodged from the bed- downward into fractures and
rock. Crystals of salt and other minerals that grow in thin pry rocks apart as the root diam-
fractures can also cause rocks to break apart. eter increases. Burrowing animals can
transport rock and soil from depth and move
07.03.a1
it to the surface where it is exposed to the
elements, weathered, and eroded.
Chemical Weathering
Chemical weathering includes several types of chemical reactions that affect a rock by breaking down minerals, causing new minerals to form, or
by removing soluble material from the rock. Chemical weathering attacks both solid rock and loose rock fragments, and it produces ions in solu-
tion, loose grains and other pieces, and a covering of soil.
1. Dissolution — Some minerals are solu- 3. Hydrolysis — When silicate minerals are exposed
ble in water, especially the weakly to water, especially water that is somewhat acidic,
acidic waters that are common in the water reacts c hemically with the minerals.
nature. These minerals, along with This process commonly converts the original
the rocks, sediment, and soil that materials to clay minerals and produces
contain them, can dissolve. The leftover dissolved material that is
dissolved material may be carried carried away by the water. Hydro-
away in streams or groundwater or lysis is responsible for the for-
used locally by plants. mation of many clay-rich soils.
2. Oxidation — Some minerals, especially

those containing iron, are unstable when 4. Biological Reactions — Decay-
exposed to Earth’s atmosphere. These miner- ing plants produce acids that can
als can combine with oxygen to form oxide attack rocks, and some bacteria con-
minerals, such as iron oxides, which compose sume certain parts of rocks. These bio-
the reddish and yellowish material that forms logical processes cause minerals to break
when metal rusts. 07.03.a2 down into their constituent elements.
Why Are There So Many Different Products of Weathering?

Physical and chemical weathering affect various starting materials with different compositions, grain size, and solubility.
The two kinds of weathering work with each other, but one or the other may dominate, depending on the climate and other
conditions. The interplay results in various sizes and compositions of sediment.
Type of Material Different Parts of Material Importance of Fracturing

07.03.b1 San Juan River, UT
07.03.b2 South Park, CO
07.03.b3 Echo Cliffs, AZ

Rocks, sediment, and soils exposed on Many rocks, sediments, and soils contain Rocks that are fractured are weaker and
Earth’s surface have various compositions, more than one mineral, and each mineral more easily weathered than rocks that are
which affect how they respond to physical reacts differently to weathering. Pink and intact. Fracturing increases the amount of
and chemical processes. Materials that are cream-colored feldspar crystals in the weath- surface area that is exposed to the environ-
soluble in water and weak acids commonly ered granite shown here chemically weather ment. Fractures permit water, air, and organ-
weather to a pitted or grooved appearance, to clay minerals or physically weather to sand isms to invade the rock, which causes more
as displayed by the weathered limestone grains. In general, quartz crystals physically chemical and physical weathering. Parts of a
above. The water dissolves the soluble weather to sand grains, whereas dark, mafic rock unit that are more fractured will weather
material and carries it away as dissolved ions, minerals chemically weather into clay and iron faster than less fractured parts. As a result,
which can later be precipitated in minerals. oxides. As shown in this photograph, the grain highly fractured areas tend to form low parts
Other rocks, especially quartz-rich ones, size, texture, and other aspects of a rock can of the topography, or they may form linear
are much less soluble during weathering. affect how it weathers. notches across ridges and hills.
How Do Transportation and Erosion Affect Sediment?

Once weathering has loosened pieces of rock, the pieces can be transported by rivers, glaciers, waves, wind,
and other forces. During transportation, larger clasts are broken and abraded (scraped off) to produce smaller ones.
07.03.c1 San Juan River, UT 07.03.c2 Westwater Canyon, UT
Silt, sand, and larger clasts carried in water
can cause abrasion of other clasts in a chan-
nel or of bedrock along the channel (⊳). This
process is akin to sandpapering, and so it
smooths rough edges, scours pits and other
recesses into bedrock, and removes small
pieces of bedrock that become additional
sediment. Note how the lower rocks in this
photograph have been smoothed and
sculpted more than the upper rocks.
▲ As large clasts, such as boulders and cob- Describe the main processes of
bles, are transported, they can break when physical and chemical weathering.
they collide with, or grind against, other large
clasts. Through this process, boulders can Describe how the type of material and
become rounded cobbles, and cobbles can degree of fracturing influence the type
break down into smaller pebbles. Some clasts of sediment that results.
7.3
end up as sand or even smaller grains. Describe how rocks can be broken
during transport.
178
7.4 What Are the Characteristics

of Clastic Sediments?
SEDIMENT CONSISTS OF LOOSE FRAGMENTS of rocks and minerals, or clasts. When clastic sediment becomes
sedimentary rock, the name assigned to the rock depends on the size and shape of the clasts. Other characteristics of
the clasts, such as sorting of clasts, can be used to further describe the resulting rock.
How Are Clastic Sediments Classified?

We primarily use the sizes of clasts to classify loose particles of sediment and the resulting sedimentary rocks into which
they are lithified. In addition to clast size, we use the shapes of clasts to further characterize sediment.
Sediment Size Range Particle Sizes of Clasts

Name (millimeters) Name
1. The table to the left (⊳) shows the
larger than 256 mm Boulder names applied to different sizes
of sediment.
64 to 256 mm Cobble
Gravel 2. The largest clasts are boulders, which
4 to 64 mm Pebble
are more than 0.25 m long. Note These
2 to 4 mm Granule boulders (⊲) are up to a meter across.
Sand 1/16 to 2 mm Sand 3. Cobbles are smaller than boulders,

being about the size of a softball. The 07.04.a1 Baja California, Mexico
1/256 to 1/16 mm Silt next smaller sediment size is a pebble,
Mud which has a size that can be held com-
less than 1/256 mm Clay fortably in one hand. A pebble can be
a little longer than 6 cm. This pen rests
on a cobble, and the smaller nearby
07.04.a6 Salt River, AZ
5. Clay and silt are particles stones are pebbles (⊲).
finer than sand; together they
compose mud (⊳). The term clay 4. Sand is smaller than 2 mm, is larger
refers both to grain size and to than 1/16 mm, and can have a coarse-,
a group of minerals. Besides medium-, or fine-grain size. Medium sand
being very small, clay-sized has grains between 1/4 and 1/2 mm in
grains are usually made of clay diameter, and fine sand has diameters
minerals. Clay minerals com- smaller than 1/10 mm. In these photo-
monly feel slippery between fin- graphic enlargements, the left image is
gertips. In contrast, silt, which is coarse sand, the middle one is medium-
generally made of quartz and is grained sand, and the right one is fine-
coarser than clay, feels gritty. grained sand (⊲).
07.04.a7 Wolf Creek Pass, CO

07.04.a3–5
Shapes of Clasts
6. Angular clasts (⊳) have sharp corners and edges. They can
be blocky, triangular, or shaped like chips or plates with angular Before You Leave
edges. Most clasts, when first loosened from bedrock, start with These Pages
angular shapes. 07.04.a8 Fairplay, CO
Sketch and describe how
7. Many clasts have an sediments are classified according
angular shape with edges to size, sorting, and shape
and corners that have of clasts.
been partially rounded (⊲).
07.04.a9 San Juan Islands, WA Describe how clast transport
affects the size, shape, and sorting
8. Rounded clasts (⊳) have of clasts.
smooth, curved surfaces
and shapes like eggs, flat- Explain four factors that influence
tened balloons, or objects the type of sediment transported.
that are nearly spheres.
Amount of Sorting
07.04.a10 La Sal Mtns., UT 07.04.a11 Ios, Greece 07.04.a12 Namibia
9. Sorting describes the size range of clasts 10. Many sediments have moderate sorting of 11. Well-sorted sediment consists of clasts that
in sediment. Poorly sorted sediment, like this clasts, perhaps containing sand and small all have the same size. Sand on dunes (shown
example, contains a wide range of clast sizes. pebbles, or perhaps silt and clay. here) is typically well-sorted sand.
What Controls the Size, Shape, and Sorting of Clasts?

How do clasts of such different sizes and shapes form? Once they are eroded from a bedrock source, clasts are transported
by water, wind, or ice. During transport, the tumbling, collisions, and abrasion may reduce clast size, increase roundness,
and sort the clasts by size. The distance that a clast has been transported is therefore a key factor. This loosened and
transported clastic material is sometimes called detritus, and the resulting deposits can be described with the adjective
detrital, as in detrial sediments. To most geologists, detrital means the same as clastic.
1. Bedrock exposed in mountains or along cliffs 2. As boulders and cobbles are trans- 3. Far from their bedrock source, the clasts are
breaks off to form blocks the size of boulders ported by streams, their sharp corners worn into well-rounded pebbles and sand
and cobbles. break off because they are the most grains. Stream currents, beach waves, and wind
Clasts near exposed and weakest parts of a clast. separate clasts by size, eventually producing
their source The clasts become more rounded and better-sorted sediments. Coarse materials are
are usually smaller as pieces break off. slowly left behind, and only the smaller clasts
large, angular, are carried
and poorly far from the
sorted. sediment
source.
07.04.b1
07.04.b2 San Rafael Swell, UT 07.04.b4 Naxos, Greece
4. Steepness of Slope — Steep

6. Sediment Supply — A river, beach,
slopes, such as the one
or other agent of transport can only
shown here (⊳), commonly
move the sediment that is available.
have clasts that are larger,
Bedrock on this beach provides
more angular, and more
large boulders that can be worn
poorly sorted than the clasts
down into smaller clasts.
observed on gentle (less
steep) slopes.
07.04.b3 Cascade Creek, CO 07.04.b5 Morocco

5. Strength of Current — Strong, 7. Agents of Transport — Wind can
turbulent stream currents and carry only sand and finer particles,
ocean waves can move large but streams, glaciers, mudflows, and
clasts, such as these meter- other agents of transport can pick
7.4
wide boulders, but slow, less up and carry large clasts. These
turbulent currents move only dunes consist of nothing but well-
fine-grained sediment. sorted sand because wind cannot
bring larger clasts to the area, and
smaller material is blown away.
180
7.5 What Types of Rocks Do Clastic

Sediments Form?
MANY SEDIMENTARY ROCKS HAVE FAMILIAR NAMES, for example, sandstone. Sediment is converted into
sedimentary rock through a process called lithification that involves compaction by overlying sediment, cementation
by calcium carbonate or other materials, or generally both compaction and cementation. Lithification turns loose
sediment into a clastic sedimentary rock.
What Are Some Common Clastic Sedimentary Rocks?

We describe and classify clastic sedimentary rocks based primarily on their clast size. Other features, including grain
composition and roundness, are also important for making distinctions. Common clastic sedimentary rocks are shown
below and described using these criteria of classification.
07.05.a1 San Rafael Swell, UT 07.05.a2 Wickenburg, AZ
Gravel-Sized Clasts
⊳ Conglomerate has rounded pebbles, cobbles, or boul-
ders with sand and other fine sediment between the large
clasts. This conglomerate has well-rounded pebbles in a
matrix of mostly quartz sand.
⊲ Breccia is similar to conglomerate except that the clasts

are angular. Breccia usually has a jumbled appearance
because most is poorly sorted. This example has angular
boulders and smaller clasts in a mud-rich matrix.
07.05.a3 Durango, CO 07.05.a4 Socorro, NM

Sand-Sized Clasts
⊳ Sandstone consists of sand-sized grains. It generally
has better-defined layers than conglomerate or breccia.
Different types of sandstone are shown in following
photographs.
⊲ A rock composed of at least 25% sand-sized feldspar

grains is an arkose. Arkose typically contains coarse sand
grains, including pinkish or cream-colored feldspar. The
presence of feldspar generally indicates sediment that was
derived from crystalline rocks and then rapidly buried.
07.05.a5 Sedona, AZ 07.05.a6 Petrified Forest, AZ
⊳ A sandstone composed mostly of quartz grains is a
quartz sandstone. To accumulate mostly quartz grains,
either the source was already quartz rich, like another
sandstone, or weathering and transport destroyed grains
of weaker minerals, like feldspar and mica minerals.
⊲ A type of sandstone called graywacke contain grains of

several different compositions. A graywacke typically
includes quartz, feldspar, iron-oxide minerals, mica minerals,
and small fragments of other rocks.
07.05.a7 Holbrook, AZ 07.05.a8 Boulder, CO

Mud-Sized Clasts
⊳ Siltstone consists of silt-sized particles, generally quartz,
and is commonly in thin to medium-thick layers.
⊲ Shale consists mostly of very fine-grained clay minerals.

The minerals are aligned, so the rock breaks in sheetlike
pieces or chips, as displayed here.
How Do Clastic Sediments Become Clastic Sedimentary Rock?

Compaction
As sediment is buried beneath more sediment or other materials, increasing pressure pushes clasts together, a process called compaction.
Compaction forces out excess water and causes sediments to lose as much as 40% of their volume, sometimes more. Originally loose
sediment becomes more dense and more compact.
1. Sand Grains — Sediments near 3. Clay Particles — Clay particles,

Earth’s surface, such as these sand which are much smaller than sand
grains, are a loose collection of grains and mostly made of platy clay
clasts. The grains rest on one minerals, may have random orientations
another but do not fit together when first deposited. The particles prop
tightly, so spaces, called pore each other up, preserving abundant
spaces, exist between the grains. open pore space. In this figure, the open
Pore spaces are generally filled space is shown filled with water (blue).
with air and water. When clay-rich sediment is compressed,
as for example when we step in mud,
2. As sand grains are buried, the the amount of open space decreases,
weight of overlying sediment expelling some water.
forces the grains closer together.
The amount of pore space 4. As clay particles compact due to the
decreases as air or water is weight of overlying materials, they rotate
expelled, so the layer of sand into similar, near-horizontal orientations.
loses thickness. The amount of Such compaction decreases the size
compaction is slightly exagger- and number of pores and decreases
ated in this image. 07.05.b1 the thickness of the clay layer. Clay
07.05.b2
can compact to half its original thickness.
Cementation
Even after sediment is compacted, adjacent clasts do not fit together perfectly, and some openings remain. These pore spaces are commonly filled
with water containing dissolved materials. The dissolved materials can precipitate to form minerals that act as a natural cement that holds the
pieces of sediment together.
1. When sand grains and other sedi- 2. As the sediment is buried, minerals
ment are deposited, and even after can precipitate from water moving
they are compacted, abundant pore through the pore spaces, coating the
spaces exist between the grains. These surfaces of the grains and sticking them
spaces are typically interconnected, together. Materials that form in pore
which allows water to flow slowly spaces, called cement, decrease the
through the sediment, carrying chemical amount of pore space, bind the grains
components into or out of the sediment. together, and turn the sediment into hard
07.05.b3 sedimentary rock.
Types of Natural Cement
T
here are four main types of natural strong cement that can tightly bind grains and
cement that hold grains together: calcite, form a tough, resistant rock. Before You Leave This Page
silica, clay minerals, and iron oxides. Clay minerals can cement together larger
Other materials, like gypsum, can function as grains, including sand. They may have been Describe or diagram the classification
cement but are less common. deposited with the sediment or formed from the of common clastic sedimentary rocks.
Calcite (CaCO3) is a common cement in alteration of feldspar or volcanic ash.
sandstone and other sedimentary rocks. It holds Describe what happens to clastic
Iron oxide minerals, like hematite, precipitate
sediment as it becomes buried and
grains together moderately well, but it is easily from water as a natural cement between the
converted into rock.
redissolved, so a calcite-cemented sandstone grains. Iron oxide minerals commonly give sed-
7.5
may become friable (crumbly). iment deposited on land a reddish color, as dis- Describe the natural cements that are
Silica (SiO2) acts as a cement in some sand- played in the spectacular red-rock landscapes of common in sedimentary rocks.
stone and other sedimentary rocks. It forms a the Southwest.
182
7.6 What Are Nonclastic Sedimentary Rocks

and How Do They Form?
SOME SEDIMENTARY ROCKS ARE NOT COMPOSED OF CLASTS and are therefore nonclastic rocks. Some
nonclastic rocks form when dissolved chemicals precipitate from water, as for example when water evaporates. Other
nonclastic rocks are constructed when chemical components are extracted directly from the water by coral and other
organisms as they make shells and other hard parts; these are called biochemical rocks, to signify the importance of
both biological and chemical processes.
What Types of Sediment Can Precipitate by Water or Be Deposited by Organisms?

Processes capable of producing nonclastic sedimentary rocks may be purely chemical, biological, or have both chemical
and biological aspects. The photographs below pair up a modern environment with a sedimentary rock that forms in this
type of environment.
07.06.a1 Puna de Atacama, Argentina 07.06.a3 Havasu, AZ
1. Environment — Water in 3. Environment — Vari-
oceans and lakes con- ous types of chemical
tains dissolved ions, such reactions deposit miner-
as sodium, calcium, and als, including when
chloride. These sub- chemical-rich water
stances can be left is heated or cooled
behind as salts or as car- or when two different
bonate minerals if the types of water, such
water evaporates. as groundwater and
seawater, mix.
2. Rock Type — When lake 4. Rock Type — Springs

water or seawater evapo- and creeks may contain
rates, salts and other min- high amounts of dis-
erals precipitate, perhaps solved calcium and can
as a crust along the deposit layered calcite
bottom or edges of the in the form of traver-
water body. The precipi- tine, as shown in this
tated materials are called photograph.
evaporite minerals and
include the mineral halite
(rock salt), pictured here.
07.06.a2 07.06.a4 Havasu, AZ
07.06.a5 Raja Ampat, Indonesia 07.06.a7 Hermosa, CO

5. Environment — Coral 7. Environment — Plant
and other c reatures, debris can accumulate
including abundant micro- in great thicknesses in
scopic organisms, remove wetlands and bogs,
chemicals, such as where it partially or
calcium and silica, from wholly decays and can
water to produce their be compacted into sed-
shells and other imentary rock.
structures.
07.06.a6 San Juan River, UT 07.06.a8 Morgantown, WV

6. Rock Type — When 8. Rock Type — Coal, a
cemented together, shells carbon-rich rock, forms
and coral skeletons form when trees, vines, and
a variety of rock called other plants die, are bur-
limestone, made mostly ied, and become lithified.
of calcium carbonate. The black layer in the
This limestone contains photograph is coal.
many visible fossils.
What Are Some Common Nonclastic Sedimentary Rocks?

07.06.b1 Paradox, CO 07.06.b2 Eagle, CO 07.06.b3 Caesar Creek SP, OH
1. Rock salt refers to halite (NaCl) or to a rock 2. Gypsum refers to a mineral and a rock. 3. Some limestone forms from the calcium
mostly composed of halite. Halite commonly Like halite, it mostly forms when seawater carbonate remains of animals, such as coral,
precipitates from evaporation of water. evaporates in tidal flats and narrow seas. clams, and other hard-shelled creatures.
07.06.b4 Carlsbad, NM 07.06.b5 Colorado Springs, CO 07.06.b6 Durango, CO
4. Limestone and related rocks, like traver- 5. Chalk is a soft, very fine-grained limestone 6. If groundwater with dissolved magnesium
tine, also form inorganically, by precipitation that forms from the accumulation of the encounters limestone, an exchange of magne-
from water, through other chemical reactions, calcium carbonate remains of microscopic sium in the water for calcium in the rock can
or by a combination of biological and inor- organisms that float in the sea. Chalk forms change calcite into the mineral dolomite, form-
ganic processes. the famous White Cliffs of Dover, England. ing a rock called dolostone.
07.06.b7 Marin Headlands, CA 07.06.b8 Franklin Mtns., El Paso, TX 07.06.b9 Jasper Knob, Ishpeming, MI
7. Chert is a silica-rich rock that forms in sev- 8. Chert also forms when seawater and 9. Iron formation is a rock composed of
eral ways. One way chert forms is in layers groundwater mix, causing chert to precipitate. centimeter-thick layers of iron oxide, iron car-
from the accumulation of tiny, silica-rich plank- Such chert can form as irregular masses bonate, and iron silicate minerals, commonly
ton shells that fall to the ocean bottom and called nodules, as shown above, or as layers with quartz. Most iron formations precipitated
are later compacted and turned into rock. in limestone and dolostone. from seawater early in Earth’s history.
07.06.b10 07.06.b11 Witbank, South Africa

Describe how some sedimentary
rocks form through evaporation,
precipitation, or other chemical
reactions.
Describe how limestone forms.
10. Peat forms through the accumulation 11. Coal is peat that has been buried, com-
Describe how some sedimentary
7.6
of plant material, usually in swampy envi- pacted, and heated, losing most of its water
ronments. Peat is porous and retains much and oxygen in the process. Depending on the rocks form from the accumulation
of the textural character of the original amount of heat and pressure, coal can be soft of plant materials.
plant material. and dull or hard and shiny.
184
7.7 Why Do Sedimentary Rocks Have Layers?

MOST SEDIMENT IS DEPOSITED IN LAYERS. A sedimentary unit, such as a limestone or a sandstone, may be a
single thick layer or may include many smaller layers called beds. What aspects within a rock defines such layers, how
do the layers form, and what do they tell us about the conditions that existed during deposition?
What Types of Layers Do Sedimentary Rocks Contain?

Almost all sedimentary rocks contain layers. The layers vary greatly in thickness, lateral continuity, and characteristics that
define the layers. Boundaries between layers also vary; some are quite sharp and others are more gradational.
07.07.a1 Round Rock, AZ Thickness of Layers 07.07.a2 Northwestern NM
⊳ Many sedimentary terrains contain thick layers that have

consistent colors and expression wherever they appear in the
landscape. A rock unit that is distinct and laterally traceable,
like this cliff-forming sandstone, can be called a formation.
⊲ Sedimentary rocks commonly have layers that may be from

millimeters to meters thick. These layers are referred to as
beds or bedding.
07.07.a3 Durango, CO Definition of Layers 07.07.a4 Holbrook, AZ
⊳ Layers, whether they are thick enough to be considered a

formation or are very thin, may be distinct because of different
grain sizes than adjacent layers. This rock has beds of tan
sandstone (coarser grains) and dark-gray shale (finer grains).
⊲ Adjacent beds may contrast different compositions, such as

from a tan or cream-colored quartz-rich sandstone layer to a
layer having more clay and red iron oxide. Layers in this pho-
tograph vary in composition from one bed to the next.
07.07.a5 Ruby Canyon, CO

Boundaries of Layers
⊳ The boundary between two layers can be very sharp. In this
photograph, a slope-forming, thin-bedded sandstone partially 07.07.a6 Cortez, CO
covered with vegetation in the upper part of the photograph
sharply overlies a thick layer of reddish-brown sandstone that
forms a cliff. The cliff-forming sandstone changes downward into
beds of sandstone and reddish siltstone.
⊲ Boundaries between some layers are gradational, involving

a gradual change of grain size, composition, thickness of indi-
vidual beds, or all of these. In this photograph, a lower dark
shale, deposited in a shallow inland sea, grades progressively
07.07.a7 Punchbowl, CA upward into a tan sandstone that caps the peak and was
deposited along a shoreline. The first large influx of the sand
is represented by the distinct layer of tan sandstone in the
middle of the cliff, but the proportion of tan sand increases
and the amount of dark shale decreases upward.
⊳ Some sharp contacts show that the underlying unit was cut into (scoured) by erosion before the
overlying layer was deposited. Such scouring is common when rivers erode one layer before depos-
iting another layer on top. This photograph shows a gray conglomerate whose base scours into an
underlying brown sandstone.
How Do Layers in Sedimentary Rocks Form?

07.07.b1 Elkins, WV 07.07.b2 Punchbowl, CA 07.07.b3 Southwestern NM
1. Discrete Event — Some layers, or boundaries 2. Change in Current — The change from layer 3. Sediment Supply — Some layers record a
between layers, mark a discrete event, like a to layer may reflect a change in the strength change in the type or amount of sediment
flood. Each thin (5 – 10 cm thick), light-colored or direction of the current that deposited the being supplied. The tan, quartz-rich sandstone
layer in this photograph represents a single, sediment. Coarse-grained sediment is depos- in this photograph is between layers of con-
rapid influx of sand onto a muddy seafloor. ited by strong, turbulent currents. glomerate that contains limestone clasts.
07.07.b4 Goosenecks SP, UT 07.07.b5 Vermilion Cliffs, AZ
4. Sea-Level Change — A 5. Climate change — Some
global rise or fall in sea level boundaries between
can cause sedimentary envi- layers reflect regional or
ronments to change. Here, global changes of climate.
sea level rose and fell many The lower gray layers of
times, causing ledge-forming rock here formed from
marine limestone to alternate clay deposited during a
with slope-forming layers of wet period, and the top
marine and nonmarine layers formed from sands
shale and siltstone. deposited in a desert.
Graded Beds Cross Beds Parallel Beds

07.07.b6
6. Fill a jar
with water
and sedi-
ment of
mixed size,
and then
shake the
jar. The
07.07.b8
coarser
material will
07.07.b10 Labyrinth Canyon, UT
settle first, 7. When sand and silt move over a dune or
followed by underwater ripple, grains accumulate in thin 8. Most beds are parallel. Parallel beds form
successively beds on the down-current side of the dune under a variety of conditions and in many
finer sedi- or ripple, as shown above. Such beds are at cases simply reflect the piling of one layer
ment, as an angle to other beds in the same rock and on another.
shown here. so are called cross beds. Cross beds that are
Such variation, called a graded bed, forms if a centimeters to more than a meter high form
strong current loses velocity and drops pro- within rivers, deltas, and shorelines. Larger
gressively finer sediment. The beds below cross beds (▼) typically form in large sand
grade from tan, coarse sand upward to gray, dunes. Cross beds preserve the curved profile Before You Leave This Page
finer sand and mud. Graded beds, such as of the dune and the direction the wind was
these, indicate that the current slowed over blowing when the sediment was deposited. Sketch or describe the types of layers
time and deposited finer sediment over that sedimentary rocks contain,
coarser sediment. including how their thickness varies,
07.07.b7 Point Lobos, CA 07.07.b9 Kanab Canyon, UT
what defines the layers, and whether
their boundaries are sharp or
gradational.
7.7
Describe how layers, including graded

beds and cross beds, form.
186
7.8 Where Do Breccia and Conglomerate Form?

BRECCIA AND CONGLOMERATE are the coarsest kinds of clastic sedimentary rocks. Both include large clasts in
a matrix of finer material, which may be sand, silt, and clay, or commonly a mixture of all three. Breccia contains
angular clasts, whereas conglomerate has rounded clasts. What are the characteristics of these coarse-grained rocks,
and what do their clast size and shape tell us about where and how these rocks form?
What Are the Characteristics of Breccia, and Where Does Breccia Form?
The large clast sizes of breccia and conglomerate reflect deposition in an energetic environment, where large, heavy clasts
could be picked up and moved. Clasts in breccia are angular, which suggests minimal transport. Longer transport would have
rounded the corners and edges of the clasts, making conglomerate instead of breccia.
07.08.a1 Hieroglyphic Mtns., AZ 07.08.a2 Hopi Buttes, AZ

Characteristics
⊳ Breccia is typically a jumble of large, angular clasts in a matrix of
sand, mud, and pieces of rock. Breccia contains clasts having a
wide range of sizes and so is poorly sorted.
⊲ Most breccia forms massive layers, lenses, or wedges that are
meters to tens of meters thick, or locally much thicker. There is typi-
cally little visible bedding within a single breccia unit, because many
breccia units are deposited in sudden, chaotic events.
07.08.a3 Hieroglyphic Mtns., AZ 07.08.a4 Artillery Mtns., AZ

⊳ Some breccia, like this one, has a muddy or sandy matrix. Other
breccia has a matrix that has smaller angular clasts of the same
rock type as the large clasts. In volcanically active areas, the matrix
can contain volcanic ash and other rock fragments. When depos-
ited by glaciers, the matrix includes a fine powder formed by grind-
ing of rocks.
⊲ Some breccia consists of thoroughly shattered rock, and such
breccia commonly represents a landslide deposit. Some clasts may
be shattered but still loosely held together depending on how
strongly the rock was lithified.
07.08.a5 Grand Canyon, AZ

Environments of Formation 07.08.a6 Gros Ventre, WY
⊳ Some breccia forms from thick slurries of mud and larger clasts
that originate in mountains and flow down steep slopes and
through canyons. These muddy, debris-filled slurries are called
mudflows or debris flows.
⊲ Some breccias, especially those that consist of shattered, angular
fragments of rock, represent some type of landslide. The rocks
shatter as they travel downhill, collide with one another, and shake
apart. The angular fragments shown here are part of a rock slide.
07.08.a7 Inyo Mtns., CA 07.08.a8 Southeastern AK

⊳ Breccia also forms if steep mountain streams deposit sediment
along the mountain front. These deposits can form fan-shaped
piles of sediment in an alluvial fan.
⊲ Glaciers pick up loose clasts or grind them into fine dust. They
commonly deposit the combination of large clasts and fine sedi-
ment as an unsorted breccia with only minor rounding of clasts.
What Are the Characteristics of Conglomerate, and Where Does Conglomerate Form?
Conglomerate differs from breccia by having rounded, instead of angular, clasts. The greater rounding generally reflects
longer distances of transport by a stream or perhaps pounding by waves along a shoreline.
07.08.b1 Baja California, Mexico Clast Size 07.08.b2 Petrified Forest, AZ
⊳ Conglomerate contains large clasts, characteristically pebbles,

cobbles, or even boulders. The large clasts rest in a matrix of
sand and mud; they are well rounded in some conglomerates
and only partially rounded in others, like the one shown here.
⊲ Some conglomerate is finer grained, having few clasts larger

than a c entimeter or two. Such conglomerate represents less
turbulent conditions, a source region that lacked large clasts,
extreme abrasion of clasts during long transport, or some combi-
nation of these factors.
07.08.b3 Keweenaw Peninsula, MI Sorting 07.08.b4 Anza Borrego, CA
⊳ Some conglomerate is mostly clasts with relatively little matrix.

In the conglomerate in this photograph, many clasts rest directly
on other clasts, instead of being completely separated by the
sandy matrix.
⊲ Other conglomerate is less well sorted, containing scattered

large clasts in a fine-grained matrix. The cobbles and pebbles
shown here are surrounded by a matrix of mostly sand. Some of
the larger clasts rest on one another, but many do not.
07.08.b5 Superstition Mtns., AZ Environments of Formation 07.08.b6 Tibet
⊳ Conglomerate can form from sediment deposited in or near

a stream channel. The clasts can be rounded by even a moder-
ate amount of stream transport, and clasts that are transported
tens or hundreds of kilometers can become well rounded.
⊲ Braided streams migrate across alluvial plains, depositing

coarse sediment that can later harden into conglomerate. In con-
trast, meandering rivers do not carry such coarse sediment, and
so generally do not result in conglomerate.
07.08.b7 central California

⊳ Waves pound and churn stones on many beaches,
smashing the stones into one another and rounding
their corners and edges. Smaller pebbles and sand Before You Leave This Page
quickly become abraded and rounded, but even
larger cobbles and boulders may be moved and Sketch or describe the
abraded, especially during storms. The clasts may not characteristics of a breccia, and
be transported very far but are rounded by the con- identify some environments in which
stant action of the waves. this rock forms.
Sketch or describe the
characteristics of a conglomerate,
07.08.b8 Point Lobos, CA and identify some environments in
Conglomerate forms in other environments, including which this rock forms.
deltas and their offshore equivalents and in underwa-
ter turbidity currents near continental slopes. A high- Contrast breccia and conglomerate,
7.8
energy environment, recorded by large clasts (⊳), is and explain reasons why one rock
the common characteristic of all the different settings type might form instead of the other.
in which conglomerate forms.
188
7.9 Where Does Sandstone Form?

SANDSTONE IS A COMMON SEDIMENTARY ROCK because sand occurs in many environments, including stream
channels, sand dunes on land, and submarine canyons beneath the oceans. Different environments produce different
varieties of sandstone, each having distinctive characteristics. In what environments does s andstone form, and how do
the resulting sandstones differ?
What Are the Characteristics of Sandstone?

All sandstones, even if formed in different environments, share some common characteristics. By definition, sandstone is
mostly or wholly composed of sand-sized grains, and many sandstones are moderately to well sorted. Quartz is the dominant
mineral in most sandstone, but feldspar, iron oxides, calcite, and other minerals are commonly present.
07.09.a1 Durango, CO 07.09.a3 Ruby Canyon, CO
Sandstone contains mostly Most sandstone has layers that
sand grains. Some sandstone, differ in color, grain size, or
such as the one shown here, composition of the grains. Such
consists entirely of sand-sized layers can be parallel beds, as
grains. The individual sand shown here, or cross beds cen-
grains can be well rounded or timeters to tens of meters high.
angular, and variation in the Many layers mean many
proportions of minerals can changes in conditions during
define the beds. deposition of the sediment.
07.09.a2 Petrified Forest, AZ 07.09.a4 McElmo Canyon, UT

Sandstone can contain other Some sandstone layers appear
clast sizes, such as silt massive because they have little
(smaller than sand) or scat- variation of grain size, as in the
tered pebbles and granules sandstone in the lower part of
(larger than sand). Such rock this cliff. Thick layers of massive
is still called sandstone as sandstone generally were depos-
long as sand is the dominant ited by wind as sand dunes. The
clast size. top of the cliff has layered sand-
stone deposited by streams.
In What Land Environments Does Sandstone Form?

The sand needed to produce sandstone is deposited in streams, in migrating sand dunes, and in other land environments.
Terrestrial sandstone (sandstone formed from sand deposited on land) commonly has a pinkish or red color because of
oxidation of iron-bearing minerals during exposure to air and groundwater.
07.09.b1 Great Sand Dunes NP, CO 07.09.b3 Green River, UT
Environment — Sand dunes form Environment — Streams deposit
sandstone that is very well sand in channels and on the
sorted. Wind blows away finer adjacent floodplain. In this pho-
grains and cannot pick up large tograph, the floodplain is the rel-
clasts, so sand dunes usually do atively flat area with grass and
not include grains larger than trees. It is only covered with
sand. For this reason, most sand water, sand, and silt during
dunes are composed of a single large floods.
size of material (sand grains).
07.09.b2 Snow Canyon, UT 07.09.b4 Grand Canyon, AZ

Rock Type — This sandstone, Rock Type — Sandstone depos-
deposited by desert dunes, is ited by a river usually has dis-
made entirely of sand-sized crete layers reflecting floods
grains and has a reddish color and shifting positions of the
because of iron oxide minerals channel. It can be inter-layered
that cement the sand grains with siltstone and other rock
together. The unit has large types. These sandstone ledges
cross beds that reflect the alternate with more easily
shapes of original dunes. eroded siltstone.
How Does Sandstone Form Along Shorelines?

Most beaches are dominated by sand, so many beach deposits become sandstone. Sand also dominates many parts of deltas,
especially the channels and shallow-water parts of the delta.
07.09.c1 Clearwater, FL 07.09.c3 Dauphin Island, AL
Sandstones can form in a number Sand on a beach or barrier
of environments along shorelines, island can be transported by
such as on sandy beaches. The wind, forming coastal dunes as
sand on such beaches can be shown here. Sand can be car-
derived locally, from breaking ried by waves and gravity far-
apart local rocks or a nearby reef, ther offshore, where it accumu-
or they can represent material that lates on the seafloor, like in a
is brought into the system by riv- lagoon. Streams can also carry
ers, wind, and ocean or lake cur- sand and other materials to the
rents parallel to the coast. shoreline and farther out,
depositing them in a delta.
07.09.c2 Clearwater, FL 07.09.c4 Durango, CO
A typical ocean beach includes This outcrop changes from a
sand with shells, pebbles, and lower marine shale with thin
locally some larger blocks derived beds of sandstone to upper,
from nearby rock exposures. The thicker sandstone beds with
resulting sandstone may include less shale. The shale formed
these same things, although the from finer grained clays and
high energy of a beach environ- muds deposited in a near-
ment may destroy shells before shore marine environment,
they can be preserved. which was overrun by a delta
that deposited the sandstone.
How Does Sandstone Form in Offshore Environments?

Sand also accumulates at sites farther from shore, in deeper water. The sand is derived from the erosion of continents,
islands, deltas, reefs, and barrier islands but may be carried to deeper water by turbidity currents.
07.09.d1 Guadalupe Mtns., TX 07.09.d2 Big Island, HI
1. Continental shelves and other 2. The composition of sand
offshore areas can accumulate deposited near v olcanic areas
sand derived from erosion of land. reflects the kinds of rocks being
The sands are moved out onto eroded. Such sand contains
the shelf by waves and currents, less quartz than most sands,
and they are buried by later sedi- and it may contain pieces of
ment. The sand can remain on the volcanic rock. Such settings can
shelf or be transported farther out. produce black or even green
In either case, it can be beaches and s andstone.
interbedded with dark shale.
07.09.d3
3. If loose sand on the continental shelf or slope

becomes unstable, it flows down the sloping seafloor
as a thick slurry of sediment and water, creating a tur- Before You Leave This Page
bidity current. The beds deposited by these currents
contain sand, mud, and larger clasts and commonly Describe the characteristics of
display graded bedding that reflects a settling of sandstones, including their
coarse material before fine material. This example of a expression in landscapes.
turbidity current was created in a laboratory tank.
Describe the land environments in
which sandstone forms, and how
07.09.d4 Point Lobos, CA
you might distinguish sandstone
4. Each of these tan sandstone beds is interpreted to formed by sand dunes from those
represent a turbidity current (i.e., a slurry of sediment formed by rivers.
and water) because many exhibit graded bedding and Describe how sandstone forms
7.9
are interbedded with dark, deep-water marine shales. along beaches, in deltas, and in
Fine-grained mud, represented by the dark shale lay- offshore environments.
ers, continued accumulating after each turbidity current.
190
7.10 How Do Fine-Grained Clastic Rocks Form?

THE MOST ABUNDANT CLASTIC SEDIMENTARY ROCKS are fine grained, consisting of grains that are smaller
than sand. Compared to coarser sediment, fine sediment is easily transported by water or wind, even by slow-moving
water or wind. Fine sediment can remain in transit until it reaches fairly quiet conditions in a lake, sea, or floodplain.
The resulting s edimentary rock may be siltstone or shale. Shale is one of the most common rocks exposed on land,
in part because clay is the dominant sediment on the seafloor.
What Are the Characteristics of Fine-Grained Clastic Rocks?

Fine-grained clastic rocks consist mostly of clasts of fine grains of silt and clay. Silt is slightly finer than sand, and a rock
dominated by silt is called a siltstone. Clay particles are finer grained than silt and may become shale when lithified. Mud
includes both silt and clay, and the resulting rock is called mudstone or mudrock.
07.10.a1 San Juan River, UT 07.10.a3 Durango, CO
Siltstone consists of small Shale has particles that are
grains that are not visible too small to see even with a
with the unaided eye. hand lens. It has very thin
Siltstone can contain some beds and characteristically
fine sand grains, as in this splits into thin flakes or
example. It c ommonly chips, as in this photograph.
occurs in centimeter-thick It is a relatively weak rock
beds, but some wind- that easily erodes into slopes
deposited siltstone beds and makes poor outcrops.
are meters thick.
07.10.a2 Holbrook, AZ 07.10.a4 Zuni uplift, NM

Mudstone is a fine-grained Shale and mudstone can
rock that is similar in many form thick sequences that
ways to shale, so some are almost entirely fine-
people do not distinguish grained materials but some-
the two rock types. times are interbedded with
Mudstone breaks into sandstone or limestone.
pieces that tend to be Depending on the environ-
more rounded than the ment, shale and mudstone
thin chips into which can have various colors.
shale weathers.
In What Land Environments Do Siltstone and Shale Form?

Silt and clay accumulate in several terrestrial (on-land) settings. In most of these settings, deposition occurs in slow-
moving or even stagnant water. Wind can also deposit silt and clay.
07.10.b1 Brazos River, Bryan, TX 07.10.b3 Tibet
Floodplains of meandering Wind can transport and
rivers are dominated by deposit silt over large areas.
silt and fine-grained sand. Dur- Windblown silt was espe-
ing floods, silt is carried farther cially abundant during past
from the channel than are periods of glaciation, when
coarser sediments like sand moving ice sheets ground
and gravel. As the floodwaters rock into powdery silt-sized
slow, they deposit silt. particles. Such windblown
Between floods, grass and silt layers can be tens of
other plants grow on the meters thick, like the loose
nutrient-rich silt. material here (⊳).
07.10.b2 Republic, MI 07.10.b4 Nepal
Lake bottoms are covered Chemical weathering con-
with mud carried to the lakes verts many minerals into
by streams, wind, and erosion clay, which then accumu-
of adjacent hillslopes. Lakes lates as a layer of soil on
produce soft, thin-bedded the surface. If such soils are
rocks that are dark if rich in lithified, they usually form
organic material. fine-grained rocks.
Where Along Shorelines and Farther Offshore Do Silt and Clay Accumulate?
Silt and clay form in several shoreline and ocean environments. The ocean basins are vast, and clay covers more
of the seafloor than any other type of sediment, so shale is a common sedimentary rock.
07.10.c1 Acadia NP, ME 07.10.c3 Book Cliffs, UT
Some shorelines have Mud can also accumulate
mud flats, which are in shallow continental
flooded by high tides and seas, on continental
during storms. When dry, shelves, and on adjacent
these muddy flats may continental slopes. The
expose salt, gypsum, and lower gray shales shown
other evaporite minerals here formed in a shallow
that form when seawater sea within the North
evaporates. American continent.
07.10.c2 Grand Cayman, Cayman Islands 07.10.c4 Olympic NP, WA

The relatively calm water Many shales form from
of a lagoon is an efficient sediment deposited in
trap for mud and clay car- seas and ocean basins,
ried from land by streams where fine particles are
and wind. Lagoons com- carried by wind and ocean
monly produce light gray currents. Deep-water shales
or greenish shales, along are dark gray due to a high
with white sands derived organic content and rela-
from the disintegration tively low oxidation on the
of coral and shells. deep seafloor.
How Are Fine-Grained Clastic Rocks Expressed in the Landscape?

07.10.d1 Grand Junction, CO
1. Shale, mudstone, 2. Fine-grained rocks com-
and siltstone are rela- monly are partially or
tively easily eroded entirely covered by soil or
rocks. Where exposed, loose debris (talus) from
these rocks typically overlying, more-resistant
form soft slopes cov- rocks. Here, outcrops of red
ered by small, loose mudstone project through a
chips derived from surficial cover of light-col-
weathering of the ored talus derived from
thinly bedded rocks. sandstone cliffs.
07.10.d2 Wilson Cliffs, NV
07.10.d3 Comb Ridge, UT
3. During erosion of landscapes, streams prefer-
entially carve their channels into shale and Before You Leave This Page
siltstone because these rocks are so easily
eroded. Many streams follow shale-rich units Describe the main characteristics
across the land surface, and may even follow the of shale and siltstone, including which
shales around folds. The desert wash in this pho- rock has the finest particles.
tograph follows a layer of fine-grained rocks
around the bend of a broad fold. Describe the land environments
in which shale, mudstone, and
siltstone form.
07.10.d4 Petrified Forest, AZ Describe the environments near
4. Shale and associated fine-grained rocks form shorelines and farther offshore in
another distinctive type of landscape — badlands. which shale and siltstone form.
Badlands have a soft, rounded appearance that
reflects the softness of the rocks. Badlands also Describe how some shale and
7.10
have an intricate network of small drainages and siltstone are expressed in the
eroded ridges because erosion is not restrained by landscape, including some of
strong beds in the rocks. the landscape features they form.
192
7.11 How Do Carbonate Rocks Form?

LIMESTONE AND RELATED SEDIMENTARY ROCKS are called carbonate rocks because they consist of a carbon-
ate ion combined with calcium, magnesium, or other elements. Most carbonate rocks form directly from water through
chemical or biological processes, but some are clastic rocks consisting of pieces derived from shells, coral, or the erosion
of carbonate bedrock.
What Are the Characteristics of Carbonate Rocks?

Limestone is a common rock and exists in many varieties, all of which consist mostly of the mineral calcite (CaCO3).
Calcite can convert to the mineral dolomite by the addition of magnesium (Mg), which produces the carbonate
rock dolostone. Limestone and dolostone commonly occur together.
07.11.a1 San Juan River, UT 07.11.a3 Durango, CO
Limestone typically is a gray Dolostone is made mostly
rock. Its color ranges from of the mineral dolomite
almost white to dark gray, and resembles limestone,
but it can also have shades but it is more resistant to
of yellow, tan, or brown. It is weathering and erosion
soluble, so it commonly has because it is less soluble.
a “dissolved” appearance. It Dolostone can be gray,
is soft enough to be easily but it commonly is tan,
scratched by metal and effer- light brown, pinkish, or
vesces when tested with even slightly orange.
hydrochloric acid.
07.11.a2 07.11.a4 Franklin Mtns., El Paso, TX

Most limestone includes fos- Some sedimentary rocks
sils of shells, corals, fish, and contain a mixture of car-
other marine organisms, like bonate with clay, quartz,
the fossil crinoids shown or some other noncar-
here. Limestones that form in bonate clastic material.
lakes may have fossils of Intermixed clay may give
nonmarine organisms, such the rock a greenish, tan,
as freshwater fish. dark gray, or pinkish tint.
It can also give the rock
a mottled appearance.
In What Nonmarine Environments Do Carbonate Rocks Form?

Most limestones form in marine environments, but limestone can also be deposited around springs, in lakes,
and as coatings and other features on the floors, roofs, and walls of caves. Carbonate layers also accumulate
during soil development in dry climates.
Limestone forms in lakes in hot, dry climates Travertine, a variety of limestone, is usually Limestone in some lakes occurs as coatings
that experience large amounts of evaporation. cream-colored and porous (has open spaces). or irregular masses of white carbonate mate-
These limestones usually have creamy tan or It can precipitate in cold springs, hot springs, rial. In some exceptional cases, this carbonate
brown colors, like the limestones and darker lakes, and caves. Most travertine is layered forms pillars, such as these at Mono Lake
shales shown here. because different layers precipitate at different in eastern California.
07.11.b1 Green River, UT times, coating preexisting materials. 07.11.b3 Mono Lake, CA
07.11.b2 Tonto Natural Bridge, AZ
How Do Carbonate Rocks Form in Marine and Nearshore Environments?

Most carbonate rocks form in marine settings, including reefs and other shallow-water environments on the continental shelf.
Carbonate can also accumulate in deeper water environments, but not the deepest seafloor, because carbonate dissolves
under these conditions. Carbonates also form on low-lying mud flats and along shorelines dominated by carbonate sand.
07.11.c1 Windley Key Fossil Reef Geological SP, FL 07.11.c3 Akumal, Mexico
Reefs are important c arbonate Storms and waves break off
environments. Coral and other pieces of reef and grind the
reef organisms extract calcium pieces of coral and shells
carbonate from the water to into calcite sand. Such
build their skeletons, shells, calcite-rich debris forms
and stems, which then become white, sandy beaches, like
incorporated into the reef. the one in this photograph. If
Reef-formed limestones, includ- buried and lithified, the cal-
ing the one shown here, nor- cite beach sand becomes a
mally contain these fossils. type of clastic limestone.
07.11.c2 San Juan River, UT 07.11.c4 Durango, CO

Lime muds, formed from the Dolostone forms when
remains of carbonate-secreting magnesium-carrying fluids
organisms or through chemical interact with limestone. The
processes, accumulate on con- fluids cause the calcite to be
tinental shelves. Such lime- replaced by dolomite. This
stones commonly are in replacement is usually not
sequences with shale and complete, so the rocks are
sandstone, recording changing part limestone and part
conditions on the shelf, espe- dolostone, each weathering
cially changes in sea level. in its distinctive way.
How Are Carbonate Rocks Expressed in the Landscape?

Limestone is a very common and distinctive sedimentary rock that covers large areas of North America and other
continents. It is generally recognized from a distance by its gray color, well-bedded character, and common pock-marked
or irregular erosion texture.
07.11.d1 Guadalupe Mtns. NP, TX 07.11.d2 Guilin, China
1. In some relatively dry 2. In wet climates, weather-
climates, limestone and ing, erosion, and dissolution
dolostone are fairly of limestone may not affect all
erosion-resistant rocks. areas equally but instead may
The rocks can form gray leave behind pillars of gray
cliffs and steep slopes limestone. Many pillars repre-
composed of beds that sent areas that are less frac-
may vary slightly in tured or were otherwise more
thickness and color. difficult to dissolve.
07.11.d3 Pedernales Falls SP, TX
3. Limestone, and to a lesser extent dolostone, are very

soluble and so in moderately wet to very wet climates,
they weather and erode quickly. They commonly contain
caves and small openings formed where the carbonate Before You Leave This Page
rocks dissolved away. Dissolving of limestone is often
most pronounced along fractures, as is shown here. It Describe the characteristics of
can also preferentially remove material along bedding limestone and dolostone.
surfaces, which provide access for water into the rocks.
Describe the environments in which
07.11.d4 Longhorn Caverns SP, TX limestone, dolostone, and other
4. Many caves form when groundwater dissolves lime-
deposits of calcium carbonate form.
stone in the subsurface. The groundwater carries away
the soluble carbonate and leaves an opening behind. If Describe how carbonate rocks are
7.11
the roof of such a cave collapses, a closed depression, expressed in the landscape, including
called a sinkhole, forms on the surface (⊳). Sinkholes sinkholes and limestone pillars.
can damage buildings, roads, and utilities.
194
7.12 How Do Changing Environments Create

a Sequence of Different Kinds of Sediments?
MOST SEDIMENTARY ROCKS ARE IN A SEQUENCE, with multiple layers deposited one on top of another. The
layers in a sequence may all be the same rock type, perhaps limestone, but more commonly include a variety of rocks.
What changes in environment occur that result in a sequence of different rock types?
What Happens When Environments Shift Through Time?

Environments that move across Earth’s surface over time can result in a sequence of different sedimentary rocks.
One common change is for seas to advance across a region, covering more land with time, due either to a rise
in sea level or a lowering of the land. Such an advance is called a transgression and is illustrated below.
1. At the earliest time, a shoreline s eparates Time 1

marine environments to the left from beach 3. Sediment is being deposited on the beach
and land environments to the right. and offshore. The land, however, is being
eroded and there are no sediments depos-
2. Sand and pieces ited on land at the time when the beach sand
of shell are depos- is forming. The time is instead represented on
ited along the beach land only by an erosion s urface.
and outward into
nearby shallow
water, forming a
4. At some later time (Time 2, below), sea
layer of sand.
level rises, and so the sea and beach begin
07.12.a1
to move in across the land.
5. The area that used to be

covered by beach sand is now Time 2
far enough from the shoreline 7. As the sea advances,
to have clear water in which a beach sand is deposited over
coral reef flourishes. areas that used to be land.
The base of the sand layer is
a buried erosion surface from
6. A lagoon is between the reef
the previous time period.
and shoreline. The relatively tran-
quil water of the lagoon traps mud
that accumulates on the seafloor.
8. The lagoon is located where a sandy bottom
used to exist, so lagoon mud is deposited over the
07.12.a2
older layer of beach sand.
9. As the sea moves farther inland, the center

12. Note that different environments
of the area becomes a reef. Comparing this
figure to previous ones reveals that the area of
Time 3 exist at the same time, like a lagoon
and a beach. A different type of sedi-
the reef was originally near a beach and then
ment is deposited in each
was a lagoon before becoming a reef.
environment, and each
10. The offshore progression results in a type of sediment is called
sequence of beach sand overlain by lagoon a sedimentary facies.
mud, which is overlain by limestone. The depositional environ-
ments shown here would
produce sediment with a
11. Therefore, when the sea advances across the beach facies, a lagoon
land, shoreline deposits are progressively overlain facies, and a reef facies. The
by sediments that represent areas farther and far- term facies is used for the sediment
ther offshore. This progression of sediment types 07.12.a3 and the resulting sedimentary rock.
is characteristic of a transgression.
What Happens When the Sea Moves Out?

The opposite of a transgression occurs when the sea retreats and more land is exposed. A retreat of the sea is called
a regression and occurs when sea level becomes lower or the land is uplifted. A regression is illustrated below,
starting with the sequence previously deposited by the transgression (previous page).
1. As the sea moves out Time 4 3. As the shoreline retreats toward the sea, the beach and lagoon follow.
during a regression, the
sedimentary environ- 4. Sand that previously was close to the beach is
ments shift toward the now being eroded and is available for reworking
sea (to the left in this by the wind, rain, and slumping due to gravity.
series of figures).
5. Farther from shore, beach sand is deposited
2. Any sediments over lagoon mud, and lagoon mud is being depos-
deposited during the ited over reef limestone.
regression will be
stacked on top of the pre-
vious three layers that formed
during the transgression. 07.12.b1
Why Sedimentary
6. As the regression contin- Time 5 8. Wind remobilizes beach
Layers End
A
ues, the sedimentary facies sand into a series of coastal
shift farther toward the sea. sand dunes. As the sea ll sedimentary layers eventually end.
The reef is retreats, the dune That is, they covered only a limited
now out of facies can fol- part of Earth’s surface. One reason lay-
view to low the shore- ers end is because a facies ends, as shown by
the left. line toward the thinning out and disappearance of the
the sea. lagoon facies toward the right side of the previ-
ous illustrations.
7. Lagoon mud A layer also can end because it is deposited
builds out over 9. The beach only within a channel, such as the river channel
the limestone (all sand and dune sand shown below. Coarse gravel accumulates inside
the way to the left build toward the sea, partially the channel (a channel facies) but does not
07.12.b2
edge of the model). covering the lagoon mud, which in turn extend outside the channel.
overlies the earlier formed limestone.
Time 6
10. During a regression, the sea
retreats, and deeper marine
sediment is successively
overlain by shallower
marine sediment, shore-
line deposits, and, if
the sea retreats far
enough, land facies.
07.12.t1
07.12.b3
Stratigraphic Sections
07.12.b4 Sketch or describe what happens
07.12.b5
11. This section (⊳) shows 12. This stratigraphic during a transgression and during a
the sequence of sedimen- section (⊳) shows the regression, including which way
tary rocks deposited dur- sequence deposited sedimentary facies shift.
ing the transgression, during the regression,
when the sea was moving Sketch an example of a sequence of
when the sea was mov-
in. An erosion surface, ing out. Limestone is rocks formed during a transgression
carved on bedrock at the overlain by mudstone, and contrast it with a sequence
base of the section, is which is overlain by formed during a regression.
7.12
successively overlain by beach sandstone. In a regression, marine Sketch or describe two reasons why
beach sandstone, units will be overlain by units deposited sedimentary layers end.
mudstone, and limestone. along the shoreline or deposited on land.
196
7.13 How Do We Study Sedimentary Sequences?

An important goal of geology is to reconstruct past events and environments. We do this by observing a sequence of
rocks and noting characteristics that provide clues to the environment in which each rock unit formed. We then inter-
pret the past environments by comparing these characteristics to sediment in modern environments. Studying a sequence
of rocks allows us to infer how conditions changed over time.
What Attributes of Sedimentary Rocks Are Indicators of Environment?

Sedimentary rocks contain many clues about the environment in which they formed. Nearly every attribute, such as the size
or shapes of clasts, provides some information that we can use to infer the environment of deposition.
Color of Rocks Clast Size, Shape, and Sorting Thickness of Bedding

1. Red sedimentary rocks generally form on 2. Large, angular, poorly sorted clasts, like 3. Thick bedding implies bigger events, faster
land where they can be oxidized (rusted) by those below, indicate strong currents and lim- rates of deposition, or longer times between
the atmosphere, whereas dark gray sedimen- ited transport, whereas small clasts indicate environmental changes. Thin bedding, as illus-
tary rocks usually form under water and in weak currents. Rounded, well-sorted clasts trated below, implies smaller events or more
low-oxygen conditions. reflect more transport or reworking by waves. rapidly changing conditions.
07.13.a1 San Juan River, UT 07.13.a2 Hassayampa Canyon, AZ 07.13.a3 San Rafael River, UT
Types of Bedding Mudcracks Fossils

4. Certain types of bedding reflect specific 6. When wet mud dries, the sediment con- 8. Fossils of land plants, like these ferns, indi-
conditions of formation. These graded beds tracts and produces polygon-shaped pieces cate that sediment was deposited on land.
indicate that the strength of the current surrounded by cracks that can fill with sand, They also provide information about tempera-
decreased through time or that suspended as in the modern example (with animal tracks) ture, elevation, amount of rainfall, and other
material settled out of water during floods. below. These are called mudcracks. environmental conditions.
07.13.a4 New River, AZ 07.13.a6 Northern AZ 07.13.a8
07.13.a5 Cedar Mesa, AZ 07.13.a7 Grand Canyon, AZ 07.13.a9 Clearwater, FL

5. Large-scale cross beds in a well-sorted 7. Sedimentary rocks having mudcracks must 9. Marine fossils are diagnostic of deposition
sandstone generally indicate deposition by have been deposited on land and in environ- in seawater and can provide information about
wind as a series of large sand dunes. ments where wet sediment could dry out. temperature, salinity, and clarity of the water.
Indicators of the Direction That Water or Wind Currents Flowed

07.13.a10 St. George, UT
07.13.a12 Nambia
10. Cross beds, whether they form in 11. Large clasts in a river normally are 12. Ripple marks are small ridges and
streams (as these did), in sand dunes, or inclined opposite to the direction in which the troughs formed by moving currents. Some
beneath the sea, slope down in the current flows (current is to the left). This prop- ripples have a steeper side toward the direc-
direction in which the current flowed, in erty, called imbrication, can be used to infer tion of current flow. In other examples, back-
this case toward the left. past flow direction from some conglomerate. and-forth waves create symmetrical ripples.
What Can We Observe and Interpret in a Sequence of Sedimentary Rocks?

We often can infer past events, environments, and changes in the environment by carefully observing a sequence of
rock layers. We examine the kinds of rocks, what order they are in, whether there are fossils, and many other things.
These observations are the basis for interpreting the environment that each rock layer represents. Try this reasoning by
reading each observation, pausing to think about that observation and then reading the interpretation below, starting
with the oldest rocks on the bottom.
Sequence of
Sedimentary Rocks 5. Observation — a reddish-gray breccia is at the top of the sequence. It is poorly sorted with angular boulders of
granite in a mud-rich matrix. Interpretation — the large, angular clasts indicate only minor transport of the clasts, per-
haps in a debris flow from a nearby steep terrain, such as a mountain. The mountainous terrain consisted of granite.
4. Observation — near the top is a tan sandstone. Lower parts of the unit include broken shells, but the upper part
has fossils of land plants and coal. Interpretation — the change of the types of fossils in the sandstone is consistent
with the unit having formed along a shoreline, perhaps in a beach or delta as the sea was retreating.
3. Observation — the middle of the sequence is thick, gray shale with an intervening layer of limestone. The shale
contains shallow-water marine fossils, including clams, and the limestone contains fossil coral. Interpretation — the
shale and limestone accumulated in the shallow part of a sea. The shale may represent offshore muds or a lagoon;
the limestone represents a reef.
2. Observation — a layer of tan sandstone overlies the red sandstone and includes marine shell fragments. Interpre-
tation — this tan sandstone is interpreted as a beach sand or a sand that formed in shallow ocean water.
1. Observation — a red sandstone at the base of the sequence is well sorted and contains large cross beds. Inter-
pretation — the well-sorted sand and large cross beds are consistent with the sandstone having been deposited on
land as a series of large sand dunes.
07.13.b1
Interpretation of the Change in Sediment Type over Time

In addition to specific interpretations about each unit, we can infer changes in the environment
by comparing each unit with the unit above it. Begin at the bottom with the oldest unit, and
work upward toward younger units.
Describe the attributes that we
Units 1 to 2. The change from the sand dunes Units 3 to 4. Sometime after the limestone observe in sedimentary rocks and
to overlying beach sands and marine shales formed, the sea retreated during a regression. how each indicates something about
with limestone is evidence of a transgression, Delta sands with land plants were deposited the rock’s origin and environment.
an advance of the sea toward the land. over the marine shales.
Given a sequence of rocks and a
7.13
Unit 3. The sea probably reached its maximum Unit 5. Finally, steep, granite mountains formed list of key attributes, interpret the
advance during deposition of the limestone. during some tectonic event. The mountains environment of each rock and how
The shoreline at this time was far enough away shed large granite clasts onto nearby areas, the environment changed.
to allow coral to grow in clear water. perhaps in a series of debris flows.
198
7.14 Why Are Sediments and Sedimentary

Rocks Important to Our Society?
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS AND THE RESOURCES we get from them are essential to our modern society.
Sediments and sedimentary rocks are our main sources of groundwater, oil and natural gas, coal, salt, and material
for making cement and construction aggregate. Besides providing resources, sedimentary rocks are important because
they help us understand the geologic h istory of Earth, including climate change and how life originated and changed
through time.
How Do Sedimentary Rocks Control the Distribution of Resources?

Sedimentary rocks host many of our most important resources. Some resources, such as coal and salt, originated as
sedimentary deposits, whereas other resources are most common in sedimentary rocks because these rocks permit
the flow and entrapment of fluids, including water and petroleum.
Groundwater Petroleum Coal
07.14.a1 07.14.a2 07.14.a3
Groundwater, shaded here in blue, occurs Almost all petroleum (oil and natural gas) Coal, shown here as dark layers, forms a
predominately in sediment and sedimentary comes from sedimentary rocks. Oil and gas sedimentary rock through the consolidation
rocks. Most groundwater resides in the pore form in organic-rich sedimentary rocks and of plant remains that a
ccumulate in swamps,
spaces between sedimentary grains and in then migrate upward until they reach the deltas, and other wetland environments.
fractures, and most of the liquid freshwater surface or are trapped at depth. Petroleum Most coal is burned to make steam to gen-
on Earth is in groundwater, not lakes. is vital to our society. erate electrical energy.
Cement from Limestone Salt Uranium
07.14.a4 07.14.a5 07.14.a6
Cement is produced from limestone that is Salt is either mined from ancient sedimen- Uranium deposits commonly occur in
relatively free of sand, silt, chert, and other tary salt layers or is harvested by evapo- sandstone and other sedimentary rocks,
impurities. We use cement to make concrete rating salty water. It is used in the prepa- but the uranium commonly was brought into
for highways, bridges, building foundations, ration of food, medicine, and various the area by migrating groundwater. It is used
and other construction projects. industrial products. to generate electricity.
How Do Sedimentary Rocks Help Us Understand Earth’s Geologic History?

Sedimentary rocks are the primary source of information about ancient environments, climate change, and past
events. Fossils in sedimentary rocks are the main record of how life originated and evolved.
07.14.b1 Indonesia 07.14.b2 Grand Canyon, AZ 07.14.b3 Georgetown Lake, MT
Geologists study modern environments to By studying ancient sedimentary rocks, we Sedimentary rocks provide important data for
understand the processes that are occurring, observe the record of past environments. investigating climate change. By understand-
the types of sediment produced, and how From these observations, we can interpret the ing the severity and possible causes of past
these environments may affect where we live character and distribution of different facies, climate changes, such as prolonged drought,
and what we do. The scientist above is study- how environments changed through time, and we can better understand possible conse-
ing the effects of a large destructive wave how resources formed in the environments. quences of future climate changes, such as
associated with a deadly earthquake. global warming or cooling.
07.14.b4 Buckskin Mtns., AZ 07.14.b5 Green River, UT 07.14.b6 Durango, CO
Sedimentary deposits and rocks allow us to Sedimentary rocks are the main way we study Fossils allow us to study ancient life, including
examine the record of past events, including the sequence of past geological events, such the types of organisms that lived at different
landslides (shown here), storms, and earth- as advances of the seas, migration of ancient times and the environments in which they
quakes. Studying these deposits and rocks deserts, and erosion of mountains. The suc- lived. By studying the succession of fossils
enables us to infer the processes that cession of rock layers above, from beach sand- from one layer to the next, we observe how
occurred and consider how the events affect stone at the base to upper limestone cliffs, life on Earth evolved, and we may infer the
the landscape and life around them. records a transgression. causes of the observed changes.
Sand and Gravel — The Most Used Sedimentary Resource
R
esources such as gold, oil, and diamonds In some cases, clasts are crushed to achieve a Before You Leave This Page
easily capture our interest because they smaller desired size.
are so precious or because we depend so After the material is sorted into the correct Describe or sketch some of the
highly on them. However, we use sand and sizes, it can be added to cement to make con- main resources that occur in
gravel in much greater quantities. crete and concrete blocks, added to clay to make sedimentary rocks.
The phrase sand and gravel, defined as a tile, or used as fill beneath buildings and roads.
resource, refers to sediment that commonly is In the United States, 700 to 900 billion tons Describe how sedimentary rocks help
excavated from pits and used in various types of sand and gravel are used each year, approxi- us understand modern and ancient
of construction. It includes clasts of various mately two or three tons per person. The amount environments, events, and life.
sizes, from clay, silt, and sand, to pebbles, used in any year varies along with the economy,
7.14
Describe sand and gravel as a

cobbles, and boulders. The material sometimes going up when there are more construction proj- resource and how we use these
is used as it is, but it more commonly is poured ects, such as building highways and construct- important materials.
through large screens to sort the clasts by size. ing new homes and neighborhoods.
CONNECTIONS
7.15 How Did Sedimentary Layers
West of Denver Form?
THE FOOTHILLS OF THE FRONT RANGE west of Denver, Colorado, contain spectacular exposures of sedimentary
rocks. The layers have been folded and tilted along the mountain front and form dramatic landscapes. The area provides
an example of how to integrate various aspects of sedimentary rocks to interpret the geologic history of a region.
How Are the Sedimentary Layers Exposed?

The figure below shows a geologic map superimposed on topography of an area west of Denver. The colors show the
distribution of different sedimentary layers and other rock types. The front of the figure is a geologic cross section that
shows the interpreted geometry of rock layers at depth. Begin reading on the lower left.
3. A sequence of diverse sedimentary rocks, 4. Green Mountain, a round hill, is east of the mountains
including marine shale, beach and delta and contains the highest and youngest sedimentary
sandstone, river deposits, and windblown rocks in the map area.
sandstone, overlies the red rocks.
5. A long, gently curving ridge called the Dakota
2. Red sandstone and conglomerate were Hogback is a dominant feature of the landscape.
deposited on top of the metamorphic This ridge is formed by relatively resistant
and igneous basement. They are col- sandstone of the Dakota Formation, which
ored blue on this map because this is slopes down eastward away from the moun-
the standard color used for Paleo- tains. On this figure, the sandstone is colored
zoic rocks. The layers were later green, a standard color for Mesozoic rocks.
tilted and now dip eastward off
the mountain front. These rocks 6. Low areas on either side of the
form the dramatic exposures at hogback are underlain by more easily
Red Rocks Amphitheater, a eroded, fine-grained sedimentary
famous venue for music concerts. layers, mostly shale.
1. The Front Range is part of the 7. The rock sequence continues into
Rocky Mountains and consists the subsurface where it is folded and
mostly of Precambrian metamorphic cut by a series of faults. An oil field
and granitic rocks. These are was found by studying the sedimen-
the oldest rocks in the area and tary layers and predicting where to
underlie all other rock units, and drill to find oil s everal kilometers
so they are called basement rocks. beneath the surface.
07.15.a1
How Are the Sedimentary Layers Expressed in the Landscape?

07.15.b1 Red Rocks Park, CO 07.15.b2 Golden, CO 07.15.b3 Golden, CO
Red Rocks Amphitheater nestles within the low- This view looks along the Dakota Hogback, A spectacular freeway roadcut exposes tilted
est sedimentary unit, a series of reddish con- which follows a tilted, resistant sandstone Jurassic and Cretaceous rocks. A trail across
glomerate and sandstone layers that dip away layer of the Dakota Formation. The sand- the sequence is accompanied by descriptions
from the mountain. Precambrian basement stone is tilted to the right (east), and Red of each rock formation, its ancient depositional
rocks compose the mountains to the left. Rocks is to the left (west). environments, and its fossils.
200
What History Is Recorded in the Sedimentary Rocks?

The history of this area is depicted below in a stratigraphic section and a summary of key characteristics, photographs,
and maps illustrating the interpreted environments. Begin at the bottom of the section with the oldest layer.
7. Cenozoic conglomerate and sandstone, exposed at Green Mountain, at the top of
the section include clasts derived from the Precambrian crystalline rocks of the Front
Range and from some local volcanic terrains. These rocks resulted from the forma-
tion and erosion of the mountains 70 m.y. to 40 m.y. ago.
6. The shale is overlain by late Mesozoic (Cretaceous) sandstone, shale, and coal
with plant fossils. These layers were deposited on land and along shorelines.
5. A thick sequence of gray shale is next. It contains marine shells, shark teeth, and
fish bones. The unit includes beds of limestone and sandstone deposited during 07.15.c2 Golden, CO
minor transgressions and regressions, respectively.
4. The Dakota Formation, lying above the Morrison Formation, contains plant fossils,
dinosaur tracks, and sedimentary features, such as ripple marks, that indicate it repre-
sents shoreline and beach facies. The upper two photographs to the right show rip-
ple marks and dinosaur tracks on the tilted beds.
3. The Morrison Formation, famous for its dinosaur fossils and tracks, is middle
Mesozoic in age (Jurassic). It includes shale, sandstone, and freshwater limestone,
and is interpreted to have been deposited in wetlands, rivers, and lakes.
07.15.c3 Golden, CO
2. A sequence of mostly red late Paleozoic and early Mesozoic rocks overlies the
red conglomerate and breccia. The upper part contains mudstone and marine lime-
stone and is interpreted to have been deposited in a coastal mud flat. It also con-
tains well-sorted, cross-bedded sandstone, interpreted to represent sand dunes.
1. The lowest sedimentary unit is a reddish sequence of sandstone and poorly
sorted, coarse conglomerate and breccia (⊲). This unit is interpreted to have been
deposited by rivers and debris flows that drained an ancient mountain range called
the Ancestral Rockies. The unit is late Paleozoic in age and rests on Precambrian
basement rocks.
07.15.c1
07.15.c4 Red Rocks Park, CO
Paleogeographic Maps for Three Chapters in the Geologic History of Colorado 10. Late Mesozoic — A shallow
sea stretched from the Arctic to
8. Late Paleozoic — Sandstone and 9. Early and Middle Mesozoic —The region was a continental environment the Gulf of Mexico and was later
coarse, reddish conglomerate dominated by mud flats, sand dunes, lakes, and river systems. These envi- overrun by deltas from the west.
formed from sediment shed off the ronments (▼) changed their distribution over time and so deposited a The Dakota Formation accumu-
Ancestral Rockies. Salt and other sequence of different sedimentary layers, including mudstone, sandstone, lated during the transgression,
evaporites formed in inlets of sea- and conglomerate. Dinosaurs roamed the landscape, leaving tracks and and marine shales accumulated
water that evaporated (▼). bones in the Morrison Formation of Jurassic age. in the shallow sea (▼).
07.15.c5 07.15.c6 07.15.c7

7.15

Describe how the characteristics and sequence of sedimentary rocks can be used to reconstruct the
geologic history of an area. Use examples from sedimentary rocks west of Denver.
7.16 What Is the Sedimentary History
of This Plateau?
A plateau in northern Arizona exposes a sequence of various kinds of sedimentary rocks. Some sedimentary units were
deposited on land, and others were deposited by shallow seas. Using key observations about each rock unit, you will
reconstruct the history of these sedimentary rocks.

• Use photographs or samples to make observations about the sedimentary layers.
• Interpret a possible environment for each sedimentary layer.
• Use a stratigraphic section to infer how the environment changed through time as layers were deposited.
Observe the Sequence and Characteristics of Sedimentary Layers

Observe this photograph, which shows a sequence of layers, and try to identify boundaries between different sedimentary
units. Next, compare your observations with the observations and interpretations next to the photograph and with the
information on the next page. Record your observations and ideas on a sheet of paper, perhaps built around a simple sketch
of the scene. Your instructor may also provide you with rock samples.
1. The highest rock unit exposed in this area forms an uppermost tan and brown cliff and steep slope. There are some color variations
within the cliff, which mostly reflect slightly different colors of the different layers. The colors and other aspects of the cliff are common
in many sandstones. Although not visible here, the cliff-forming unit and nearby underlying layers contain beds of coal, some of which are
large enough to mine nearby for the production of electricity.
07.16.a1 Black Mesa, AZ
2. Below the cliff are a series of gray and tan ledges. Between the ledges are slopes, which
are mostly covered by loose pieces weathered and eroded off the ledges and overlying
cliff. The alternating ledges and slopes are a clear expression of layers. The ledges are
similar in appearance to those formed by sandstone, and the slopes probably contain
easily eroded, fine-grained sedimentary rocks, like shale and siltstone.
3. Below the ledges is a gray slope, which has badlands topography
nearby. The rock forming the gray slope has some faint layers, but all of
the layers are similar. It looks fairly soft and nonresistant to erosion, as
is common for fine-grained rocks like shale. The gray color of the
rock implies that the unit was deposited in conditions that were not
rich in oxygen.
4. The soft gray rocks directly overlie a tan

and cream-colored cliff. The cliff-forming unit is resistant to
erosion, and weathers like many sandstones do.
Elsewhere in the region, the sandstone is
more tilted and forms a series of
resistant ridges, or hogbacks.
5. The cliff overlies a series of

soft, thinly layered rocks that are
maroon, reddish brown, gray,
and cream colored. The rocks
are poorly exposed and com-
posed of fine-grained, easily
eroded sedimentary rocks. They
contain dinosaur fossils. Most
rocks that have this reddish
color were deposited on land.
202
Interpret the Sedimentary History of the Sequence of Layers

The stratigraphic section below shows the relative thicknesses of the units. The oldest unit is on the bottom and the
youngest is at the top. Photographs and brief descriptions of each rock unit accompany the stratigraphic section. Your
instructor may provide you with samples of similar rocks. Follow the steps below to propose a plausible interpretation for
the environment of deposition for each sedimentary unit and for how the environment changed from one rock unit to the
next. Write your answers to the following questions on the worksheet, on a sheet of paper, or online.
1. What is your interpretation of the environment for each of the four rock units? List two key attributes of each unit
that support your interpretation.
2. What is the oldest environment represented by this rock sequence?
3. Does the change of environment from the base of the section up to the thick gray shale indicate an advance
(transgression) or retreat (regression) of the sea? Explain the reasons for your answer.
4. Does the change from the thick gray shale to the overlying sandstone indicate a transgression or a regression?
Explain the observations that support your answer.
5. Which of the following phrases summarizes the history of the entire sequence: (a) a transgression, (b) a regression,
(c) a transgression followed by a regression, or (d) a regression followed by a transgression?
6. Compare the sedimentary sequence represented by the figure below to the one exposed west of Denver
(presented earlier in this chapter). What name from the Denver area would you apply to the lower, yellowish-tan
sandstone in this plateau?
07.16.b2 Black Mesa, AZ
This unit includes sandstone, mudstone, and layers of coal (shown in

black). The upper part of the unit contains sandstone beds with small
cross beds. The mudstone has mudcracks and plant fossils. The lowest
part of the unit contains tan sandstone with broken marine shells. This
photograph (⊲) shows thin layers of black coal in this unit.
07.16.b3 Shiprock, NM
This shale is medium to dark gray because it has a high amount of

organic matter. It contains fossils of clams and other marine organisms.
Thin limestone beds are locally present in the middle of the unit but are
not shown in the section. The shale and limestone contain abundant
marine fossils. The photograph (⊲) shows a close-up of the transition
from the shale to the overlying sandstone.
07.16.b4 Farmington, NM
This unit is mostly a yellowish-tan sandstone containing quartz sand with

small pieces of marine shells. As shown in the photograph (⊲), the very
base of the unit is a thin conglomerate that overlies a scoured erosion
surface. This lower part locally contains fossils of wood and leaves.
The lowest unit includes a conglomerate with moderately rounded peb-

bles and coarse sand containing scattered rounded pebbles and pieces 07.16.b5 Church Rock, AZ
of fossilized wood. The conglomerate is overlain by reddish, maroon,
and gray shale and mudstone with plant fossils. This photograph (⊲)
7.16
shows a nearly circular dinosaur track where a large, plant-eating

dinosaur with huge round feet stepped into and pressed down the
then-soft sediment.
07.16.b1
CHAPTER
8 Deformation and Metamorphism

ROCKS ARE HEATED AND SUBJECTED TO HIGHER PRESSURE as they are buried. They can also be subjected
to forces from burial or tectonics. The new conditions can cause deformation, where rocks are squeezed, stretched,
sheared, or broken. The conditions can also cause metamorphism, expressed by the growth of existing mineral grains,
the formation of new minerals, the development of different rock textures and fabrics, or typically all of these. Defor-
mation and metamorphism can occur independently of each other, or they can affect a rock at the same time, working
together to remake the rock into a different rock type, a metamorphic rock.
The Appalachian Mountains and adjacent parts of the eastern United States dis- This distinctive region has alternating ridges and valleys.
play a wide variety of landscapes. This image shows satellite data superimposed Some of the ridges and valleys are straight, but others
on topography for part of southeastern Pennsylvania. The image includes curv- curve back and forth across the landscape. This region
ing mountains and is named the Valley
ridges (green) alternat- and Ridge Province.
ing with lowlands (pink-
ish brown). The large How did these unusual
river is the Susque- landscapes form, and
hanna River, which what do they tell us
flows south and cuts about the architec-
across the ridges ture of the under-
and lowlands. lying rocks?
Choose a ridge
and follow it
across the
region. What
does it do?
What other
features do
you observe
as you
examine
this image?
08.00.a1
The landscapes of the Valley and

Ridge Province, as shown in this cross
section for an area south of the map,
reflect large folds in the Paleozoic
sedimentary rocks. Some of the folds
are tens of kilometers across and more
than 100 km (62 mi) long (⊲).
08.00.a2
How do we figure out that large folds
are present in an area?
204
Deformation and Metamorphism 205
8.1 How Do Rocks Respond to Stress? 206 8.10 What Processes Occur in Extensional
8.2 How Do Rocks Respond to Changes in and Strike-Slip Settings? 224
Stress, Temperature, and Fluids? 208 8.11 How Are Different Structures and
8.3 How Do Rocks Fracture? 210 Metamorphic Features Related? 226
8.4 What Are Different Types of Faults? 212 8.12 How Are Geologic Structures and Meta-
morphic Rocks Expressed in the Landscape? 228
8.5 What Are Folds and How Are They Shaped? 214
8.13 How Do We Study Geologic Structures
8.6 What Are Some Metamorphic Features? 216
and Metamorphic Features? 230
8.7 What Are Some Common Metamorphic Rocks? 218
8.14 CONNECTIONS: What Is the Structural and
8.8 How Does Metamorphism Occur? 220 Metamorphic History of New England? 232
8.9 Where Does Metamorphism Occur? 222 8.15 INVESTIGATION: What Structural and
Metamorphic Events Occurred Here? 234
08.00.a3 Tennessee 08.00.a4 Sideling Hill, MD
The cross section on the facing page has dark lines (with arrows) that Large folds warp the rock layers of the region, in this view folding the
represent faults offsetting the rock layers. In this region, these faults layers into a U-shape. During folding, imposed forces and slightly
commonly stack one layer of rock on top of another, as does the fault increased temperatures caused metamorphism, where mineral grains
in this photograph; the fault in the photograph is highlighted with a rotated, changed shape, and partially recrystallized or dissolved. These
dashed line and arrow. changes produced breaks, called rock cleavage, which here cut
steeply across the folded layers.
Which type of fault are these, and what caused the faults to move?
Are the faults and folds somehow related? How and under what conditions do folds and cleavage form?
Origin of the Valley A broad region of the eastern United States,

including the Valley and Ridge Province, is cov-
within and below the slices, such as those in the
Valley and Ridge Province, responded to the
and Ridge Province ered by Paleozoic sedimentary rocks, which
formed between 541 and 252 million years ago.
forces by folding, faulting, and squeezing out of
the way. As rocks were squeezed, they were bur-
T
he Appalachian Mountains are famous for These rocks were deposited in shallow seas, ied and heated. Mineral grains grew together or
their curving ridges and beautiful shorelines, rivers, and other environments. The underwent chemical reactions to produce new
valleys. Among geologists, they are also sedimentary rocks of the Appalachian Mountains minerals, a key process of metamorphism. Sub-
known for their beautifully folded layers and for were folded, faulted, and heated several times sequently, when the region was uplifted, the folds
the way the folds influenced the landscape. The during the Paleozoic. The deformation culmi- and faults guided erosion, which carved away
scenery, rocks, and geologic features of the nated with a continental collision between Africa some rock layers faster than others. Weaker rock
region reflect a complex geologic history that and eastern North America approximately units, like shale, were eroded more quickly to
includes four main periods of tectonism that 300 million years ago. The collision uplifted the form valleys, while more resistant rock units
caused rocks to deform. One of these mountain- central part of the Appalachian range and forced formed ridges. Such erosion resulted in the dis-
8.0
building episodes resulted in the folds, faults, huge slices of rock up and over sedimentary tinctive valleys and ridges that reflect the shape
and cleavage of the Valley and Ridge Province. rocks west of the mountains. The rock layers of the folded layers.
206
8.1 How Do Rocks Respond to Stress?

ROCK CAN BE SUBJECTED TO STRESS resulting from burial, tectonic activity, heating or cooling, and other pro-
cesses. If the stresses are strong enough, they cause a rock to deform — move, rotate, change shape, or some combina-
tion of these. What kinds of stress affect rocks and what types of deformation can result?
What Are Force and Stress?

Force is a push or a The amount of force If the same amount
pull that causes, or divided by the area of weight is on a
tends to cause, upon which the force much thinner pillar
change in the motion is applied is called the (⊳), the stress (force
of a mass (⊳). It is stress. The force from per unit area) on
commonly expressed a metal weight (⊳) is the pillar is greater.
as the amount of distributed evenly It might cause the
acceleration experi- across the top of a pillar to splinter or
08.01.a1 enced by a mass. broad, wooden pillar. break.
08.01.a2 08.01.a3
What Kinds of Stress Affect Rocks, and What Is the Strength of Rocks?
Rocks within Earth are subject to stress applied by the surrounding rocks. Any point within the earth is affected by stresses
from all directions, and the entire array of stresses is called the stress field. We simplify the stress field by showing only the
stresses applied from three mutually perpendicular directions. The size of the blue arrows in the figures below corresponds
to the amount of stress — larger arrows signify more stress.
Confining Pressure Differential Stress
1. Any point within Earth is pushed downward by the weight of overlying rocks. 2. If stress from tectonics or another source affects the rock,
Adjacent rocks also experience this weight and so push outward in all direc- the imposed stress may add to or subtract from the confin-
tions against other rocks. The rock experiences the ing pressure. As a result,
same amount of force from each direction. We use the amount of combined
the term confining pressure, rather than stress, stress will be greater in
when the force imposed on the rock is the same some directions than
amount from all directions. Water in the pore in others, and the rock is
spaces of a rock exerts a fluid pressure that pushes subjected to differential
outward in all directions and opposes the inward- stress. Differential stress is
directed confining pressure on the rock. High fluid what deforms rocks.
pressure acts to decrease the confining pressure.
08.01.b1 08.01.b2
Strength of Rock Strength of Continental Crust at Depth

3. When a small amount of 6. The strength of continental 7. At shallow levels of the crust, rocks deform by
stress is applied to a rock, the crust varies as a function of depth fracturing and other types of brittle deformation.
rock may contract slightly because temperature and pres- Rocks in the upper crust become stronger with
like an elastic material but sure both increase downward (▼). depth because increasing confining pressure acts
otherwise is strong enough to hold rocks together and makes slip along any
08.01.b3 to be undeformed. fractures more difficult.
INCREASING STRENGTH
0 8. Deeper, where pressure and temperature are
4. As stress increases, the rock S greater, rocks can flow as a weak solid, a behav-
remains essentially undeformed Ro Ro tres BRITTLE
ck s
Re ck to Ca ior that is called ductile deformation. There is a
as long as the strength ma u
ins Frac ses gradational boundary, or transition, between the
of the rock is greater Inta tur
upper brittle and lower ductile parts of the crust.
ct e
than the amount of This typically occurs at a depth of approximately
DEPTH (km)
08.01.b4 differential stress. BRITTLE-DUCTILE 15 km and temperatures of more than 300°C, but
TRANSITION is shallower in anomalously hot regions. At greater
5. If the imposed stress exceeds ion depths, the effects of temperature dominate over
t
the strength of the rock, the rock rma
De
fo es the effects of pressure, and rocks become pro-
fails structurally, either a us w
s C lo gressively weaker as they become hotter; they
sts
by fracturing, folding, or es o F tate

i
Str ck t lid S can flow more easily in the solid state. The
Res
flowing as a weak Ro So DUCTILE strength of the crust, therefore, decreases rapidly

Rock
solid. in
08.01.b5
30 downward and responds by d uctile flow.
08.01.b6
How Do Rocks and Other Earth Materials Respond to Force and Stress?
Rocks, sediment, and soil within Earth are subjected to forces from the weight of overlying rocks, from tectonic forces
pushing or pulling on the rocks, from cooling and heating, and from pressurized fluids, such as water and magma. Just like
the wooden pillar on the previous page, if a force is concentrated (i.e., high stress), a rock
can break or otherwise deform. As a result, geoscientists normally talk about stress
instead of force. These figures show stress with a blue arrow.
A volume of rock (or other earth material) may remain unchanged if subjected to only a small amount of stress (⊲).
If the imposed stresses are greater, three things can happen. The rock may be displaced from one place to another, 08.01.c1
it may be rotated, or it may have its shape modified, or strained. All three responses may occur at the same time.
Displacement Rotation Strain

In response to stress, a volume of rock may A volume of rock may be rotated in response A rock can respond to stress by deforming
be moved, or displaced, from one place to to stresses. Rotation can tilt the rock or spin it internally — changing size or shape by ductile
another. During displacement, a rock can horizontally. The rock layers in the photograph or brittle deformation. A change of size or
behave as a rigid object or change shape as below (▼) were deposited as horizontal layers, shape is called strain. Stress is the cause, and
it moves. In the photograph below, a thin, but the layers have since been rotated (in this strain is the effect. Below, originally rounded
light-colored granite has been displaced by case, tilted). Rotation can be expressed by tilt- pebbles in a conglomerate were strained in
movement along fractures (▼). ing, folding, or a partial spin of the rock. response to stress squeezing the rock (▼).
08.01.c2
08.01.c6
08.01.c4
08.01.c3 Tortolita Mtns., AZ 08.01.c5 El Dorado Canyon, CO 08.01.c7 Granite Wash Mtns., AZ
How We Determine the Strength of Rocks Before You Leave This Page
T
he strength of any material, including a can also be investigated by examining how
Describe or illustrate the concept
rock, is normally determined in the rocks, such as those in deep mines and drill
of stress.
laboratory by gradually increasing the holes, respond to natural stresses.
amount of stress on a sample until it deforms. Sketch and describe the difference
08.01.t1
The samples in this photograph were com- between confining pressure and
pressed end-on until they bulged or fractured differential stress.
and slipped. Some rocks are stronger than oth- Sketch and summarize how the
ers, so deformation experiments must be per- strength of rocks varies with depth.
formed on many different kinds of rocks. These
Sketch or describe the three ways
8.1
experiments are conducted under temperatures

and pressures appropriate for different depths that a mass of rock can respond
to stress.
in the crust and mantle. The strength of rocks
208
8.2 How Do Rocks Respond to Changes in Stress,

Temperature, and Fluids?
HOW ROCKS RESPOND TO STRESS depends on three main factors: the type and magnitude of stress, the pressure
and temperature conditions, and the amount of fluid present in the rock. The interaction of these factors leads to many
different geologic structures, including fractures, folds, and mineral-filled fractures (veins).
How Do Rocks Respond to Differential Stress?

Rocks may be subject to three types of differential stress: compression, tension, or shear. The way in which rocks respond to
these stresses varies as a function of depth because rock strength and behavior changes with depth, as pressure and temp
erature increase downward in the crust. The examples below show how rocks respond to different types of stress under shallow
levels of the crust (i.e., less than 10 to 15 km deep and under brittle conditions) and at deeper levels of the crust (i.e., more
than 10 to 15 km and under ductile conditions).
Compression Tension Shear

Type of Stress
08.02.a1 08.02.a4 08.02.a7
1. When a stress pushes in on rock, 4. When stress is directed outward, pulling 7. A third type of stress acts to shear the
the stress is called compression, shown the rock, the stress is called tension. Tension rock as if stresses on the edges of a block
by the inward-directed arrows above. is shown with stress arrows pointing away were applied in opposite directions.
from the rock.
Shallow Levels of Crust
08.02.a2 08.02.a5 08.02.a8
2. Compression in shallow levels of 5. Tension can form fractures that help the 8. Shearing in shallow parts of the crust
the crust can cause rocks to deform by rock stretch as it is pulled apart. Fluids, if usually forms a fault, which is a fracture
brittle processes, perhaps causing the present, can deposit minerals in the fracture, along which two rock masses have slipped
rock to fracture and slip. forming a mineral-filled vein. Tension may also past one another.
cause slip along fractures (not shown).
Deeper Levels of Crust
08.02.a6
08.02.a9
08.02.a3
6. Tension is difficult to maintain deep in the
crust because the high confining pressure
3. In deep parts of the crust, where pushes inward and generally is greater than 9. In deep, ductile environments, shearing
rocks are hot enough to flow, com- any forces pulling the rock apart, but differen- commonly is distributed across a wide zone.
pression can squeeze the rocks and tial stress can act like tension, stretching the Rocks within the zone of shearing deform
form tightly squashed folds and new rock. If accompanied by high fluid pressure, and flow as weak solids. A zone of shearing
metamorphic structures. stress can fracture the rock and form veins. is called a shear zone.
What Processes Affect Rocks at Different Depths?

The structural behavior of rocks changes as temperature and stress increase with depth. The changing conditions also
influence the stability of minerals and the way rocks react to water and other fluids. Below are some examples of the
variations in rock response to deformation and to changes in temperature, pressure, and fluids for shallow depths (within
10 km of the surface) and for greater depths (below 10 to 15 km).
Rock Behavior Mineral Response Effect of Fluids

1. Rocks can respond to stress by brittle 4. A mineral may become unstable or it 7. Fluids, such as water, can help minerals
fracture or else by flowing like toothpaste may not be affected as temperature and grow or dissolve and can affect the
squeezed from a tube. pressure change. strength of a rock.
08.02.b1 Whipple Wash, CA 08.02.b3 Chino Valley, AZ 08.02.b5 Lovell Wash, NV
Shallow
2. At cool, shallow levels of the crust, 5. At low temperature, many minerals, 8. Low-temperature fluids have little
rocks usually exhibit brittle behavior and like quartz in these cobbles (▲), are sta- effect on many rocks but may form
respond to stree by fracturing (▲). ble, barely responding to the conditions. mineral-filled fractures, called veins (▲).
08.02.b2 McDowell Mtns., AZ 08.02.b4 Clearwater, ID 08.02.b6 Northern Cascades, WA

Deep
3. At deeper levels, where temperature 6. At high temperature and pressure, min- 9. At depth, hot water and other fluids
and pressure are higher, rocks usually erals commonly recrystallize into larger or can mobilize chemical constituents, form
respond to stress by flowing as a weak smaller crystals, and new minerals (▲) may high-temperature veins (▲), and promote
solid, or exhibit ductile behavior (▲). grow at the expense of existing minerals. recrystallization of minerals.
Determining the Conditions at Which a Mineral Is Stable
T
o study the interior of Earth, scientists other geoscientists to subject rocks and minerals
investigate conditions where different to high temperatures and pressures, simulating
Sketch and describe the three
minerals are stable. One approach is to conditions within the deep Earth. Geoscientists
types of stress, and provide
observe rock samples from drill place a small sample inside the examples of the structures that
08.02.t1
holes, but such observations are device and then raise the tempera- each type forms at shallow and
usually limited to the upper several ture and pressure. After a specific deep levels of the crust.
kilometers of the crust. To investi- time, the sample is cooled, depres-
gate deeper environments, geoscien- surized, removed from the device, Describe the differences in
tists study rocks that were at depth and then examined with a micro- structural behavior, mineral
but were later uplifted by tectonics scope and other analytical instru- response, and effect of fluids
and exposed by erosion. ments to determine which minerals between shallow and deep
Geoscientists also investigate were stable under the high tem- environments.
deep environments by doing a vari- peratures and pressures and which
8.2
Briefly describe how we study

ety of laboratory experiments. Spe- ones were not. the conditions under which a
cial laboratory devices, like the one specific mineral is stable.
shown here, permit geologists and
210
8.3 How Do Rocks Fracture?

FRACTURES ARE THE MOST COMMON geologic structures. They range from countless small cracks visible in an
outcrop to huge faults hundreds or thousands of kilometers long. What are the different types of fractures, how do the
different types of fractures form, and how are fractures expressed in landscapes?
In What Different Ways Do Rocks Fracture?

There are two main types of fractures: joints and faults. Joints and faults both result from stress but have different kinds
and amounts of movement across the fracture.
Joints Faults
1. Most fractures form as simple cracks rep- 3. A fault is a fracture where rocks have
resenting places where the rock has pulled slipped past one another (⊲). Rocks across
apart by a small amount (⊳). These cracks a fault can slip up and down, as shown
are called joints and are the most common here, or they can slip sideways or at some
type of fracture. other angle. A fault displaces the rocks on
one side relative to the other side. 08.03.a3
08.03.a1 08.03.a2 Joshua Tree NP, CA 08.03.a4 Moab, UT
2. This granite (⊲) is 4. The long fracture

cut by a series of near the center of
near-vertical joints. this photograph (⊳)
The granite is simply cuts across and
pulled apart by a offsets the rock
very small amount layers. That is, the
along each joint. layers across the
Weathering makes fault have been
each joint become displaced relative to
wider with time. each other.
How Do Joints Form?

Joints form when stress pulls a rock apart. The orientation of joints is controlled by the amounts of stress imposed
from different directions. In the diagrams below, the size of each arrow reflects the magnitude of stress in that
direction. Larger arrows indicate that greater stress is being applied in the direction shown.
Stress Environments in Which Joints Form

⊳ The simplest way that a joint can form is by tension, where stresses pull on the rock.
The joint forms as a plane that is perpendicular to the direction of tension. Tension joints
only form in shallow levels of the crust because deeper levels have too much confining
pressure from the weight of overlying rocks.
⊲ At most crustal depths, joints can form because fluid pressure opposes the inward push
08.03.b1
of confining pressure. The block shown here is subjected to differential stress, with the
least amount of compression being in the direction shown by the smallest arrows. Joints
form perpendicular to this direction of least stress, even though the stress is pushing in.
08.03.b2
Stress Orientations Control the Orientations of Joints

⊳ Vertical joints form when the stress field allows the rock to be pulled apart in a hori-
zontal direction. The vertical joints can form in any compass direction, depending on the
orientation of the stresses. A rock pulled in a north-south direction, for example, will have
joints oriented east-west.
⊲ Horizontal joints form if a rock is pulled apart in a vertical direction. This can occur, as
08.03.b3
shown here, when tectonic stresses push on the sides of the rock, which causes the ver-
tical stress to be the smallest stress.
08.03.b4
What Other Stresses Form Joints?

The stresses that form Stresses build up Stresses also
joints arise from many as rocks get arise during
sources, but they warmer or cooler. uplift of buried
mostly are due to As some igneous rocks, causing
burial and to tectonic rocks cool, they rocks to frac-
forces. Tectonic forces contract into ture due to
may push, pull, or 08.03.c3
polygon-shaped reduced pres-
shear the rock. These columns bounded 08.03.c5 sure. These
08.03.c1 volcanic rocks (▼) are by joints that commonly meet at 120° joints, called
cut by vertical joints formed angles. The photograph below (▼) shows unloading joints, form parallel to the sur-
by tectonic stresses. an example of such columnar joints. face and slice off thin sheets of rock (▼).
08.03.c2 South Fork, CO 08.03.c4 Iceland 08.03.c6 Estes Park, CO
How Does a Fault Form?

Most faults form when horizontal or vertical compressive stress exceeds the rock’s strength. One way to study fault
formation is by subjecting a cylinder of rock to increasing stress until it breaks.
1. A cylinder of 2. As the stress 3. When the 4. Once a fracture
unfractured rock is increases, the applied stress forms, continued
used to investigate rock sample exceeds the application of
how rocks deform. experiences some strength of the stress causes rock
We can apply com- internal strain, rock, a fracture on one side of the
pressive stress bulging slightly (⊳) forms (⊳) at an fracture to slip (⊳)
parallel to the axis as it is shortened angle to the relative to rock on
of the cylinder. (decreased in compressive the other side. This
08.03.d1 08.03.d2 length). 08.03.d3 stress. 08.03.d4 fracture is a fault.
5. To apply these laboratory experiments to faults in the crust, envision the cylinder
as part of a block of rock being subjected to stress.
6. Vertical compression 7. If we put the block on Before You Leave This Page
(⊳) forms a fault having its side and compress it
an orientation like that horizontally (⊳), we can Sketch and describe the two main
of the fault in this cylin- form a vertical fault that types of fractures and how
der. shears the rocks side- each forms.
ways (laterally).
Sketch and summarize how the
08.03.d6 orientation of joints reflects the
orientation of stresses.
8. If we place the block on its other side, the hor-
Summarize how different joints form
izontal compression can form a gently inclined
and are expressed in the landscape.
08.03.d5 fault (⊳), along which the top of the cylinder
moves upward and over the lower part. Whether
8.3
Summarize how a fault forms relative

horizontal compression forms this type of fault or to compression and why faults form
a vertical fault like the one above depends on with different orientations.
stresses from the other directions.
08.03.d7
212
8.4 What Are Different Types of Faults?

FAULTS ARE FRACTURES along which rocks have slipped. Stresses on rocks are highly variable, and rock proper-
ties also vary, so we should anticipate that there can be different types of faults.
How Do We Describe Faults?

Fault surfaces can have any orientation, from vertical to horizontal, and slip along a fault can be up-and-down, side-to-side,
or somewhere in between. We describe the orientation and movement directions of faults with some special geologic terms.
Dip Strike
1. The right side of this block is a fault surface that 2. If water floods the area, it will intersect, or
is inclined to the right. If we pour water on this strike, the fault surface along a horizontal line.
surface, it will flow, or drip, directly down the fault. The direction of a horizontal line on an inclined
The water is flowing down what geologists call the surface is the strike. We describe the orien-
dip of the fault surface. We say that this fault dips tation of a surface’s strike relative to
to the right. We describe the amount of dip in true north. We might say, for exam-
terms of degrees from horizontal or use terms ple, that a fault has a “northeast
such as steep, moderate, and gentle. This strike.” Strike and dip are used to
fault has a moderate dip. Note that we do describe layers, joints, and other
not need to have water for a surface to planar features, in addition to faults.
have a dip — we only show the water to 08.04.a2 We do not need to have water for a
08.04.a1 help you visualize what dip means. surface to have a strike.
Dip-Slip Fault Strike-Slip Fault Oblique-Slip Fault

3. Slip along a fault can be parallel to the 4. Slip along a fault can occur in a horizontal 5. Slip along a fault can also occur in a direc-
dip — one block moves up or down relative direction, parallel to the strike. In this exam- tion that is oblique, being parallel to neither
to the other block. This type of fault is called ple, the right block slipped horizontally back the dip nor the strike. Here, the right block
a dip-slip fault. In this example, the right relative to the left block. Slip was parallel to moved up and back relative to the block on
block moved down the dip (▼). strike, and this fault is a strike-slip fault (▼). the left. This is an oblique-slip fault (▼).
08.04.a3
08.04.a4 08.04.a5
What Do We Call the Rocks Above and Below a Fault?

A fault separates the rocks into two fault blocks, shown as different colors in the illustration below. The names we apply to
these two blocks came from miners who explored for minerals along faults and veins.
1. The hanging wall is the block above the fault. It hung over the 3. Forming an overhang (▼), the hanging wall of this fault is on the
miners’ heads and was a place to hang lanterns. left. The geologist is standing on the footwall block.
08.04.b2 Lincoln Ranch fault, AZ

08.04.b1
4. The footwall
2. Miners
of this fault con-
could walk on
sists of folded
the block
and steeply
below the
tilted red sedi-
fault, and this
mentary rocks.
block is the
footwall.
What Are the Main Types of Faults?

We classify faults based on the motion of one block relative to the other. There are three main types of faults: normal faults,
reverse faults, and strike-slip faults. Black arrows show relative movement, and blue arrows show stress.
Normal Fault
1. If the hanging wall moves down relative to the
footwall, the fault is called a normal fault. A normal
fault forms when the rock units are pulled apart
and lengthened, as for example by tension (⊳).
2. A normal fault can have a gentle dip, either

because it formed that way initially or because it
formed with a steeper dip but rotated during or
08.04.c1 after faulting (⊲).
08.04.c2
Reverse Fault
3. If the hanging wall moves up relative to the
footwall, the fault is a reverse fault. A reverse fault
forms as a result of horizontal compression and
shortens the rock units in a horizontal direction (⊳).
4. A reverse fault that has a gentle dip is a thrust

fault. The sheet of rock above the fault is called a
thrust sheet and is pushed up and over footwall
08.04.c3 rocks. We depict thrust faults with teeth on the thrust
sheet, as shown here (⊲).
08.04.c4
Strike-Slip Fault
5. When rocks along a fault move with a side-to-side motion, parallel to the
strike of the fault surface, the fault is a strike-slip fault. Relative motion is hori-
zontal, offsetting the blocks laterally in one direction or the other.
6. To refer to the direction in which the 7. If the opposite side of the
two sides moved, imagine standing on fault is offset to the right rela-
one side of the fault and observing which tive to the other side, the
way the other side moved relative to you. In strike-slip fault is a right-lateral
this figure (⊳), the opposite side is displaced to fault (⊲). Note that it does not
the left across the fault, and we call this kind of matter which side you start on
08.04.c5 strike-slip fault a left-lateral fault. to determine which way the 08.04.c6
opposite block moved.
Relative Displacement of Fault Blocks

8. Faults commonly break 9. A block that is
the crust into large, fault- uplifted relative to
bounded blocks. If one fault blocks on either Sketch and describe the concepts of
block is dropped down side is called a dip, strike, hanging wall, and footwall.
along normal faults relative horst. Large
Sketch and describe the three main
to blocks on either side, the regions of the
types of faults, showing the relative
resulting feature is called a American South-
graben. Graben can refer to west have horsts displacement and the type of stress.
8.4
the down-dropped block or (mountains) and Sketch and describe a horst

to the resulting valley. grabens (valleys). and graben.
08.04.c7
214
8.5 What Are Folds and How Are They Shaped?

DEFORMATION CAN FOLD ROCK LAYERS, both at depth and at the surface. The folded layers may be bent in
gentle arcs or squeezed tightly into sharp angles. We classify folds based on their shape and orientation. Knowing the
names of different types of folds gives us a convenient way to describe what we observe in landscapes and outcrops.
What Is a Fold and What Are the Main Types of Folds?

⊳ 1. Before folding, most rock layers are horizontal
because most sedimentary and volcanic layers form
with a more or less horizontal orientation.
2. Compressive stress causes shortening, often accom-

modated by folding of the layers. When you scrunch
up a rug, the folds (creases) are perpendicular to the
direction of shortening, as shown here for rocks (⊲). 08.05.a2
Compression can form folds, faults, or both.
08.05.a1
08.05.a3 Tibet
Anticlines and Synclines

⊳ 3. If the rock layers warp
up, in the shape of an A, the
fold is generally called an anti-
cline. In an anticline, the oldest
rocks are in the center of the
fold. This fold is an anticline.
08.05.a4 Tibet
4. If rocks fold down in
the shape of a V or U,
the fold is generally
called a syncline. In a
syncline, the youngest
rocks are in the center of 08.05.a5
the fold. This fold is a 5. Synclines and anticlines occur 6. The downward fold of layers on the
syncline (⊳). together, usually as part of a series of right side of the diagram is a syncline.
folds. The upward fold of the layers on The beds that dip to the right in the cen-
the left of the diagram is an a
nticline. ter of the diagram are part of both folds.
Dome Basin
08.05.a6
08.05.a7
7. Layers that are uplifted in a circular or elliptical area and dip 8. A basin, formed by folding, is the opposite of a dome. Layers
away in all directions form a dome. Erosion exposes deeper and dip toward the center of the basin from all directions. The center of
older rocks in the center of this dome. a basin usually preserves younger layers than surrounding areas.
Monocline 08.05.a9 Grand Junction, CO
08.05.a8
9. In some folds, nearly flat layers bend down (dip) in one direction and then flatten out 10. This photograph shows a medium-sized
again. This type of fold is a monocline, a name that indicates that the fold only has one dip- monocline in sandstone layers. Horizontal lay-
ping segment. Monoclines can be tens of kilometers long or exposed in an outcrop. Some ers on the left bend down in the center of the
monoclines have great names, like the Coxcomb, Waterpocket fold, and Comb Ridge in image (dip to the right) and then fold back to
Utah and Arizona. The monocline shown here is part of the San Rafael Swell in central Utah. horizontal on the right side of the image.
What Is the Geometry of Folds?

A fold has different parts, including the place where it is the most curved and places where the layers are hardly bent at all.
These parts and their orientations are used to describe folds.
3. The hinge of a fold can be horizontal

Hinge, Limbs, and Plunge or inclined from horizontal. If the fold
hinge is not horizontal, as in the fold
1. The part of a fold that is most sharply shown here (⊳), the fold is said to be
curved is the hinge. Some geologists also plunging. The plunge of a fold refers to
refer to a hinge as a fold axis. the direction and the amount that the
fold plunges (points down). Based on
2. The planar or less curved parts
the orientation of its hinge, a fold can be
of a fold are the limbs of the fold.
horizontal (non-plunging), or gently,
They can be relatively planar, as
moderately, or steeply plunging.
shown here, or somewhat curved. 08.05.b1 08.05.b2
Axial Surface
⊳ 5. This axial surface is inclined and so the
4. An imaginary fold does not look symmetrical with respect to
plane or curved Earth’s surface. Such a fold is an asymmetric
surface, called the fold. The two limbs dip by different amounts.
axial surface, can
be fitted through
the hinges of each ⊲ 6. In this fold, the left limb has been
folded layer within rotated more than 90°, so the limb is said to
a fold. If the axial 08.05.b3 08.05.b4 be overturned. The fold is an overturned fold. 08.05.b5
surface is vertical,
a fold is said to be 08.05.b6 Provo Canyon, UT
upright. Some axial
surfaces can be
traced across the
landscape, as Sketch a cross section of an anticline, syncline,
shown on this and monocline.
photograph (⊲).
Is this fold an anti- Describe a dome and a basin.
cline, syncline, or
Sketch a fold showing its hinge, limb, and axial
8.5
monocline?
surface, and summarize how the orientation of
these features can vary.
216
8.6 What Are Some Metamorphic Features?

DEFORMATION CAN BE ACCOMPANIED BY METAMORPHISM, during which temperature and pressure can
cause the rearrangement of existing materials and the formation of new minerals and new structural features. What
characteristics of metamorphic structures can we observe in exposures of metamorphic rock?
What Is Rock Cleavage?

When rocks are deformed under conditions of low to moderate temperature (less than about 300°C), they may develop a
planar fabric along which they break, or cleave. This fabric, called rock cleavage or simply cleavage, is not a fracture
but a type of structural discontinuity in the rock. It also is not related to the way minerals cleave (mineral cleavage).
08.06.a3 Great Smoky Mtns., TN
When stress is applied to a Some cleavage is expressed

rock, the rock can become as closely spaced planes that
strained and change shape. cause the rock to cleave into
The rock typically begins to thin sheets or slivers. In this
squash or shorten in the photograph (⊲), the marking
direction of the maximum pen is aligned parallel to
applied stress (⊳). cleavage. The folded layers
08.06.a1
are bedding.
As the rock shortens, it can

develop new planar features Cleavage typically cuts across
(marked by the purple plane) bedding, as in this photograph
that are oriented perpendicular and the previous one. Here (⊲),
to the direction in which the cleavage is parallel to the red
rock is shortened the most. One knife and cuts across the gray
type of a planar feature formed and brown layers, forcing a
in this way is rock cleavage, sliver of hard, brown rock out
08.06.a2 which is a weakness along of the way.
which the rock breaks (⊳).
08.06.a4 Inyo Mtns., CA
What Is Foliation and How Is It Expressed in Rocks?

Foliation is used as a general term for any planar metamorphic fabric, including cleavage, but it commonly is reserved
for more strongly metamorphosed rocks. Foliation forms because of differential stress and is expressed in a variety of
ways, depending on factors such as temperature, the amount of shearing, and the starting rock types.
08.06.b1 Hunt Valley, MD 08.06.b3 Swiss Alps
One type of foliation occurs Where metamorphic rocks
in metamorphic rocks that have alternating lighter and
are rich in mica minerals. darker-colored bands, with dif-
This type of foliation, called ferent proportions of light and
schistosity, is defined by a dark minerals, the foliation is a
parallel orientation of mica gneissic (pronounced “nice-ick”)
and other platy minerals. foliation. A metamorphic rock
Schistosity makes most rocks with this type of foliation is a
shiny, and the rock is schist. gneiss or banded gneiss.
08.06.b2 Mohave Desert, CA 08.06.b4 San Gabriel Mtns., CA

Foliation can be defined by Ductile shearing can form
the flattened shapes of a foliation by flattening and
deformed objects, like these smearing out mineral grains.
light-colored pebbles in a This rock has a foliation
metamorphosed conglomer- largely defined by lens-
ate. Foliation is parallel to shaped, deformed crystals
the flattened shapes of and smeared-out light and
the pebbles. dark (gneissic) bands.
What Is Lineation and How Is It Expressed in Metamorphic Rocks?

In addition to planar fabrics (foliation), metamorphism and deformation can form linear features, such as aligned minerals
or long, deformed pebbles. A linear feature in metamorphic rocks is called lineation.
08.06.c1 Naxos, Greece 08.06.c2 Harquahala Mtns., AZ 08.06.c3 Chemehuevi Mtns., CA
Lineation in this metamorphic rock is defined This lineation is defined by the long axes of These linear streaks formed as minerals were
by elongated, blue crystals that grew in a pre- light-colored feldspar crystals that were sheared smeared out during metamorphism and ductile
ferred, linear orientation during metamorphism. and stretched out in a horizontal direction. The shearing. This type of lineation is parallel to
The mineral is kyanite. rock is a metamorphosed granite. the direction of shearing.
What Are Some Other Features in Metamorphic Rocks?

08.06.d1 Vredefort, South Africa 08.06.d2 Rincon Mtns., AZ 08.06.d3 Harcuvar Mtns., AZ
1. If they are not too strongly deformed, meta- 2. This rock began as conglomerate with 3. Metamorphic rocks can contain zones that
morphic rocks can preserve features that pebbles. The tan and gray lenses look a bit show evidence of intense shearing. Such fea-
existed in the rock before it was metamor- like stretched pebbles, but the tan and gray tures are shear zones, and they are partly a
phosed. This metamorphic rock has tan layers pebbles became flattened and folded during structural feature and partly a metamorphic
that were sandstone beds with curved tops deformation and metamorphism and are not one. In this photograph, a thin shear zone
that represent sedimentary ripples. easily recognized as stretched pebbles. cuts across metamorphic layers.
08.06.d4 Old Woman Mtns., CA 08.06.d5 Santa Catalina Mtns., AZ

⊳ 4. Most meta-
morphic rocks
have folds, some
small and some
large and spec- Before You Leave This Page
tacular. This
spectacular fold Summarize how cleavage and
is in banded, foliation are expressed in common
gneissic rocks. metamorphic rocks.
For scale, note
the geologist Summarize the types of features that
examining the 5. Metamorphic rocks, especially those with define lineation and how each type of
bottom of the gneissic foliation, commonly are intimately lineation forms.
8.6
outcrop. associated with layers, lenses, pods, and dikes

of igneous material. Here, light-colored granite Describe some other features that may
occurs between dark metamorphic layers (▲). be present in metamorphic rocks.
218
8.7 What Are Some Common Metamorphic Rocks?

ROCKS THAT HAVE BEEN CHANGED (or metamorphosed) by increased temperature and pressure are
metamorphic rocks. There are many types of metamorphic rocks, and these rocks reflect diverse starting rock types
and various conditions under which rocks can be metamorphosed and deformed.
What Rocks Form When Sedimentary Rocks Are Metamorphosed?

Some metamorphic rocks form when sedimentary rocks are subject to a change in temperature, pressure, or both. The changed
conditions may change the rock’s grain size, types of minerals that are present, and the rock’s texture. Metamorphism is low
grade if the temperature of metamorphism is low, and high grade if temperature is high. Different kinds of sedimentary rocks
will produce different kinds of metamorphic rocks, even if metamorphosed at the same grade. Photographs below show what
happens to three common sedimentary rocks — shale, sandstone, and limestone.
Shale Sandstone Limestone

08.07.a1 Larder Lake, Ontario, Canada 08.07.a5 Baraboo, WI 08.07.a7 Ios, Greece
1. When a shale
is metamor-
Increasing Metamorphic Grade
phosed at low to
moderate tem-
perature, it can
develop cleav-
age and become
slate (⊳). Slates
are dull (not
shiny) and com-
7. Limestone consists mostly of calcite, a
monly dark.
5. Most sandstones are predomi- chemically reactive mineral. Low-grade meta-
08.07.a2 Superior, AZ nantly quartz, a mineral that is sta- morphism of limestone causes calcite to
2. At slightly ble over a wide range of tempera- slightly recrystallize, forming a finely crystalline
higher temperature and pressure conditions. marble, but few new minerals form (▲).
tures, micro- During metamorphism, quartz grains 08.07.a8 Franklin Mtns., El Paso, TX
scopic mica grow together and become so
crystals give the tightly bonded that fractures break
rock a shiny across the grains rather than
aspect or sheen around them. This type of rock is a
(⊳). Such a rock quartzite (▲). Quartzite is made of
is phyllite. quartz, just like the original sand-
stone, and can preserve beds and
other original sedimentary features.
08.07.a3 Pioneer Mtns., ID
3. At higher 08.07.a6 Joshua Tree NP, CA
grades, crystals
of mica and 8. At moderate temperatures, marble
other minerals becomes medium grained (▲). When meta-
become large morphosed, impurities in the limestone, like
enough to see. clay and chert, may produce various new
The resulting metamorphic minerals, like these red garnets.
rock has a 08.07.a9 Naxos, Greece
schistosity and
is a schist (⊳).
08.07.a4 San Gabriel Mtns., CA

4. At even ▲ 6. With higher temperatures of
higher grades, metamorphism, the quartz in the
chemical constit- rock begins to merge into larger
uents are mobi- crystals and can become a coarser
lized and light- grained quartzite, in some cases
and dark-colored with no individual grains left. Quartz
minerals sepa- is soluble and mobile in metamor- ▲ 9. At higher grades, calcite crystals grow
rate, forming a phic fluids and so at high grades coarser to produce a coarsely crystalline
gneissic foliation can be redistributed into quartz marble. The one shown here is nearly 100%
and banded rock veins, which are common in meta- calcite, but coarse marbles commonly also
called gneiss (⊳). morphic rocks. contain other minerals.
What Rocks Form When Igneous Rocks Are Metamorphosed?

Metamorphic rocks also can be formed starting with igneous rocks. Igneous rocks of different compositions and initial grain
sizes become different types of metamorphic rocks. Photographs below show several common examples.
Basalt and Andesite Rhyolite Plutonic Rocks

08.07.b1 Marquette, MI 08.07.b3 Phoenix Mtns., AZ 08.07.b5 Harquahala Mtns., AZ
Increasing Metamorphic Grade
1. Most mafic and intermediate volcanic 3. Slightly metamorphosed, felsic volcanic 5. After low-grade metamorphism and defor-
rocks (e.g., basalt and andesite) are gray rocks, such as rhyolite, become light- mation, plutonic rocks, like granite, may
or black, but they can become fine- colored and shiny, cleaved or foliated rocks, show little change other than developing a
grained, greenish rocks, called greenstone, called metarhyolite. Such rocks may retain variably developed foliation. Geologists sim-
when metamorphosed. original volcanic crystals and fragments. ply call such rocks deformed granite.
08.07.b2 Zermatt, Switzerland 08.07.b4 Phoenix Mtns., AZ 08.07.b6 Halloran Hills, CA
2. At moderate grades, crystals of green 4. At moderate metamorphic grades, crys- 6. Plutonic rocks can be metamorphosed
or black mica and amphibole grow in tals of light-colored muscovite mica become and deformed into schists if they are
greenstone to produce a schistose green- larger, and the rock becomes a light-colored sheared with abundant water. More com-
ish rock, greenschist. At higher metamor- schist. At even higher metamorphic grades, monly, they become gneiss at higher tem-
phic grades, the green minerals recrystal- metamorphic processes begin to form peratures, like the example above. In
lize into black amphibole and the rock coarse-grained layers and pods, and the some cases, the lighter colored layers in
becomes a type of gneiss. schist can become gneiss. these rocks formed by partial melting
under high temperatures. Many geologists
consider the upper limit of metamorphism
to be the temperature at which the rock
Some Other Distinctive Metamorphic Rocks begins to melt, at which point the pro-
cesses are more igneous in character.
A
08.07.t1 Vredefort, South Africa
special family of metamorphic
rocks forms when preexisting
rocks are baked by an igneous
intrusion. Metamorphism is dominated Before You Leave This Page
by heat from the magma, not by pressure
or differential stress, and so the rock con- Describe the changes different
tains metamorphic minerals but does not sedimentary rocks undergo (as they
are metamorphosed) and the
have foliation or lineation. A nonfoliated
metamorphic rocks they become.
metamorphic rock is hornfels, which can
form from any kind of starting rock, Describe the changes different
including limestone, mudstone, shale, or igneous rocks undergo (as they are
igneous rocks. The dark hornfels shown metamorphosed) and the metamorphic
8.7
here includes red garnet and was a shale rocks they become.
that was baked by hot mafic magma. Describe the origin of hornfels.
220
8.8 How Does Metamorphism Occur?

METAMORPHISM OCCURS WHEN A ROCK BECOMES UNSTABLE. A rock may be unstable because the miner-
als it contains are unstable and as a result it develops new (metamorphic) minerals. It may be unstable because of the
way the grains or layers are arranged, so it develops a new (metamorphic) texture. Depending on the conditions, a rock
may develop new metamorphic minerals and a new metamorphic texture.
What Causes Metamorphism?

For a rock to be metamorphosed, it must be subjected to conditions of temperature, pressure, and fluid chemistry that make
it unstable. This generally occurs when temperature (T) and pressure (P) increase, either with or without associated tectonic
stress, shearing, and abundant fluids. There are two main kinds of metamorphism: contact metamorphism is caused by local
heating by magma, typically without deformation, whereas regional metamorphism involves deformation along with heating
over a broader region.
1. Pressure increases with

depth in Earth because 08.08.a2 08.08.a3
rocks are more deeply

buried. Higher pressures
compress the rocks and,
in combination with
high temperatures, may
cause some minerals to
be unstable. Tectonic
stresses can cause rocks
to move and deform.
08.08.a1
3. Contact Metamorphism — Rising magma 4. Regional Metamorphism — In regional meta-
2. Temperature increases with depth and near efficiently brings thermal energy higher into morphism, heating is accompanied by enough
magma. An increase in temperature usually the crust, heating the wall rocks. This is called stress to cause deformation. The increase in
causes new minerals to grow or existing contact metamorphism because it occurs near stress can result from tectonics or burial.
minerals to grow larger. It can also weaken contacts (boundaries) of magma. Heating Regional metamorphism causes new minerals
the rocks, allowing them to deform. The crust causes new minerals to grow or existing min- to grow and existing minerals to increase in
contains abundant water and other fluids, erals to increase in size. Heating may not be size, while deformation during metamorphism
shown here as blue in water-filled fractures. accompanied by deformation, so contact generally results in foliation, lineation, and
Such fluids interact with minerals and carry metamorphism commonly forms metamorphic other metamorphic fabrics. Magmas can add
material into, through, and out of rocks. rocks that lack foliation and lineation. to the increased regional temperatures.
What Causes Regional Metamorphism?

Metamorphism occurs when rocks are subjected to conditions different than those in which they formed. In the case of
regional metamorphism, rocks typically are buried and heated, and they deform in response to stresses.
08.08.b1 08.08.b2 08.08.b3
Burial — Rocks move deeper in the crust Subduction — An extreme case of downward- Heat and Hot Fluids — A flux of heat from
when sedimentary and volcanic rocks are moving rock occurs in subduction zones depth, such as from deeper magma, can
deposited on top, or when they are overrid- where two plates converge. Subduction car- raise the temperature of a region and cause
den by a thrust sheet, as shown here. As they ries the oceanic plate, and slices of other metamorphism. Rising hot waters can intro-
go deeper, the rocks experience higher pres- rocks, to great depth and increased pressure duce dissolved chemicals, changing a rock’s
sure and temperature conditions. and temperature. composition and growing new minerals.
What Chemical Processes Occur During Metamorphism and Deformation?

Many processes that operate during metamorphism change the minerals in a rock or change the arrangement of those
minerals. Some metamorphic processes are related to heating or are chemical in character. These processes cause grains to
grow, recrystallize, redistribute themselves, or even dissolve in response to temperature, pressure, and any imposed stress.
In the figures below, red arrows link the before and after conditions.
Recrystallization Remobilization Pressure Solution
08.08.c1 08.08.c3
08.08.c2
Formation of cleavage and foliation is aided During metamorphism, chemical constituents Formation of cleavage commonly involves a
by the recrystallization of existing minerals in a rock can be remobilized, meaning they process called pressure solution. Material
and the growth of new minerals. Adjacent diffuse, dissolve, or partially melt in one dissolves from highly stressed edges of
minerals can grow with a similar planar or lin- place and then form crystals in another grains and precipitates elsewhere in the rock
ear orientation (i.e., become aligned), defining place. Such processes help form light- and or is carried away by fluids. A rock can lose
a foliation, lineation, or both. dark-colored bands in gneiss. a significant volume during metamorphism.
What Physical Processes Can Occur During Metamorphism?

Some processes are physical and may deform or rotate individual crystals, grains, and layers, producing foliation or lineation.
In contact metamorphism and some other settings, metamorphism occurs without any of these physical processes, and so the
rock lacks foliation or lineation. Blue arrows indicate the type of stress (compression or shearing), and red arrows link the
before and after conditions.
Deformed Grains and Clasts Rotation Shearing
08.08.d3
08.08.d1 08.08.d2
1. Deformation can flatten grains and clasts 2. During compression of some rocks, elon- 3. Shearing under metamorphic conditions
that were initially somewhat spherical into gated and platy minerals can rotate so that can align or stretch out unoriented crystals.
shapes like pancakes or the thin, long top they become nearly parallel to one another. It can also form thin shear zones in which
of a skateboard. If a rock is flattened in one The rotated minerals produce a foliation or minerals are smeared out, broken,
direction during metamorphism, deformed cleavage, and they can also form a lineation and recrystallized.
objects will become shaped like pancakes. if they become aligned during deformation.

Metamorphism Without Deformation
Summarize causes of metamorphism.
4. If a rock is only subjected to heating and burial pres- Describe or sketch the chemical
sures during metamorphism, it essentially will not deform.
processes that can accompany
The rock will grow new minerals or become coarser
metamorphism.
grained due to the new, hotter conditions. Without the con-
trolling influence of differential stress, new minerals usually
8.8
Describe or sketch the physical

grow in random directions, so the rock will lack a foliation processes that can accompany
08.08.d4
or lineation. Also, initially spherical objects, such as peb- metamorphism.
bles, will remain spherical (⊲).
222
8.9 Where Does Metamorphism Occur?

METAMORPHISM OCCURS IN VARIOUS SETTINGS, but especially within mountain belts along convergent plate
boundaries. Different types of structures and metamorphic features form in different parts of a convergent system and
reflect differences in the types of rocks involved, the metamorphic temperatures and pressures, the way the rocks deform,
and the role of magma, if any.
How Do Metamorphic Conditions Vary with Depth and Tectonic Setting?

Temperature and pressure in Earth vary greatly, but both factors generally increase with depth. Pressure increases with depth
because the weight of overlying rocks increases. Temperature also increases with depth, but it varies more because some
parts of Earth are hotter than others, even at the same depth.
1. As rocks are subjected to increasing tempera- 4. Some shallow areas of the crust, where pressures are low, are abnormally hot and repre-
ture (T) and pressure (P), they are progressively sent a high-T/low-P environment (along the upper part of the diagram). To heat such shallow
metamorphosed. The colors on this graph illus- levels to high temperatures requires the input of thermal energy from magma. This is the
trate where d ifferent metamorphic equivalents setting of contact metamorphism. In the photograph below, the crystals weathering out of
of shale form. the rock grew in random orientations during contact metamorphism (▼).
08.09.a3 Vredefort, South Africa
2. Where temperature and pressure are very low,
as they are near the surface of Earth, most rocks
remain unmetamorphosed (no growth of meta-
morphic minerals).
3. In some tectonically active regions, rocks are

taken to depth faster than they can heat up.
This results in a high-P/low-T environment of
metamorphism (on the lower left part of the dia-
gram). Certain minerals only form under high-P/
low-T conditions, including those that form a
tectonically important subduction-zone rock
called blueschist. High-P/low-T metamorphism
occurs in accretionary prisms and deeper in sub-
duction zones 5. If temperature increases
where cold material enough, rocks may begin to melt.
is rapidly The resulting magma can mingle
subducted down with the metamorphic rocks and
into the mantle. form a rock that is part metamor-
The rock shown 08.09.a1 phic and part igneous. Such a
here (⊳), called rock is a migmatite (▼).
eclogite, was taken 6. The center of the graph represents tempera-
tens of kilometers ture and pressure conditions inferred for many 08.09.a4 Inyo Mtns., CA
down a subduction common metamorphic rocks. Metamorphism

zone and then under these conditions can occur over large
uplifted back to regions, that is, regional metamorphism. Most
the surface. metamorphic rocks form under these conditions.
08.09.a2 Ios, Greece
Diagnostic Regional Metamorphic Minerals

7. As pressure and temperature increase, causing
increased metamorphism, a succession of minerals INCREASING METAMORPHISM
form. This diagram shows the stability range of
minerals in a regionally metamorphosed shale. Chlorite
Colors used for each mineral in this figure (⊲) cor-
Muscovite
respond to temperature zones shown in the figure
above. Some minerals, like garnet, are diagnostic of Biotite
moderate- to high-grade metamorphic conditions. Garnet
Note that some minerals overlap in the tempera-
tures at which they form, which allows geologists Other Minerals
to better infer metamorphic temperatures if a rock
08.09.a5
has both minerals.
What Activity Occurs Along Ocean-Continent Convergent Boundaries?

In ocean-continent convergent settings, an oceanic plate subducts beneath a continental plate, forming magma that invades
the overriding continental plate. The type of metamorphism varies greatly between the hot environs near magma and the
less hot conditions in shallow parts of the subduction zone. In most convergent boundaries, the overriding plate experiences
compression, as described below. In some cases, not shown here, the overriding plate is not compressed, but instead
experiences tension and normal faulting. In the figure below, sites of the most intense metamorphism are shaded purple.
1. A subducted slab is underthrust beneath 4. The crust is heated near magma rising from the underlying subduction zone. The mag-
the overriding plate to form a huge thrust fault, matic heat causes contact metamorphism, which is characterized by high-T/low-P conditions.
which many geologists call a megathrust. Such contact metamorphism can occur with or without deformation. The contact metamor-
Thrusts also form in the overlying, intensely phism grades into regional metamorphism, especially at deeper levels in the crust.
deformed accretionary prism, which consists
largely of material scraped off the oceanic plate
or sediment deposited in the oceanic trench.
2. Subduction is a relatively fast tectonic process,

so the upper parts of the downgoing oceanic
plate can be taken to great depth faster than
they can be heated by surrounding rocks. As a
result, metamorphism in this setting occurs under
high-P/low-T conditions. The rocks are strongly
cleaved, folded, sheared, and sliced by thrust
faults. Water that is driven out of the heated
rocks forms numerous veins.
3. High-P/low-T conditions continue downward

within the subducted slab, which moves down
into the m
antle faster than it can be heated up. 08.09.b1
Metamorphism of minerals in the oceanic crust
releases water that rises into the overlying man- 5. Folds and thrust faults commonly form on the landward side of the main belt of magma.
tle and causes melting. The mantle-derived Thrust sheets move into the continent and override and bury underlying rocks, causing
magma rises into the continental crust. regional metamorphism, even relatively far inland from the plate boundary.
What Deformation and Metamorphism Occur Along Continental Collisions?

1. Thrust faults form during continental collisions when one continent under- ⊲ 3. These schists in the Swiss
thrusts beneath another. Thrust sheets typically form in a broad zone between Alps began as sediments and
the two plates, with sheets of rock sliced off both the underthrusting and over- volcanic rocks that were
riding plates. Thrusting causes shearing as well as burial and heating of rocks deposited in an ancient ocean
below the thrust sheets. On this figure, the most intense metamorphism is that was south of Europe. Later,
shaded purple. this oceanic material was bur-
ied, heated, and sheared by
2. Rocks within the thrust sheets are strongly folded and subduction and a continental
sheared, especially near major thrust faults and shear zones. collision between Europe and
Large zones of regional metamorphism develop below and near a slice of continental crust.
the bases of the thrust sheets. The metamorphic conditions are 08.09.c2 Zermatt, Swiss Alps
typical regional metamorphism, and they occur at typical crustal
temperatures and pressures. The figure below is modeled after
the continental collision between India and Asia (i.e., Himalaya).
Summarize and graph the difference
between high-T/low-P, high-P/low-T,
and normal P-T metamorphism and
their tectonic settings.
Sketch and describe metamorphism
8.9
along ocean-continent convergent

boundaries and continental
08.09.c1
collisions.
224
8.10 What Processes Occur in Extensional

and Strike-Slip Settings?
CRUSTAL EXTENSION ON LAND OR BENEATH THE OCEANS produces normal faults and other characteristic
features. Metamorphism occurs in extensional settings because of shearing, heating near magmas, and the circulation
of hot water near mid-ocean spreading centers. Deformation, with or without metamorphism, also occurs along strike-
slip faults and shear zones, forming some distinctive features on the land surface.
What Type of Deformation and Metamorphism Accompanies Divergence?

Continental Rifting
1. Normal faults form where two continental plates begin to break apart, forming a
continental rift (⊳). The faults downdrop a central block, or graben, and help to
horizontally stretch and vertically thin the crust.
2. Tension allows magma to rise along faults and to pry open joints on its way to
the surface. The orientation of faults and volcanic fissures on the surface is con-
trolled by the orientation of the stresses.
3. Metamorphism, shown in purple, occurs due to heat from nearby magma (con-
tact metamorphism). In some cases heating from mantle-derived magma causes
melting of continental crust. Metamorphism and deformation also occur due to
08.10.a1 shearing along deep faults and due to the circulation of hot water.
Onset of Seafloor Spreading

4. If rifting within a continent continues, it can lead to the onset of seafloor
spreading and the formation of a narrow ocean basin (⊲). Normal faults formed
during the rifting stage are exposed on land and covered by sediments depos-
ited on the coastal plain and continental shelf. The edge of the continent drops
below sea level because the crust is thinned by rifting.
5. As the two parts of the continent begin to separate and seafloor spread-
ing begins, rocks along the continental margin experience metamorphism
(shown in purple) because they are close to upwelling mantle and to magma
along the new mid-ocean ridge. With time, these metamorphic effects dimin-
ish as the ridge forms new oceanic crust and moves farther offshore, away
from the edge of the continent. 08.10.a2
Mid-Ocean Rifting
6. Extension occurs along oceanic divergent plate boundaries where two oceanic plates
spread apart along a mid-ocean ridge (⊳). As the plates move apart, normal faults that dip
inward from both sides downdrop the floor of the central rift to form a graben. Outward-
directed tension (pulling) allows magma to open up joints and other fractures, forming dikes
and fissures parallel to the axis of the rift.
7. Heat from magma causes contact metamorphism (shown in purple) of adjacent rocks.
Also, the entire oceanic crust remains warm for some time after it is formed at the ridge,
so it experiences a type of low-temperature, regional metamorphism related to these
slightly elevated temperatures.
8. Hot rocks beneath the rift cause heating of seawater, which circulates through and alters
or metamorphoses the volcanic rocks and any overlying sediments. Alteration and metamor-
phism typically change volcanic glass and crystals into various greenish minerals, such as
08.10.a3
chlorite (a green mica). The volcanic rock and sediment can also be replaced by fine-
grained quartz, carbonate minerals, or other hydrothermal minerals.
Where Do Strike-Slip Faults and Shear Zones Form?

During strike-slip movement, one block of rock is sheared sideways past another block of rock. This can occur in various
settings, including transform plate boundaries and within the interiors of plates.
2. Stresses can form a strike-slip zone that

functions as a plate boundary or that is totally
within a tectonic plate (⊲). A strike-slip zone
may offset the rocks hundreds of kilometers or
less than a meter. A strike-slip fault with rela-
tively small amounts of displacement is typically
a single fault or several adjacent faults, but
zones with larger displacements are thick zones
08.10.b1 of shear (shear zones).
1. Shear stresses can be imposed on rocks
08.10.b2
horizontally, vertically, or at some intermedi-
ate angle. When the shear stresses are hori-
zontal (▲), they act to shear the two sides of 3. All transform boundaries are strike-
a block in opposite horizontal directions. As slip faults that accommodate the
a result of the stresses, s hearing moves lateral displacement of one plate
rocks horizontally past one another. Shearing past another. Most are a boundary
in the upper parts of the crust occurs along between two oceanic plates, as
a fault, as shown here, and is accompanied are the ones marked here (⊳) by
by fracturing of adjacent rocks. Shearing at small white arrows, but a trans-
depth will occur along a zone of ductile form fault can also separate
deformation and will be accompanied by two continental plates or can
metamorphism and the formation of foliation separate an oceanic plate
and lineation in shear zones. from a c ontinental one.
08.10.b3
What Features Form Along Strike-Slip Faults?

Strike-slip faults result in a number of distinctive features, including offset streams. They also can result in folds formed
where one block of rock shears past another or where rocks are forced around a bend in the fault.
1. Strike-slip faults displace rocks on either 2. Horizontal displacement can
side horizontally relative to one another, so offset surface features, including
in a simple case they would not uplift or roads, agricultural fields, and
downdrop either side. However, many streambeds. Over time, offset
strike-slip faults have bends, where the streams develop a character-
fault changes its trace across the land istic pattern, where they jog
surface from one orientation to another. parallel to the fault, before
Right-lateral motion on the fault shown continuing along their pre-
here causes compression along the faulting course. The direc-
bend, forming ridges and troughs tion of the jog reflects the
that are the surface expression of direction of relative move-
folds and thrust faults. ment across the fault.
08.10.c1
08.10.c2 Carrizo Plain, CA

3. Faults that are c urrently active can o ffset
streams, ridges, and other topographic fea-
tures. The San Andreas fault in central Before You Leave This Page
California (⊳) is the linear feature cutting
across drainages in the center of this com-
Describe or sketch how deformation
puter-generated view (looking east). The
large offset stream takes a jog as it crosses and metamorphism occur in
the fault. Is this fault a left-lateral or right- continental rifts, rifted continental
lateral strike-slip fault? Hint: imagine you are margins, and mid-ocean ridges.
standing in the streambed on the near side
8.10
Describe strike-slip faults, some

of the fault, and then observe which way settings where they occur, and some
the streambed on the opposite side has features formed on the land surface.
been displaced relative to you.
226
8.11 How Are Different Structures and

Metamorphic Features Related?
DIFFERENT TYPES OF GEOLOGIC STRUCTURES can be related to one another and may form during the same
episode of deformation. Metamorphism may accompany deformation and form cleavage and other metamorphic struc-
tures that can be closely related to folds and other structural features.
How Are Fractures, Folds, Tilting, and Shear Zones Related?

Joints, faults, folds, and shear zones can be associated with one another, helping to accommodate deformation in different
ways. Displacement on faults and shear zones can cause folding and tilting of layers that are displaced.
08.11.a1 08.11.a3
08.11.a2
1. Joints and folds are common along faults 2. Normal faults can break the crust into a 3. During displacement on a shear zone, rocks
because of the stresses associated with series of fault blocks, each bounded by faults. deform by ductile flow, producing metamorphic
shearing and bending of the rocks. Joints As the faults slip, the blocks can rotate like fabrics. Shearing can also ductilely fold and
and small folds may imply a nearby fault. books on a shelf, tilting any layers. stretch layers within and near the zone.
Folds Related to Fault Growth Folds Related to Changes in Fault Dip

4. Some folds form in front of a fault advancing through the crust. 7. Folds form where a thrust or other type of fault changes dip.
5. Movement on most 8. Faults slicing through

faults begins within crys- layered rocks may cut
talline rocks at depth, along a weak rock type,
and the fault grows or like shale, or along a
propagates upward boundary between two
through the crust. rock layers, before con-
tinuing upward.
08.11.a7
08.11.a4 9. As the layered rocks
6. Sedimentary layers are pushed up the fault,
on top of the crystalline they fold as they are
rocks can fold in forced to conform to the
advance of the fault bend in the underlying
and resemble a rug fault. This forms an anti-
draped over two boxes cline near the front of the
of unequal height. thrust sheet and a syncline
Such folding can form farther back. Thrust faults
a monocline, like the can stack up, one on top
one below. of another, producing com-
08.11.a5 08.11.a8 plex geometries (▼).
08.11.a6 Mexican Hat, UT 08.11.a9 Barnhardt Canyon, AZ
What Structural and Metamorphic Features Form Near Folds and Thrust Faults?
1. Thrust faults and folds commonly occur together in regional belts, called fold and thrust
belts. These form where thrust faults cut through a thick sequence of layered rocks. 5. These anticlines and
synclines (⊲), each of which
2. Other folds develop is several meters high,
from overall shortening formed by shortening of lay-
of rocks in a thrust belt ers of slightly metamor-
or above thrust faults phosed black shale (now
propagating to the sur- slate) and tan sandstone
face from below. (now quartzite) in a Precam-
brian fold and thrust belt.
3. Most thrust belts 08.11.b2 Barnhardt Canyon, AZ
contain variably devel-
oped cleavage (shown 6. Larger folds (⊲), formed
with thin dashed lines) by thrusting and overall
related to the folds and shortening, deform shale
to shearing along the and sandstone layers during
thrusts. The deformed regional thrusting in the foot-
08.11.b1
rocks also contain hills of the Patagonian
many joints. Andes in A rgentina, South
America. The Rocky Moun-
4. Thrust faults shuffle rock layers by displacing older rocks over younger ones (green tains and Appalachian
and blue over tan in this image). Large folds form where the layers are forced up and Mountains of North America
08.11.b3 Patagonia, Argentina
over bends in the thrusts. contain similarly large folds.
How Is Cleavage Related to Folds?

Cleavage has a close and consistent geometric relationship to folds formed during the same event.
08.11.c2 Hemlo, Ontario, Canada 08.11.c3 Grand Canyon, AZ
1. Cleavage typically is

parallel to the axial surface
of folds that formed dur-
ing the same episode of
deformation. Such cleav-
age generally cuts across
bedding and other layer-
ing in a systematic way.
Cleavage can form verti-
cally, as shown here, hori-
zontally, or at some orien- 2. These two photographs show cleavage that is parallel to the axial surface of
tation in between. folds. The one on the left is looking down on a single fold with cleavage. The
one on the right shows dark cleavage planes parallel to the axial surfaces of
08.11.c1 a series of small folds.
Using the Relationship Between Bedding and Cleavage to Locate Folds

3. On this limb of 7. Cleavage
the fold, cleavage cuts beds that
cuts across beds dip to the right Sketch or describe how joints,
that dip to the right. on this last hill. faults, folds, tilting, and shear
zones can be associated with
6. Based on the rela- one another.
08.11.c4 5. On this limb of tionship between Sketch and describe a fold and
the fold, bedding cleavage and thrust belt and its associated
dips to the left, bedding in the structures.
opposite to what is hills to the left
and the right, how would cleav- Describe and sketch how
8.11
4. In the hinge of a fold, cleav- seen on the first

age and bedding are perpendic- hill (the other limb age and bedding be oriented on cleavage relates to bedding
ular to one another. of a syncline). this hill, and what type of fold is in folds.
present on this hill?
228
8.12 How Are Geologic Structures and Metamorphic

Rocks Expressed in the Landscape?
ROCKS AND GEOLOGIC STRUCTURES on Earth’s surface are exposed to weathering and erosion, which remove
some rocks faster than others. Joints, faults, and cleavage provide easy access for water into the rocks and so commonly
are the focus of increased weathering and erosion. Folding, faulting, and metamorphism can tilt and otherwise deform
rocks, which are then eroded into distinctive landforms that provide clues about what type of structure is present and
what events might have happened.
How Are Joints Expressed in Landscapes?

08.12.a1 Tasmania 08.12.a2 Zion NP, UT 08.12.a3 Columbia Plateau, WA
Most joints occur in joint sets that contain Joints are largely responsible for the appear- Columnar joints form by the cooling and
many joints with a similar orientation. Most ance of many cliffs, ledges, and other contraction of solidified igneous rocks and are
rocks contain several joint sets, which can cut outcrops of rock. In this cliff, a near-vertical distinctive in outcrop. The size and o rientation
rock layers into a series of rectangular blocks. joint set cuts across a thick horizontal layer of of the columns reflect how the rock cooled,
In this photograph, horizontal beds are cut by sandstone. Without joints, the cliff would prob- but most columns, like these, are steep and
a set of vertical joints. ably be relatively smooth. tens of centimeters in diameter.
How Are Faults Expressed in Landscapes?

08.12.b1 Borah Peak, ID 08.12.b3 Echo Cliffs, AZ
⊳ When fault move- ⊳ We commonly
ment offsets Earth’s recognize faults
surface, it can cause a because of offsets or
step in the landscape, abrupt terminations of
called a fault scarp. layers. Also, rocks
This dirt-colored fault along faults are highly
scarp formed during fractured and easily
the 1983 Borah Peak eroded, so they erode
earthquake in south- into linear topographic
eastern Idaho. notches. This fault trun-
cates layers and forms
a linear notch.
08.12.b2 Crete 08.12.b4 Hieroglyphic Mtns., AZ

⊳ Most faults are ⊳ Most fault surfaces
accompanied by are smooth and pol-
intense fracturing ished, and many have
and shattering of linear scratch marks,
rocks in a fault zone. called striations. The
Fractured and striations form parallel
crushed rocks within to slip along a fault
the zone are fault and can be used to
breccia and indicate infer which way a pre-
that a fault is near. historic fault moved.
How Do Tilted and Folded Layers Erode?

08.12.c1 Moab, UT 08.12.c2 Split Mtn., UT 08.12.c3 Lyons, CO
Erosion can strip off easily eroded layers, but As layers change dip, the landscape expres- Erosion of dipping layers in a tilted fault block
it slows upon encountering an underlying hard sion changes, too. These layers form a dip or on the limb of a fold can create a
layer. Erosion of soft and hard layers can slope near the top of the mountain but form landscape with linear or curved ridges formed
carve a dip slope parallel to planar, dipping steep fins of rock where the layers are nearly from more resistant rock layers. If a ridge has
layers or to gently c urving layers. vertical near the base of the mountain. a dip slope on one side, it is a hogback.
How Are Metamorphic Rocks Expressed in Landscapes?

08.12.d1 Patagonia, Argentina 08.12.d2 Marin Headlands, CA
1. Metamorphic 2. Metamorphic rocks
rocks can be shiny have many different
even from a dis- expressions in land-
tance, if their mica scapes because they
minerals share a can involve different
similar orientation rock types, metamor-
and reflect light. phic histories, and struc-
This folded rock (⊳) tural orientations. This
is a schist formed folded rock (⊳) has
by metamorphism beds of chert deposited
of a dark shale. on the seafloor and
The folds are tens then folded in a
of meters across. subduction zone.
3. Many metamorphic rocks have cleavage, foliation, and lay- 4. Shearing and deformation in sub-
ers that form platy, jagged outcrops and tabular slabs of rock, duction zones can fold and slice
as in the left photograph below. They can include numerous apart originally intact layers into dis-
dikes, sills, and pods of granite and other igneous rocks, continuous lenses within a matrix of
Before You Leave
some of which can help us observe how folded and deformed highly sheared rock (▼). We call such This Page
these metamorphic rocks really are. folded, sheared, and sliced subduc-
tion-related rocks a melange. Identify joints in a photograph
08.12.d3 Aurland Trail, Norway 08.12.d4 Grand Canyon, AZ 08.12.d5 Marin Headlands, CA of a landscape and describe
how joint sets weather
and erode.
Summarize or sketch how you
might identify a fault in
the landscape.
Summarize or sketch the
features that form when
tilted or folded layers
are eroded.
8.12
Describe some characteristics

displayed by metamorphic
rocks and metamorphic folds.
230
8.13 How Do We Study Geologic Structures

and Metamorphic Features?
UNDERSTANDING STRUCTURAL AND METAMORPHIC FEATURES is a key step when reconstructing the his-
tory of Earth. Geologists usually begin the process by mapping, making field observations, and by collecting other data
and samples. Field studies can be followed by laboratory studies to better understand the timing and conditions of the
different deformational and metamorphic events represented in the field.
What Can We Learn from Field Studies?

The primary way in which geologists collect structural data is by doing field studies. Such field studies involve hiking
around an area while observing, describing, and measuring the various geologic and metamorphic features. Also, field
studies are the main way geologists collect samples of rocks, which can be taken back to the laboratory where they
can be examined with a microscope and analyzed for their chemical content.
08.13.a2 08.13.a3 Grand Canyon, AZ
1. One of the first steps in the field is to carefully 2. Geologists pay special atten-
observe the exposed geology. Geologists hike tion to aspects that are diag-
across the area and describe the different rock nostic of a c ertain type of geo-
units, geologic structures, and other features. logic structure, such as highly
They then record the observations and descrip- fractured rocks along a fault
tions in a notebook, which typically includes zone (⊲). Such exposures also
sketches (⊳) to document in pictures what is allow us to observe the charac-
difficult to describe in words. Sketching ter and orientation of a feature.
is an important way to explore ideas
and possible alternative
explanations while still
in the field.
08.13.a1
08.13.a4
3. Geol- 08.13.a5 Papago Park, AZ

ogists use
a base map,
or sometimes
an aerial photo-
graph, to plot 4. Some geo-
locations of observa- logic features can
tions, descriptions, be measured in the field
measurements, and sam- as well as described. A geol-
ples. The resulting geologic ogist can use a compass to mea-
map (⊳) shows the distribution of each sure orientations of bedding,
rock unit, the o
rientations of beds, fractures, folds, and other fea-
faults, and other structures, and possibly tures, including these tilted sedi-
zones of key metamorphic minerals. mentary layers (⊲).
How Can We Determine When a Fault Was Active?

To illustrate how a structural problem is approached, the figure below shows how we might determine the timing of
movement on two faults. Ideally, we would like to know when a fault formed, through what time period it was active,
and the age of the most recent movements. It is rarely possible to know all these ages.
3. Faulted Units — A fault must be younger than any units it cuts across,
1. Overlap — A lava flow
such as these tilted sedimentary and volcanic layers. If we can determine
can be erupted or a sedi-
the ages of such layers, then these ages help us infer the age of the fault.
mentary unit can be depos-
ited across a fault, overlap-
ping it without showing any 4. Units Deposited During Faulting —
offset. Such a relationship If faulting displaces the land surface and forms
demonstrates that the fault a fault scarp, sedimentary and volcanic units
has not moved since the may accumulate on downdropped fault
overlapping unit was blocks. These might include coarse sediment
emplaced. derived from the fault scarp.
2. Intrusion — Dikes and

plutons that cut across a fault 5. Tilting — Some faulting
and are themselves unfaulted indicate is accompanied by tilting
that the fault is older than the intrusion. From of the rock units, and so
the relations shown here, the left fault is older than the we may be able to infer
gray intrusion at the bottom of the figure and also older than the age of a fault from
08.13.b1
the dark lava flow at the top. the age of tilting.
How Do We Investigate Metamorphic Rocks?

We use a similar approach to study metamorphic rocks. Many areas have experienced more than one episode of deformation
and metamorphism, so geologists look for key localities that demonstrate the relationships between deformation and
metamorphism. Additionally, geologists collect rock specimens that they take back to the laboratory in order to make thin
sections, analyze minerals with special microscopes, and make interpretations based on (1) minerals that are present, (2) the
observed sequence of minerals, and (3) mineral chemistry.
08.13.c1 Harquahala Mtns., AZ 08.13.c2 Grand Canyon, AZ
1. Metamorphic min- 2. Certain metamorphic
erals can grow minerals provide
before, during, or constraints on temper
after a deformation atures and pressures
event. These white reached during metamor-
crystals are oriented phism. These unusually
in all directions, large crystals of the min-
show no foliation or eral andalusite indicate a
lineation, and there- specific range of pres-
fore grew after all sure and temperature
deformation had conditions (⊳).
ceased (⊳).
3. Minerals and other features may be large 4. Many studies focus on trying to reconstruct
enough to be easily observed, but some the sequence of events. This meter-wide mar- Before You Leave This Page
require observing the rock with a hand lens. ble slab (▼) has dark bands of horizontal
This metamorphic rock (▼) has crystals of gar- cleavage cutting older metamorphic layering Summarize how we observe and
net, which can be chemically analyzed to and folded white veins. Each event occurred measure geologic features and the
determine the temperature of metamorphism. under different metamorphic conditions. ways we record this information.
08.13.c3 08.13.c4
Sketch or describe aspects we would
observe to infer the age of a fault.
Summarize some aspects we might
8.13
observe in a metamorphic rock to

learn something about its history of
metamorphism and deformation.
232
CONNECTIONS
8.14 What Is the Structural and Metamorphic
History of New England?
NEW ENGLAND CONTAINS A WEALTH of geologic structures and metamorphic rocks, ranging from domes of
high-grade gneiss to slightly cleaved sedimentary and volcanic rocks. This area provides an opportunity to examine the
regional context of structures and metamorphic features.
What Rocks and Structures Are Exposed on the Surface?

1. This figure is a moderately detailed geologic
map of New England superimposed over 08.14.a1
topography. The different colors on the map
show the distribution of different kinds and
ages of rocks. The color patterns illustrate that
the region contains belts of different rocks that
trend north-south across the region.
2. Thin lines are contacts (boundaries) between

rock units, whereas thick lines are faults.
3. Brown and olive-green colors show

Precambrian rocks, such as those in
the Adirondack and Green Mountains.
4. Purple, pink, and blue colors

represent Paleozoic rocks, which
are the most widespread rocks in
the area. In the western part of
New England, such as in and
near the Catskill Mountains, rocks
are relatively unmetamorphosed
sedimentary rocks that are locally
folded and cleaved (▼).
08.14.a2 Catskill Mtns., NY
7. Rock units form complex patterns in the eastern part of the
geologic map, as is typical of a terrain that has been meta-
morphosed and deformed m ultiple times.
08.14.a3 Glendale Falls, Middlefield, MA

5. Blue-green and orange colors in the lower 6. Metamorphism is shown on this
half of the map show Mesozoic sedimentary map with a stipple (dotted) pattern
and basaltic rocks that are preserved within over the different colors. Paleozoic
tilted and downdropped fault blocks. The and older rocks in the center of
faults formed during continental rifting of the region were metamorphosed at
North America from Africa. Yellow colors, such high temperatures and pressures.
as those on Long Island and Cape Cod, show They include garnet-bearing schist,
recent glacial and shoreline sediments. banded gneiss, and migmatite (⊲).
232
D e f o r m a t i o n a n d M e t a m o r p h i s m 233
What Is Below the Surface?

This cross section shows the generalized geometries of rock units and structures across central New England.
Geologists measure the orientations of rock layers, metamorphic fabrics, faults, and folds on the surface and
then project the layers and structures downward using strikes, dips, and other observations.
1. This cross section is 2. The Taconic Mountains and nearby areas expose 3. In the Green Mountains, deformed and metamor-
drawn from west to east folds and thrusts within Paleozoic sedimentary rocks. phosed Precambrian rocks have been uplifted to the
across the central part A main Taconic thrust sheet (shown in tan) contains surface. The interpreted projections of these rocks
of New England, mostly rocks that were thrust into the area from the east. into the air are shown with dashed lines.
in Vermont.
08.14.b1
4. The degree to which these rocks have been metamorphosed 5. The eastern part of the area contains thrust faults that have been
varies across the region. The most highly metamorphosed rocks folded and large domes that contain high-grade metamorphic rocks,
(i.e., rocks heated to the highest temperatures) are on the east. including banded gneiss. Some areas are called gneiss domes.
How Did Metamorphic Conditions Vary Across the Region?

The metamorphic rocks of New England are famous and have been studied by generations of geologists
with the goal of determining the conditions of deformation and metamorphism that affected the rocks.
1. This map below shows different grades of 2. The diagram below shows the temperature and pressure history inferred from numerous
metamorphism across New England. Metamorphic metamorphic studies in two regions of central New England. The curved arrows show how
conditions were the most intense in the center of geologists interpret the conditions in each region to have changed over time. The arrows
the area (reddish colors) and decreased toward were reconstructed by examining and chemically analyzing minerals under the microscope.
the west and east. Compare this map with the Gray lines are boundaries separating metamorphic conditions where three important meta-
stipple pattern on the geologic map. morphic minerals (labeled simply as K, A, and S) are stable.
08.14.c1 4. Rocks in New
3. The graph shows Hampshire were
50 km
that rocks in eastern heated (they
Vermont were buried moved right on the
(they moved down on diagram) and then
the diagram), probably were buried. Initial
by thrust sheets. They metamorphism was
were later heated. the high-T/low-P
Some rocks were bur- type associated
VERMONT MAINE ied to depths of 15–30 with magma. The
NEW
HAMPSHIRE km (9–19 mi) before rocks locally
being returned to reached tempera-
the surface. tures of 700°C.
08.14.c2

Briefly summarize the types of rocks exposed in New England.
NEW
METAMORPHIC ZONES
YORK Summarize the types of geologic and metamorphic structures in the region.
8.14
MASSACHUSETTS Low Grade
Medium Grade Briefly summarize how the grade of metamorphism varies from east to west
across the region.
High Grade
CONNECTICUT Very High Grade

8.15 What Structural and Metamorphic Events
Occurred Here?
VARIOUS GEOLOGIC STRUCTURES AND METAMORPHIC ROCKS are exposed in the area shown below. Much
of the area is covered by vegetation, but bedrock exposures in isolated, blocky hills contain clues to the area’s structural
and metamorphic history. You will use these clues to interpret the history of events.

• Use observations of outcrops and a subsurface cross section to locate the position of a major fold.
• Observe several metamorphic rocks to determine their relative metamorphic grade and the type of
starting rock from which each metamorphic rock was probably derived.
• Use the orientations of structures to infer the direction in which the rocks were shortened and to
consider which structures could have been formed by the same event.
• Use differences in metamorphic grade across the area, along with small-scale structural observations,
to infer the structural history.
08.15.a1
1. This perspective to the
north shows the locations of
hills of bedrock that are sur-
rounded by grassy areas in
which no rocks are exposed. 6. A fairly straight stream
cuts through the eastern part
2. Each blocky hill has a of the field area and flows
shape that reflects the orien- mostly along a topographi-
tation of bedding. Each has a cally low notch.
dip slope facing in toward the
center of the area. 7. East of this stream are
well-exposed banded
3. Bedding is defined by rocks with steep meta-
tan and gray layers. morphic layering and
large folds.
4. Cleavage is expressed
by near-vertical notches 8. Four samples (1, 2, 3,
and lines down the front and 4) were collected
of each outcrop. from outcrops in the
area. Photographs of
5. The field sketch all four sample localities,
below shows a cross numbered 1 through 4
section of an outcrop at to correspond to the
the very top of the large sample numbers, are
southern hill, as viewed presented on the
to the north. facing page.
08.15.a2
9. Observations were
made at a fifth site
(5), but no sample
was collected.
234
D e f o r m a t i o n a n d M e t a m o r p h i s m 235
Some Field Observations
Field observations for locations 1 through 5 are listed below:

1. The eastern terrain exposes a black-and-white, banded rock (sample 1), which contains coarse crystals of biotite, quartz, and garnet.
The rock has abundant folds and a foliation that dips steeply.
2. Small rock exposures in the grassy area expose a gray rock (sample 2). The rock cleaves apart and is dull, and in hand specimen the
grains are too finely crystalline to distinguish. When observed under a microscope, the rock contains abundant fine-grained biotite and
muscovite mica aligned parallel to the platy fabric in the rock.
3. On the flanks of the southern hill and forming the tan layers in the blocky hills is a tan and gray rock consisting mostly of visible,
sand-sized quartz grains. The rock (sample 3) is very hard, and fractures in the rock cut across, not around, the sand grains.
4. The top of the southern hill is a cream-colored to light-gray rock that consists of finely crystalline calcite. The rock locally contains
some deformed objects that were probably fossils. The hill contains a large fold with near-vertical cleavage, as shown in the field
sketch. This rock is sample 4.
5. Along the western edge of the banded rocks is a stream that flows nearly in a straight line. Erosion along this stream evidently
was aided by the fact that the rocks are intensely fractured and shattered into angular pieces all along the stream.
Procedures
Use your observations from this area to complete the following steps, and enter your answers in the appropriate places
on the worksheet or online. Your instructor may provide you with specimens of similar rocks.
A. Make observations of the four sample localities shown in the photographs below. Use your observations, along with the information
provided above in the field descriptions, to identify each metamorphic rock type (i.e., provide an appropriate name for the rock, such
as schist). For localities 2 – 4, interpret what type of sedimentary rock each sample was before it was metamorphosed; this task is too
difficult to do for locality 1.
B. What type of fold is exposed on the front cross section, an anticline, a syncline, or a monocline?
C. On the map on the worksheet, mark where the fold goes through the grassy areas and hills based on the orientations of bedding
as reflected by the dip slopes and bedding-cleavage relationships exposed on the fronts of the blocks.
D. Based on your observations of the samples and from the field observations presented above, determine which rocks are higher
in metamorphic grade: the banded rocks to the east or the rocks in the grassy area and southern hill.
E. In the worksheet, present any evidence you have for what type of feature is located near the main stream. Use any observations
from the map, cross section, samples, and field descriptions to interpret what type of deformation or displacement has occurred
along this feature.
F. From the orientation of the fold and its relationship to cleavage, in what direction were the rocks shortened to form the fold
and the cleavage?
08.15.a4 08.15.a6
▼ Sample 1 is a coarse ▼ Sample 3 is a metamorphic rock with visible,
metamorphic rock with sand-sized grains of quartz. Cleavage (parallel to
swirled, black-and-white the marking pen) is at an angle to bedding, which
bands that define a foliation. is represented by the folded layers.
It has coarse crystals. 08.15.a5
08.15.a3
▲ Sample 2 is a metamorphic rock that is ▲ Sample 4 consists of

dull (not shiny) and has no visible meta- fine crystals of calcite. In
morphic minerals. It has a strongly devel- this photograph, taken
oped, near-vertical cleavage that cuts from the very top of the
across tilted bedding (layers dipping to southern hill, steep cleavage
8.15
the left in this view). Cleavage causes the is perpendicular to nearly

rock to break into thin slices. The rock horizontal bedding.
does not contain garnet or other high-
temperature minerals.
CHAPTER
9 Geologic Time
EARTH HAS A LONG HISTORY. Rocks around the world contain evidence that seas advanced and retreated across
the land many times, that vast mountains were uplifted and eroded away, and that various types of creatures arose, left
their remains preserved in the rock record, and became extinct. This chapter explains the story of geologic time and
how we use geologic principles to reconstruct Earth history.
Siccar Point, east of Edinburgh, Scotland, is one of the most important geologic sites in the world. Scottish geologist James Hutton realized that
rock layers exposed at Siccar Point (▼) require Earth to have a long and protracted history. Observe the photograph below and make observations
about the rocks, geometry of layers, and other features.
09.00.a1 Siccar Point, Scotland
The geologic feature for which Siccar Point is famous is a boundary, and shale, whose beds are nearly v ertical. Above the contact are
or contact, that separates two chapters in Earth’s history. This contact beds of reddish sandstone and conglomerate that dip gently to the left
goes through the center of this photograph, sloping from right to left. in this view.
Examine the nature of this contact and the features in the rock types
on either side of the contact. Below the contact are gray s andstone How does a contact like the one exposed at Siccar Point form and
what does it tell us about the geologic history of the area?
236
Geologic Time 237
9.1 How Do We Infer the Relative Ages of Events? 238 9.10 What Events Occurred Early in Earth’s History
9.2 How Do We Study Ages of Landscapes? 240 and How Did Earth Change Over Time? 256
9.3 What Is the Significance of an Unconformity? 242 9.11 What Were Some Milestones in the Early
History of Life on Earth? 258
9.4 How Are Ages Assigned to Rocks and Events? 244
9.12 What Were Some Milestones in the Later
9.5 What Are Fossils? 246
History of Life on Earth? 260
9.6 How and Why Did Living Things Change
9.13 How Do We Reconstruct Geologic Histories? 262
Through Geologic Time? 248
9.14 Why Do We Investigate Geologic History? 264
9.7 How Are Fossils Used to Infer Ages of Rocks? 250
9.15 CONNECTIONS: What Is the History
9.8 How Was the Geologic Timescale Developed? 252
of the Grand Canyon? 266
9.9 What Is the Evidence for the Age of Earth? 254
9.16 INVESTIGATION: What Is the Geologic
History of This Place? 268
⊳ In this close-up view at Siccar Point, the contact crosses the

photograph from lower left to upper right. Below the contact,
beds of gray sandstone and shale are nearly vertical. Where the
gray beds end in the upper part of the photograph, they are
overlain by reddish-brown sandstone and conglomerate that con-
tain angular pieces of the underlying gray sandstone. The contact
is irregular in shape, with the reddish rocks filling in the spaces
between underlying resistant beds of gray sandstone. As
described below, the features along this contact record a special
sequence of geologic events that happened here in the distant
geologic past. The contact between these two rock sequences
with very different geologic histories is what inspired Hutton’s
profound insight.
What does a contact like the one exposed at Siccar Point imply
about the length of Earth history?
09.00.a2 Siccar Point, Scotland
Ruins of an Earlier World
A
s James Hutton explored the rocky interpret events that had occurred in Earth’s scape that had been eroded away, and he called
coasts of Scotland in the late 1700s, past. This principle, today called uniformitari- these rocks “the ruins of an earlier world.”
he encountered the remarkable geo- anism, was the key step in the development of Hutton noted that erosion and many other
logic exposures at Siccar Point. The insight he geology as a science. Uniformitarianism is an geologic processes could be observed to occur
gained on that day in 1788 changed the world. important tenet of the modern science of geol- relatively slowly compared to the life span of a
James Hutton’s profound realizations provided ogy, being based on the logical idea that pro- human, so he realized that the contact at Siccar
a new way to think about Earth. cesses operating today are the same or are Point required Earth to have a very long his-
At Siccar Point, James Hutton’s attention similar to processes that operated in the past. tory, much longer than was perceived at the
was drawn to the enigmatic contact, which Uniformitarianism is often stated as “the pres- time. Hutton concluded that the history of
even from a distance is striking, with vertical ent is the key to the past.” Earth was very long and partially shrouded,
gray beds below and gently inclined red beds Following this new logic, Hutton realized with “no vestige of a beginning, no prospect of
above. Hutton pondered what had happened to that to explain the relationships at Siccar Point, an end.” The ideas of Hutton were elaborated
produce such an arrangement of rock types. the gray sandstones below the contact must in books and other writings by Scottish Profes-
He wondered if the ancient contact repre- have been deposited, tilted, and eroded before sor John P layfair, a contemporary of James
sented the same processes currently occurring the red sandstone was deposited across the Hutton, and later by Sir Charles Lyell, a Scot-
on the beach next to the outcrop— modern upturned layers. In essence, Hutton realized tish geologist, who published very influential
beach sand was being deposited in horizontal that this contact represented an ancient erosion books in the 1830s and 1840s. Hutton and Lyell
9.0
layers over the vertical beds of gray sandstone. surface, which we now call an unconformity. are among those people cited as the founders
In other words, Hutton’s insight was that you Hutton concluded that the gray rocks below the of geology.
might be able to use modern processes to unconformity represented a mountainous land-
238
9.1 How Do We Infer the Relative Ages of Events?

TO DECIPHER THE GEOLOGIC HISTORY OF AN AREA, geologists use several strategies to determine the ages
of geologic units, features, and events. The first strategy is to determine the age of one rock relative to another, using
a series of commonsense approaches collectively called relative dating. Geologists then use analytical laboratory meth-
ods, or isotopic dating, to assign actual numbers, in thousands to billions of years, to this relative chronology. We also
use fossils to compare ages of different rock layers, correlate one rock unit to another, and to construct the geologic
timescale. We start here with five main principles of relative dating. We think going to a new place and reconstructing
the sequence of geologic events, using these principles, is one of the most fun and interesting aspects of geology.
Principle 1: Most Sediments Are Deposited in Horizontal Layers

Most sediments and many volcanic units are deposited in layers that originally are more or less horizontal, a principle called original horizontality. If
layers are no longer horizontal, some event affected the layers after they formed. The few exceptions to the principle are small in scale and in special
environments, such as the face of a sand dune or the undersea slopes of a delta.
09.01.a1 Goosenecks of the San Juan, UT 09.01.a2 Mexican Hat, UT
1. These canyon 2. Just to the east,
walls expose the same gray and
horizontal gray reddish layers are
and reddish lay- folded. They are
ers. These layers no longer horizon-
were deposited tal, so something
horizontally in (deformation) must
Paleozoic time and have happened,
have remained like tilting associ-
nearly so for ated with folding
300 million years. or faulting.
Principle 2: A Younger Sedimentary or Volcanic Unit Is Deposited on Top of Older Units

When a layer of sediment is deposited, any rock unit on which it rests must be older, a concept called the principle of superposition.
This principle is illustrated below.
09.01.a6 Dead Horse Point, UT
4. Observe all the differ-
09.01.a3 ent layers in this rock
sequence. The sedi-
1. A layer of tan sed-
ments were deposited
iment is deposited
and lithified to form
over older rocks.
sedimentary rock long
before the river eroded
the canyon. Which
exposed layer is o ldest,
and where would you
09.01.a4
predict is the youngest
2. A series of hori- rock layer (⊲)?
zontal red layers are
then deposited over
the first tan layer.
09.01.a7 San Juan River, UT

5. Where is the oldest
unit in these tilted rock
layers (⊲)? It is most
09.01.a5 3. A third series of likely on the left, in the
layers is deposited lowest part of the sec-
last and is on top. In tion. However, tectonic
this sequence, the forces in some excep-
oldest layer is on tional places have actu-
the bottom and the ally overturned layering,
youngest layer is placing the oldest rock
on the top. on top instead
of on the bottom, but
not here.
G e o l o g i c T i m e 239
Principle 3: A Younger Sediment or Rock Can Contain Pieces of an Older Rock

When a rock or sedementary deposit forms, it may incorporate pieces, or clasts, of older rock. A cobble eroded from bedrock and carried by a stream
cannot exist unless the bedrock already was there. The presence of clasts of an older rock in a younger rock clearly indicates the relative ages, even if you
cannot see the two rock units in contact with one another.
1. The dark, lower 2. A light-colored

basalt contributed granite contains
clasts into an over- dark pieces, called
lying layer of tan inclusions, of older
conglomerate. The metamorphic rocks
conglomerate con- that fell into the
tains clasts of—and magma. The meta-
is therefore morphic rocks, and
younger than—the their metamorphic
basalt. The con- layering, are con-
glomerate also tained within, and
filled fractures in are older than,
the basalt (⊲). the granite (⊲).
09.01.a8 Lake Pleasant, AZ 09.01.a9 Harcuvar Mtns., AZ
Principle 4: A Younger Rock or Feature Can Cut Across Any Older Rock or Feature
Many rocks are crosscut by fractures (joints and faults), so the rocks were there before the fractures formed.
Dikes, sills, and veins can also intrude into or across preexisting rock units, also showing cross-cutting relations.
1. Several fractures 2. Light-colored

cut across the dikes of granite
limestone layers, crosscut through
so they formed darker igneous
after the rock rocks. The cross-
already existed. cutting dikes are
The fractures cross- younger than the
cut the limestone darker gray igne-
and are said to be ous rocks that host
cross cutting (⊲). the dikes (⊲).
09.01.a10 Little Colorado River, AZ 09.01.a11 Santa Catalina Mtns., AZ
Principle 5: Younger Rocks and Features Can Cause Changes Along Their Contacts with Older Rocks
Magma comes into contact with preexisting rocks when it erupts onto the surface or solidifies at depth. In either setting, the magma may locally bake
adjacent rock, or fluids from the magma may chemically alter nearby rocks. These changes, called contact effects, indicate that the magma is younger
than the rocks that were altered.
1. A dike of basalt intrudes across a grayish 2. A lava flow, or adjacent preexisting hot
sedimentary rock. Heat and fluids from the pyroclastic flow, can bake and redden older under-
magma affected the older sedimentary rock, lying rocks, as shown here (▼). Sediments depos-
causing a reddish baked zone next to the ited on top of the volcanic unit after the eruption
dike (▼). If an intrusion is a sill (not shown) will not be baked. This contrasts with a sill, which Before You Leave This Page
injected between existing layers, it bakes bakes rocks above and below.
rocks above and below the sill. Sketch and explain each of
the five principles of relative
dating, providing an example of
each principle.
Apply the principles of relative
dating to a photograph or
sketch showing geologic
9.1
relations among several rock

units, or among rock units
and structures.
09.01.a12 Bloody Basin, AZ 09.01.a13 Lewiston, WA
240
9.2 How Do We Study Ages of Landscapes?

KNOWING THE RELATIVE AGES OF ROCKS AND STRUCTURES provides only one piece of the geologic story.
We also need to understand when and how landscape features, such as mountains and valleys, formed.
How Does a Typical Landscape Form?

Most landscapes have a similar history—rocks form and then are eroded. The histories of many regions typically include the
deposition of a sequence of sedimentary layers, lithification into rocks, and later erosion of the rocks.
1. The sequence begins (▼) with deposition of a new sedimentary unit on top of preexisting metamorphic and igneous rocks.
Most sediments, such as the layer of tan-colored sand shown, are deposited as nearly horizontal layers.
2. Through time, the deposi-

tional environment changes
and a series of different sedi-
mentary layers accumulate (⊳),
with each younger layer
being deposited on top.
09.02.a1
09.02.a2
7. The canyon exposes five or six main sedimentary units and a
number of smaller layers. In the middle is a dominant light- 3. Over time, the layers
colored cliff of sandstone. Layers below the sandstone are the are lithified. At some point,
oldest in this area, and red cliffs in the distance expose higher deposition stops, and all the
and younger layers. The far mountains are igneous intrusions layers that will be deposited
09.02.a3
that baked, and are younger than, the youngest layers in the are there (⊲). Weathering and
cliffs. All the layers were deposited and lithified, and the intru- erosion can begin.
sions were emplaced, before erosion began carving the canyon.
4. If the region is uplifted or the seas withdraw,

the area can begin to be eroded by streams,
glaciers, the wind, and gravity.
Erosion can more or less
uniformly strip the entire
land surface, removing the
top layers. More likely, ero-
sion will be faster in some
areas, like along a river cutting
downward in a small canyon (⊲). 09.02.a4
5. Erosion by a river cuts downward, carving a deeper

canyon. The canyon widens as small stream drainages
erode outward from the main river and as the steep
canyon walls move downhill in land-
slides and slower
09.02.a6 Grand View Point, Canyonlands NP, UT
movements. The
combination of
6. Observe this photograph (▲) and think about the likely downcutting,
sequences of events that formed the landscape, before read- widening, and
ing the text above the image. How many main rock layers do development of
you observe? Use relative dating principles, like superposition, subsidiary drain-
to infer the relative ages of the different rock layers you ages, called tributaries,
noted. Then, guided by the sequence of figures to the right, sculpts a deeper, wider,
visualize how the area probably evolved over time. and more intricate canyon (⊲). 09.02.a5
How Do We Infer the Age of a Landscape Surface?

To investigate when a landscape surface formed, we commonly try to find a rock unit or other geologic feature that was
there before the surface formed or one that came after the surface already existed.
1. The age of a landscape surface must be younger than any

rocks on which it is carved. In this example (⊳), erosion bev-
eled across an older series of tilted layers, which were
then covered by a thin veneer of sediment and soil. The
surface is younger than the tilted layers.
2. A landscape surface is older than any rock that is

deposited on top of the surface. A lava flow (⊲) is ideal for
dating a surface because it formed during a short time and its
age can usually be determined by isotopic dating methods. This lava
flow is on top of, and younger than, the underlying surface. 09.02.b2
09.02.b1
3. Sometimes the age of a landscape surface cannot be dated directly, but we

can infer its age relative to other features. Many streams are flanked by raised,
gentle surfaces called terraces. A terrace was formed sometime in the
past, before the stream eroded down to its present level (⊳).
The terrace shown here is older than the modern channel.
4. A landscape surface progressively develops more soil

if it remains undisturbed by erosion and deposition. A sur-
face with well-developed soil, such as the uplands shown with
thick red clay and white carbonate accumulations (⊲), must be thou-
09.02.b3
sands of years old. Recent sediment along the stream has no soil. The high 09.02.b4
soil-covered surface is older than the low surface with no soil.
09.02.b5 Picture Rocks SP, AZ 09.02.b6 Little Harquahala Mtns., AZ

5. In many climates, 6. In some settings, stones
especially deserts, rock become concentrated on
surfaces develop a dark the surface through time,
coating if left undis- forming a feature called
turbed for hundreds to desert pavement. Over
thousands of years. This time, finer materials wash
coating, called rock away, blow away, or move
varnish or desert down into the soil, while
varnish, consists of iron- pebbles and larger clasts
oxide and manganese- remain on the surface or
oxide materials, which move up from just below
are mostly derived from the surface. If left undis-
windblown dust. Rock turbed, the pavement
varnish becomes darker becomes better developed
the longer a rock is exposed at the surface, with very dark varnish over time, and exposed
requiring thousands of years. The darkness of varnish is therefore an stones get coated with desert varnish, like the ones shown here. It
indicator of how long that rock surface has been exposed. Rock varnish takes more than ten thousand years to form a well-developed pavement
can be weathered or worn away, resetting the process. The dark var- with darkly varnished stones. Desert pavement can therefore be used
nished boulders shown here (▲) sat undisturbed on the surface for as an indication of age. A landscape surface with a well-developed des-
thousands of years, before parts of the varnish were scraped off by ert pavement, with darkly varnished stones, is probably older than a sur-
Native Americans to form artistic petroglyphs. face that lacks such features.

7. Stones on the surface progressively
accumulate telltale amounts of certain Describe the sequence of events
chemical elements produced when cosmic represented in a typical landscape
rays strike the stones (⊳). A form of isoto- of flat-lying sedimentary rocks.
pic dating is used to determine how long
Describe or sketch how you
9.2
the stones have been on the surface.

Geologists collect samples of the stones could assess the age of
and analyze them in the laboratory. a landscape surface.
09.02.b7
242
9.3 What Is the Significance of an Unconformity?

EROSION SURFACES CAN BE BURIED AND PRESERVED beneath later deposits. These buried erosion s urfaces,
called unconformities, can represent large intervals of time missing from a rock sequence. They provide a glimpse of
the shape and longevity of ancient landscapes, as was recognized by James Hutton at Siccar Point. There are three
types of unconformities: angular unconformities, nonconformities, and disconformities. What are the characteristics of
these features, how does an unconformity form, and what does an unconformity tell us about past geologic events?
What Does an Angular Unconformity Represent?

Erosion surfaces formed in the past can be buried and preserved within a sequence of rocks. If underlying rocks are tilted
before formation of the erosion surface, the unconformity is an angular unconformity.
1. A gray limestone is deposited 2. Later, the sea withdraws and the lime- 3. A conglomerate is deposited over the eroded
under the sea in nearly horizon- stone beds are folded. As the folded beds beds, forming an unconformity. If the underlying
tal layers. The blue in the figure are uplifted, they are beveled by erosion, in layers have been tilted, as in this example, it is
below represents water. this case by two streams. This results in an angular unconformity. Tilting can be associated
tilted beds being exposed on the surface. with anticlines, synclines, and tilted fault blocks.
09.03.a1 09.03.a2 09.03.a3
09.03.a4 Grand Canyon, AZ 09.03.a5 Ouray, CO
5. The same unconformity (separating

rocks that are more than 1 billion years old
from those that are less than 541 million
years old) is exposed across many parts of
the United States and is called the Great
Unconformity. In this view (▲), gently tilted
sedimentary layers unconformably o verlie
4. Examine this photograph of the eastern Grand Canyon (▲). There is an angular unconformity vertical layers within underlying metamor-
between tilted layers below and nearly flat-lying layers (beds) above. The rocks below the phic rocks. The time represented by the
unconformity are approximately 1,100 million years (1.1 billion years) old, whereas those above are unconformity is 1.3 billion years (from
younger than 541 million years old. There is a long time span represented by the unconformity, for 1.7 billion years for the metamorphic rocks
which there is no record, except that there was tilting followed by erosion, before deposition of the below to 400 million years for the sedi-
upper layers. Other events could have—and did—occur, but we have no record of them at this site. mentary rocks above).
How Does a Nonconformity Form?

Some erosion surfaces form on top of rocks that are not layered, especially igneous rocks like granite. This type of
unconformity is called a nonconformity. 09.03.b3 Grand Canyon, AZ
1. The formation of a nonconformity

begins when a granite, or other
nonlayered rock, is formed at depth
and uplifted (⊳). Material that was
once on top is eroded away, expos-
ing the granite to weathering and
erosion at the surface. Weathering
can form soils and other weathering
09.03.b1 products, like the reddish zone of
sand, clay, and iron oxides shown
on top of the granite in this figure.
2. Subsequently, conditions change,

and the erosion surface is buried by
sand and cobbles (⊳), perhaps
derived in part from weathering of
the granite. Ultimately, the sediment
lithifies into sandstone and conglom-
erate. The contact between the
granite and overlying sedimentary 3. This nonconformity (▲) has dark sandstone over tan
09.03.b2
rock is a nonconformity. granite. It is the same Great Unconformity as shown on the
previous page, but here it overlies granite instead of lay-
ered and tilted metamorphic or sedimentary rocks.
What Is a Disconformity and What Does It Indicate About an Area’s History?

If rock layers are not tilted before they are overlapped by younger layers, but the boundary still represents millions of years
of time, the contact is a disconformity. A disconformity can involve erosion or just a long time period with little or no
deposition. Disconformities may be overlooked because they are parallel to rock layers.
09.03.c1 09.03.c2 09.03.c3
1. The first step in the development of a 2. Next, the rock is exposed at the surface 3. After some time, sedimentation resumes,
disconformity is deposition of h
orizontal layers because the region is uplifted or because and the surface of older rock is eventually
producing sedimentary rock. In the figure sea level drops. Sedimentation stops, and buried by a younger layer of sediment,
above, the layers are limestone but could be weathering and erosion affect the now- forming a disconformity. This new layer can
any type of sedimentary rock. exposed land surface. be deposited by water or deposited on land,
perhaps as sand dunes in a desert.
09.03.c4 Buckfarm Canyon, Grand Canyon, AZ

4. This photograph, colored lightly
for emphasis, shows three series
of rock layers separated by two
disconformities. Can you find Before You Leave This Page
them? One disconformity is below
the reddish lens of sedimentary Sketch an angular unconformity, a
rocks, and a younger disconfor-
9.3
nonconformity, and a disconformity,

mity is above the reddish lens. and describe what sequence of
The lower disconformity is more events is implied by each.
obvious than the upper one.
244
9.4 How Are Ages Assigned to Rocks and Events?

DETERMINING THE RELATIVE AGES OF ROCKS, and the order of events, is only one part of deciphering the
geologic history of a location. We also want to know how long ago the rocks formed and when the events occurred,
and to assign ages in hundreds, thousands, millions, or billions of years. This is done by using isotopic dating methods,
most of which involve chemically analyzing a rock for the products of natural radioactive decay. Determining the ages
of rocks using analytical measurements is called isotopic dating.
How Does Radioactive Decay Occur?

All atoms of any given element must have the same number of protons, but some differ in the number of neutrons they
contain. Thus, different varieties of the same element may have different atomic weights; these varieties of the same
element are called isotopes. Some isotopes are unstable through time, changing into a new element or isotope by the
process of radioactive decay.
09.04.a1–3
1. This schematic figure 3. After a time equal

shows atoms before any to another half-life has
radioactive decay. These passed, half of the
starting atoms are called remaining parent atoms
the parent atoms or par- have decayed into
ent isotopes. Over time, daughter atoms. That is,
some of the parent iso- after two half-lives, 3/4
tope will decay into a of the parent atoms
different element called 2. At a later time, half of the parent atoms (green) will have decayed into the daughter have decayed and
the daughter product or product (purple). The amount of time it takes for this to occur is called the half-life. After 1/4 remain.
daughter atom. one half-life, there are an equal number of parent and daughter atoms.
4. This table summarizes the radio- 5. Decay rates are different for different
Before Any After One After
active decay shown in the figures Decay Half-Life Two Half- radioactive elements, but for any given iso-
above. If the number of parent atoms Lives tope, the decay rate is always the same,
was initially 100, half of the parent atoms predictable, and measurable in the labora-
(50) will have decayed to atoms of the Atoms of 100 50 25 tory. Geoscientists, therefore, can calculate
daughter product after one half-life. After Parent the age of a rock by measuring the ratio of
two half-lives, only 25 parent atoms parent atoms to daughter atoms in the
Atoms of 0 50 75
remain, alongside 75 daughter atoms. Daughter rock. Dating rocks using radioactive decay
is called isotopic dating.
Measuring and Calculating ment fits in the mineral’s crystalline structure.

The mineral typically does not contain daughter
of isotopes, so most results and calculations use
ratios between isotopes. The results are calcu-
Isotopic Ages atoms, which have a different atomic size and
atomic charge than the parent atoms. Over time,
lated using equations and computer programs
and are commonly plotted on a graph.
G
eologists, working alongside chem- radioactive decay converts parent atoms into Isotopes that decay quickly are used to date
ists and physicists, use an instrument daughter atoms, producing a specific and pre- young rocks and archaeological artifacts. They
called a mass spectrometer, shown dictable proportion of parent and daughter atoms. are not appropriate for older materials because
below, to measure the ratio of parent isotopes Geologists prepare a rock or mineral sample all of the parent element disappears quickly.
to daughter product in the rock or the min- and place it in a mass spectrometer, where the Isotopes that decay very slowly are used to date
eral to be dated. sample is ionized and propelled down a tube ancient rocks. They cannot be used to date
When some minerals form, they incorporate toward a very strong electromagnet. The magnet young materials because only minute amounts
atoms of the parent isotope, especially if this ele- pulls lighter atoms, with lower atomic weights, of daughter products will have formed in that
09.04.t1
more than atoms that are heavier. The strength short period of time. The dating process involves
Mass Spectrum of the magnet can be altered by adjusting the many potential complications and assumptions,
39.35
39.06
45.29
amount of electric current passing through it. so geologists select the correct isotope, and
34.56
34.85 40.86
38.51
Lightest Particles 38.33 40.59

41.79
45.10
46.00
48.74
With the proper settings, only atoms of the they consider and evaluate each assumption
42.17
desired atomic weight reach a detector at the end before applying the determined age to a rock.
36.58 44.78 47.32
33.57
of the tube, which counts the number of arriving A key aspect to report, along with the age, is
Detector atoms. Mass spectrometers measure ratios of how precise the measurement and lab are — the
Heaviest Particles isotopes more easily than absolute amounts
analytical uncertainty.
Magnet
What Isotopic Systems Do We Use to Determine Ages of Rocks and Events?

A number of elements have radioactively unstable isotopes, and geologists use these different isotopic systems to measure
different types of ages on rocks, minerals, sediment, and other materials. Which isotopic system is used depends on what
datable materials are present, the likely age of the materials, and the geologic history of the unit. Sedimentary rocks are the
most difficult to date because most are composed of pieces of older rocks.
1. One isotope of potassium (K) decays to 4. One isotope of car-
the noble gas argon (Ar, which is on the far bon (C), carbon-14, is
right side of the periodic table), and to an used to date wood,
isotope of calcium. We use K-Ar dating charcoal, bones, shells,
and the related Ar-Ar (pronounced argon- and carbon-rich rocks
argon) method to date volcanic rocks and and water. Carbon-14
the cooling of deep rocks brought to the has a relatively short
surface. These methods are most useful 09.04.b1 half-life that makes it
for dating Cenozoic and Mesozoic rocks, useful only for dating
but they are also used for older rocks. materials that are hun-
dreds to thousands of
years old.
2. An isotope of rubidium (Rb) decays to s trontium
(Sr), providing the basis for Rb-Sr d
ating. This dating
method provided some of the first ages for old 3. A number of thorium (Th) and uranium (U) isotopes decay through a series of steps to
granites and m etamorphic rocks, and was key in different isotopes of lead (Pb), element number 82. We use these isotopes to date many
demonstrating that some rocks on Earth and some kinds and ages of rocks, including sand-sized grains of certain minerals in sediments.
meteorites were billions of years old. Samarium (Sm) decays to Neodymium (Nd; element 60), and we use Sm-Nd dating mostly
to date old rocks and to investigate sources of magma.
What Can Isotopic Ages Tell Us?

We use different isotopic systems for isotopic dating, and isotopic ages do not all provide the same kind of information.
Some record when the rock formed, whereas others record later cooling. Also, some methods are more precise for more
recent rocks, and other methods are better for older rocks.
1. We date volcanic units using a variety 4. Black pieces of charcoal incorporated into recent sediment can be dated
of isotopic systems, like K-Ar and Ar-Ar. with carbon-14, which provides an age for deposition of the sediment.
Volcanic rocks form on the surface and
cool rapidly, so an age of the rock is 5. Dates from individual boulders, cobbles, or even
typically the age of eruption. sand-sized grains in a sedimentary rock help us to
infer the age of the source rocks from which the
2. Hot plutons lose certain isotopes until
sediment was eroded. The oldest ages ever mea-
they cool to a certain temperature, so
sured, more than 4.4 billion years old, are for indi-
we determine the age of such bodies
vidual grains in sedimentary rocks from Australia.
using only those minerals that retain iso-
topes and p rovide the age of crystalliza-
tion. Today, we mostly use U-Pb dating 6. We investigate the age of a metamorphic event,
of the mineral zircon. like baking next to the pluton, using minerals that
formed during metamorphism or minerals that
3. Some minerals, such as biotite mica in record certain metamorphic temperatures. We can
plutons, tell us when a rock cooled do this to date contact or regional metamorphism.
09.04.c1
through a specific temperature, as when
it was being uplifted to the surface.
7. In many cases, geologists use different

09.04.c2 Before You Leave This Page
methods on a single rock to obtain infor-
mation about different parts of the rock’s Explain how to determine how many
geologic history (⊲). For granite, a U-Pb half-lives have passed based on the
age on zircon, a uranium-bearing mineral, ratio of parent to daughter atoms.
can provide the age when the magma
Describe the different ways that
solidified, and an Ar-Ar age on biotite
provides the time when the rock cooled isotopic dating is used for dating
below 300°C. By using different dating geologic events.
9.4
methods on the same rock, geologists can Describe how a mass spectrometer
show when the rock formed and how fast is used to determine isotopic ages.
it cooled through time, as plotted here.
246
9.5 What Are Fossils?

ROCKS CONTAIN FOSSILS—EVIDENCE OF ANCIENT LIFE. Rocks of appropriate age and type p reserve shells,
coral, bone, petrified wood, leaf impressions, dinosaur tracks, and features created by burrowing animals. What kinds
of creatures left these traces of past life, and how are they preserved in the rock record?
What Are Fossils and How Are They Preserved?

Fossils are any remains, traces, or imprints of a plant or animal that are preserved in a rock or sediment. Fossils can be of
different types depending on what type of life is involved, in what environment the plant or animal lived, and how the
remains were buried and preserved.
09.05.a1 Caesar Creek SP, OH 09.05.a2 Hot Springs, SD 09.05.a3 Florissant Fossil Beds NM, CO
Most fossils found in the field are preserved Vertebrate animals have hard parts, most sig- Some fossils are preserved because the origi-
hard parts, or parts that have been replaced nificantly bones and teeth, that can be pre- nal organic material is replaced by silica,
by hard minerals of marine organisms, includ- served. Most bones are found as fragments pyrite, or some other material. One example is
ing shellfish and coral. The photograph above instead of complete skeletons because of the wood from trees that is replaced by fine-
shows several types of fossilized shells of destruction and dispersal caused by scaven- grained silica, forming petrified wood, in the
Paleozoic age. gers, weathering, erosion, and transport. case above preserving a 34 m.y.-old stump.
09.05.a4 El Paso, TX 09.05.a5 09.05.a6
Another type of fossil forms when an a nimal is After burial, some carbon-rich plants and ani- Fish and other soft creatures can be pre-
buried and decays. This leaves a cavity in the mals become thin films of carbon or other served as impressions, especially when their
rock that mimics the animal’s shape. The cav- materials that preserve the original shape of remains come to rest in quiet waters of a lake
ity is a mold if unfilled, as shown here, and is the plant or animal. This fossil fern is almost or deep sea. Such fossils can preserve amaz-
a cast if it is later filled by minerals. 300 million years old. ing details, including fins and scales.
09.05.a7 09.05.a8 Carlsbad, NM

Animals and plants can Some fossils do not preserve the
become fossils in other actual organism, but instead repre-
ways, such as becoming sent something that the organism
trapped in tree sap, which constructed (⊲). The mound-like
through time h ardens into features in this photograph are
golden-brown amber (⊳). stromatolites and were built by
Such preservation can ancient microscopic algae h undreds
preserve fragile features of millions of years ago. To interpret
of the animal, like wings, how these ancient mounds formed,
legs, and antennae on we compare them to mounds con-
these insects. structed by modern-day algae.
What Traces Do Creatures Leave in the Rock Record?

In addition to preserved remains of organisms, rocks contain other features made by animals that moved across the surface
or burrowed into soft sediment. Geologists call these features trace fossils.
09.05.b1 Moenave, AZ 09.05.b2 Grand Canyon, AZ
Creatures that walk on land, Worms and other
such as reptiles, or on the creatures wriggle, dig,
sea bottom, like crabs, can or tunnel into mud,
leave footprints behind, such forming cavities that
as this one from a Jurassic can be filled by a dif-
dinosaur. Most footprints are ferent kind of
indentations in sediment that sediment, producing a
are filled by later sediment. trace fossil. The type
A trail of related footprints is of trace fossil shown
called a trackway, from here is a burrow, also
which geologists can infer called a worm burrow.
how the creature moved, The creatures were
how much it weighed, and too soft to be pre-
whether it traveled alone or served but still left
in a group. behind a record.
What Determines Whether a Fossil Is Preserved?

Most creatures are never preserved as fossils because fossil preservation requires certain favorable circumstances. The most
important factors include the existence of hard body parts and rapid burial after death.
Hard Parts — Preservation as a fossil is much more likely if a creature, like
this crinoid, has a shell, bones, teeth, or some other hard part. Only 30% of
modern animals have hard parts, but such animals are overrepresented in
the fossil record compared to animals like insects or jellyfish that lack hard
parts. Soft parts of creatures can be eaten by scavengers, crushed during
sediment compaction, dissolved by chemical reactions, or otherwise
destroyed. Some ancient creatures with only soft parts were likely never
preserved as fossils.
Rapid Burial — A fossil cannot be preserved unless it is b

uried. If a crea-
ture’s remains are left on the surface, whether on land or in the sea, they
can decompose due to exposure to the atmosphere and water, or can be
scavenged by other creatures. Rapid burial means less opportunity for
destruction. Preservation is easier beneath the sea than on land because
burial is generally more rapid, and because a lower content of oxygen in
the deep sea slows decay.
09.05.c1
Features That Look Like Fossils but Are Not
S
ome natural geologic features look like p atterns along joints and between sedimen-
fossils but are not fossils. These fea- tary layers. Before You Leave This Page
tures form through inorganic processes Spherical features, called concretions,
and do not represent the remains or traces of which grow in sediment during cementation, Describe the different ways in which
any organism. are also commonly mistaken for f ossils. These a plant or animal can be preserved
The most common 09.05.t1 weather out of sedi- as a fossil.
features mistaken for ment as small
fossils are the dark, spheres, lenses, or Describe two types of commonly
branching mineral oddly shaped objects encountered trace fossils.
growths shown here. that can look organic. Describe the two main factors that
These growths, called Formation of concre- influence whether a creature is
dendrites, typically tions can involve preserved as a fossil.
9.5
consist of manganese- some biologic pro-

Describe a feature that can be
oxide minerals that cesses, but concre-
mistaken for a fossil.
grow in branching tions are not fossils.
248
9.6 How and Why Did Living Things Change Through

Geologic Time?
DIFFERENT FOSSILS OCCUR IN DIFFERENT ROCK UNITS. Some of these differences reflect variations in sed-
imentary facies (different depositional environment), for example between reefs and streams, but most reflect the sys-
tematic way that living things and their fossils varied over geologic time. Why did these changes in fossils occur, and
what do they tell us about how life on our planet has changed through time?
How Do Fossils Vary with Age?

Early geologists recognized that fossils change upward from older layers of sedimentary rock to younger layers. This
systematic change of fossils with age, called faunal succession, helped geologists identify time periods defined by major
changes in life on Earth. Using the principles of relative dating and faunal succession, geologists subdivided geologic time
into four major chapters, each with subdivisions. Later, results from isotopic dating provided numeric ages, in millions of
years before present, for when each chapter started and ended.
09.06.a1
1. The Cenozoic Era, meaning recent life, spans the 2. The Mesozoic Era (middle life) is known as the age
last 66 million years. It is called the age of mammals of dinosaurs because dinosaurs (▼) rose to dominance
because mammals, such as these (fossilized) mam- during this era. The end of the Mesozoic Era, at
moths (▼), became a dominant type of life on Earth. 66 Ma, is marked by the extinction of dinosaurs.
09.06.a2 Hot Springs, SD
09.06.a3 Dinosaur National Monument, UT
3. The Paleozoic Era (ancient life) was dominated 09.06.a5 Grand Canyon NP, AZ
by several major groups of marine animals, includ-
ing coral, creatures like clams that had hard shells
(▼), and various types of fish. Plants, insects, and
amphibians also colonized the land during this era.
The end of the Paleozoic Era is marked by a major
time of extinction called the Great Dying. This
extinction killed off many species of animals in the
seas and to a lesser extent on land.
09.06.a4 Caesar Creek SP, OH
4. The Precambrian (before the

Cambrian Period) comprises nearly
90% of geologic time. For most of this
time, only simple life forms existed,
such as bacteria and algae that formed
stromatolites like those shown here (⊲).
What Factors Determine Whether a Species Survives or Becomes Extinct?

Boundaries between the major chapters of the geologic timescale are defined either by the emergence of new life-forms, by
massive extinctions, or both. Almost all species that ever existed are now extinct. What factors influence whether a species
survives or becomes extinct?
09.06.b1 Namibia 09.06.b2 Amboseli NP, Kenya 09.06.b3 Vulture Mtns., AZ
Environmental Setting — Animals, plants, and Climate — Changes in climate, resulting in loss Reproductive Strategy — Different plants and
other organisms have certain ways they live, of water and food sources, along with other animals reproduce in different ways. These
and certain survival needs. Some organisms changes in critical habitat, can threaten a plants flower and produce seeds, whereas the
thrive because they developed along with regional population of animals. Environmental cacti grow new versions from small parts of
other plants or animals that provide them with stresses, including disease, can eliminate the original plant. Some reproductive strate-
essential food, habitat, or other needs. entire classes of animals. gies will be more successful than others.
09.06.b4 Galápagos Islands 09.06.b5 Namibia 09.06.b6 Namibia
Adaptability — The more adaptable a species Competition — If two or more species are com- Predators and Prey — Being a food source for
is, the more likely it will survive changes in peting for the same sparse resources, there some other creature is never a good s urvival
the environment, such as increases of temper- are likely to be winners and losers. Competi- strategy. The opposite is also true — if an ani-
ature or salinity of water. These marine igua- tion between members of a single species can mal relies on only one kind of food, survival
nas started as land animals but developed the also be a problem if it means that needed becomes problematic if that food source
ability to also forage in the sea. resources are in short supply for all. becomes scarce or even disappears.
Evolution: Observed Changes and Possible Explanations
T
he term evolution is used in two ways. Using this and other evolutionary theories, slowly or more rapidly, in geologic terms,
First, it refers to observed changes in paleontologists try to explain how a Paleo- depending on the environmental setting and
the fossil record or documented zoic fish developed front fins strong enough ecological pressures.
changes in more recently living animals. This to support its weight on land, a mutation
is commonly called the “fact of evolution.” many paleontologists accept as having even-
Second, evolution refers to the theories that tually led to amphibians.
help explain the observed changes. One evolutionary hypothesis, called
Observed changes in the fossil record over punctuated equilibrium, explains how new
time are well documented and can be verified organisms, or new characteristics of an
by anyone who studies fossil-bearing rocks existing organism, appear rather suddenly in
Describe the four chapters of Earth
from different geologic times. For more than a geologic terms, instead of evolving more
history and how the boundaries are
hundred years, geologists and paleontologists gradually. Proponents argue that new and
defined.
(geoscientists who study fossils) have used fos- favorable mutations are more likely to suc-
sils to compare life-forms from rocks of differ- ceed in small, isolated populations than in Describe some factors that affect
ent ages around the world. These comparisons large populations. After a favorable change survival and extinction.
are supported by many isotopic ages. develops fully in a small group, the group may
9.6
Describe the difference between

The theory of natural selection originated rejoin the larger population and out-compete observed fossil changes (evolution)
with Charles Darwin to explain the birds and the other individuals, causing an observed and evolutionary theory.
other animals of the Galápagos Islands. evolutionary change. Evolution can proceed
250
9.7 How Are Fossils Used to Infer Ages of Rocks?

THE DOCUMENTED FAUNAL SUCCESSION from older rocks to younger ones in a rock sequence provides a pow-
erful tool for assessing the age of fossil-bearing units. Using fossils, we can judge the age of one rock relative to
another, compare the ages of two sections of rocks from different places, and assign a rock to a specific time unit of
the geologic timescale. Geologists and paleontologists use fossils to infer the ages of rocks and events, and to help
interpret the environment in which a sedimentary layer accumulated.
How Do Fossils Change Through a Sequence of Sedimentary Rocks?

In almost any fossiliferous sequence of sedimentary rocks, the types of fossils change upward through the section, from
older rocks to younger ones. Some species survived unchanged for long times, and so left similar fossils in many rock
layers. Other species existed for shorter times, and their fossils are restricted to a layer or two. The figure below shows
how some fossils can be more useful than others for determining geologic ages. The vertical bars show the range of
layers that contain a given fossil. Read the text from bottom to top, from the oldest layers to the youngest ones. Brackets
on the left side of the figure illustrate the vertical range of each fossil in the sequence of sedimentary rocks.
09.07.a1
9. Fossils that are large, widespread, and distinctive (fossil I) are more useful than
those that are small, found only locally, and lack diagnostic characteristics.
8. The overlap between the ranges of two fossils within a sequence may tightly
constrain the age of that part of the section. Microscopic fossils G and H have
moderately wide ranges but occur together only within a narrow interval of rock
and time.
7. Some rocks do not include large fossils, so microscopic fossils may be the only
way to evaluate the age of this part of the section. Small to microscopic fossils G and
H have been enlarged so that they are visible.
6. Some types of fossils, like the coral in fossil E, occur through a wide range of
the section. These fossils represent organisms that lived essentially unchanged
for a long time. Such fossils are less useful for assigning ages than fossils that are
restricted to a narrower time range.
5. Some types of fossils (such as fossil F) are restricted to a relatively limited part of
the sequence. These fossils are extremely useful for assigning ages to rocks and so
are called index fossils. In addition to having a short time range, an index fossil must
be abundant (commonly found) and have a widespread areal distribution.
4. The boundary between two varieties of the same fossil type, or between different
types of fossils, can be abrupt, as between fossils C and D. Such boundaries may
have ages that are known within narrow limits and so may be useful time markers. In
studying this sequence of rocks, we would examine the section of rocks, typically
moving upward, and look for the place where fossil C disappeared and fossil D
appeared.
3. Most rocks contain more than one type of fossil; that is, they contain an
assemblage of fossils. Fossils B and C occur in some of the same layers because
both types of organisms were living at the same time. Finding both fossils may
help us confirm or refine the age of the layers.
2. Different varieties of the same general type of fossil may exist and may be dis-
tinguished on the basis of shape and other characteristics. One type of trilobite (fossil
B) is different from the trilobite (fossil A) found at the base of the section. The age
ranges of these two varieties do not overlap, so finding one or the other is very
useful for assigning ages.
1. For some time periods only a few types of fossils are useful for assigning ages.
For studying the earliest part of the Paleozoic Era, a fossil called a trilobite (fossil A)
is the most useful. It is the main fossil in the base of this section.
How Do We Use Fossils to Correlate Two Sequences of Rocks?

The different types of fossils in rocks of different ages indicate that the types of animals changed through time. The
systematic change of the types of fossils through time, faunal succession, is an important principle for comparing the ages of
two different sections of rock. Such a comparison is called a correlation and uses rock type, interpreted environment in
which the units formed, and, where possible, fossils, especially index fossils. The study of sequences of rocks, including the
rock types, fossils, and inferred environments, is stratigraphy, an area of geology that is critical in finding petroleum, coal,
water, and other resources.
Comparing Two Sections That Represent the Same Age Range

1. This figure shows two sections of 2. The tan limestones at the top of the sections
rocks that contain some of the same have matching rock types and fossils (I) and
fossils as those shown on the previ- so are interpreted to be the same age.
ous page. These two sections, how-
ever, do not include all of the fossils 3. The gray limestone with fossil H in the left
because some parts of the g eologic section is not present in the right section, but its
record are missing along discon expected position in the right section is brack-
formities, shown with darker, squiggly eted by fossils G and I. Perhaps the environ-
lines along contacts. We can compare ment at the time did not allow creature H to
fossils in the two sections to provide a exist in the right section.
basis for correlating different parts of 4. A dark gray limestone at the bases of the
the sections. Dashed lines connect two sections can be correlated, but the lime-
rocks or contacts interpreted to be the stone with fossil C is missing in the right section
same age in the two sections. because of erosion along a disconformity.
09.07.b1
Comparing Two Sections That Have Only Partially Overlapping Ages

5. We often try to compare two sequences of rocks that have only 8. Units 7, 8, and 9 are present only in the right
partially overlapping ages. We use faunal succession and the prin- section. They are younger than any rocks in
ciples of superposition and correlation to compare the sections. the left section.
9. After correlating the two rock sections, we

6. Units 4, 5, and 6 in these sec- can mentally envision a taller section that
tions can be correlated based on represents the entire sequence, with units
similar rock types and fossils (not 1 through 9. We could choose average
shown). Note that the thicknesses thicknesses for units 4, 5, and 6, which have
of these units are not exactly the thicknesses that vary between the two sections.
same. Such thickness changes may Using this approach, we can reconstruct an
be due to several different factors, entire section of rocks by observing and
including changes in depositional comparing smaller sections of rocks, correlating
environment (facies) and differ- similar units, and by then arranging the
ences in the rate of deposition. 09.07.b2 appropriate parts of each section on top of
7. Units 1, 2, and 3 are present only one another. This is how geologists construct a
in the left section. These rock units complete stratigraphic section for a region.
are older than the rocks repre-
sented in the right section.
Describe how fossils can change
How Faunal Succession Was Discovered through a section of rocks. Provide
M
examples of using index fossils,
ost historians credit the discovery sections of the same rocks he saw elsewhere. abrupt boundaries between fossils,
of the principle of faunal Smith discovered that the same fossils and fossil overlaps to precisely infer
succession to an Englishman occurred in the same layers irrespective of an age of a rock layer.
named William Smith. Smith also produced their location. He also noted that the fossils
the first geologic map of England, Wales, changed systematically up through the sec- Describe or sketch the ways we use
fossils and rock types to correlate two
and parts of Scotland, called “the map that tion of rocks. He recognized that such
rock sequences.
changed the world.” While surveying along changes could be used to correlate rocks in
canals, Smith collected fossils from the different parts of England and Wales, estab- Briefly summarize the meaning of
9.7
rocks, noting particularly which fossils were lishing the principle of faunal succession and faunal succession and how it was
common in which layers. Where the canals allowing him to map the units, the geology, discovered.
traversed faults and folds, Smith encountered for the first time.
252
9.8 How Was the Geologic Timescale Developed?

GEOLOGISTS DEVELOPED THE GEOLOGIC TIMESCALE to help them correlate rock units across regions and
continents and to have a standard vocabulary for describing geologic time. The timescale was devised by using fossils
or by noting the absence of fossils. Geologists commonly establish boundaries between units at places in the rock sec-
tion where fossils record major changes in the types of life. Later, geologists and chemists assigned numeric ages to the
timescale by using carefully calculated isotopic ages at key localities.
What Are the Main Subdivisions of the Geologic Timescale?

After it was established that fossil assemblages change upward through sections of rock, geologists recognized that two
different sites that have matching fossil assemblages were the same age. They recognized sequences of related layers across
Europe and in North America and named different geologic time periods after places where rocks of that age are well
exposed. The largest time intervals shown below are eras, and include the Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic Eras, from
oldest to youngest. Boundaries between eras are marked by major changes in the fossils, specifically the disappearance
(extinction) of many species and families of creatures. Such major extinctions are referred to as mass extinctions. Geologists
subdivided each era into several periods, shown below (and at the very back of the book) with the derivation of the name of
each period shown to the right of the column.
1. The Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and

Cenozoic are eras. The P recambrian
is also subdivided into eras, but
these are not shown here.
2. This boundary was based on the Latin word creta for chalk
disappearance of many life-forms
(mass extinction) at the end of the
Mesozoic Era. This boundary also is
called the boundary because it Jura Mountains of France
separates the Cretaceous (whose
abbreviation is K) from the Paleo- Triassic, a three-fold subdivision
gene. This boundary is well dated at of rock layers in central Europe
66 Ma (million years before present).
Perm region of Russia
3. This boundary was based on a
mass extinction called the Great Two American states; in Europe,
Dying, which took place at the end combined into the Carboniferous, named
of the Paleozoic Era, currently dated for coals of Great Britain
at 252 Ma.
Devon region of Great Britain
4. This boundary was based

on the widespread a ppearance Silures, an ancient British tribe
of hard-shelled organisms at
the beginning of the Cambrian Ordovicas, an ancient Welsh tribe,
Period, an event called the Great Britain
Cambrian explosion. It occurred
Cambria, the Roman name for Wales,
at 541 Ma.
Great Britain
5. The colors on this timescale, Precambrian, literally, before Cambrian

corresponding to the different eras
and periods, are fairly standard in Note: As recently as several years ago, the Cenozoic
geologic publications. They are was subdivided into the Tertiary (named as the third
used on geologic maps and other part of an early four-part subdivision) and the Quater-
figures to quickly convey the ages nary (fourth part of the same subdivision). Now, it is
of sedimentary and volcanic rock subdivided by many geologists into three periods: the
units. Plutons are usually shown in Quaternary, Neogene (Neo for new), and Paleogene
red, irrespective of age. 09.08.a1 (Paleo for ancient), as shown in the main column.
How Are Numeric Ages Assigned to the Geologic Timescale?

Geologists have assigned numeric ages to geologic periods and their subdivisions by studying localities where
isotopically dated igneous rocks have a clear relationship to fossil-bearing layers.
The isotopic age of a volca-

nic layer (⊳) interbedded with Fossils must be older
fossil-bearing sedimentary than the ages of
rocks can be used to assign dikes that cross cut
a numeric age to the geo- the fossil-bearing
logic period during which layer, like the lower
these types of fossils formed. green shale (⊳). In
Also, the age of a fossil- contrast, the upper
bearing bed can be brack- tan-colored, fossil-
eted by dating volcanic units bearing layer is
above and below it; the bed younger than clasts of
is younger than a volcanic the dike included in
unit beneath it and older the layer.
09.08.b2
09.08.b1 than a volcanic unit above.
How Is the Timescale Used to Assign Numeric Ages to Rocks and Events?
Once the ages of the periods and shorter units of the geologic timescale were constrained, these ages could be used
to estimate numeric ages of fossil-bearing units that lack datable igneous rocks.
We can bracket the

09.08.c1 The age of this unconformity, age of any type of
shown by the squiggly line, unconformity by
can be bracketed by using using fossils and the
both isotopic ages and fossil timescale to assign
ages (⊳). The unconformity is ages to rocks above
younger than the isotopic age and below the
of the granite. It is older than unconformity (⊳). The
the age assigned to the fos- unconformity is
sils in the overlying bed younger than tilted
based on their position in the sedimentary beds
geologic timescale. below, but older
than rocks above.
09.08.c2
How to Remember the Geologic Timescale
S Before You Leave This Page

tudents have developed many techniques This mnemonic stands for Cambrian,
to help them remember the names and rdovician, Silurian, Devonian, Mississippian,
O
numbers of the geologic timescale. What Pennsylvanian, Permian, Triassic, Jurassic, Briefly summarize how the geologic
do we recommend? Many students use a C retaceous, Paleogene, Neogene, and
timescale was developed.
mnemonic device in which the first letters of Quaternary. Envision the sheepdog and each

From oldest to youngest, list the four
the mnemonic words match those of the names part of the sentence. You can also use the mne-
main geologic chapters and periods.
of the subdivisions of the timescale. One monic to help you draw a visual representation
mnemonic for the periods of the Paleozoic, of the geologic timescale. Practice filling in the Explain or sketch how numeric ages
Mesozoic, and Cenozoic Eras is the following: associated numeric ages until it becomes easier are assigned to the timescale and
9.8
to draw and, thus, remember the names of the how the timescale is used to assign
Cuddly Old Sheep Dogs Make Perfect Pets; time periods and the numeric ages that mark the numeric ages to fossil-bearing rocks.
They Just Crowd People Nearby Quietly. boundaries between the Precambrian, Paleo-
zoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic.
254
9.9 What Is the Evidence for the Age of Earth?

EARTH IS 4.55 BILLION YEARS OLD. Early geologists suspected that Earth had a long history and devised several
approaches to estimate the age of Earth. The advent of isotopic dating techniques finally provided the tool needed to
demonstrate that Earth is indeed very old. What evidence indicates that Earth is billions of years old and not several
thousand years old?
What Were the Early Attempts to Estimate the Age of Earth?

For centuries, scientists tried to figure out ways to date the age of Earth. Many of these ideas were reasonable for their
time, but key information was missing and so early estimates of Earth’s age were too young. Radioactive decay was not
discovered until the late 1800s, but its use revolutionized thought about the age of Earth.
09.09.a1 Brazos River, Bryan, TX 09.09.a2
An early method to Lord Kelvin, a late
determine the age of 1800s scientist, esti-
Earth calculated how mated Earth’s age
fast salt had accumu- by calculating how
lated in the oceans. long a molten Earth
By measuring the should take to cool
salinity and volume of to its present
water flowing in riv- temperature. Using
ers (⊳), and estimat- thermal properties
ing evaporation rates, of rocks and esti-
scientists could calcu- mates of Earth’s
late how much time it would take for ocean water to attain its present internal tempera-
salt content. The calculation yielded an age of 90 million years, which ture, he calculated an age of 100 million years. This estimate was
was far too young because the estimate did not consider salt lost from done before the discovery that radioactive decay adds internal heat,
the oceans to salt beds. partly explaining why Lord Kelvin’s estimate is too young.
What Is the Evidence That Earth’s History Is Not Short?

Events that are seasonal and leave a physical record, such as the growth rings in trees, are easily observed. Using such
features to estimate age requires only that we assume that processes that are occurring today also occurred in the past.
Satellite data provide another way to check rates of geologic processes.
09.09.b1 09.09.b2 Greenland
1. Tree rings (⊳), which record annual growth cycles, have textures that
vary between seasons and widths that vary from dry years to wet ones.
Thickness patterns in bristlecone pine rings from the American West can
be correlated from living trees to dead ones to form a continuous
record back to 9,000 years ago. This approach is independent of, but
strongly supported by, many carbon-14 ages.
2. Ice cores (⊲), cylinders of ice drilled from ices sheets in Greenland
and Antarctica, contain thin layers produced by yearly cycles of the sea-
sons. Some ice-core records are thousands of meters long, represent-
ing tens of thousands of years to well over 100,000 years. Determining
the age is done by counting the rings, along with determining isotopic
ages for layers of volcanic ash within the ice.
09.09.b3 Connecticut Valley, NH 09.09.b4
3. Varves are alternating light and dark sediment layers (⊳) that form in lakes
because of seasonal variations of sedimentation and biologic activity. Lighter lay-
ers represent increased accumulations of sand and silt during the summer,
whereas darker layers record the slower deposition of mud during the winter.
There are more than 4,800 varves in glacial lakes that existed in New England
around 10,000 to 14,000 years ago, and the Green River Formation in Wyoming
has millions of varves that represent at least several million years.
4. Current rates of plate motion can be m

easured precisely to be on the order of
centimeters per year using high-precision GPS data (⊲). At these rates, it would
have taken the Atlantic Ocean more than 100 million years to form as Africa and
the Americas moved apart. Similar rates of motion explain the ages of the Hawai-
ian Islands and displacement on the San Andreas fault.
What Are the Oldest Dated Rocks on Earth?

Geologists have dated rocks from several places, including Australia, Canada, and Greenland, at more than
3.5 billion years old. The oldest dates (4.4 b.y.) are on individual grains in metamorphic rocks.
09.09.c1 Front Range, CO 09.09.c2 Grand Canyon, AZ
Many parts of North America have Precam-
brian metamorphic and granitic rocks
beneath a younger sedimentary cover. The
crystalline rocks, including those shown
here (⊲), have been dated at thousands of
sites and provide a systematic regional
pattern of ages across North America. The
oldest rocks, some more than 3 billion
years old, are in crystalline rocks exposed
across a broad expanse of Canada and
the Great Lakes region, an area known as
the Canadian Shield. Similarly old rocks
The oldest rocks in any region are generally metamor- are exposed in the uplifted mountains of
phic rocks (▲) that display evidence of a protracted Wyoming and adjacent areas. From these
and complex geologic history. One of the oldest dated old centers of the continent, the ages sys-
rocks on Earth is a metamorphic rock, named the tematically decrease to the southeast,
Acasta Gneiss, in northwestern Canada. It is inter- being about 1 billion years in Texas and
preted to have started as a granite that was later the southeastern United States. The pat-
metamorphosed. Its age of nearly 4.0 billion years, tern of ages indicates that the southern
when the granite solidified, was determined using ura- part of North America was added to an
nium dating on zircon. Other examples of Earth’s most older, northern part. The consistency of the
ancient rocks are in western Australia and in northern pattern is strong verification of the method-
Quebec, Canada. Some of these rocks contain even ology and supporting knowledge that are
older zircon crystals derived from even older rocks. the basis of isotopic dating.
Where We Get the 4.55 Billion-Year Age of the Earth, and the Concept of Deep Time
E
arth and the solar system are interpreted years old, nearly as old as the Universe We can understand that the age of Earth is
to be the same age, as measured from (14 billion years). This age is based on several well determined at 4.55 billion years old, but it
the radioactive decay of isotopes in methods, including the stage of evolution of is still very difficult, even for geologists, to
Moon rocks and in meteorites. The Moon is certain features in our galaxy compared to fully grasp the incredible duration of geologic
interpreted to have formed early in Earth’s his- similar features in other galaxies. time. For this reason, geologists often talk
tory, and meteorites are presumed to represent Geologists and chemists have obtained iso- about geologic history in terms of the concept
shattered rocky fragments formed at the same topic ages for many different meteorites, sev- of deep time. This is an acknowledgement that
time as Earth. eral Moon rocks, and countless Earth rocks. geologic time is long, and nearly impossible for
Geologists and planetary scientists collect The oldest dates converge on 4.5 billion years humans to fully appreciate, given our direct
meteorites around the world, especially in before present, even though the rocks are from experience with events that only last seconds to
Antarctica, where the dark rocks stand out on very different places and more than one dating years. The uplift and eroding away of entire
the light-colored snow and ice. They have method was used. The slightly younger age, mountain ranges seems like an impossible task,
dated various types of meteorites. The oldest 4.0 billion years, for the “oldest dated rock” on but it is possible with the very long time avail-
ages are interpreted to represent the time just Earth is expected because erosion, deposition, able over geologic time — deep time.
before the planets cooled. The meteorite anal- and tectonic activity remove rocks, bury them,
yses support formation of the solar system and deform and metamorphose them, and even melt
Earth between 4.53 and 4.58 billion years ago. them. Some geologists are surprised that such Before You Leave This Page
The meteorite shown here is an old rock was able to sur-
the Allende meteorite, dated vive at all. A 4.4 billion- Describe early methods for
at 4.56 billion years old. year-old zircon grain from determining the age of Earth and why
Nine missions to the Moon Australia is even closer to the they proved to be inaccurate.
returned a limited number of age of the meteorites.
samples of Moon rocks for There is remarkable con- Describe evidence that suggests
isotopic dating. The oldest sistency between ages from Earth has a long history, including
Moon rocks are 4.4 to 4.5  bil- meteorites, the Moon, and
isotopic ages on basement rocks in
lion years old. Earth. This consistency North America.
9.9
The Milky Way Galaxy strongly supports the 4.55 Describe how meteorites and Moon
currently is estimated to be billion-year age for Earth, the rocks help constrain the age of Earth.
approximately 13 billion Moon, and the solar system.
09.09.t1
256
9.10 What Events Occurred Early in Earth’s History

and How Did Earth Change Over Time?
THE EARLIEST CHAPTERS OF EARTH’S HISTORY featured many processes and events similar to those observed
today, but at vastly different rates and intensities. Some early processes and events are not similar to those observed
today because of changes through time in the amount of our planet’s internal heat, in the formation and evolution of the
atmosphere and oceans, and in the changing role of life. What do you know about Earth’s earliest history?
What Are Impacts and How Are They Expressed on the Surface?
Our Solar System has a huge number of asteroids, comets, and other extraterrestrial objects (i.e., coming from outside planet
Earth), which have the potential of colliding at very high velocities with other objects, including planets and moons. During
such collisions (impacts), the energy of the collision causes the formation of an impact crater on the larger object, if the
objects do not simply break apart. There were vast numbers of such objects early in the Solar System’s history, so Earth’s
earliest chapters were dominated by impact cratering. The formation of impact craters is illustrated below.
09.10.a1-3
During an impact, much kinetic energy of the The energy of the impact excavates the sub- Two main types of craters are formed,
fast-moving object is transferred onto the surface, throwing (ejecting) pieces of the depending on the size of the impact. If the
rocks near the impact, sending shock waves impacting object and of the underlying mate- impact event is not too large, it forms a rela-
through the subsurface. This process fractures rial in all directions from the impact site. The tively simple crater surrounded by a fringe of
and shatters the adjacent rocks and can even ejected material generally forms a ringlike ejected material. If the collision is larger, it
cause some of the rocks to melt (an impact mound or collar of rock fragments around the forms a complex crater that has a central
melt). The impacting object breaks apart, scat- crater. Steep walls of the crater can collapse peak formed by shock waves converging
tering pieces across the surface, or the object downward in landslides and talus slopes, as is back toward the center of the crater. We can
can be totally vaporized. observed on Mars, the Moon, and elsewhere. observe both types of craters on our Moon.
What Types of Rocks Formed Early in Earth’s History?

After the surface of Earth had solidified, its surface was bombarded by impacts, covering it with craters, much like on our
Moon. Early in its history, Earth’s interior is inferred to have been much hotter than today because of heat left over from its
formation, heating from impacts, and from a higher concentration of radioactive isotopes. As a result of these factors,
different types or abundances of rocks formed early in Earth’s history than form today.
09.10.b1 Vredefort, South Africa 09.10.b2 Noranda, Quebec, Canada
During the earliest part Common in exposures
of Earth’s history, much of early Precambrian
loose space debris was rocks is greenstone,
left over from the solar representing slightly
nebula. Some of this metamorphosed lava
material collided with flows. We interpret vol-
Earth, forming large canism to have been
impact craters. An very active in Earth’s
impact causes shattering early, hot times (during
of rocks near the crater, the Archean), erupting
and the huge imposed ultramafic lavas that
stresses can cause were hotter than those
rocks to melt. The photograph here (▲) shows fragments of shattered erupting today. Some copper deposits were formed at this time from
rocks surrounded by a dark matrix that was originally a melt that rapidly hot water associated with submarine volcanism. Plate tectonics may not
solidified to glass. The frequency of these collisions was very high early have operated during these hot early times, but the planet progres-
on, but decreased over time, as less debris remained in space. sively lost more heat, and plate tectonics dominated later chapters.
How Did Earth’s Atmosphere and Oceans Form and Change Over Time?
Earth’s earliest atmosphere is interpreted to have contained hydrogen, methane, ammonia, and water vapor, but the lightest
of these gases were lost relatively easily from a planet of Earth’s size. Other gases, such as nitrogen gas and carbon dioxide,
accumulated early in Earth’s history, but the early atmosphere lacked significant oxygen. The amount of oxygen increased in
two steps or transitions, called oxygenation events. These had dramatic effects on the planet.
09.10.c1 Mt. Bromo, Java, Indonesia
09.10.c2 Johannesburg, South Africa
09.10.c3 Sherman Mine, Ontario, Canada

1. The earliest atmosphere of Earth had light 2. Early life on Earth consisted of cyanobacte- 3. Earth originally lacked an ocean, such as
gases that were part of the accretion from the ria, often called blue-green algae, which during its mostly molten phase, but it gradu-
solar nebula. As they were lost, other gases, formed mound-like stromatolites (▲). Cyano- ally accumulated enough water to fill low
including carbon dioxide, water vapor, and sul- bacteria conduct photosynthesis, producing spots to form early oceans. Halfway through
fur-bearing gases, were produced from within oxygen gas as a by-product. By this process, Earth’s history, enough oxygen was added to
the Earth and released into the atmosphere, these tiny organisms oxygenated (added oxy- the atmosphere and oceans to allow iron to
such as during volcanism. gen to) Earth’s early atmosphere and oceans. become oxidized, forming iron formation, red-
and gray-banded rocks composed mostly of
iron oxide minerals and quartz.
Major Oxygenation Events
4. By studying the character and isotopic content of sedimentary rocks through time, we can estimate how the composition of the atmosphere has
changed over the last 3 to 4 billion years. The graph below shows how the oxygen content of Earth’s atmosphere is interpreted to have changed
over time, based on various types of data. For example, some materials, like the sulfide mineral pyrite, are not stable on the surface if the atmo-
sphere contains much oxygen, such as the conditions today. These materials, however, are present in Archean sedimentary rocks. This observation
and other data indicate that Earth’s atmosphere contained almost no oxygen during most or all of the Archean.
4.0 3.0 2.0 1.0 0.0
5. The lack of oxygen in Earth’s
% O2 IN ATMOSPHERE
early history has many implica- 20

Second Oxygenation Event
20
tions. In addition to having no oxy-
gen, the atmosphere contained ARCHEAN PROTEROZOIC PHANERO-
methane, ammonia, and other ZOIC
gases that would have been toxic 10 First Appearance of Free O2 in Atmosphere 10
to most modern organisms, includ- Little or No O2 in Atmosphere (Great Oxygenation Event)
ing humans. Methane is a powerful
greenhouse gas, probably helping 0 0
3.5 2.5 1.5 0.5 09.10.c4
to keep Earth warm at that time.
BILLIONS OF YEARS AGO
With no oxygen but abundant car-
bon dioxide in the atmosphere, weathering 6. Various types of evidence show that free 7. Free oxygen first appeared during the GOE,
processes would have been very different. oxygen (oxygen as a gas or dissolved in but the levels were still very low, about 1% of
For example, there was not enough oxygen water, not oxygen tied up in minerals) first the total atmospheric gas content. The levels
to form the distinctive red-colored iron oxide appeared in the atmosphere and oceans at stayed low for the next 1.7 billion years, during
minerals that we commonly associate with about 2.3 to 2.4 billion years ago, in what is most of Proterozoic time. A second oxygen-
soils and oxidation on and near the s urface. called the Great Oxygenation Event (GOE). ation event, bringing oxygen levels to near-
The first appearance of free oxygen had modern levels of about 20%, occurred late in
many ramifications. Prior to this time, large the Proterozoic, well before the start of the
Before You Leave This Page quantities of iron were able to remain dis- Cambrian (541 Ma), which was marked by the
solved in the oceans, but the increase in oxy- appearance of animals with shells and other
Sketch and describe how an impact gen during the GOE caused the iron to be hard parts. Geoscientists are actively research-
crater forms and when in Earth’s precipitated in the oceans, forming large vol- ing the cause and timing of this second oxy-
history they were most abundant. umes of iron formation between 2.4 and 1.8 genation event and the role that this event
billion years ago. The oldest reddish sedimen- may have played in the appearance and rapid
Summarize changes in composition tary rocks (red beds) are this same age, as diversification of complex life after that time.
9.10
of the atmosphere and oceans, the increase in oxygen in the atmosphere Unlike cyanobacteria, which produce oxygen,
what caused them, and how they allowed iron minerals to begin oxidizing and most modern life-forms require oxygen to live.
were expressed in the rock record. turning red. The only plausible source of oxy- Such life-forms, including humans, were not
gen is from photosynthesis by cyanobacteria. possible until the oxygen levels rose.
258
9.11 What Were Some Milestones in the Early

History of Life on Earth?
LIFE ON EARTH BEGAN before there was much oxygen in the atmosphere. Very simple, but successful, Precambrian
organisms evolved, started to photosynthesize, and eventually produced an oxygen-rich a tmosphere. During the Paleozoic
Era, from 541 to 252 Ma, more complex organisms appeared, eventually including fishes, plants, amphibians, reptiles,
insects, and various types of marine organisms.
What Were the Earliest Forms of Life on Earth?

Some of Earth’s first inhabitants were early forms of algae, represented by fossils called stromatolites found in Australian
rocks that are 3.5 billion years old, and rocks elsewhere that are only slightly younger. These organisms lived when Earth
had little or no oxygen in its atmosphere. Some still live today, in certain special environments.
09.11.a1 Carlsbad, NM 09.11.a2 Australia 09.11.a3
This rock contains stromatolites, the earliest Ancient stromatolites probably had a similar About 2 billion years ago, cyanobacteria
type of non-microscopic fossils identified on appearance and structure to modern stromat- had produced enough oxygen through
Earth. The cyanobacteria that form modern olites in Australia (▲). Today’s stromatolites live photosynthesis to increase the amount of
stromatolites use photosynthesis to make in an oxygen- and nitrogen-rich atmosphere, oxygen in the atmosphere and form a
food, and if those in ancient stromatolites did whereas the atmosphere 3.5 billion years ago protective ozone layer. Sometime after
the same, they may have begun the transfor- had more carbon dioxide, which was pro- 1.5 billion years ago, organisms began to
mation to an oxygen-rich atmosphere. duced mostly by o utgassing from volcanoes. reproduce sexually, which led eventually to
complex, multicellular organisms.
What Was the Cambrian Explosion?

At the beginning of the Cambrian Period, about 541 million years ago, life became more diverse and included organisms with
hard protective coverings. Creatures with shells had an obvious advantage over earlier soft-bodied organisms. Over a period of
about 20 to 30 million years, many new shelled organisms appeared on Earth. This period of rapid evolutionary change is called
the Cambrian explosion. The term “explosion” in this context refers to the relatively rapid appearance of many new types of
organisms. It does not have any relation to volcanism, the normal context in which geologists use this term.
09.11.b1 House Range, UT 09.11.b2 09.11.b3
Trilobites were one of the early and dominant The Cambrian seas produced simple forms of Some of the best examples of Cambrian fossils
organisms of the Cambrian Period. They had marine animals related to clams, starfish, come from a shale in the Canadian Rockies.
external skeletons, diverse appearances, and sponges, and crabs, including brachiopods The shale preserves more than 150 species,
lived in a wide range of e nvironments. Many like those shown above. including impressions of the soft parts of some
are key index fossils for the early Paleozoic. rather odd creatures, like these (▲).
What Life Existed During the Paleozoic Era?

During the Paleozoic Era, an extraordinary diversity of life evolved — both in the seas and on land. Artistic reconstructions of
three times of the Paleozoic were produced by Karen Carr, whose work is featured in museums.
Early Paleozoic 09.11.c1

Middle Paleozoic 09.11.c2
Late Paleozoic 09.11.c3
In the early Paleozoic, corals, crinoids (which In the middle of the Paleozoic, corals built Amphibians and early reptiles evolved during
look like platy underwater lilies), and mollusks large reefs, and pieces of crinoid stems this time, with a dramatic rise of reptile groups
were anchored to the seafloor, trilobites and littered the seafloor. Fish became diverse and a continued diversity of marine life. Land
snails moved across the seafloor, and shelled and abundant. On land, many forms of plants, insects, and marine life continued to
creatures with tentacles propelled themselves insects appeared, and plants included ferns diversify until a major extinction (the Great
through the water. and seedless trees. Dying) at the end of the Paleozoic.
Possible Causes of the Great Dying
T
he end of the Paleozoic Era marks There is some evidence, currently being poor water to be brought to the surface. This
Earth’s greatest extinction, called the debated, for a large meteorite impact at the end could have caused a dramatic change in shallow
Great Dying. On land, about 70% of all of the Paleozoic. Geologists have proposed that ocean temperatures and in the amount of CO2
species, including many invertebrates, an impact can explain unusual carbon molecules in the atmosphere, leading to sudden and cata-
amphibians, and reptiles, went extinct. The
found in rocks of this age. Geologists have strophic climate changes. Such changes could
event took a huge toll in the oceans, extinguish- found several suitably large impact craters, but affect the entire planet, resulting in a mass
ing almost 90% of marine species, including none directly tied to the extinction. A huge extinction on the land and in the oceans. This
trilobites. Geologists are still actively investi- impact could have triggered the massive erup- theory, like the others, is unproven, and the
gating a number of possible causes. tions of the Siberian Traps, but this connection Great Dying remains a geologic mystery with
A great outpouring of lava occurred at the remains conjectural. several possible explanations for its cause.
end of the Paleozoic. Large volumes of basalt Throughout most of the Paleozoic, conti-
erupted in northern Asia, in a region called the nents were separated by warm, shallow seas. By
Siberian Traps (trap is an old word used to Permian time, the supercontinent Pangaea had
describe basalt). Such eruptions expel volcanic formed. Its formation closed seas that had once
Describe the environments of early
ash and gases, including water vapor, carbon nourished Paleozoic life. The supercontinent
life and some important evolutionary
dioxide, and sulfur dioxide. The ash and gases became more arid, and vast evaporite deposits
events that took place during Earth’s
have the potential to warm or cool the planet formed and could have changed the salt concen- early history.
and possibly cause other catastrophic effects, trations in seawater. These and other effects of
such as changing circulation patterns in the the formation of Pangaea may have helped kill Briefly describe what happened
oceans. Results of recent isotopic dating dem- off specialized organisms and set the stage for during the Cambrian explosion.
onstrate that these eruptions and the extinctions a more dramatic event.
9.11
Explain four possible causes for the

occurred at the same time. There is some debate An alternative explanation is that conditions Great Dying, the largest extinction
about whether extinction on land occurred at in the atmosphere and oceans led to a massive event in Earth history.
the same time as in the oceans. overturn of ocean water, causing deep, oxygen-
260
9.12 What Were Some Milestones in the Later History

of Life on Earth?
MASS EXTINCTION AT THE END OF THE PALEOZOIC ERA provided evolutionary opportunities for new life-
forms. The organisms that repopulated the early Mesozoic seas and lands were very different from Paleozoic organisms.
Diverse life existed during the Mesozoic Era (252 to 66 Ma), including dinosaurs. The end of the Mesozoic Era is
defined by another major extinction event, which gave rise to yet another evolutionary chapter, the ascent of mammals
during the Cenozoic Era. The artwork of Karen Carr provides us with one interpretation of the scenes represented by
the bones, shells, leaves, and other fossils.
What Life Was Abundant During the Mesozoic Era?

Diverse life existed during the Mesozoic Era, but it is known as the age of dinosaurs, the best known creatures of this time.
The Mesozoic has three periods: Triassic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous, from oldest to youngest.
Early Mesozoic: Triassic 09.12.a1

Middle Mesozoic: Jurassic 09.12.a2
1. During the Triassic Period, small and nimble dinosaur- 2. Dinosaurs diversified and many new species appeared during the Jurassic Period,
like creatures and mammals appear beneath the seed- including Stegosaurus with plates on its back and the huge plant-eating Apatosaurus.
bearing conifer forests. In the seas, shallow-sea niches Carnivorous predators, like Allosaurus, stalked the landscape. The Jurassic Period also
left open by the Permian extinction were occupied by featured Archaeopteryx, an early bird. The seas flourished with many diverse creatures,
coiled ammonites and other marine animals. including ammonites, starfish, and large marine reptiles.
09.12.a3
Late Mesozoic: Cretaceous 09.12.a4
3. During the Cretaceous Period, dinosaurs remained diverse, and included various 4. During the Cretaceous Period, animals similar to
plant-eating dinosaurs that walked on four or two legs, as well as predators like the those of the Jurassic thrived in the seas, including fish
raptors lurking in the bushes. Flying reptiles and birds graced the skies. Not shown of many kinds, straight and coiled nautiloids, large
is the fearsome Tyrannosaurus rex. For the first time, flowering plants, called angio- marine reptiles, and turtles. Not shown because of their
sperms, became abundant on land. Insects remained a vibrant and diverse group, tiny size are countless floating and free-swimming
and most mammals continued a rather low-key existence. organisms called plankton.
What Were Dinosaurs and What Caused Their Demise?

Dinosaurs evolved from Permian ancestors and existed on Earth for 165 million years, throughout most of the Mesozoic. By
the middle of the Mesozoic, they dominated the land, but they and many other animals went extinct at the end of the
Mesozoic Era, at what has traditionally been called the K-T extinction. With changes in names on the geologic timescale, it
has been called the extinction by some scientists, because it separates the Cretaceous Period (K) from the Paleogene
Period. Geologists and other scientists have proposed numerous hypotheses to explain the extinction.
09.12.b1 09.12.b2
1. There were two 2. A well-known hypothesis for the
types of dinosaurs, K-T extinction involves a huge
differing in their hip comet or asteroid striking Earth,
structure. One group sending massive amounts of dust
of dinosaurs had a and gas into the atmosphere and
hip structure similar blocking sunlight. Earth’s surface
to lizards and would have been cold for decades.
included a diverse Many geologists conclude that the
group of carnivores, impact site, 66 million years ago,
such as Tyrannosau- was the Chicxulub crater on the
rus rex, and herbi- Yucatán Peninsula (⊲) in Mexico
vores, such as (shown by the red circle).
Apatosaurus. Some
walked slowly on
four legs; others walked and ran on two legs. Another group of dinosaurs 3. Another possible cause of the extinction was massive out-
had a birdlike hip structure (but were not related to birds) and were herbi- pourings of basalt in the Deccan Traps in India (not shown).
vores. Some like Stegosaurus and Triceratops walked and grazed on four Huge eruptions could have put enough sulfur dioxide gas into
legs. Others, like duck-billed dinosaurs, could move on two legs. the atmosphere to cause a winter that lasted decades.
09.12.c2
What Life Appeared During the Cenozoic Era?

The Cenozoic Era is also called the age of mammals. After dinosaurs went
extinct, mammals were able to diversify rapidly and fill many niches left
behind by the K-T extinction.
1. By early Cenozoic time, the ancestors of modern mammals, including bats, rodents, primates,
sloths, whales, hoofed animals, and carnivores, were abundant and lived in a variety of habitats.
Marsupial mammals, represented by modern kangaroos, thrived on the isolated southern conti-
nents of South America and A ustralia.
2. Although they lived 20 million years ago, many of the 3. Late in the Cenozoic, during
mammals shown here (▼) may be familiar to you because the Ice Ages, a number of large
they are fairly similar to their modern descendants. Each mammals roamed the conti-
type of mammal, however, underwent many changes nents (⊲). Many of these ani-
between then and now. Horses, for example, changed mals, like the mammoth, saber-
dramatically in size. These changes are well recorded by toothed cats, and giant beaver,
bones and teeth of d ifferent species of horses found at went extinct as the Ice Ages
thousands of sites around the world. ended and humans spread
across the globe. The first
09.12.c1
humans (Homo sapiens)
appeared before 300,000 years Before You Leave This Page
ago, based on fossil evidence.
Human-migration data are still
Contrast the kinds of organisms
controversial, but by at least
that lived during the Mesozoic Era
50,000 years ago Homo sapi-
ens populated s everal parts of with those that lived during the
the planet, having left their sites Cenozoic Era.
of origin in Africa. The details of Describe some of the variety
human history are continuously
9.12
observed in dinosaurs, and

refined by d iscoveries of new summarize two theories for why
archeological sites and even dinosaurs became extinct.
older ancestors.
262
9.13 How Do We Reconstruct Geologic Histories?

WE RECONSTRUCT THE SEQUENCE OF GEOLOGIC EVENTS by using the various strategies of relative dating,
correlation of rock units, isotopic dating, study of fossils, and other geologic principles. Geologists commonly start by
studying a single section of rocks and determining the sequence of events it represents. Understanding the causes and
contexts of the geologic environments and events requires correlating several rock sections.
How Do We Correlate Units and Events in Two Sections of Rocks?

There are various strategies for matching—or correlating—two sections of rocks. Some strategies compare the physical
characteristics of units, finding units that match and developing a logical explanation for why other parts of the sections do
not match. Other strategies compare the ages of the rocks, as determined by fossils, numeric ages, and other methods. Read
each principle below and then compare that part of the two sections.
Section 1
Physical Correlations Section 2
1. Lateral Continuity — The surest form of c orrelation is to be able to physically trace a unit
through the landscape from one place to another. Both sections 1 and 2 are capped by a reddish
sandstone that can be traced through the landscape between the two s ections.
2. Distinctive Rock Type — A unit may have d

istinctive characteristics that enable it to be matched
between two sections. Both sections have breccia that c ontains large blocks of gray granite.
3. Similar Sequence of Rocks — Two sections of rock may contain a similar sequence of layers.
Both sections contain a yellowish mudstone, overlain by a breccia and underlain by gray shale.
4. Rocks Record Similar Event — Two units may be in similar positions in the sequence and
record the same geologic event, but express the event in different ways. Gray shales in both
sections record rising sea level, but different thicknesses of clay accumulated in the two areas.
5. Position in Sequence — Two different rock types may correlate if they are in the same position
in the sections. The tan beach sand in section 1 is in the same position as a tan mudstone
deposited a little farther offshore. Both units record the same shoreline and were deposited at
the same time, but the mudstone was deposited a little farther from the land.
6. No Correlative Unit — A unit in one s ection may have no correlative unit in the other s ection. A
local landslide deposit in section 2 did not extend far enough to be p resent in section 1.
7. Relation to Unconformities — Two units may correlate if they have a similar relationship to the
same unconformity. Conglomerate at the base of both s ections overlies metamorphic rocks
along a regional unconformity.
09.13.a1
Age Correlations
8. Fossils — If two units contain the same a
ssemblage of index fossils, they are the same age
and are correlative. The gray limestone in both sections contains index fossils of late Triassic age.
9. Isotopic Age — If datable units, such as v olcanic layers, yield the same numeric age, they may
be time correlative. Basalt flows in both sections give s imilar isotopic ages (about 230 Ma).
10. Magnetic Signature — Earth’s magnetic field has reversed direction through time. Some rocks
record these changes, and we can use the resulting patterns to correlate rocks. Two units
recorded reversals in Earth’s magnetic field, from normal (N) to reversed (R), and display similar
patterns of reversals. This suggests but does not conclusively demonstrate a correlation.
09.13.a2
Why Do Some Rock Units Change from One Section to Another?

When investigating the geologic history of a region, geologists seek to understand how and why the rock units change
laterally. Even though two units are deposited at the same time, they may be different rock types. There are several
explanations why the sequence of layers changes from one place to another.
1. Facies Change — The type of sediment depos- 2. Restricted Event — A unit may not be p
resent 3. Change in Thickness — Accompa-
ited at the same time can be different in two dif- in nearby sequences because it simply was not nying some facies changes are varia-
ferent places because the sedimentary facies deposited there. Many units are formed by a rel- tions in the thickness of sediment that
(depositional environment) changed laterally, such atively small event and have a restricted aerial is deposited. Thickness changes can
as from a shallow marine environment to a delta. distribution, like these sand dunes. also reflect variations in topography
over which a unit is deposited, such
as river deposits that are thickest in
the center of the valley.
4. Eroded Away — Another explana-

tion for why a unit is not present or is
thinner is that it has been partly or
completely eroded away in one place
but is preserved in another. Such ero-
sion should be marked by an
unconformity of some type.
09.13.b1
What Are Some Approaches to Investigating Geologic History?

Many geologists study geologic relationships using geologic maps, cross sections, and block diagrams. Solving nearly all
geologic problems, including reconstructing histories, involves geometric relationships in three dimensions. The figure
below shows a geologic terrain with various rock units and other geologic features, numbered in the order in which they
formed, from oldest (1) to youngest (13). Examine this figure and try to determine the sequence of events. Then read the
text and think about possible reasons why the units and features are interpreted to have formed in the relative order
reflected by the numbering.
1. Cliffs expose horizontal rock layers, 5. A river valley cuts through the cliffs, form- 6. A recent-looking scoria cone (10) has
capped by a gray limestone (7). At the ing a canyon (12). In the valley, the river con- erupted lava (also numbered 10) that flowed
base of the cliff is a fault scarp (11) that tains a thin veneer of river gravels (13). downhill. The lava flow poured over the
downdrops rocks to the south, forming The fault scarp (11) does not offset cliff, but is offset by the latest movement along
a valley that is covered with fairly the gravels, so the scarp is older. the fault scarp (11). Some fault movement prob-
recent sediment (9). ably predated the eruption to produce the
cliffs. The cone and lava flow are somewhat
2. The front of the block depicts a weathered and eroded.
sequence of layers (4–7), some 7. The subsurface conduit for the scoria
of which are the cone is a now-solidified dike (10). The dike
same layers exposed cuts across all rock units it encounters on
in the cliff. The lowest the side of the block.
layer in the series is
the oldest (4), and 8. In the subsurface, a granite (2) cuts across
the highest layer, the metamorphic rocks (1), but is truncated
the recent sedi- by the lower angular unconformity (3). The
ments (9), is the dark dike (10) cuts the granite.
youngest. The
contact between
the limestone and Before You Leave This Page
the sediments is a 09.13.c1
disconformity (8). Describe or sketch the principles by
which two sequences of rocks can
3. At the base of the block be correlated.
are metamorphic rocks (1), the oldest 4. As shown Describe or sketch why layers can
rocks in the area. The contact between the on the side of the change from one sequence
metamorphic rocks and layer 4 (a conglomerate) is block, the fault cuts,
to another.
9.13
depositional, with pieces of metamorphic rocks in and so is younger than,

the conglomerate. The contact between the steep the metamorphic rocks, Reconstruct the sequence of events
metamorphic rocks and conglomerate is an angu- layers 4–7, and the upper- from a cross section or block diagram.
lar unconformity (3). most sediments (9).
264
9.14 Why Do We Investigate Geologic History?

INVESTIGATING WHEN AND IN WHAT ORDER geologic events occurred has practical value for our modern soci-
ety. Geologic history helps us evaluate the potential for geologic hazards, explore for resources, comprehend the physi-
cal world around us, and understand changes in life and the environment over time.
How Do Geologic Ages Help Us Evaluate Geologic Hazards?

When assessing the potential for volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, and other geologic hazards, we are interested in
knowing what types of processes are involved with the hazard and when these events last occurred. We determine when
these hazardous events occurred by applying principles of relative dating, landscape development, and numeric dating,
in order to estimate when such activity last occurred and when it might happen again.
Volcanic Eruptions
Earth’s surface contains many volcanoes and exposures of volcanic rocks. Which of
these are most dangerous, and which ones are not dangerous at all? Knowing when
a volcano last erupted, and which volcanic units are the most recent, is clearly one
of the most important aspects to know. In this image (⊳), a dark, recent lava flow
overlies a lighter colored, older one. When did each eruption occur, and what is the
likelihood of another eruption? Evaluating such volcanic hazards involves dating the
relative ages of the rocks using principles of relative dating, like cross-cutting rela-
tions and superposition. Next, we could estimate the relative ages of lavas and vol-
canic cones based on how much they are weathered and eroded or on the devel-
opment of rock varnish. Finally, we could also use isotopic methods, like Ar-Ar
dating or carbon-14 dating of charcoal from trees buried by the lava, to precisely
determine the ages of each unit in thousands or millions of years before present.
09.14.a1
Earthquakes
Earthquakes cause destruction from ground shaking and secondary effects, such as landslides
and loss of soil strength. Most earthquakes, especially the large ones, result from slip along
faults. Assessing the hazard for earthquakes, therefore, depends greatly on determining
when a movement along a fault last occurred. Geologists use cross-cutting relations to
determine which units are cut by the fault and which ones are younger than any fault
movement. Faults that break the surface form fault scarps, which tend to be steep and
uneroded when first formed but are degraded over time from weathering, slope failure,
and other erosion. In the scene shown here (⊲), the landscape is cut by two
earthquake-related fault scarps. The upper scarp is recent and not eroded, and the lower
one is partly eroded and partly covered by a lava flow. The ages of the earthquakes that
formed these scarps can be investigated by examining soils and rocks that predate and postdate faults,
by dating sediments associated with faulting, and by isotopic dating of the age of the lava flow.
09.14.a2
Flooding
Flood potential is evaluated from records of stream flow, but these records
may only cover the last 100 or so years. Inferring the recurrence of larger, less
frequent floods relies on g eologic evidence preserved in the landscape.
Streams have an active channel, which contains moving water all or part of the
year. Slightly above the active channel in elevation is the floodplain, a low,
nearly flat area that gets flooded when there is too much flowing water to be
contained within the active channel. The excess floodwater spills out onto the
floodplain, and many floodplains are flooded nearly every year or several
times every century. Above the floodplain are stream terraces, which were
formed by the stream, but are high enough to be flooded less frequently, if at
all. A key strategy in assessing flooding potential, therefore, is to determine
when the floodplain and terraces were last flooded. We do this using the
degree of soil development, carbon-14 ages on charcoal, surface-dating
methods on stones deposited by the river, and even the age of human arti-
09.14.a3
facts, like pottery and bottles of a certain vintage.
How Do Geologic Ages Help Us Explore for Natural Resources?

Understanding geologic history is an essential part of evaluating an area’s potential for important natural resources,
especially mineral, energy, and water resources.
09.14.b2 09.14.b3
09.14.b1
Here, a granite released metal-rich fluids that Oil and gas accumulate in the subsurface, Sedimentary basins contain abundant
formed adjacent copper and gold deposits, commonly near the tops of anticlines. Explo- groundwater. However, granite may only
shaded in gray. Exploring for mineral deposits ration for oil and gas involves a thorough contain water in fractures. We assess the for-
involves knowing the ages of events that con- investigation of the sequence of rock units, mation age of sedimentary basins and their
tributed to mineralization, such as dating the as determined by relative dating and fossils water-rich sediments using fossils, relative
granite or minerals deposited by the fluids. within the sedimentary rocks. Later events, dating, and isotopic ages on interbedded
Also important are cross-cutting relations including folding and erosion, play a key role volcanic rocks. The age of some groundwa-
between the granite, mineralized fractures, in determining whether oil is trapped at ter can also be dated using isotopes to
and earlier or later rocks and structures. depth or could escape to the surface. understand when the groundwater formed.
How Does Geologic History Help Us Investigate Our Origins?

Geologists investigate recent historical events and the origins of humans using many of the same strategies and
techniques used to reconstruct the history of ancient rocks and structures. The record of historical events of the last
several thousand years is commonly investigated by working with archeologists who excavate the ruins of ancient cities
and other archeological sites.
09.14.c1 San Juan River, UT
Archeologists and geologists use the same relative-dating principles applied to older rocks.
The oldest ruins generally are on the bottom, having been covered over by successive
generations of younger habitations. Pieces of an older wall can also be contained within a
younger wall if the prehistoric builders reused preexisting materials. In this cliff dwelling (⊳),
built by ancient peoples of the Southwest, the walls incorporate large pieces of rock, so the
pieces are older than the wall. A join in the wall reflects two different ages of construction
with slightly different craftsmanship. With time, exterior walls in such structures acquire a
coating of desert varnish, with older walls having a darker varnish than younger walls. Struc-
tures that were constructed recently, within
the last several hundred years, will not have
visible desert varnish.
09.14.c2 Investigations of early human history rely heav-
ily on the input of geologists and paleontolo- Describe or sketch how
gists. Bones from early human ancestors have geologic ages help evaluate
been found in sedimentary units ranging from geologic hazards.
tens of thousands of years old to five or six
million years old. The oldest sequences with Describe or sketch how
humanoid remains are dated by interbedded geologic ages help evaluate
volcanic rocks or by fossils of small mammals mineral, energy, and
or other creatures. Events that are hundreds to water resources.
tens of thousands of years old can be dated
9.14
using tree rings (⊳) and carbon-14 techniques Discuss dating techniques
on bones, wood, and charcoal preserved at a used to investigate early
site. The relative positions of dated samples human sites.
become an important check for consistency.
266
CONNECTIONS
9.15 What Is the History of the Grand Canyon?
GEOLOGICALLY, THE GRAND CANYON HAS IT ALL. It contains some of the best exposed and studied, as well
as the most beautiful, rock sequences in the world. It is discussed in almost every geology class because it so clearly
expresses a history of geologic events over the last 1.7 to 1.8 billion years.
1. This computer-generated perspective of 2. The Grand Canyon cuts through the Colorado 3. The river flows southwest across
the Grand Canyon region is viewed toward Plateau, a region of broad p
lateaus, mesas, and deep the area, cutting across nearly horizon-
the north. The Colorado River, which canyons, which expose a mostly flat-lying sequence tal to locally tilted layers. The deepest
formed the canyon, flows from right to left, of Mesozoic and Paleozoic sedimentary rocks. part of the canyon is where the Colo-
exits the canyon through rado River erodes
high cliffs, and enters 09.15.a1 through the uplifted
Lake Mead. The dark Kaibab Plateau.
east-west line shows
the location of a Colorado
geologic cross Plateau
section from
A to B.
4. Basalt flows cap 5. Large faults, like the Hur- 6. Some older basalt 7. Paleozoic sedi- 8. Mesozoic sedimentary
some plateaus and pre- ricane fault, cut across the flows flowed down into mentary layers cap rocks are preserved on the
date formation of the region, downdropping rocks the already-carved most plateaus and down-folded sides of mono-
main canyon. They are to the west. These faults cut canyon, demonstrating are warped over a clines and contain famous
dated by K-Ar methods basalt flows that are less that much of the can- few broad folds dinosaur tracks and petrified
to be 8 million years old. than 1 to 2 million years old. yon is older than 4 to (monoclines). wood in the Painted Desert.
5 million years.
09.15.a2
11. The near-vertical meta- 12. A separate, angular 13. The Grand Can-
9. The colorful walls of the 10. The oldest rocks morphic rocks are overlain unconformity marks where yon exposes all
canyon expose a flat-lying are metamorphic rocks by tilted late Precambrian gently dipping Paleozoic lay- three types of
sequence of, from top to and granites that are sedimentary and volcanic ers, shown in blue and red, unconformities: angu-
bottom, late, middle, and 1.7 billion years old, rocks, shown in purple. overlie the moderately tilted lar unconformity,
early Paleozoic rocks. with the granites being The contact is an angular late Precambrian layers, nonconformity, and
There are disconformities the slightly younger of unconformity and is called shown in purple. This is called disconformity.
within the Paleozoic sec- the two. These rocks the lower unconformity. the upper unconformity, and Photographs of each
tion, each representing are exposed in the Where this unconformity to the west it cuts across the type from the Grand
tens of millions of years bottom of the canyon. overlies granite plutons, it lower unconformity. Canyon are in
of missing time. is a nonconformity. Section 9.3.
266
Sequence of Rocks Geologic History and Key Age Constraints

09.15.a5
The sequence of events in the Grand Canyon has been reconstructed using relative
dating, fossils, and many different isotopic dating methods. The geologic history result-
ing from these studies is summarized below, which should be read from b ottom to top
(oldest to youngest).
7. Deformation, Uplift, and Erosion—The Paleozoic strata largely escaped deformation
and remain nearly flat, except near a few faults and folds, including some monoclines
visible in cross section A–B. The age of the monoclines, using relative-dating methods,
is between 80 and 40 million years ago. The region was uplifted by some amount at
this same time, but the modern canyon carved into the landscape much later, mostly
within the last 5 million years. Some faults, like the Hurricane fault, remain active.
6. Deposition of Late Paleozoic Layers—Overlying sedimentary layers (shown in red,

pink, tan, and blue-green) record a wide range of environments, including shallow
marine, shorelines, rivers, and a dune-covered desert. These rocks contain marine and
nonmarine fossils of late Paleozoic age (Pennsylvanian and Permian). Disconformities
(mostly not shown) separate some of the formations and represent time when the
region was above sea level.
5. Deposition of Early and Middle Paleozoic Units—After erosion carved the upper
unconformity, seas covered the land and deposited sandstone, shale, and limestone
(shown in brown and blue). These sedimentary units contain trilobites and other fossils
of early and middle Paleozoic age (Cambrian, Devonian, and Mississippian). Later, the
seas left and in several instances formed disconformities within the limestones.
4. Tilting and Upper Unconformity—Layers in the Late Precambrian rocks were
gently to moderately tilted and then beveled by erosion. This produced the upper
unconformity. As this unconformity is followed west, it truncates the lower unconformity
beneath the Kaibab Plateau (see the cross section A–B). To the west, these combined
unconformities represent even more missing time (from 1.7 billion years to 540 million
years, or more than 1.1 billion years); it is appropriately called the Great Unconformity
and can be followed eastward to the Great Lakes region.
3. Late Precambrian Rocks and Lower Unconformity—In the Late Precambrian, sedi-
mentary and volcanic rocks accumulated in horizontal layers across the upturned base-
ment layers. This formed the lower unconformity (above the metamorphic rocks). The
lower parts of these late Precambrian rocks are dated by several isotopic methods at
1.1 billion years. Since the underlying basement rocks are 1.7 billion years old, the lower
unconformity represents 600 million years of time not recorded by any rocks!
2. Uplift and Erosion of the Basement—After the metamorphism, the basement rocks
cooled as they were uplifted and eroded over a period that lasted for hundreds of
millions of years. Erosion beveled across the steep metamorphic layers.
1. Basement Rocks—Metamorphic and plutonic rocks in the bottom of the canyon rep-
resent the oldest events. They were formed, metamorphosed, and deformed to near-
vertical orientations, all between 1.76 and 1.70 billion years ago.
The Percentage of Geologic Time That the Canyon Records
A lthough the canyon is a classic geo-

logic locality with a thick sequence of
formations, it represents a relatively
small amount of geologic time. The oldest
rocks are “only” about 1.7 billion years old, so
Even the Paleozoic sequence is missing
more time than it records! The formations only
represent five out of the seven geologic periods
(rocks of the Ordovician and Silurian Periods
are not present), none of the formations span an

Describe examples of how different

methods of dating events and rocks
the area contains no record for 2.8 billion years entire period, and there are major disconformities. were used to reconstruct the geologic
of Earth history (4.5 – 1.7 billion years). Next, Mesozoic and Cenozoic rocks are largely absent history of the Grand Canyon.
9.15
the two unconformities together cut out another in the canyon, so yet more time is not repre- Describe why the canyon does not
700 to 800 million years of history, or sented by rocks in the canyon walls. represent all of geologic time.
one-sixth of Earth’s history.
268
9.16 What Is the Geologic History of This Place?
This terrain exposes various geologic relationships that have been documented in the field and recorded as descriptions.
Samples collected from the area were analyzed either for their isotopes or their characteristic fossils. You will use this
information to reconstruct the sequence and ages of events that produced features exposed in the landscape today. A
block diagram of the area is on the next page, and key observations are listed below.

• Observe the distribution of different rock types exposed in the terrain to characterize the sequence
of rocks and the geologic features that are present.
• Use descriptions of units and of key contact relationships, along with fossils, to infer the relative
sequence of events.
• Calculate isotopic ages for key igneous rocks to help constrain when important events occurred.
Procedures
Use your observations to complete the following steps. Your instructor may provide you with rock or fossil specimens.
A. Observe the terrain to understand the overall pattern of rocks. Based on this pattern, use the associated descriptive text to determine
in what order the units formed and where in that sequence different geologic features, such as a fault and dike, developed.
B. Examine the six fossils in the table below, and the geologic period to which each is assigned; complete the stratigraphic section on
the worksheet, listing the units in the order in which the units formed, from bottom to top in the section.
C. Use the table of isotopic measurements below to calculate the age of a sample of granite and a sample of the dike.
D. Summarize the geologic history by arranging the different events in their proper order on the worksheet or online.
Field Notes
The units and features are described below. Each unit or feature has a letter assigned to it,
but these do not reflect the order in which the features formed. Some letters were skipped Identification of Fossils
so that some features would have letters that were easy to remember, such as V for the
volcano. Rock Unit Fossil Period
R Mammals Cenozoic
Unit A — Tan sandstone with land fossils, including plants of Permian age.
K Fish Cretaceous
Unit B — Greenish shale with marine fossils, including Ordovician trilobites. The top of the S Dinosaurs Jurassic
unit was weathered and eroded prior to deposition of unit A, but the layers in the two units
A Plants Permian
are parallel to each other and to their mutual contact.
B Trilobites Ordovician
Unit C — Coarse sandstone and beach conglomerate that contains Cambrian trilobites. The
C Trilobites Cambrian
base contains clasts derived from the underlying granite (G).
Unit D — Finely crystalline dike that has baked units A, B, C, and G.
Feature F — Fault that cuts units B, C, and G. Some units are not near the fault.
Unit G — Coarse granite that is weathered near the contact with unit C.
Unit K — Gray limestone with marine fossils of Cretaceous age. Table of Isotopic Measurements
Half-Life Number of Number of
Units L and V — Unweathered lava flow (L) associated with a volcano (V).
Rock of Parent Daughter
Feature N — Narrow canyon. Unit Isotope Atoms Atoms
G 500 Million 125 875
Unit R — Partly consolidated river gravels with a thick, well-developed soil. Contains land Years
mammals of middle Cenozoic age.
D 40 500 500
Unit S — Reddish and pinkish sandstone that was deposited by rivers and in lakes. It con- Million
tains Jurassic dinosaur bones. Years
268
This view shows a landscape with various rocks and features. There is a central plateau (high flat area) flanked by several
mountains, an obvious volcano, a canyon, and a number of lines and curved features that cross the landscape. The geology in
the subsurface is shown on the sides of the block. Any type of unconformity is shown with a squiggly line, reflecting some
topographic relief along the erosion surface represented by the unconformity. Normal depositional contacts are shown by thin
lines, and a fault is marked by a thicker line.
1. A section of layers forms a 2. A dark dike (D) forms a linear 3. A series of old river channels 4. The top of one mountain
series of cliffs and slopes on wall across the landscape. It (R) cross the plateau and form low in the area (right corner of
three corners of the block. These mostly is uninterrupted by other troughs in the topography. One this figure) exposes higher
were encountered first and so geologic features, except for channel goes all the way to the layers than are preserved
are lettered A, B, and C, not in one obvious gap near a belt of edge of the canyon, where it elsewhere. There is a red
the order in which the units some tan-colored soils (associ- stops abruptly, evidently having sandstone (S) that contains
were formed. Unit A is a brown ated with unit R). The dike con- been cut off. Along their lengths, bones of Jurassic dinosaurs.
sandstone that was deposited on sists of dark basalt and was the channels are partially filled by The sandstone is overlain by
land and contains Permian plant dated by isotopic river gravels and are characterized a gray limestone (K) that has
fossils. Unit B is greenish marine methods. by well-developed, tan soils. They fish and other marine fossils
shale and contains Ordovician tri- contain bones of small from the last part of the
lobites. Unit C is a coarse sand- horses and other fossils Mesozoic (Cretaceous).
stone and beach conglomerate from the middle
that contains C ambrian trilobites. Cenozoic.
09.16.a1
5. There is a cone-

shaped volcano (V)
surrounded by a black
lava flow (L). Neither the vol- 9. Reconstruct the his-
canic deposits (scoria) on the tory using superposition,
volcano nor the lava flow has cross-cutting relationships,
developed any soil. and the relationship of
different features to the
6. A fault (F) forms an obvious landscape. Be systematic,
line across parts of the area, but focusing your attention on
is not continuous. It is also any pair of objects that are
shown in cross section on the in contact. For example,
side of the block. It has not 8. A narrow does the dike crosscut the
formed a fault scarp, but is canyon (N) cuts fault or vice versa? Is unit A
expressed in the topography through the area. above or below unit B?
because it is the boundary 7. The lowest unit in the The canyon is espe- Some objects may not be in
between rock types that erode in area is a gray granite (G). cially narrow in one seg- direct contact with each
9.16
slightly different ways. In a Geologists determined an isoto- ment where dark lava flows other, but their relative age
nearby area, the fault cuts the pic age on a sample of the (L) have poured from the can be determined by com-
main sequence of layers, includ- granite, and these results are in plateau and into the already paring their ages relative to
ing layers C, B, A, S, and K. the table on the previous page. formed canyon. some other feature.
CHAPTER
10 The Seafloor and

Continental Margins
MOST OF EARTH’S SURFACE IS OCEAN. Beneath the oceans is an underwater landscape that includes broad plains,
submarine mountains, and deep trenches and submarine canyons. What clues do these features provide about how our
planet operates? This chapter is about the surface and subsurface of the seafloor, how we study the seafloor, and what
the various features tell us about Earth processes.
1. Beneath Monterey Bay, off the coast of central California, the 2. A broad continental shelf flanks the coast, with relatively shallow
seafloor displays a puzzling feature — a great submarine canyon. In this water (less than about 100 m) extending out kilometers to tens of
image, satellite data are shown for land, and computer-shaded and kilometers from shore. The area is a prized marine ecosystem and is
colored data show seafloor depths. the site of the Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary.
What features are present on the seafloor, and how do we explore What is a continental shelf and how does it form?
the depths, rock types, and structures of the seafloor?
10.00.a1
3. Monterey Submarine Canyon is enormous. It is similar in scale 4. The continental margin near Monterey Canyon is heavily studied.
to the Grand Canyon. The canyon bottom is as much as 1,800 m Surveys done using ship-borne instruments provide detailed information
(nearly 6,000 ft) below the rim and, in this deep s egment, the can- about the canyons and other geologic features, including landslide
yon is 20 km (12 mi) wide. It resembles many valleys on land; it material, bedrock ridges, and linear fault scarps.
curves, goes from higher to lower areas, and has smaller side val-
leys (tributaries) that merge with the main channel. What processes occur on the seafloor, and what types of features
do they produce?
What processes carve submarine canyons?
270
The Seafloor and Continental Margins 271
10.1 How Do We Explore the Seafloor? 272 10.8 How Do Reefs and Coral Atolls Form? 286
10.2 What Processes Occur at Mid-Ocean Ridges? 274 10.9 What Is the Geology of Continental Margins? 288
10.3 What Are Major Features of the Deep Ocean? 276 10.10 How Do Marine Evaporite Deposits Form? 290
10.4 How Do Oceanic Islands, Seamounts, 10.11 How Did Earth’s Modern Oceans Evolve? 292
and Oceanic Plateaus Form? 278 10.12 CONNECTIONS: How Did the Gulf of Mexico
10.5 What Processes Form Island Arcs? 280 and the Caribbean Region Form? 294
10.6 How Did Smaller Seas of the Pacific Form? 282 10.13 INVESTIGATION: How Did These Ocean
10.7 How Did Smaller Seas Near Eurasia Form? 284 Features and Continental Margins Form? 296
10.00.a2
5. The geology of Monterey Canyon is surprisingly 7. Cenozoic marine sediments, shown in
complex. This diagram, looking north, shows a yellow, tan, and brown, cover the con-
detailed geologic map superimposed on topogra- tinental shelf. The upper layers were
phy for the seafloor, which covers most deposited within the last several
of the map area, and for a million years and are still
strip of land along accumulating.
the right edge.
Only the larger,
colored patterns 8. Similar units are
are important present on land,
here; the details where they have
and unit labels been mapped
on the map are and studied in
less important. greater detail
because they
6. The steep parts of are more
the canyon cut into accessible to
hard Mesozoic granite, field geologists.
colored pink on this
map. A sliver of green
near the western edge 9. Faults, shown as thick, solid lines
of the figure shows and dashed lines, cut across the seafloor and
oceanic rocks scraped off are associated with earthquakes. The faults are
the top of a downgoing related to northwest movement of the Pacific plate relative
oceanic plate along a now- to the North American plate. The main boundary between
extinct subduction zone. these two tectonic plates is farther on land in this area, along
the San Andreas fault, off the right side of the diagram.
Origin of Monterey Canyon
W
e do not expect to find huge canyons carved by rivers when its granitic base was The canyon widens as the steep, unstable walls
beneath the sea. When and how did above sea level, prior to 10 million years ago. collapse downward in underwater landslides and
Monterey Canyon form, and what Strike-slip motion between the North American debris flows. The turbidity currents carry sedi-
processes are going on today in and around the and Pacific plates shaved off this granitic slice ment more than 200 km (120 mi) down the can-
canyon? Scientists explore the submarine canyon and transported it northward up the coast of yon and into deeper water, where the sediment is
by bouncing sound waves off the seafloor, dredg- North America. During this movement, the deposited in a broad feature called a submarine
ing and drilling rock samples from the bottom, canyon was submerged below sea level and fan. The lower part of the canyon, like many
and diving to the bottom in small submarines. filled by sediments, which were later eroded by submarine canyons, was never above sea level
The formation and evolution of the canyon landslides and underwater currents. and has been carved entirely by turbidity cur-
reflect the complicated plate-tectonic events For the past several million years, dense slur- rents and landslides. The position of the lower
10.0
that have affected California during the last ries of sediment-rich water, called turbidity cur- channel has shifted over time, as segments of
20 million years. Geologists have concluded rents, have flowed down the canyon, scouring the canyon have been offset by strike-slip fault-
that the upper part of the canyon was originally the channel and undercutting the canyon walls. ing or buried by submarine landslides.
272
10.1 How Do We Explore the Seafloor?

EXPLORING THE SEAFLOOR presents different challenges than mapping and studying geology on land. Mapping
the oceans requires remote observation of the sea bottom by bouncing sound waves off the seafloor and by other
methods. Geologists and oceanographers collect samples of rocks on and below the seafloor by going down in small
submarines or by using ships to drill holes through the sediment and rock.
How Do We Map and Investigate the Seafloor?

10.01.a2 10.01.a3
10.01.a1
Scientists map parts of the seafloor by trans- Scientists visit the seafloor in small subma- Specially equipped research vessels allow
mitting sound waves from a ship and then rines, called submersibles, capable of carrying geologists to drill holes into the seafloor.
timing how long the waves take to bounce two or three people. Submersibles allow We can retrieve samples of the sedimentary
off the seafloor and return to sensors on the direct observation of geologic features and and volcanic rocks that make up the upper
ship. The longer it takes the sound waves to phenomena. Scientists can take photographs part of the oceanic crust. The layers pre-
return, the deeper the seafloor. Using this for later study and can collect samples of served in drill cores allow geologists to
technique, called sonar, scientists can direct rocks, seawater, and life-forms. Smaller robotic reconstruct the sequence of events, the
sound waves straight down, as shown here, or versions of submersibles are operated ages of the rocks, and the variations in sea-
at an angle to the seafloor. remotely from ships. water chemistry over time.
How Do We Map the Seafloor from Space?

Satellites orbiting Earth provide important data on the oceans. Most satellites can only observe the seafloor in very shallow
water. They are primarily used for surface measurements, including measurements of surface-water temperature or of the
height of the sea surface.
In some areas, the

sea surface can be Before You Leave
tens of meters These Pages
higher than aver-
age sea level. Describe the four methods we
These high areas use to explore the topography
are caused by the and rocks of the seafloor (sonar,
gravitational forces submersibles, drilling,
associated with and satellites).
submarine moun-
tains and mid- Describe the kinds of information
ocean ridges. we can obtain from cores drilled
These forces in the seafloor.
attract seawater
and cause it to Describe the seismic-reflection
mound up. Satellites circling method for mapping the geometry
the earth can detect these variations in height of geologic units beneath
of the sea surface, for example, by bouncing radar or laser the seafloor.
beams off the sea surface. In this manner, we use the satellites to
Describe manganese nodules,
estimate the topography of the underlying seafloor. In fact, we used this
and where and how they form.
type of data to produce most maps of the seafloor in this book. 10.01.b1
What Can We Learn from Ocean Drilling?

Geologists and oceanographers drill holes into the seafloor to retrieve samples for later study. The drilling process yields
cylinder-shaped samples, called drill core, which provide many types of data.
10.01.c1 10.01.c2
3. Isotopic Ages — Small samples of the core
can be crushed in order to separate miner-
als for isotopic dating. This is mostly done
on volcanic units, especially basalt flows,
when studying the seafloor. The ages of the
layers, combined with measurements of layer
thickness, yield the rates at which the layers
accumulated:
rate of deposition = thickness / time span
4. Other Measurements — Geologists analyze

core samples in other ways to answer
specific questions about past climates and
seawater chemistry. Analyzing for different
oxygen and carbon isotopes in a series of
1. Type of Sediment or Rock — Geologists 2. Fossils — Microscopic and larger fossils layers yields a detailed record of how ocean
cut open the drill core to identify the type of within the drill core help geologists assign chemistry and other conditions varied over
sediment or rock and to observe layers and sediment and rock layers to different parts the past thousands to millions of years. Many
other features. These observations allow of the geologic timescale. They also pro- such changes were global, so these mea-
interpretations of ocean-floor processes, vide constraints on the environments in surements can help track global climate and
environments, and past events. which the sediment formed. These micro- correlate layers between different parts of
scopic fossils are called Foraminifera. the world.
How Do We Image What Is Below the Ocean Floor?

10.01.d1
To investigate the geometry of rock units
Ridge on Unfaulted Sediment Channel of
beneath the sea, a ship tows a device that
Numerous Small Seafloor Next to Ridge San Gabriel
bounces sound waves off the seafloor and Normal Faults Fault Zone Canyon
off rock layers in the subsurface. We record
sound waves with devices, called
geophones, that are towed behind the ship.
Sound waves reflected from shallower layers
arrive back sooner than sound waves
reflected by layers deeper in the subsurface.
Geophysicists (geoscientists who study the 1000 m
Earth using the fundamental principles of
physics) process the data using sophisticated
computer programs that model the passage of the sound waves through the layers and back to the geophones. They plot the data in a type of
cross-section view called a seismic-reflection profile (▲). This profile of the seafloor from offshore of Southern California shows tilted, folded, and
faulted layers. The seismic-reflection technique is widely used in exploring for oil and natural gas beneath the seas and on land.
Diving to the Deepest Parts of the Ocean
O
10.01.t1
cean exploration is similar in many ways Among the features observed on the seafloor
to exploring space, but not quite as expen- are manganese nodules, shown here. They form
sive. Getting to the deepest parts of the when manganese precipitates out of seawater,
ocean requires specialized submarines that can forming baseball-sized spheres. These are an
only accommodate a few passengers. Such travel important potential source of manganese and
is quite dangerous because of the high pressure in other metals, but geologists and mineral-
the deep oceans. Nevertheless, humans have exploration companies are investigating the
explored very deep regions using remotely guided logistics and environmental issues associated
10.1
probes and by diving in submersibles. One sub- with remote mining on the deep seafloor.
mersible can take humans to depths of nearly
11 km (almost 36,000 ft).
274
10.2 What Processes Occur at Mid-Ocean Ridges?

MID-OCEAN RIDGES FORM where two oceanic plates diverge. Magma ascending from the mantle erupts onto the
seafloor or solidifies at depth, making new oceanic crust. Heat associated with the hot rocks and magma produces
undersea vents of hot water that nourish unique life-forms on the seafloor.
What Happens When Plates Spread Apart?

As two oceanic plates move apart, solid rock and magma rise from the mantle to occupy the space between the plates. The
cooling and solidifying magma forms new oceanic crust, which then gets transported away from the mid-ocean ridge as new
plate is formed along the spreading center. Slices of this rock sequence can be scraped off and preserved on land, allowing
scientists to study examples of oceanic crust without diving to the bottom of the ocean.
1. As oceanic crust stretches apart, basaltic lava erupts within the rift, forming
10.02.a1 pillow basalts on the seafloor. Some magma solidifies within large chambers
and in magma-filled fissures parallel to the mid-ocean ridge (perpendicular to
plate movement). The magma-filled fissures solidify into dikes.
2. At many mid-ocean ridges, normal faults allow blocks of crust to be dis-
placed down and inward toward the center, forming a fault-bounded rift.
3. As the cooled crust moves away from the ridge, it is progressively cov-
ered with deep-sea sediment. Over time, the sediment tends to smooth
over the rough topography formed in the rift. As a result, older oceanic
crust tends to have relatively smooth topography.
4. Below a depth of about 4,500 to 5,000 m, sediment is dominated by

clay and silica-rich materials. At these depths and greater, carbonate miner-
als dissolve into seawater as fast as they accumulate, because calcite is
more soluble at lower temperatures and at higher pressures. The depth at
which calcite disappears in the oceans is the carbonate compensation
depth (CCD). The actual depth of the CCD varies somewhat from place to
place within the ocean.
What Accounts for Variations in the Shape of Mid-Ocean Ridges?

Many mid-ocean ridges possess the typical features shown above, but ridges vary in their width, ruggedness,
and overall shape. These variations reflect differences in the rates of spreading, magmatism, and faulting.
Compare the two topographic profiles below, each of which shows a detailed view of the center of a ridge.
10.02.b1
1. Some ridges, including
parts of the East Pacific Rise,
are broad and do not have a
large, well-developed rift in
the center. Such ridges are
spreading apart at relatively
fast rates (10 cm per year).
These ridges are broad
because rapid spreading
allows the new oceanic crust
to move far from the spread-
ing center before it cools and
subsides. Furthermore, such
ridges are interpreted to have
more underlying magma, 2. Other mid-ocean ridges, including the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, have well-defined rifts that are 1 to 3 km deep
which rapidly pours onto the and are bounded by normal faults that dip inward toward the rift. These ridges have slower spreading rates
surface out of fissures, rather (1 to 2 cm per year). This allows rocks near the ridge to cool and strengthen enough to form large faults.
than forming a large, fault- Other ridges are intermediate in character between the two end members shown. They lack a high central
bounded rift. area or a deep rift, and are intermediate in spreading rate, breadth, roughness, and degree of faulting.
What Are Black Smokers and How Do They Form?

10.02.c1
1. Mid-ocean ridges contain
features called black smokers,
shown here in a photograph
taken from a submersible (⊳).
Black smokers are hydrother-
mal vents, where hot water
from within the rock jets out
into the cold seawater. As the
hot water cools, the metals,
sulfur, and other elements dis-
solved in the hot water form
small crystals that make the
water black and cloudy.
10.02.c2 Kidd Creek, Ontario, Canada
10.02.c3
2. Sulfur-bearing minerals precipitate 3. Black smokers form when water in rocks above
around the vent, forming a hollow, circu- a magma chamber is heated and rises toward the
lar column called a chimney. Some surface (▲). As the water rises, seawater from
chimneys are more than 5 m (16 ft) high nearby areas flows in to take its place. This sea-
and a meter across, and can grow tens water heats up and leaches metals and other
of centimeters per day. Black smokers chemical elements from rocks through which it
and sulfide-rich c himneys are inter- passes, becoming rich in dissolved chemicals. The
preted to have formed on mid-ocean heated seawater rises toward the surface along
ridges and other submarine volcanoes faults and other pathways, eventually venting in a
in Earth’s geologic past, forming mineral black smoker. The water is very hot, commonly
deposits rich in copper, zinc, and other over 350°C, but it does not boil because of the
valuable elements, like these metal-rich pressure exerted by the deep water.
sulfide layers (⊲).
Life at Hydrothermal Vents
D
eep-sea hydrothermal vents associated vide the bulk of food for animals living on worms in ancient hydrothermal vent deposits
with black smokers support a unique Earth’s surface. No sunlight reaches the deep show that such communities have existed for
and only recently discovered commu- seafloor, so this form of energy is not available millions of years.
nity of unusual creatures. Scientists are actively to creatures that live at depth. Instead, life
exploring the ecosystems of these vents, in around the hydrothermal vents uses a com-
part because such sites may have been where pletely different energy source. Here, life is
life originated on Earth. The photograph dependent on somewhat unusual bacteria that Before You Leave
included here was taken by scientists using a are able to break down hydrogen sulfide (H2S), This Page
submersible to investigate these vents and their one of the chemical compounds common
unusual marine inhabitants. within black smokers. These bacteria produce Describe or sketch the processes that
On land and in shallow waters, sunlight is sugars, which feed giant (meter-long) red tube accompany the formation of new
the energy source for green plants, which pro- worms. The worms can tolerate the hot water oceanic crust at mid-ocean ridges.
and live close to the vents, where Describe or sketch the differences
the bacteria are abundant. In fact, between fast-spreading and slow-
many bacteria live within the spreading mid-ocean ridges.
worms’ tissues. The worms in turn
form the main food for an assembly Describe black smokers, how they
of scavenging animals, including form, and where the hot water
fish and white crabs, shown in this originates and how it gets heated.
photograph. Large clams also live Describe the type of life that exists
around hydrothermal vents and
10.2
around hydrothermal vents and

draw nutrients by extracting small where the different creatures derive
bits of material from the water and their food.
10.02.t1
from the bacteria. Fossils of tube
10.02.t1
276
10.3 What Are Major Features of the Deep Ocean?

BENEATH THE WORLD’S OCEANS lie rugged mountains, active rifts, gentle plains, broad plateaus, and deep trenches.
The seafloor varies in depth and in thickness of sediment cover, largely because different parts of the seafloor have dif-
ferent ages. What is the topography of the deep seafloor and how do the various types of features form?
Topography of the Deep Seafloor

1. Much of the ocean floor, called the abyssal plain (⊲), has a gentle slope and
lies at depths below about 4.5 km (2.8 mi). The abyssal plain and other old parts
of an oceanic plate generally have a smooth topography because sediment
evens out most of the original irregularities. The abyssal plain contains
isolated mountains, called seamounts, which vary from gentle submarine
hills to steep mountains, many of which are volcanoes.
2. The elevation of the seafloor decreases from the mid-ocean

ridge to the abyssal plain because oceanic lithosphere cools,
becomes denser, and subsides as it moves away from the ridge.
Subsidence slows or stops when the oceanic crust reaches an
equilibrium temperature.
3. Trenches are the deepest parts of the ocean but comprise a very
small area. They are the surface expression of a subduction zone, where
an oceanic plate is flexed (bent) as it plunges beneath another plate.
Within the trench, sediment and b asaltic rocks are scraped off the top of the
subducted plate and incorporated as slices into the accretionary prism.
10.03.a1
Sediment Thicknesses
10.03.a2
4. This map shows sediment thickness on 5. The thickest sediment 6. There is virtu-
the seafloor. It ranges from light blue, where is along continental mar- ally no sediment
thickness is less than 200 m, to orange gins, especially those cover over the Before You Leave These Pages
and red, where sediment is over 5 to 10 km that were formed by rift- youngest crust at
(3–6 mi) thick. White colors indicate loca- ing. Seafloor sediment is the mid-ocean Sketch or describe some features
tions where there are insufficient data to also thickest near the ridges, which here of the deep seafloor.
show on this map. The white lines on the mouths of rivers or are along the
continents are rivers. What patterns do you where the oceanic crust belts of light blue. Describe how the age of the seafloor
observe on this map? Where is sediment is relatively old (see relates to mid-ocean ridges, depths of
thickest, where is it thinnest, and how does maps on the next page). seafloor, and sediment thicknesses.
thickness relate to major rivers?
Depth and Age of the Seafloor

7. This map shows depths of the seafloor. Darker gray areas are conti- 8. The deepest part of the oceans is at trenches (T) along active
nents, and the light to dark blue regions are oceans and seas. Darker blue margins, where one plate subducts beneath another plate. The shal-
shows the deepest areas and light bluish gray the shallowest. Letters lowest parts of the seafloor are on continental shelves, many of the
identify some of the ridges (R), trenches (T) along convergent boundaries, widest of which are along passive margins (P). Mid-ocean ridges (R)
and passive margins (P) that are not plate boundaries. are intermediate in depth.
10.03.a3
9. The map below shows the age of the sea- 10. The youngest oceanic 11. The oldest oceanic crust in any ocean is the most dis-
floor. Purple represents the oldest areas crust is near mid-ocean-ridge tant from mid-ocean ridges. None is older than about
(about 180 million years), and the darkest spreading centers (R). These 180 million years, because all older oceanic crust has
orange represents very young oceanic crust. areas are also higher than been subducted back into the mantle. The oldest seafloor
Compare this map with the one above. most of the ocean floor. is much younger than the oldest continental rocks.
10.3
10.03.a4
278
10.4 How Do Oceanic Islands, Seamounts,

and Oceanic Plateaus Form?
SUBMARINE MOUNTAINS, called seamounts, rise above the seafloor. In some places, they reach the surface and
make islands. These islands include Tahiti, the Galápagos, and other exotic places. The seafloor also has relatively high
and broad areas that are oceanic plateaus. How are seamounts and oceanic plateaus formed?
How Do Some Oceanic Islands and Seamounts Form?

Most oceanic islands are made of mafic (basalt) to intermediate (andesite) volcanic rocks and are formed by a series
of volcanic eruptions onto the seafloor. Many of these islands are not associated with an island arc, but form linear
chains or irregular clumps of islands and seamounts, some of which are related to a hot spot. The direction of
movement of a plate over a hot spot tends to remain constant for tens of millions of years, and this results in linear
chains of islands and seamounts, which are distinct from the curved shapes of island arcs.
10.04.a1 10.04.a2 10.04.a3
Magmatism caused by an underlying hot Continued eruptions build up the volcano The top of the mountain is beveled off by
spot begins building a submarine volcano until it may eventually rise above the sea as wave erosion, as the mountain continues
by eruption of lava flows onto the seafloor. an island. Once magmatism ceases, perhaps subsiding, becoming a submarine, flat-topped
Magmatism related to hot spots is usually when an island moves off a hot spot, the seamount. Over time, it is covered by layers
basaltic in composition. oceanic plate cools and subsides. of marine sediments.
How Do Oceanic Plateaus Form?

Some large regions of the seafloor rise a kilometer or more above their surroundings, forming oceanic plateaus. These
plateaus are largely composed of flood basalts and, like the seafloor in general, are mostly late Mesozoic and Cenozoic
in age (mostly 130 million years ago to the present).
10.04.b1
10.04.b2 10.04.b3 10.04.b4
This perspective shows the Kerguelen oceanic

plateau, which rises above the surrounding Geologists interpret oceanic When the top of a plume Immense volumes of basalt
seafloor in the southern Indian Ocean. The plateaus as forming at hot encounters the base of the litho- (as much as 50 million cubic
plateau is several thousand kilometers long, spots, above rising mantle sphere, it causes widespread melt- kilometers) erupt onto the
but it only reaches sea level in a few small plumes. The plumes travel ing. Submarine flood basalts pour seafloor over millions of years.
islands. The small sliver of land showing in the through the mantle as solid out onto the seafloor through This volcanism creates a
lower right corner is part of Antarctica. masses, not liquids. fissures and central vents. broad, high oceanic plateau.
What Is the Distribution of Hot Spots, Linear Island Chains, and Oceanic Plateaus?
Hot spots have created many Pacific islands that we associate with tropical paradises and exotic destinations. Hawaii is the
most famous island chain formed by movement of a plate over a hot spot, but several other linear island and seamount
chains, in both the Atlantic and Pacific, formed in the same manner.
1. On this map, red dots show the locations of likely hot spots, many of which are 2. The dark gray areas in the oceans represent linear island
located at the volcanically active ends of linear island chains. There is great chains, clumps of islands, and oceanic plateaus, such as this
debate, however, about which areas really are hot spots and how hot spots form. high area around Iceland, which is over a hot spot.
10.04.c1
3. The Ontong Java 4. Volcanic islands near 5. The Galápagos is a clump 6. Tristan da Cunha, a 7. The Kerguelen Pla-
Plateau is the largest Tahiti define northwest- of volcanic islands west of volcanic island in the teau, in the southern
oceanic plateau on trending chains that are South America. The western South Atlantic Ocean, Indian Ocean, is the
Earth, covering millions forming over several hot islands, shown in the satellite marks a hot spot just second largest oce-
of square kilometers, spots. In each chain, the image to the lower left, are vol- east of the Mid-Atlantic anic plateau in the
nearly 1% of Earth’s sur- islands to the northwest canically active and have Ridge. Volcanism asso- world. It mostly con-
face area. It formed in are older than those to erupted within the past several ciated with the hot spot sists of basalt and was
the middle of the Pacific the southeast, indicating years. Eruptions build shield created a large subma- formed in several
Ocean 120 million years that the Pacific plate is volcanoes and smaller scoria rine ridge (shown in stages during the late
ago and is no longer moving to the northwest cones, both of which are shown gray) that tracks the Mesozoic (between
near the hot spot that relative to the underlying in the p
hotograph below. motion of the African 115 and 85 million
produced it. source of magma. plate over the hot spot. years ago).
10.04.c2 Galápagos 10.04.c3 Galápagos

Describe or sketch how a mantle
plume is interpreted to form oceanic
islands and seamounts, providing
several examples.
10.4
Describe how oceanic plateaus are

interpreted to have formed, and
provide some examples.
280
10.5 What Processes Form Island Arcs?

MANY ISLANDS OCCUR IN LONG ARCS that cross the seafloor. Island arcs are associated with deep ocean trenches
and dangerous volcanoes. How do island arcs form, why are they curved, and what processes occur in front of, within,
and behind them?
How Do Island Arcs Form?

Island arcs form where one oceanic plate subducts beneath another. Subduction creates a trench and generates magma that
forms an arcuate belt of volcanic islands, such as the Aleutian Islands and Java.
1. An oceanic trench forms where a 3. As a new volcano begins to grow,
subducted oceanic plate flexes downward volcanic eruptions first occur in deep
beneath the overriding plate. Many water on the seafloor. Over time,
island arcs are in the open ocean, the eruptions may construct a
away from large landmasses. In mountain that rises above the
such settings, the trench sea. The crust becomes transi-
receives most of its s ediment tional in character and in thick-
from volcanic eruptions and ero- ness between oceanic crust
sion of the adjacent volcanoes. and continental crust. As
mantle-derived magmas interact
2. As the oceanic plate subducts, with this thicker crust, the mag-
it heats up, causing metamorphic mas become intermediate in
reactions that release water from composition (andesite) and form
the minerals. This water promotes dangerous composite volcanoes.
melting in the asthenosphere above Submarine mountains and ridges
the subducted plate. The asthenosphere- form a ridge between the islands. If
derived magma rises into the overriding litho- enough magma erupts over a long
sphere, erupting onto the surface or solidifying enough time, eruptions can build a
in the crust. These magmatic additions thicken longer landmass, capped by a string of
the crust beneath the arc over time. volcanoes. Examples include the Indonesian
island of Java and the Alaska peninsula.
10.05.a1
What Happens in Front of and Behind an Island Arc?

Island arcs are not fixed in position. They can migrate across the surface of Earth over millions of years, depending on what
happens in front of the arc (at the trench) or behind the arc.
1. As dense oceanic plate subducts into asthenosphere, it sinks 2. As the subducting slab and trench migrate, the island arc follows
downward and tends to bend or roll back away from the island them because the position of the volcanoes is determined by the
arc. The trench, the surface expression of the bend in the location of the subducting plate. As the arc and trench both migrate,
downgoing plate, follows the rollback of the slab, a process called stretching of the crust can cause rifting within or behind the arc. The arc
trench rollback. Subduction c ontinues during trench rollback, but can be rifted (split) into two parts, separated by a spreading center. Over
the position of the subduction zone moves over time. time, rifting can form a new back-arc basin, which can be hundreds of
kilometers wide. The oceanic crust in the back-arc basin typically has
ages that overlap with ages of volcanic rocks within the island arc,
because back-arc rifting occurred at the same time as subduction.
Describe the processes that occur

within, in front of, and behind island arcs.
Describe why island arcs and their
associated trenches are curved.
Identify some examples of island arcs.
10.05.b1
Why Are Island Arcs Curved?

1. In map view, island arcs have a distinctly
curved or arcuate shape. This view of the
Aleutian arc of Alaska (▼) shows the curved
shape of the island arc and of the associated
trench that lies in front of it.
10.05.c1
10.05.c2 10.05.c3
2. In thinking about why island arcs 3. Also, on a sphere, there is more
are curved, we need to consider that surface area on the outside than at
plates are interacting on a spherical depth (▲). A plate that is subducted
Earth (▲), not a flat plane. C
utting into into the interior becomes buckled
a globe (like the red plane) or as it is forced to fit into a smaller
depressing the surface of a globe width. The arc and trench have an
creates a curved feature (arc). arcuate shape because the
downgoing slab does too.
Where Are the Main Island Arcs of the World?

3. The Lesser Antilles arc forms the eastern
1. In Japan and the adjacent Mariana arc, the Pacific plate 2. The Aleutian arc extends from edge of the Caribbean Sea. It includes the
subducts westward beneath the islands. Bending of the mainland Alaska westward to the islands of Montserrat, site of recent eruptions,
subducted plate forms deep trenches, including the world’s Kamchatka peninsula of Asia. It is and Martinique, site of the deadly 1902 erup-
deepest trench south of the Mariana. Volcanoes in the formed where the Pacific plate is tion of Pelée. A small island arc in the Aegean
Philippines are largely related to subduction of a small subducted northward beneath Sea, east of mainland Greece, was the site of
plate that is part of a back-arc basin west of the Mariana. the North American plate. a destructive eruption on the island of Thera.
10.05.d1
4. The Sumatra-Java arc is a typical island 5. Along the Tonga trench and island 6. The Scotia arc is a small island arc
arc in the east, but in the west it lies upon a arc, the Pacific plate subducts to the between South America and Antarctica.
10.5
promontory of Asian c ontinental crust. It is west. Spreading west of the arc has cre- Beneath the arc, an oceanic section of the
located where the Indian plate is subducted ated several small back-arc basins. The South American plate subducts westward
northward. This subduction zone caused the Tonga subduction zone is the site of beneath another oceanic plate. Back-arc
deadly 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami. many large earthquakes each year. spreading occurs behind (west of) the arc.
282
10.6 How Did Smaller Seas of the Pacific Form?

A SERIES OF SMALL SEAS exist around the edges of the Pacific Ocean. They are separated from the main Pacific
basin by chains of islands and slivers of continents. These include the Sea of Japan and the Gulf of California. Each
sea has it own unique and interesting history, and together they illustrate the most important ways in which smaller
seas in the Pacific formed.
1. The Sea of Japan is a moderately deep basin

between Japan and mainland Asia. Before 20 million
years ago, the rocks of Japan were part of a volcanic
arc along the coast of mainland Asia. Rifting within
the arc split the crust of Japan away from Asia. This 10.06.a1
led to back-arc seafloor spreading, which formed
the Sea of Japan (⊲).
10.06.a2
2. The China Sea, between China and the Korean Peninsula, is relatively shallow
because it is mostly underlain by continental crust. Recall that continental crust floats
higher on the mantle than does oceanic crust, which is thinner and more dense.
Origin of the Philippine Sea

3. The Philippine Sea lies between the Philippines
and the Mariana island arc. It contains several
distinct basins separated by long, submarine
ridges, and is an example of how features on
the seafloor reflect the geologic history of an
area. The Mariana arc is active and flanked by
the Mariana trench, which contains the deepest
seafloor in the ocean (nearly 11 km below sea level).
4. Seafloor spreading

currently is forming a back-
10.06.a3
arc basin directly behind the
Mariana arc. Submerged ridges farther
to the west (left) represent pieces of the
arc that were rifted away by different episodes
of back-arc spreading.
5. The Java Sea of Indonesia and Malaysia is shallow and is part of a continental
platform between the larger islands of the region.
6. South of Indonesia, oceanic portions of the Indian plate (bottom left on this map) are subducted
northward beneath the Asian plate, forming a trench and the Sumatra-Java island arc. The continuation
of this subduction zone to the northwest caused the huge earthquake and deadly tsunami that devas-
tated coastlines around the Indian Ocean in 2004.
Origin of the Gulf of California

11. Prior to 10 million years ago, Baja, California, was part
of the mainland of western Mexico, and an oceanic plate
subducted eastward beneath the land.
10.06.a5 10.06.a6
10.06.a4
▲ 10. The Bering Sea lies between mainland Alaska and the

Aleutian island arc. The eastern part of the sea, near Alaska, is
shallow and underlain by continental crust. The western part of the
Bering Sea (shown above) is deeper because it is underlain by
oceanic crust. The oceanic crust is part of the North American
plate (which includes Alaska), so there is no plate boundary
between Alaska and the oceanic crust beneath the
Bering Sea. Instead, the western edge of the Alaskan
mainland is a passive margin. In the Mesozoic,
oceanic plates subducted directly beneath
coastal Alaska and Siberia, but the site of
subduction zone migrated offshore,
trapping some old oceanic crust
between the new Aleutian arc and
the mainland.
12. As North America, including Mexico,

encountered the East Pacific Rise spreading
center, the plate boundary became a trans-
form boundary and migrated inland, splitting
Baja, California, from the mainland and shift-
ing it northward along the coast. As Baja
moved northward away from the mainland,
the Gulf of California formed in the place Baja
vacated. The gulf has long transform faults
linking short spreading centers. This spread-
ing is a continuation of the East Pacific Rise,
the major spreading center that runs north-
south across the eastern Pacific Ocean. Baja
(and coastal California west of the San
9. At the Andreas fault) is now part of the Pacific plate
Tonga trench, and continues to move northward relative to
the Pacific plate the North A merican plate.
subducts westward
beneath oceanic crust east of
Australia. The subduction zone
forms the trench and associated island
arc of the Tonga Islands. It is very active,
being associated with numerous large, Before You Leave This Page
deep earthquakes.
Describe or sketch the different ways
in which smaller seas formed in the
8. The seafloor east of Papua New Guinea and northeast of Australia
Pacific Ocean, providing an example
is unusually complicated. It contains small basins, trenches, and island
arcs, reflecting complex interactions between a number of small oce- of each.
anic plates. From a plate-tectonic perspective, it is the most complex Describe the history of the Gulf of
10.6
area of oceanic crust in the world. California and how it is related to the
boundary between the Pacific and
7. The shallow seas between Australia and Papua New Guinea are underlain North American plates.
by a continuation of Australian continental crust.
284
10.7 How Did Smaller Seas Near Eurasia Form?

A NUMBER OF SEAS FLANK Europe, Asia, and Africa. These include the Black Sea, North Sea, and Mediterranean
Sea. The Arabian Peninsula, between Africa and mainland Asia, has the Red Sea to the west and the Persian Gulf to
the east. Several seas were formed by present or past plate-tectonic activity. Others were valleys and low areas flooded
by rising sea levels after the last Ice Age.
1. The Baltic Sea of Scandinavia is a shallow sea under-

lain by continental crust. It was originally a river valley and
was further scoured by glaciers during the last Ice Age.
As the glaciers retreated and sea level rose, seawater
flooded the valley, forming the Baltic Sea.
10.07.a2
2. The North Sea, between Great Britain and Norway,

is underlain by continental crust that was thinned by
extension and normal faulting (▲)
when Europe rifted away from
North America during the
Mesozoic. Rifting extended into
nearby parts of Europe, form-
ing the North Sea. Similar
faulted and thinned crust is
present along the east coast
of North America. The faulted
sedimentary layers beneath
the North Sea, shown in the
cross section above, contain
important oil fields that were
discovered by drilling into
the seafloor.
3. The Mediterranean Sea

separates Africa from
Europe. Most of it is more
than several kilometers
deep because it is under-
lain by oceanic crust or
thinned continental crust.
The western Mediterra-
nean was formed primar-
ily by Cenozoic rifting.
4. In the east-

ern Mediterranean Sea,
areas of Mesozoic and Cenozoic
oceanic crust sit between the converging conti-
nents of Europe and Africa. Northward subduction
of oceanic crust attached to the African continent forms
volcanoes in the Aegean Sea, east of mainland Greece.
5. The crust beneath the Black Sea was part of a large
open ocean, called Tethys, but was then trapped by the
continental collision between Asia and continental fragments
from the south. The Black Sea was isolated from the sea
and reduced to a large lake. After the last Ice Age ended
and sea level rose, seawater from the Mediterranean Sea
overtopped a low divide near Istanbul, Turkey, flooding the
Black Sea. Some geologists studying the origin of the Black
Sea think that this flooding was catastrophic and may be the 10.07.a3
origin of ancient stories about a massive flood.
6. The Persian Gulf lies between Saudi Arabia and Iran and is
related to the collision of the Eurasian plate and the Arabian
plate, which carries the Arabian Peninsula. The Zagros Moun-
tains of Iran mark this collision. As the Zagros region is thrust
over Arabia, the weight of the thrust sheets forces the Arabian
plate downward. The resulting low trough is the Persian
Gulf, as shown in the cross section above (▲). Pressures
from the weight of the rocks force petroleum (oil and
gas) up along the layers toward the large oil fields
of the Arabian shelf of Saudi Arabia, Kuwait,
and adjacent countries.
10.07.a1
7. The Red Sea was

formed at a divergent Before You Leave This Page
boundary, where the Ara-
bian Peninsula split from Describe or sketch the origin of the
Africa via continental rifting North, Baltic, Black, and Red seas.
(⊲). New oceanic crust is
10.7
being created by seafloor Sketch or describe how the Persian

spreading within the south- 10.07.a4 Gulf is related to the collision of
ern Red Sea as the two Asia and Arabia.
plates move apart.
286
10.8 How Do Reefs and Coral Atolls Form?

REEFS ARE SHALLOW, MOSTLY SUBMARINE FEATURES, built primarily by colonies of living marine organ-
isms, including coral, sponges, and shellfish. Reefs can also be constructed by accumulations of shells and other debris.
Corals thrive in many settings, as long as the seawater is warm, clear, and shallow.
In What Settings Do Coral Reefs Form?

Corals are a group of invertebrate animals that form calcium carbonate structures. To thrive, corals require nutrients,
warmth, sunlight for photosynthesis, and water that is relatively free of suspended sediment. Too much sediment partially
blocks the sun, can bury the coral, or can clog openings in the tiny organisms. Coral reefs form in shallow tropical seas
with relatively clear water. Large waves batter many reefs, producing carbonate sediment.
1. Reefs are build-ups on the seafloor (▼), constructed by coral and other marine organisms. 2. Reefs and other carbonate accumulations can
Some reefs occur along the edges of continents, forming barrier reefs offshore from the form broad, shallow platforms, like the Bahama
main coastline. Reefs and islands protect a continent from large waves. They enclose a Islands east of Florida. In some cases, older reef
lagoon on the landward side but have a side that faces the open ocean and is deposits and dunes rise slightly above sea
exposed to large waves and storms. Erosion of the reefs can form low, level. Between most islands, the water is
sandy islands with beaches covered by white sand produced shallow and the seabed is com-
by erosion and reworking of pieces of reef, shells, and posed of white, carbonate-rich
other carbonate materials. sand derived from wave
erosion of reefs and
10.08.a2 Cayman Islands
the land.
10.08.a3 South Pacific Ocean
5. Atolls are

curved reefs that
enclose a shallow,
inner lagoon (▼). Some
3. Fringing reefs are atolls form when an island
attached to a shoreline (⊳) flanked by coral sinks, but
or are just offshore. The sea- upward coral growth keeps pace
ward edge of the reef slopes with the sinking. These reefs are
down toward deeper water. Most fairly unique to extinct volcanoes
reefs begin as fringing reefs and grow 10.08.a1 because they require subsidence, as
into a larger reef that can surround the occurs when magmatism ends and
island, as shown here. the oceanic crust cools.
10.08.a4 Great Barrier Reef, Australia 10.08.a5 Nukuoro Atoll
4. The Great Barrier Reef (⊳) is along the eastern coast

of Australia and has a unique h istory. Its base was
formed along the edge of a shallow platform during
the last Ice Age (17,000 years ago) when sea levels
were lower. As sea levels returned to normal and
began to drown the platform, the corals grew
upward, keeping themselves in shallow water. Over
time, the reef formed the largest organic buildup on
Earth, one that is easily visible from space.
How Do Atolls Form?

Charles Darwin proposed a hypothesis for the origin of atolls after observing a link between certain islands and atolls
during his research aboard the ship Beagle from 1831 to 1836. According to his model, shown below, atolls form around a
sinking landmass, such as a cooling or extinct volcano. Another model (not shown) interprets some atolls as being the result
of preferential erosion of the less dense center of a carbonate platform.
10.08.b1–3
Stage 1: A volcanic island forms through a Stage 2: After volcanic activity ceases, the Stage 3: The volcano eventually sinks below
series of eruptions in a tropical ocean, estab- new crust begins to cool and sink. Coral reefs the ocean surface, but upward growth of the
lishing a shoreline along which corals can continue building upward as the island sub- reef continues, forming a ring of coral and
later grow and construct a fringing reef. sides, forming a barrier reef some distance other carbonate material. This forms an atoll,
out from the shoreline. with a central, shallow lagoon.
Where Do Reefs Occur in the World?

Most of the world’s reefs are in tropical waters, located near the equator, between latitudes of 30° north and 30° south. Reef
corals are more diverse in the Pacific, probably because many species went extinct in the Atlantic during the last Ice Age.
The map below shows coral reefs as red dots.
10.08.c1
4. Coral reefs in the
Philippines cover an esti-
mated 25,000 square
kilometers and consist
of fringing reefs with
several large atolls.
Reefs also flank
Indonesia and nearby
Malaysia (not labeled).
5. The Great Barrier

Reef, along the
northeastern flank of
Australia, is the larg-
est reef complex in
the world. The world’s
second largest reef is
in New Caledonia, a
series of islands east
of Australia and south
of Micronesia.
1. The central and 2. Well-known reefs are pres- 3. Reefs occur along
southwestern Pacific, ent throughout much of the the continental shelf of
including Polynesia Caribbean region, including East Africa, such as in
and Micronesia, has Florida, the Bahamas, and the Kenya and Tanzania.
Lesser Antilles. The longest
many atolls and reefs, Other reefs encircle
including a wide vari- barrier reef in the Caribbean islands in the Indian
ety of barrier and fring- extends some 250 km (150 mi) Ocean and the shore- Describe the different kinds of reefs
ing reefs. Farther north, along the Yucatan Peninsula, line of the Red Sea. and where they form.
10.8
Hawaii is also warm from the north of Belize, Describe the stages of atoll formation.
enough for reefs. southward to Honduras.
Name some locations with large reefs.
288
10.9 What Is the Geology of Continental Margins?

THE EDGES OF MOST CONTINENTS ARE HIDDEN beneath the seas, some distance from the shoreline. The edge
of a continent marks the transition between continental and oceanic crust, but this transition is typically concealed by
thick layers of sediment. What features are present along the outer edges of continents, and how do these features form?
What Features Are Typical of Continental Margins?

Some continental margins, such as the western coast of South America, are active plate boundaries where oceanic crust
subducts beneath the edge of the continent. Many continental margins are not plate boundaries, and instead are passive
margins. Both active and passive margins share some features.
1. A continental shelf is a gently sloping surface that surrounds nearly
all continents. On passive margins, it can extend from the shoreline
as far as 1,500 km (930 mi) seaward, but it is typically narrow along
active margins. The gentle slopes of most shelves, such as this one
along the northeastern United States, are interpreted to have devel-
oped during the last Ice Age, when sea level was lower.
2. A continental slope connects the shelf with the truly deep
ocean. Here the ocean floor slopes down at angles typically
between 5° and 25°. The slopes are greatly exaggerated in this
figure.
3. The continental rise is farther out from the continental
slope. Sediment transported off the continental slope
accumulates here, forming a broad, gently sloping
underwater plain.
4. The continental shelf and slope are locally cut by

submarine canyons, including Baltimore Canyon, shown
here, offshore of New York and New Jersey. The
Monterey Submarine Canyon offshore of California,
discussed in the opening pages of this chapter, is a
classic example of a submarine canyon.
10.09.a1
The Structure of a Passive Margin

The transition from continent to deep ocean reflects progressively thinner continental crust and an abrupt change to oceanic
crust. The thinned crust along most passive margins records rifting apart of the continent. Sediment on the continental
margin varies greatly in thickness across the shelf, slope, rise, and abyssal plain.
1. Sediment is generally thinnest near the shore- 2. There are normal faults farther out, beneath the continental shelf and slope.
line and on nearby parts of the continental shelf, These formed during the initial continental rifting that formed the margin.
which is underlain by continental crust with a Normal faulting helped thin the crust, leading to deeper seafloor.
close-to-normal thickness.
10.09.a2
3. Thick sediment accumulated over the 4. The continental slope and rise mark the 5. The abyssal plain is farther from land and
downdropped fault blocks beneath the shelf abrupt change from thinned continental crust sources of land-derived sediment. It has a thin
and slope. The sedimentary layers can host of granitic composition to even thinner oce- sediment cover composed of small particles of
important oil and gas resources. anic crust composed of basalt and gabbro. clay and other fine-grained material.
What Settings Lead to Underwater Slope Failure?

Continental slopes are blanketed by sediments, most of which are unconsolidated and weak. The combination of weak
materials and a relatively steep angle causes some slopes to fail due to the force of gravity. Failure may be triggered by
earthquakes, large storms, or overloading by newly deposited sediments.
Turbidity Currents
1. As sediments collapse during a slope failure, they can break up and incorpo-
rate seawater between the grains. This forms a dense mixture of water and
sediment (mostly clay, silt, and sand), such as this mass (⊳) produced in a labora-
tory. These mixtures are more dense than normal seawater and flow downslope
as fast-moving slurries, or turbidity currents. Turbidity currents have destructive
potential and are capable of eroding rock, even underwater.
2. The dense, cloud-like slurry of a turbidity current travels through the water
until the current slows and the grains progressively settle, larger grains first,
forming graded beds. When this happens more than once, the result is a
sequence of alternating coarser and finer s ediment (⊲) with graded beds.
10.09.b1 10.09.b2 Point Lobos, CA
Submarine Canyons
3. Turbidity currents and other submarine movements can erode
submarine canyons into the continental slope. This example (⊳) is off
the coast of central C alifornia, just south of Monterey Canyon. As
the currents flow downhill, they erode the floor and walls of a can-
yon, making it larger over time.
4. The upper parts of some submarine canyons, such as

this one on the continental shelf near the Hudson
River in New York (⊲), were carved by rivers when
sea levels were more than 100 m (330 ft) lower
than today. Once submerged by rising sea lev-
els, such canyons can carry turbidity currents,
which scour and enlarge the canyon.
10.09.b3 10.09.b4
Submarine Fans and Submarine Landslides

5. This diagram illustrates a turbidity current, 8. Underwater slopes can also fail as submarine
shown in gray, beginning on the conti- landslides. A landslide mass can contain large,
nental slope and flowing down a fairly coherent blocks or can come apart as it
submarine canyon. detaches from the slope and moves downhill.
A landslide commonly forms distinctive lumps
6. As a turbidity current on the seafloor and may leave behind a ragged
exits the steep canyon, scar on the slope above. Repeated large land-
it spreads out and slows slides were key to forming and widening some
down. Sand grains and submarine canyons.
any pebbles can no lon-
ger be suspended by the
turbulence and settle out.
As the current slows further, Before You Leave This Page
it deposits silt followed by
clay particles. This process forms Describe or sketch the features
graded beds (coarser sediment at the base of a continental margin, such as the
and finer sediment at the top). continental shelf, slope, and rise.
10.09.b5
Describe or sketch the rocks, sediments,
7. As the turbidity current slows and spreads out across the continental rise, it deposits its and structures that occur along a typical
load of sediment in a fan-shaped deposit, or a submarine fan. A submarine fan can be continental margin.
10.9
hundreds to more than a thousand kilometers wide and typically consists of mud and other
deep-marine sediment that alternate with sandy turbidite deposits with graded bedding. Sub- Explain turbidity currents, submarine
marine fans can be huge, containing enormous volumes of sediment. The Bengal Fan in the canyons, submarine fans, and landslides.
Indian Ocean, south of Bangladesh, is 3,000 km long, and its sediment is up to 16 km thick.
290
10.10 How Do Marine Evaporite Deposits Form?

SALT AND OTHER EVAPORITE DEPOSITS OF MARINE ORIGIN occur along many continental margins, form-
ing layers, irregularly shaped masses, and structural domes. In addition to salt, gypsum is a mineral common in
evaporite deposits. Marine evaporite deposits form only in specific geologic settings, especially sites where seawater
evaporates. They are important sources of salt and sulfur, and they can be instrumental in trapping petroleum. How
and where do marine evaporite deposits form? Geologists commonly call evaporite deposits, whether marine or
nonmarine in origin, by their shorthand term evaporites.
How Do Evaporite Deposits Occur Along Continental Margins?

10.10.a1 Paradox, CO 10.10.a2 Carlsbad, NM
Natural salt (⊲) is Salt and other evap-
mostly composed of orite deposits are
the sodium chloride very weak geologic
mineral halite (NaCl), materials, flowing
the mineral that easily when sub-
makes up common jected to the stresses
table salt. Halite is associated with deep
associated with gyp- burial and tectonics.
sum (a calcium sul- They are much less
fate mineral), sylvite dense than other
(a potassium salt), kinds of rocks, and
and other minerals so they commonly
that have high solu- flow as solid but soft
bilities in water. Most evaporite deposits form layers, as is typical for masses, like the folded layers (▲) of gypsum shown here. Upward-
any sedimentary rock. Such layers can be thinner than a centimeter flowing masses of salt and gypsum can push up overlying layers,
or can comprise a layered sequence several kilometers thick. Out- forming folds and domes, or in some cases even pierce through the
crops of evaporite deposits are very soluble and so are relatively overlying layers. Folds and other structures formed by moving salt
uncommon at Earth’s surface. Salt recrystallizes at relatively low tem- and gypsum are commonly sites where oil and gas accumulate in
peratures, so it can form large crystals, as shown here. significant quantities, in addition to deposits of sulfur minerals.
How Do Evaporites Form Near Continental Margins?

Many evaporite deposits form when seawater evaporates, leaving behind a residue of salt, gypsum, and other minerals
from chemical components that were dissolved in the water. Such evaporation is especially efficient in warm, dry
climates, which have a high rate of evaporation. Formation of evaporite deposits requires that evaporation occur
in water bodies with limited connection to the oceans, so that water made salty by evaporation cannot simply flow
into the open ocean. Evaporite accumulations formed in such marine settings are marine evaporite deposits.
1. Most marine evaporite deposits form in narrow seas, 3. Most smaller coastal bodies of water can receive input
especially inland seas formed when two pieces of from rainfall, runoff from the land, and inflow of seawater
continent begin to separate during continental rift- from an adjacent ocean. If enough of this water evapo-
ing, and in narrow seas formed during the rates, it deposits evaporites along the shoreline and
early stages of seafloor spreading. on the floor of the water body. Inflow of water
They also accumulate from the land and sea can effectively replace
along shorelines, the water lost to evaporation, permitting
where sea- evaporation and salt deposition to
water spills continue over a long time.
onto low
areas next 4. In some cases, a low
to the sea. barrier of rock or sedi-
ment restricts the flow of
water into and out of a
2. Evaporites body of water. The water
can accumulate on becomes more salty due to
tidal flats and other evaporation, causing evaporites
broad, flat areas adjacent to precipitate. If sea level drops or if
to the sea. These areas are the barrier is uplifted by tectonics, the inflow
close to sea level and can be of seawater can decrease or cease, causing
periodically flooded during high tides, widespread deposition of salt and other evaporite min-
storms, or when sea levels are high. 10.10.b1
erals as all or most of the trapped water evaporates.
What Structures Do Salt Deposits Form?

Salt is such a structurally weak rock that it can form its own unique kinds of geologic structures. It also can
greatly influence how faults and folds develop in overlying rocks.
10.10.c3 Iran
10.10.c1
10.10.c2
When a region containing a thick salt layer is

deformed, the salt can slip and flow, allowing
Salt is less dense than most rocks; when overlying rocks to fold and fault. This cross Where salt reaches the surface, such as in a
buried, it can buoyantly flow toward the section shows part of the Jura Mountains near salt dome or an anticline, it can flow
surface in steep, pipe-like conduits. The the French-Swiss border. The folds and faults downslope under the influence of gravity
resulting structure is a salt dome. are underlain by a weak layer of salt. and form a salt glacier, such as this one.
What Salt Structures Occur Along the Gulf Coast of the United States?
The Gulf Coast of the southern United States is world famous to geologists because it contains many salt structures,
both on land and offshore. The salt structures have played a key role in the formation of the region’s large oil fields
and provide important sources of salt and sulfur minerals. For these reasons, they have been extensively studied by
seismic surveys and by expensive drilling, sometimes in thousands of meters of water.
1. This diagram shows the land and seafloor in the Gulf of Mexico offshore of the Texas-Louisiana coast. An interpretation of the subsurface
geology, drawn on the sides of the block, is based on studies by many geologists and billions of dollars of drilling for petroleum.
2. The continental shelf is smooth because it is blanketed by nearly flat-lying layers of recently
deposited sediment. At depth, normal faults cut the layers and displace some blocks downward.
3. The deeper seafloor in this region has unusual and puzzling
bumps and pits. These features are caused by subsurface flow of
salt, along with folds and faults in the overlying layers. Salt is rep
resented by yellow areas on the side of the diagram.
4. The unusual seafloor is bounded by a rela-

tively steeper slope called the Sigsbee
Escarpment. As shown on the side of the
block, the escarpment marks the front of a
large mass of salt in the subsurface. This salt
flowed upward and sideways from depth,
reaching all the way to the seafloor in places.

10.10.d1
5. The salt (shown here in yellow) origi- Describe how evaporite deposits form
nally was deposited in a thick layer when 6. As the salt was buried and subjected to near continental margins.
continental rifting during the Mesozoic increased pressure, it flowed sideways and rose up Describe how salt can occur in salt
formed narrow basins. The basins at through the overlying sedimentary layers. Move- domes, some folded mountain belts,
times had limited connection with the ment of the salt folded and domed the layers. In
and salt glaciers.
10.10
sea, causing evaporation of seawater places, it formed steep, p illar-shaped salt domes,
and deposition of the salt layer. The salt shown here as finger-like yellow masses. The salt Describe how salt structures are
was later buried by sediments, shown in domes and associated folded rock layer trapped oil expressed in the Gulf Coast region.
light green, tan, and beige. and gas, for which the Gulf Coast is well known.
292
10.11 How Did Earth’s Modern Oceans Evolve?

EARTH’S CONTINENTS AND OCEANS have changed over time, and their present configuration is the most recent
snapshot of a longer evolution. Before 200 million years ago, the continents were joined together in a supercontinent
called Pangaea. This huge landmass has since separated into discrete pieces, forming the modern continents and oceans.
These artistic renditions by geologist Ronald Blakey depict the breakup of a supercontinent and the movement of the
continental fragments during the last 200 million years. He used an oval map that can show the entire world. It is not
just one side of a globe.
200 Ma (Early Jurassic):

End of Pangaea 2. Africa and South America began to
rift apart from North America, forming rift
1. Before 200 million years ago valleys and a narrow sea along what
(200 Ma), all the continents were is now the eastern United States.
joined in the supercontinent of Faulting during rifting thinned
Pangaea, which was s urrounded crust under the East Coast and
by an enormous ocean. Pan- adjacent continental shelf.
gaea was assembled in the Late
Paleozoic and, as shown here, 3. As North America rifted
had begun to break up via conti- away, the landmasses of Africa,
nental rifting by 180 to 200 Ma (in South America, India, Australia, and
the Early Mesozoic). Antarctica remained linked in a south-
ern supercontinent called Gondwana.
10.11.a1
150 Ma (Late Jurassic):

New Oceans Open
4. By about 150 Ma, in the middle of the 6. The Tethys Sea, a tropical ocean,
Mesozoic Era, the breakup of Pangaea was a large, wedge-shaped extension
was well underway. The C entral of the main global ocean. To the
Atlantic Ocean had formed as north, a series of collisions started
North America separated from to consolidate Asia into
Africa. The Gulf of Mexico a larger continent.
formed by rifting along the
southern edge of North America. 7. The landmasses south of
Tethys started to rift apart and
5. Continental rifting began along began to resemble the familiar
the future borders of Africa and shapes of South America and
South America, but seafloor spread- Africa. The rest of Gondwana
ing had not yet started to form the remained mostly intact, for now.
South Atlantic Ocean. 10.11.a2
120 Ma (Early Cretaceous): Central and South Atlantic Oceans Open

8. During the Cretaceous Period (120 Ma),
10. As the new oceans grew, the
North America, Europe, and Asia were still
large global ocean began to shrink
mostly connected. The North Atlantic
because ocean crust was lost by
Ocean, between North America and
subduction beneath North and
Europe, had yet to fully open.
South America, Asia, and island
arcs within the ocean. As the
9. The southern parts of the newly formed oceans continued
Atlantic Ocean opened as South opening, their waters affected cli-
America began to separate mate patterns, helped stabilize
from Africa. The rest of and moderate land temperatures,
Gondwana began to rift apart, as and produced many areas
India separated from Australia and of shallow-marine environments.
Antarctica, forming the early stages This led to an incredible diversity of
of the Indian Ocean. life in the sea and on land.
10.11.a3
90 Ma (Late Cretaceous):
Atlantic Ocean Mostly Open
12. India was fully separated from the
11. The Central Atlantic Ocean was rest of Gondwana and was an isolated
fully open between North America landmass. It was headed northward
and Africa, with a spreading cen- across the Tethys Sea toward an
ter down the middle of the eventual collision with the
ocean. The North Atlantic, southern flank of Asia.
between North America and
Europe, had not yet rifted open. 13. Antarctica rifted apart from
The opening of the South A tlantic Africa, which allowed the South
Ocean separated Africa and South Atlantic to connect to the southern
America, isolating their land animals. Indian Ocean. Australia rifted apart
from Antarctica, fully ending the
10.11.a4 existence of Gondwana.
30 Ma (mid-Cenozoic):
Closing the Tethys Sea 15. The Tethys Sea was nearly closed as
14. Greenland and the rest of North India collided with Asia to form the
America began rifting apart from Himalaya Mountains, and Africa and
Europe at about 80 Ma, opening nearby continental fragments con-
the North Atlantic Ocean. The verged with southern Europe to
Pacific Ocean contained form the Alps and other ranges.
spreading centers (the belts of
lighter blue on the seafloor), but 16. Australia was completely iso-
continued to grow smaller over lated, allowing its collection of mar-
time as its oceanic plates supials and other unusual animals to
subducted beneath the Americas, thrive and evolve. Antarctica remained
Asia, and many island arcs. over the South Pole.
10.11.a5
18. Convergence between the Indian and

Present Day Eurasian plates continues to form the
17. Today, the Atlantic Ocean contin- Himalaya mountain chain north of India.
ues to grow because it has a It may also be starting to form a new
spreading center that adds to the plate boundary farther south, within
oceanic plate but does not have the Indian Ocean.
major subduction zones to con-
sume any oceanic material. It has 19. The Red Sea is a developing
grown to its present size at the rift and may continue to grow at
expense of the Pacific Ocean, the expense of another ocean. It is
which is the last remnant of uncertain whether the nearby East
Pangaea’s global ocean. African Rift, south of the Red Sea, will
split off yet another piece of Africa.
10.11a6
The Future of the Oceans
W
10.11.t1 Before You Leave This Page
hat will the oceans look like in
50 million years? Geologists calcu-
Describe the major changes in
late the likely future locations of the
Earth’s oceans since 180 million
oceans and continents by using current plate years ago, including approximately
velocities and by making assumptions about when the Central Atlantic, South
how plates act during collisions. One prediction Atlantic, North Atlantic, and Indian
is that Africa will collide with Europe and Asia, oceans formed and which
closing the Mediterranean Sea and forming a continents rifted apart to form
very large supercontinent, shown to the right. each ocean.
The Pacific will continue to shrink as spreading
in the Atlantic Ocean pushes the Americas (not Describe or sketch why growth
10.11
shown) farther to the west. Our present situa- of the Atlantic Ocean must have
caused the Pacific Ocean to shrink
tion is not a final one. It is just one scene in a
over time.
very long movie.
CONNECTIONS
10.12 How Did the Gulf of Mexico
and the Caribbean Region Form?
THE GULF OF MEXICO AND CARIBBEAN SEA display an island arc, several deep troughs, and many islands and
small ocean basins. The present setting and recent geologic history of the region provide an opportunity to examine
various aspects of how continental margins are formed and how ocean basins evolve over time. Examine the map below,
which shows seafloor depths and plate boundaries.
Present Setting
1. The Gulf of Mexico is nearly enclosed by 2. Shallow seafloor, underlain by continental 3. A trench (red sawtooth line below)
Florida, the Gulf Coast of the United States, crust, flanks the Florida Peninsula and curves around the outside of the Lesser
and Mexico. It is deepest (darker blue color) Bahama Islands (a carbonate platform). Antilles island arc. The trench and island
in the center and is flanked by broad conti- Deeper seafloor separates this region from arc are the result of westward subduction
nental shelves offshore of the United States the island of Cuba to the south and from of Atlantic oceanic lithosphere beneath the
and Mexico, including the Yucatan Peninsula. the Yucatan Peninsula to the southwest. Caribbean plate.
10.12.a1
Divergent Convergent Transform

Plate Plate Plate Gulf of
Boundary Boundary Boundary Mexico
Strike-slip Thrust
Flo
Fault Fault
rid
a
Carib
bean
s
xa
Sea
Te
NORTH AMERICAN PLATE Cayman

Trough
Bahamas
Gulf of Mexico
Cu
ba
M Atlantic Ocean
ex an la
ico c at nsu
Yu eni
P
Lesser ntilles
CE
CARIBBEAN PLATE
NT
RA
A
LA
ME
RI
CA
Pacific Ocean
COCOS PLATE
250 km
SOUTH AMERICAN PLATE
4. A deep trench marks where oceanic plates 5. An east-west-trending escarpment, the 6. The seafloor in some parts of the Carib-
in the Pacific, including the Cocos plate, are Cayman Trough, cuts across the seafloor and bean plate is shallower than expected. Here,
subducted northeastward beneath Central the southern end of Cuba. It is a transform the oceanic crust is anomalously thick (up to
America. Volcanoes and earthquakes are boundary along the northern edge of the 20 km thick) and is composed of thick
common in the overriding plate. small Caribbean plate. sequences of basalt.
294
T h e S e a f l o o r a n d C o n t i n e n t a l M a r g i n s 295
10.12.a2
Jurassic History (~200 to 145 Ma) 10.12.a3
7. By the Jurassic NORTH AMERICA NORTH AMERICA 8. By the Late Jurassic,
t
Crus
Period, North America the continents had truly
Rift
ni c
had begun to rift apart Basins rifted apart as seafloor
Ocea
M
N
EX
TA
from Africa and South spreading produced new
IC
CA
TAN
ICA
O
YU
America. Continental oceanic crust.
A
Rift Basins
CA
RIC
AFR
rifts were partially
YU
AF
filled with sediment
and salt, and the 9. Spreading formed the
thinned continental Gulf of Mexico when the
Pacific SOUTH AMERICA Yucatan pulled away
crust became continen- Oceanic SOUTH AMERICA
tal shelves. Crust from the Gulf Coast.
175 Ma 150 Ma
10.12.a4 Cretaceous History (145 to 66 Ma) 10.12.a5

10. In the Cretaceous NORTH AMERICA NORTH AMERICA 12. In the Late Creta-
Period, spreading in FL FL ceous, an oceanic plateau
the Gulf of Mexico lf OR lf O
Guof o ID
A Guof o RI
DA tic
from the Pacific was mov-
xic ic an
ceased, but sediment
Me M
ex Atl cean ing to the northeast, led
deposition continued. O by a subduction zone
N
TA
N
TA
CA
(line with teeth) and asso-
CA
YU
YU
ciated island arc.

Su
11. Seafloor spreading nic

b
ea u
du
moved North America Oc latea 13. Transform faults

ct
Pacific
SOUTH
io
farther from Africa Pacific SOUTH AMERICA P bounded the sides of

n
Oceanic
Oceanic AMERICA
Zo
and South America. Crust the plate on which the

ne
Crust
130 Ma 84 Ma oceanic plateau rode.
10.12.a6
Cenozoic History (66 to 0 Ma) 10.12.a7
14. In the early Ceno- NORTH AMERICA NORTH AMERICA 16. By 5 Ma, long trans-
zoic Period, the island Atlantic Ocean
form faults allowed the
arc and oceanic pla- lf Collision FL
ean
Guof o lf O
RI Caribbean plate to con-
teau collided with ic Zone Guof o DA Lesser tinue moving eastward.
ex
Oc
ic
Florida near Cuba. M CU ex Antilles
M
tic
BA CUB Arc
A
N
an
TA
N
TA
CA
nic us
Atl
15. A new volcanic

CA
YU
ea u tea
YU
arc formed between Oc latea Pla

17. The Lesser Antilles
Central P nic
South and Central ea island arc continued to
American Oc
America but did not Arc Pacific form above an east-
SOUTH Oceanic SOUTH
connect these lands AMERICA dipping subduction zone.
Crust AMERICA
until about 5 Ma. 40 Ma 5 Ma
How Geologists Reconstructed This History
T
he history summarized above was not samples, calibrate the surveys, and determine
easy to piece together, especially since whether petroleum was present. The local geol- Before You Leave This Page
much of the geologic record is under the ogy was then interpreted in the context of
sea. The first studies were done on land, map- global reconstructions of plate motions, largely Describe the main physical features of
ping the geology, determining the ages and derived from paleomagnetism, and calculated the Caribbean and Gulf of Mexico,
sequences of rock units, and locating volcanoes, rates of spreading. describing how they relate to modern
faults, and other structures. Geologists are actively investigating and plate-tectonic boundaries.
An understanding of the undersea geology debating many aspects of this geologic history.
was largely obtained by seafloor mapping and Perhaps the most controversial topic is whether Briefly summarize the main events
that shaped the Gulf and Caribbean.
geophysical surveys conducted for petroleum the thick basaltic sequence in the Caribbean
10.12
exploration on the continental shelves, includ- originated as an oceanic plateau in the Pacific, Describe how the geologic history of
ing many seismic profiles. Such surveys were as shown above, or was formed locally, between the region was studied, both on land
followed by very expensive drilling through the North and South America. and beneath the sea.
sedimentary layers in order to retrieve rock
10.13 How Did These Ocean Features
and Continental Margins Form?
The terrain below contains various features on the seafloor, as well as parts of three continents. Some general observations
of each feature provide clues about what that feature is. You will use this information to interpret how each feature
formed, what the area was like in the past, and how it will look in the future.

• Observe the terrain and make observations about the shape, size, and character of each feature.
• Use the general descriptions to determine which features are present in different parts of the region.
• Interpret how each feature formed and use this information to infer the present-day plate tectonics of the area.
• Use all the information to reconstruct what the area probably looked like 20 million years ago and what it will
look like 20 million years into the future.
1. This figure shows a region approximately 1,000 km (600 mi) wide. The seafloor is shaded according to depth, with lighter blue colors
indicating shallower areas. Numbers indicate the isotopic ages of volcanic rocks in millions of years before present (labeled Ma).
The lowest seafloor is part of the abyssal plain, and the only ages on it are 120 and 140 Ma, in the middle of the ocean.
2. A broad oceanic plateau rises from deep water and locally forms
small islands. Samples collected by drilling and dredging are
mostly basalt and are dated at 40 million years. A linear chain of
islands and seamounts extends from the oceanic plateau toward
the southeast. The islands and seamounts are shaped like volca-
noes and consist of volcanic rocks, mostly basalt. The ages of
the volcanic rocks decrease to the southeast. A basaltic shield
volcano at the southeast end of the chain is still active.
3. A curved belt of volcanic islands flanks a deep oceanic

trench on the east. Most of the volcanoes consist of
andesite and show evidence of recent explosive erup-
tions. Most islands have been volcanically active for
35 to 50 million years, as shown by the age range for
volcanic rocks in several islands.
4. There is a narrow sea between the volcanic

islands and a continent to the west. In the
center of the sea is a low ridge, whose axis
contains a rift valley and evidence of active
submarine eruptions of basalt. The axis of the
ridge has jogs along some type of fracture.
5. The western continent contains

a narrow shelf offshore. There is
no trench, evidence of recent volcanoes,
earthquakes, or mountain building along
this edge of the continent. The oldest
oceanic crust next to the continent is
20 million years old.
296
T h e S e a f l o o r a n d C o n t i n e n t a l M a r g i n s 297
Procedures
Use your observations of this region to complete the following steps, entering your answers on the worksheet or online.
A. Observe the region and determine which types of features are shown (e.g., mid-ocean ridge, island arc, etc.).
B. Based on the descriptions, briefly describe or identify how each feature probably formed.
C. Identify the main geologic features shown on the cross section along A–A'.
D. In the appropriate place on the worksheet, draw a cross section along the front of the terrain. Show your interpretations
of the plate geometries and different types and thicknesses of crust and lithosphere.
E. Describe what the area might have looked like 20 million years ago based on the ages and relative motions of the plates.
Draw a very simplified map of your interpretation on the worksheet.
Optional Procedures
Your instructor may also ask you to complete the following steps. If so, enter your answers in the appropriate tables
on the worksheet or online.
F. Interpret whether adjacent features are related to one another using their relative positions and ages.
G. Predict what the area will look like 20 million years into the future. Draw a simplified map of your interpretation on the worksheet.
6. The shelf surrounding the central continent is broad and shallow, extend- 7. To explore for oil, geologists and geophysicists used seismic
ing several hundred kilometers out from the shoreline. The edge of the surveys to investigate the shelf of the central continent. A geo-
shelf shows no evidence of earthquakes or active faulting. Several large logic cross section summarizing these results is presented below
canyons are cut into the shelf and lead down to large piles of sediment on for the line A–A' (shown on the map). All sedimentary layers are
the abyssal plain. The continent has fairly subdued topography. Cenozoic (younger than 66 million years).
10.13.a2
A 8. A narrow ocean separates the central and eastern

continents. In the center of the ocean there is a
prominent submarine ridge that rises several
kilometers above the surrounding seafloor. The
A’ axis of the ridge has a well-defined rift and shows
evidence of recent volcanism. Samples dredged
from the ridge are basalt. Most samples close
to the ridge are very young (less than 5 million
years). The oceanic crust is older farther from
the ridge, but is no older than 25 Ma between
the central and eastern continents.
9. The eastern continent is flanked by a
shallow shelf covered with sediments. There
is no evidence for earthquakes, active
faulting, or volcanism. The oldest oceanic
crust next to the continent is 20 to
25 million years old.
10.13
10.13.a1
CHAPTER
11 Mountains, Basins,
and Continents
THE SURFACE OF THE EARTH contains mountains and high plateaus, as well as basins, which are low areas
where sediment accumulates. At a larger scale, Earth’s surface also contains continents that have grown through
time, rifted apart, and collided. How do mountains, basins, and continents form, and what factors control their
regional and local elevations?
This view, looking north, shows satellite imag- The Tibetan Plateau is the largest and The Tarim Basin is a large desert north of the
ery superimposed on topography for the highest plateau on Earth. Its average eleva- plateau. It is 3,000 m lower than the plateau
region around the Tibetan Plateau of southern tion is 5 km (over 15,000 ft), which is higher and is partially filled by sediment derived from
Asia. A topographic profile across the region than any peak in the United States, except the adjacent highlands.
is on the next page. for some mountains in Alaska.
How do basins form, and why are they lower
What regional features can you observe Why is the Tibetan Plateau so high, and than their surroundings?
in this perspective view and on the what controls the elevation of a region?
topographic profile?
11.00.a1
The Himalaya is a spectacular mountain Mount Everest is the world’s highest Most of India, to the south of the Himalaya,
range that rises along the southern edge of mountain, rising 8,848 m (29,000 ft) above has much lower elevation and relief, and is
the Tibetan Plateau. It is the world’s highest sea level. It straddles the border between tectonically stable away from the mountain
mountain range, with many peaks more than Nepal (to the south) and Tibet (to the front. Its oldest rocks are approximately
8 km (>26,000 ft) above sea level. north), and climbers can approach the 2.7 billion years old, representing the earliest
mountain from either side. period of Earth’s history.
Why is this mountain range so high
compared to all others on our planet? What geologic processes form mountains, When did the first continents form, and how
and what controls which areas have do continents change over time?
mountains versus which ones do not?
298
Mountains, Basins, and Continents 299
11.1 Why Are Some Regions High 11.8 What Features Characterize the Interiors
in Elevation? 300 of Continents? 314
11.2 Where Do Mountain Belts 11.9 What Are Tectonic Terranes? 316
and High Regions Form? 302 11.10 How Do Continents Form? 318
11.3 How Do Local Mountains Form? 304 11.11 How Did the Continents Join and Split Apart? 320
11.4 Where Do Basins Form? 306 11.12 CONNECTIONS 1: How Did the Appalachian
11.5 How Do Mountains and Basins Form and Ouachita Mountains Form? 322
at Convergent Continental Margins? 308 11.13 CONNECTIONS 2: What Is the Geologic
11.6 How Does Continental Extension Occur? 310 History of the Western United States? 324
11.7 What Are the Characteristics and History 11.14 INVESTIGATION: Where Will Mountains
of Continental Hot Spots? 312 and Basins Form in This Region? 326
11.00.a2 Himalaya Mtns., Tibet
Investigating the Timing

⊳ This photograph,
looking southeast,
shows peaks of the
high Himalaya. Part of Regional Uplift
T
of the less rugged,
but still high-eleva- ibet and the Himalaya are high in elevation now, but
tion Tibetan Plateau when did they become so? Geologists use several
is in the foreground. approaches to determine when a region was uplifted.
These include Global Positioning Systems (GPS), isotopi-
cally dating minerals that record the uplift history of the
rocks, and examining the types, thickness, and ages of sedi-
ment in adjacent basins.
11.00.a3 Himalaya Mtns., Tibet Observations using a Global Positioning System (GPS)
provide a direct measurement of uplift, and they indicate that
parts of the Himalaya are rising a few centimeters per year,
a relatively rapid rate of uplift. Another approach is to find
rocks at high elevations that were deposited at low elevation.
The top of Mount Everest contains a faulted slice of Paleozoic
limestone with marine fossils; the limestone was deposited at
sea level and later uplifted along with the mountain range.
Isotopic dating methods are an important way to determine
the age of uplift. As deep rocks are uplifted toward the sur-
face and uncovered by erosion, they cool, locking in daughter
products from radioactive decay. Certain dating techniques
tell us when deep rocks arrived to within 2 to 4 km of the
surface and so indicate the age of uplift. In the Himalaya,
such methods yield ages as young as several million years,
▲ From the Tibet (north) side, Mount indicating recent and ongoing uplift.
Everest is a rugged, imposing mountain. Uplift and erosion of mountains and other high regions
This view is taken from one of the base contribute clasts to adjacent sedimentary basins. We can
camps where climbers begin their ardu- therefore infer the age of uplift by determining when clasts
ous and dangerous climb to the top.
derived from a mountain were added to the sedimentary
sequence. Sediments along the foothills of the Himalaya indi-
▼ The topographic profile below shows the high Tibetan Plateau viewed to cate that debris originating from the mountain range first
the west. The high mountains on the left edge of the Plateau are the Hima- appeared around 45 million years ago.
laya. To depict the topographic features at this regional scale, the topography
is vertically exaggerated by 10 times.
11.0
11.00.a4
300
11.1 Why Are Some Regions High in Elevation?

SOME REGIONS ARE MUCH HIGHER THAN OTHERS. Many mountains are not only steep, but are high in
elevation. Elsewhere, huge regions of land are barely above sea level. What accounts for these differences? Regional
variations in elevation primarily reflect the tectonic processes that occurred in the region and the nature of the crust
and mantle at depth. A change in the subsurface can cause a region to be uplifted (rise in elevation) or to subside
(drop in elevation). Is the region in which you live high, near sea level, or somewhere in between? What is the actual
measured elevation where you live?
What Controls Regional Elevation?

Regional elevations are controlled primarily by the thickness of the crust, but they can also be influenced by the
temperature and density of materials in the crust and upper mantle.
11.01.a1 11.01.a2 11.01.a3
Regions with thick crust are higher than those Regions underlain by less dense crust will Temperature of the crust and mantle also
with thinner crust. In other words, mountain be higher in elevation than areas with a affects elevation. Warm rocks are less dense
ranges have deep crustal roots. similar thickness of more dense crust. than cooler rocks, so areas with warm rocks
are higher than areas with cool rocks.
What Causes Variations in Crustal Thickness?

Differences in crustal thickness between regions reflect differences in their geologic histories. Such differences include whether
the crust is continental or oceanic, and whether it has been deformed, eroded, or buried.
2. Crust thickens if

compressed from
the sides (⊳). It can
respond to com-
pression by folding
or faulting.
11.01.b2 11.01.b4
11.01.b1 3. Crust thins if it is
stretched in a hori 4. Crust that loses material,
1. Continents have relatively thick crust zontal direction (⊳), such as by erosion (▲), will
(▲), generally 30 to 50 km thick, and so either by ductile become thinner, whereas crust
are higher than ocean basins, which are stretching at depth or that gains material by deposi-
underlain by oceanic crust that is much by normal faulting in tion of sediment or volcanic
thinner, typically about 7 km thick. the upper crust. rocks will become thicker.
11.01.b3
How Is Regional Elevation Decreased?

Normal faulting can thin the crust by displacing Crustal thickness can be reduced if Rocks contract when they cool, so subsid-
higher rocks off lower ones. This decreases crustal material is eroded from the top, as is ence results from cooling of large regions
thickness and causes a region to subside. common in many mountain belts. of the crust or upper mantle.
11.01.c2
11.01.c3
11.01.c1
How Is Regional Elevation Increased?

1. Crust that is compressed 3. Crust can thicken when material
and shortened by thrust is added to the surface, whether it
faults also thickens. This is sediment or volcanic units, per-
thickening causes the haps lava in huge volcanic fields.
region to be uplifted. The The added material builds up the
thrust fault can also uplift surface and pushes down the crust
rocks, forming a mountain. in response to the weight.
11.01.d1
11.01.d3
2. If the crust or mantle 4. Magma can add to the crust at
beneath a region is depth, and this addition of material
heated, the rocks expand thickens the crust. Several pro-
and become less dense. cesses may operate together:
As a result, the region magma can add material and heat
can increase in elevation. the crust at the same time.
11.01.d2
11.01.d4
What Is the Influence of the Thickness of the Lithosphere?

The lithosphere is, on average, about 100 km thick, but varies in thickness from nearly zero at mid-ocean ridges to more
than 150 km beneath some ancient continental interiors. These variations greatly influence elevation because the mantle part
of the lithosphere is more dense than the asthenosphere.
11.01.e1
1. A region with thin lithosphere, 3. Lithosphere is generally thicker in the
such as a mid-ocean ridge, will central, ancient parts of c ontinents, far away
be higher than an adjacent region from modern plate boundaries, but these
with thicker lithosphere, even if regions can have moderate elevation
they have the same type and because of relatively thick continental crust.
thickness of crust.
4. Continental lithosphere can be thinned
2. As a new oceanic plate moves near plate boundaries by heating and
away from a ridge, the astheno- other plate activity. The affected region can
sphere cools enough to become lithosphere. The plate, therefore, rise in e
levation because dense lithosphere
thickens, becomes more dense, and subsides as it cools. is replaced by less dense asthenosphere.
The Discovery of Isostasy
I
sostasy is the principle that regional eleva- model, lower density crustal material in the crustal root has displaced. This case illustrates
tions adjust to the types and thicknesses of roots attracts the suspended weight less than how observations related to one topic (survey-
rocks at depth. It was discovered through would the denser mantle material that the ing) can lead to a scientific discovery (isostasy)
observations made by George Everest while in another discipline.
surveying India around 1850. Surveyors at the
time understood that a weight suspended on a
11.01.t1
line (to level the surveying equipment) was

deflected from vertical a very small amount by Before You Leave This Page
the gravitational attraction of nearby mountains.
When taking this into account, Everest noted an Summarize or sketch the factors that
unexplained discrepancy in positions on his sur- control regional elevation.
vey. He found that the deflection of the weight Summarize or sketch what causes
from vertical was less than predicted. variations in crustal thickness.
To explain the discrepancy, a mathematician
calculated the expected gravitational attraction Summarize several ways to increase
11.01.t2
of the Himalaya. Astronomer George Airy then elevation and to decrease elevation.
11.1
used an analogy with floating icebergs and Explain the observation that led to the
other common objects to suggest that higher discovery of isostasy.
mountains had thicker crustal roots. By this

302
11.2 Where Do Mountain Belts

and High Regions Form?
MOUNTAIN BELTS AND OTHER HIGH REGIONS generally owe their high elevation to thick continental crust.
Less commonly, a region is higher than its surroundings due to processes originating in the mantle. Where are the
world’s main mountain belts, why is each mountain higher in elevation than its surroundings, and why did mountains
form in these places?
In Which Tectonic Settings Do Regional Mountain Belts Form?

Regional mountain ranges are hundreds or thousands of kilometers long. They are large enough that they can only be
explained by major variations in the thickness and temperature of the crust and lithosphere. Most ranges occur near
convergent plate boundaries or where there has been large-scale movement of material in the mantle.
11.02.a1 11.02.a2 11.02.a3
Subduction Zones — Convergent margins Continental Collisions — Collision zones have Mantle Upwellings — Less dense astheno-
are high in elevation largely because the crust high elevations due to an increase in crustal sphere can move upward into the litho-
is thickened by magmatic additions from the thickness as one continent is shoved sphere, causing regional uplift. This occurs
subduction zone and by crustal shortening. beneath another. In these settings, crustal near hot spots, plate boundaries, and in
Also, in these regions, lithosphere is heated thickening occurs by thrusting, folding, and some other settings, such as continental
and replaced by less dense asthenosphere. other forms of deformation. rifts. It is partly responsible for uplift of parts
of the western United States.
What Causes These Regions to Have High Elevation?

1. Western Canada has been a convergent margin 2. The Alps mountain range of southern 3. The Tibetan Plateau and the Himalaya
for most of the last 100 million years. Its mountain Europe is high because it has thick crust are extremely high because of very thick
ranges overlie crust thickened from major thrust due to crustal shortening and collisions crust that resulted when the Indian continent
faulting, from magmatic additions, and from collisions between Europe and smaller continental collided with, and was partly shoved
with island arcs and pieces of continental material. blocks that came from the south. beneath, the continental crust of Asia.
11.02.b1
4. The Andes of South America are 5. The East African Rift is higher than most of 6. The Great Divide Range forms the eastern
above a subduction zone. The underlying Africa because of magmatic heating of the crust, flank of Australia. There is currently no plate
crust is hot and thick because of mag- thinning of the lithosphere, and the presence of boundary here, and geologists continue to
matic additions and crustal shortening. a hot spot leading to mantle upwelling. investigate the age and cause of uplift.
What Happens During the Erosion of Mountain Belts?

Mountains, once formed, are subjected to weathering and erosion. These processes wear mountains down but are countered
by uplift related to isostasy. Uplift is driven by buoyancy due to the root of underlying thick crust.
Early Mountain Building Erosion and Isostatic Rebound Late Stages of Evolution
1. As a mountain belt forms, uplift is com- 3. As material erodes from a mountain belt, 5. Erosion and isostasy cause rocks deep in
monly faster than erosion, and the mountain there is less weight holding down the thick the crust to be uplifted and exposed at the
becomes higher and more rugged over time. crustal root. The buoyant crust can uplift, surface. As a result, many mountain belts
A high mountain belt results from uplift that is a process called isostatic rebound. expose metamorphic and plutonic rocks.
faster than erosion.
11.02.c3
11.02.c2
11.02.c1
2. As soon as a mountain starts forming, 4. Sediment derived from the mountain is 6. Through simultaneous erosion and isos-
weathering and erosion begin to wear it deposited in nearby basins, typically on tasy, the mountain is eroded down and the
down, contributing sediment to streams and both the sea and continental sides. The thick crustal root is gradually reduced in size.
rivers. Sediment will be transported to adja- added weight of the sediment depresses Material eroded from the mountain ends up
cent low areas, perhaps in nearby oceans or the crust (isostasy) in these regional basins, in adjacent basins, increasing the crustal
other types of basins. making room for more sediment. thickness beneath the basins.
What Controls Regional Elevations in North America?

The vertically exaggerated topographic profile below illustrates how elevations vary from east to west across the United
States. It does not show the full thickness of crust, only the elevation of the land and depth of seafloor.
11.02.d1
1. Western North America is high 2. Compression and shortening 3. Elevation decreases 4. The Appalachian Mountains were
mostly because crust was thick- within the North American plate thick- from the Great Plains once a region of thick crust, due to
ened along a convergent margin. ened crust in the Rocky Mountains. toward the M ississippi the collision between North America
The moderately high elevation of Additional uplift is due to a locally River because the lith- and Africa. Much of this thickness has
the Basin and Range is largely thin lithosphere and upwelling asthe- osphere is cooler and been lost due to erosion, and so the
due to very thin lithosphere. nosphere associated with rifting. thicker to the east. range has lost elevation over time.
Rule of Thumb for Elevations Before You Leave This Page
R
egional elevations are relatively low for be 12 km thicker than the crust beneath Phoenix
regions with thinner crust, and rela- (2 × 6 = 12). Geophysical measurements show Sketch and explain the main tectonic
tively high for regions with thicker that the crust beneath Phoenix is about 28 km settings of high regions, providing an
crust, but by how much? A rule of thumb is thick, whereas crust beneath Flagstaff is about example for each setting.
that increasing the thickness of the crust by 40 km thick. The difference is 12 km, the value Summarize the settings of the world’s
6 km will result in an increase in elevation of we would predict. high mountains and plateaus.
1 km (~3,300 ft). Here is an exam-
ple from Arizona. Explain how erosion and isostasy help
Phoenix sits at an elevation of expose deeply formed rocks in
300 m (1,000 ft), whereas Flagstaff eroded mountain belts.
11.2
is at more than 2,100 m (7,000 ft). Summarize differences in regional

This difference is about 2 km, so elevation across North America.
the crust beneath Flagstaff should
11.02.t1
304
11.3 How Do Local Mountains Form?

THE DISTINCTION BETWEEN LOCAL MOUNTAINS and regional mountain ranges is important. Regional moun-
tain ranges are hundreds to thousands of kilometers long, contain many peaks, and typically involve uplifted, thickened
crust or some other regional cause of the uplift. Other mountains are local features, too small to be accompanied by
regional increases in crustal thickness. Instead, such mountains simply rest upon — and are supported by — the crust.
How Does Volcanism Form Local Mountains?

A local mountain may be formed by a volcanic eruption that piles lava, ash, and scoria onto the crust. Such mountains vary
in size from small scoria (cinder) cones to large shield and composite volcanoes.
11.03.a1 Flagstaff, AZ 11.03.a2 Mt. Hood, OR 11.03.a3 Castle Dome Mtns., AZ
Volcanism creates mountains by piling volca- Composite volcanoes consist of lava flows, Some mountains are not the actual volcano,
nic materials on a preexisting surface. Some variably compacted volcanic ash, and debris but represent the eroded remnants of a vol-
of the smallest volcanic mountains and hills in mudflows and landslides. They commonly cano. The mountain above consists of volca-
are scoria cones. They are clearly local fea- make lofty and steep mountains that have a nic rocks, but does not have its original vol-
tures, not requiring regional changes in the typical volcano shape, like the Cascade volcano shape. Instead, it is a mountain because
thickness of the underlying crust. cano shown here. the volcanic rocks are hard and resist erosion.
How Do Faults Build Mountains?

Local mountains can also arise through faulting. Reverse faults create mountains by thrusting one fault block up and over
another. Normal faults also form local mountains, even though they stretch and thin the crust in a region.
Mountains Formed by Reverse Faulting Mountains Formed by Normal Faulting

1. Reverse faulting will 3. During normal faulting,
make a mountain if the one block slips down,
overthrust block is forming a basin. The other
uplifted faster than it block remains high or is
is eroded, or if it is moved upward, and it can
composed of erosion- form a local mountain if it
resistant rocks like is not eroded away.
granite and other
crystalline rocks.
11.03.b1 11.03.b3
11.03.b2 Garden of the Gods, CO 11.03.b4 Panamint Range, CA

2. The Front Range, the high moun- 4. In the region near Death Valley,
tains west of Colorado Springs and California, normal faulting down
Denver, Colorado, was uplifted along dropped the valley floors down rela-
a series of reverse faults. As the tive to the mountains, forming basins
range was uplifted, rock layers adja- with the mountains on either side.
cent to the fault were tilted and The basins trap sediment eroded
folded, producing the artistically from the ranges. The floor of Death
eroded red rocks in the Garden of Valley is locally below sea level, but
the Gods and at Red Rocks. it is not connected to the sea.
How Does Folding Build Mountains?

Another way to make local mountains is by folding. Folding can warp and uplift Earth’s surface as well as the
underlying rock layers. Uplift and erosion of a folded, hard layer can create a topographical high that remains long after the
folding stopped.
1. Folding can form mountains and hills by deforming the land surface and near-surface
11.03.c2 Dinosaur NP, Ut/CO
rocks, as is happening near Los Angeles, California.
3. Some mountains, including this one (▲) in

Dinosaur National Park in Utah and Colorado,
owe their existence to folding followed by
erosion. In this area, folding ended more than
45 million years ago. Erosion downcut
through the folded rocks until it encountered
11.03.c1 these folded layers of hard, light-colored
2. Some oil-well pipes near Los Angeles were being crushed and bent beneath a fold, called sandstone. Soft rocks underlie the valley and
the Santa Fe Springs anticline. No one knew why until the large 1994 Northridge e arthquake so were eroded away more easily, leaving
revealed thrust faults in the area, including ones hidden in the subsurface. This fault was break- the folded sandstone as a mountain.
ing and bending the pipes as it folded and uplifted sedimentary rocks. Recent studies have
identified additional faults in the area, including some directly below downtown Los Angeles.
11.03.d3 Caineville, UT
How Can Differential Erosion Form a Local Mountain?
3. A resistant rock
layer can protect
softer rocks beneath
from erosion, forming
a local hill or moun-
tain. (⊲) Such a
feature, if it has a
nearly flat top, is
a mesa. 11.03.d4 San Rafael Reef, UT
1. A granite 4. A tilted resistant layer,

pluton intruded into such as a sandstone (⊲), can
softer rocks commonly erode more slowly than adjacent
resists erosion and is left higher softer layers, like shale. This
than its surroundings. results in linear or curved ridges
A mountain or hill that remains when and valleys that follow the tilted
11.03.d1
other rocks have been eroded down rock layers across the landscape.
is an erosional remnant (▼).
11.03.d2 Stone Mtn., GA
2. Stone Mountain in Before You Leave This Page
Georgia consists of granite
that solidified at a depth of Describe how volcanism forms mountains.
10 km. It was then uncov-
ered by erosion, which Sketch and describe how thrust faulting,
removed the overlying and normal faulting, and folding can each
flanking softer rocks. The build mountains.
11.3
hill, therefore, is the result

Describe some ways that erosion can result
of differential erosion.
in a mountain, ridge, or mesa.
306
11.4 Where Do Basins Form?

BASINS ARE LOW RELATIVE TO THEIR SURROUNDINGS and commonly trap sediment and water. They form
in many tectonic settings, both on land and beneath the oceans, and they can accumulate different kinds of sediment,
depending on their geologic environments.
In What Tectonic Settings Do Basins Form?

Basins form on both oceanic and continental plates and along plate margins. Some basins are as large as an ocean, while
others are smaller, depressed areas, commonly near a local fault or fold. Do you live in a basin?
Passive Margin Continental Rift Normal Fault Blocks
11.04.a3
11.04.a2
11.04.a1
1. The largest type of basin is a passive 2. Continental rifts form when forces try to pull 3. Normal faulting can downdrop a block,
margin, a continental margin that is not a apart a continent, forming normal faults that forming a basin that fills with sediment. Steep
plate boundary. A passive-margin basin downdrop some fault-bounded blocks. The topography along the faulted mountain front
includes the continental shelf (lightest blue downdropped blocks can accumulate coarse, produces coarse sediment that is delivered to
in the image above), continental rise, and continental sediment, fine-grained lake beds, the basin by debris flows, landslides, and
continental slope, and generally is underlain and evaporite deposits. If the rifting progresses steep, rocky streams. Finer grained sediment
by thin, previously rifted crust. It receives to seafloor spreading, a continental rift evolves and evaporites can accumulate in lakes.
sediment from the continent and provides into a passive margin. The rift shown here is Normal-fault basins can occur on land, for
shallow-water environments for diverse life, similar to the Rio Grande Rift that runs north example Death Valley, or along rifted margins,
such as offshore of North Carolina. from Texas and New Mexico into Colorado. like those that flank the Atlantic Ocean.
Reverse and Thrust Faults Strike-Slip Faults Regional Subsidence
11.04.a6
11.04.a5
11.04.a4
4. A foreland basin occurs when crust (either 5. Basins can develop along a strike-slip fault 6. Huge basins, h undreds or thousands of kilo-
continental or oceanic) is depressed by the if motion along the fault downdrops one block meters wide, form due to regional subsidence,
weight of thrust sheets. The basin develops as relative to another. Such downdropping is where a broad region drops in elevation.
a depression in front of the thrusts because most common where the fault takes a bend Causes of subsidence include regional c ooling
the extra weight causes the crust to warp across the surface, as shown here for a basin of the crust and mantle, lateral or vertical
downward. The Persian Gulf is a foreland similar to the Dead Sea of the Middle East. movement of the underlying crust and mantle,
basin. Thrust faults are also common in the Downdropping can also occur where strike- or conversion of less dense minerals in the
accretionary prism (not shown) between a slip motion along several nearby faults causes lower crust and upper mantle to more dense
magmatic arc and trench, and a basin in this the crust to pull apart, dropping a block in ones. The Michigan Basin, a large basin in
setting is a forearc basin (in front of the arc). between as a pull-apart basin. Michigan, resulted from regional subsidence.
What Formed These Basins?

North America contains many basins, some regional in size and others kilometers across. Some basins are currently
tectonically active and accumulating sediment, whereas others are ancient and obvious only when geologists compare the
thicknesses and types of sedimentary rocks from one area to another. The map below shows old and new basins that contain
more than 5 km of sedimentary and volcanic units. It color-codes basins as a function of age.
1. A basin sits between the 3. The interior of the western United States contains a pas- 4. The Michigan and Illinois basins formed
Cascade volcanic arc and an sive margin formed during the Paleozoic by rifting of the within the continent, probably due to Paleo-
offshore trench that marks western edge of North America. It locally accumulated more zoic collisional tectonics in the Appalachians
subduction beneath the than 10 km (6 mi) of sediment. Much of this same region has and from other deep processes.
continent. This Cascade more recent basins related to normal faulting (not shown).
forearc basin receives 5. The Appalachian
abundant sediment Mountains and
from major rivers, like nearby areas con-
the Columbia River, that 11.04.b1
tain thick sedimen-
drain into the sea. The tary sequences
San Joaquin Basin of deposited along the
central California is an Paleozoic continental
older version of a margin and in other
forearc basin, and basins before the
formed in front of Appalachian Mountains
the Sierra Nevada were formed.
magmatic arc.
6. The Gulf Coast con-
tains thick sequences of
2. In southern California, sedimentary rocks, mostly
small but locally deep related to Mesozoic rifting,
basins formed along the as South America, the
San Andreas fault, a Yucatan, and other continental
complex zone of mostly pieces rifted away from this
strike-slip movement. region. During and after rifting,
Some basins are pull- the continental margin sub-
apart basins, and others sided and became a passive
are related to local margin. The Gulf Coast and the
thrusting or normal fault- Permian Basin in west Texas
ing where the fault are sites of important oil and
takes a bend. gas resources.
The Michigan Basin
A
deep basin beneath Michigan contains that would be present if we removed the glacial d eposition of the sediments. The origin of the
a fairly complete column of sedimentary deposits that currently cover most of the area. basin is somewhat enigmatic and possibly
rocks deposited during the early and Note that the rock layers form a bull’s-eye involves several causes. The basin probably
middle parts of the Paleozoic Era. The geologic pattern around the roughly circular basin, with formed during an episode of continental rifting,
map presented here shows the bedrock geology the youngest layers (yellow and green) occur- but it may also have subsided partly because of
ring in the center of the basin. A geologic cross flow, thinning, and cooling of the hot lower
11.04.t1 section across the basin (below) shows that the crust. It is an unresolved question currently
layers are thicker in the center of the basin. This being actively investigated.
indicates that the basin was subsiding during

Describe the different ways in which
a basin can form.
List some basins in the United States
and describe what caused each
to form.
11.4
Describe the Michigan Basin and

possible causes of subsidence.
11.04.t2
308
11.5 How Do Mountains and Basins Form

at Convergent Continental Margins?
AT SUBDUCTION ZONES BENEATH CONTINENTS, various processes create mountains and basins. Magmatic addi-
tions to the crust, along with crustal compression, cause thickening of the crust and the formation of a central moun-
tain belt. Basins can form in front of, within, and behind the mountain belt.
What Processes Accompany Ocean-Continent Convergence?

Along convergent boundaries, an oceanic plate subducts beneath a continental plate. Subduction causes melting in the mantle
beneath the continent and generally also leads to compression and thickening of the continental crust. Such margins are
generally dominated by a regional mountain belt.
1. As the oceanic plate approaches the convergent margin, it flexes 3. Convergence of the two plates generally causes horizontal compres-
and bends downward into the inclined subduction zone. An oceanic sion within the continent. This results in thrust faults and other struc-
trench forms as a result and acts as a deep oceanic basin that traps tures that thicken the crust and cause further uplift of the mountain belt.
sediment eroded from the adjacent mountain belt. The area between A fold and thrust belt can form behind the main mountain belt as rocks
the trench and the mountain front is close to or below sea level are thrust over the interior of the continent.
because it is underlain by thin continental crust and oceanic material
sliced off the downgoing plate; it is a forearc basin. 4. The weight of the thrust sheets causes the continent
to flex downward, forming a basin in front
2. An accretionary prism forms of the thrust belt. This basin is
along the upper parts of the sub- called a foreland basin because it
duction zone as sediment is occurs in front of the mountain
contributed by the adja- belt. It receives sediment from the
cent continent and mountain belt and other parts of
scraped off the the continent. In some convergent
downgoing slab. It margins, the subduction zone only
is a structurally weakly stresses the overriding
complex zone of plate, so there is less compression,
faults, folds, and no fold and thrust belt, and no
rocks under vari- foreland basin.
ous metamorphic
conditions. As 5. Magma generated along the sub-
more material is duction zone rises into the crust. It
stuffed under the thickens the crust by erupting as volca-
prism, the prism nic rock on the surface and by solidifying
thickens and is uplifted, at depth. The highest parts of most
but generally remains 11.05.a1 subduction-related mountain belts are near
below sea level. the areas with the greatest volcanic activity.
What Determines If the Overriding Plate Is Shortened or Extended?

Subduction is not always accompanied by compression and thrust faulting. Several factors influence whether the plate above
a subduction zone experiences compression or extension, including the factors presented below.
Compression and horizontal shortening are common in subduction Extension is common when the overriding plate is not moving
zones where the continental plate moves toward the subduction zone toward the slab relative to the asthenosphere, or is even moving
relative to the asthenosphere. This movement pushes against the away. The slab tends to pull back by itself, and the continent
subducted slab, which is difficult to move sideways through the solid extends as its edge is pulled toward the ocean by the sinking slab.
mantle. As a result, the continent experiences compression, as is occur- This is occurring along subduction zones in the western Pacific near
ring in parts of the Andes of South America. Japan and the Philippines.
11.05.b1 11.05.b2
What Features Accompany Continental Collisions?

Continental collisions involve the convergence of two tectonic plates that each carry continental crust. A continent generally
is too buoyant to be subducted deeply, so one continent is shoved beneath the edge of the other continent, and the whole
region is uplifted. The collision transmits large stresses to the plates on either side, forming thrust faults and thickened crust.
1. During a collision, one continental 2. Collisions form high mountain belts composed of 3. Behind the collision zone, rocks can be
plate is shoved, or underthrust, faulted, folded, and cleaved rocks. Uplift and erosion folded and thrust away from the mountain
beneath another plate. A foreland bring metamorphic and intrusive igneous rocks up to belt. The weight of the thrust sheets pushes
basin forms in front of the collision the surface. In some cases, the collision forms a high down adjacent crust, forming sedimentary
zone, and the basin sediments can be continental plateau, such as in Tibet. basins in front of the thrust sheets.
overridden by or incorporated into
the thrust faults.
11.05.c1
4. A series of thrust faults forms along 5. If the crust gets too thick or too hot, it may begin 6. Stresses associated with the collision can
the collision zone and thickens the to spread under its own weight, flowing sideways. At cause other types of tectonic features to
crust by shoving one slice of crust the surface, such spreading can form normal faults form hundreds to thousands of kilometers
over another. and associated basins. away from the actual plate boundary.
An Ancient Basin in the Eastern United States
A
well-known, thrust-related basin once As the basin subsided, sediment was eroded cates that thrusting occurred in the mountains
covered parts of what is now New from the mountains and was transported west- during deposition in the basin. Later, coarse
York, Pennsylvania, West Virginia, ward into the basin, forming a series of deltas. sediments from the mountains reached farther
Ohio, and adjacent states. The basin is of mid- The sedimentary layers are coarser (mostly to the west, as faulting slowed and the basin was
dle Paleozoic (Devonian) age and contained a sandstone) to the east, closer to the source. They filled. Much later, the sedimentary basin was
feature called the Catskill Delta. It was related are thicker to the east because this part of the uplifted, tilted, and eroded to form the scenery
to a collision between eastern North America basin subsided more than areas to the west. The of this region. The gas-bearing Marcellus Shale
and a continental fragment that moved west- distribution of different types of sediment indi- was deposited in this large basin.
ward across an ancient ocean
that lay to the east. During the
collision, stresses caused
thrust faulting within the Before You Leave This Page
Appalachian Mountains. As
the thrust sheets pushed west- Summarize how mountains and
ward toward the interior of basins form in an ocean-continent
North America, their weight convergent margin.
downwarped the crust, form-
ing a foreland basin. The basin Summarize one factor that favors
was originally larger than the shortening versus extension in a plate
area shown on this map, but above a subduction zone.
parts of the basin have been Summarize how mountains and basins
eroded away due to uplift in form in a continental collision.
11.5
the Appalachian Mountains,

Summarize the setting of the Catskill
northern New York, and west-
Delta during the Paleozoic.
ern Ohio and Kentucky.
11.05.t1
310
11.6 How Does Continental Extension Occur?

DURING CONTINENTAL EXTENSION, continental crust is thinned and stretched horizontally, typically causing the
region to subside. Continental extension also breaks the crust into faulted blocks, forming mountain ranges and sedi-
mentary basins. By studying sedimentary sequences, geologists can determine when a basin was active and how fast
the sediments within it accumulated. The manifestations of continental extension are expressed throughout much of the
western United States.
How Do Continents Accommodate Crustal Extension?

When continental crust is extended, the upper part responds by breaking into discrete blocks bounded by normal faults.
If the fault blocks do not rotate during extension, only a small amount of extension can occur. If the blocks and faults
rotate, greater amounts of extension can take place.
Non-Rotating Fault Blocks Rotating Fault Block
1. In some extended 6. In other

areas, adjacent nor- extended areas,
mal faults dip in adjacent normal
opposite directions faults dip in the
and cut the crust same direction
into wedge-shaped and cut the crust
fault blocks (⊲). into book-shaped
fault blocks (⊲).
11.06.a1 11.06.a4
2. Movement along the faults downdrops some blocks, forming sedi- 7. During fault movement,
mentary basins. These can be thousands of meters deep and tens of the blocks and faults both
kilometers wide (▼). rotate, like books sliding 8. The corner of a block that is
on a shelf (▼). rotated down becomes a basin.
3. The upthrown
block, called a horst,
becomes a mountain 9. The corner that
bounded on both is rotated up
sides by faults. Ero- becomes a moun-
sion of the mountain tain or ridge. The
contributes sediment mountains and
to the basins. Such a ridges commonly
downdropped block are linear, follow-
is a graben. ing the strike of
11.06.a2
11.06.a5 the layers.
4. Over time, the basins fill with sediment unless

rivers carry most of it away. 10. As faulting and extension continue, units are tilted to steep dips.
The oldest layers dip more steeply than more recent layers.
5. The mountains
are gradually 11. Faults are
eroded down, and rotated to gentle
basin sediments dips and can have
may overlap the kilometers of dis-
edges of the range. placements, allow-
ing large amounts
of crustal extension.
11.06.a3 11.06.a6
11.06.a7 Death Valley, CA

12. Death Valley in eastern California is a classic example of extension and normal
faulting within a continent. This photograph, taken looking north from an overlook
called Dante’s View (⊳), shows the basin with mountain ranges on both sides. The
white and gray units in the center of the basin are salt deposits, formed by evapo-
ration of water within this hot, closed basin. A still-active normal fault runs along
the steep mountain front in the foreground, downdropping a fault block to form
the basin. The mountain in the distance is a corner of the same fault block as the
basin and has been rotated upward as a rotating fault block.
What Happens When Extension Accompanies Subduction?

Some regions experience crustal extension and rifting in spite of being near a convergent boundary. In these cases,
the region may be fairly low in elevation, except for the large volcanoes. Rifting, if it continues, can form a small
ocean basin behind the arc.
1. Extension can 2. Extension can occur behind or near the arc, where the crust is hot and weak. This 3. Extension behind the
accompany sub- causes normal faulting and thins the crust. The region subsides to lower elevations arc may result in normal
duction of one oce- (near or below sea level) than is typical for a continental arc. faults and downdropped
anic plate beneath blocks, and large
another oceanic amounts of extension
plate or beneath a will form a new ocean
continental plate. In basin behind the arc.
some subduction This back-arc basin will
zones, extension contain land-derived
occurs in front of sediment along its mar-
the arc, causing the gins and normal deep-
crust to thin by nor- ocean sediment in its
mal faulting. Thin- center. Upward flow of
ning of the crust underlying mantle contin-
helps the region ues to bring heat and
stay below sea material to the region,
level, forming a allowing the extension
forearc basin to continue. A well-
between the arc developed back-arc
and the trench. basin has a somewhat
small-scale version of a
mid-ocean ridge.
11.06.b1
How Do We Determine the Age of a Basin?

Geologists use a variety of techniques to determine when a basin formed. They describe and measure layers
in the basin, perform isotopic dating of volcanic rocks, or find key fossils. The age, thickness, and character
of sediments record when and how fast a basin, like the one below, formed. Begin reading from the bottom left.
3. A unit younger than a basin may lie flat and overlap the edge of the basin and its faults. 4. We can calculate the rate of deposition for
It shows that the basin had stopped forming by the time the unit was deposited. each unit by dividing the thickness of the unit
by the time during which the unit was depos-
2. Units deposited during formation of a ited. This plot (▼), for units in the deepest part
basin may be very thick and may contain of the basin, shows that sediment accumu-
coarse sediments that record steep slopes lated most rapidly after 15 million years ago.
along the flanks of the basin. This indicates that the basin began forming
about 15 million years ago.
11.06.c2
1. Units older than a basin typically have
the same thickness across the area
because the basin did not yet exist. These
older units were then tilted and faulted
when the basin formed.
11.06.c1

Describe and sketch the formation of non-rotating and rotating fault blocks.
11.6
Summarize where extension can occur in a plate above a subduction zone.

Describe or sketch how we can determine the age of a basin.
312
11.7 What Are the Characteristics and History

of Continental Hot Spots?
A HOT SPOT WITHIN A CONTINENTAL PLATE is marked by high elevations, abundant volcanism, and
continental rifting. Hot spots can facilitate complete rifting and separation of a continent into two pieces and can help
determine where the split occurs. Several continental hot spots are active today.
What Features Are Typical of Continental Hot Spots?

Hot spots are volcanic areas interpreted to be above rising mantle plumes. Continental hot spots are associated with certain
characteristics, including high elevations, volcanism, and the presence of rifts. Two examples are the Afar region of East
Africa and the Yellowstone region of the western United States.
Afar Region, East Africa 3. Near the hot spot, the Arabian Peninsula
has pulled away from Africa along the Red
1. Continental hot spots have high ele- Sea and the Gulf of Aden. Beneath these
vations largely because of heating and seas, seafloor spreading generates new
thinning of the lithosphere by a rising oceanic crust.
plume of hot mantle. Many geologists
interpret the Afar region of eastern 4. The Red Sea, Gulf of Aden, and East
Africa to be located above a hot African Rift come together in the Afar
spot that is currently active. region, branching off like three spokes on
a wheel. The Afar region is among the
most volcanically active areas on Earth
2. The East African Rift is within and has experienced recent volcanic
the African plate. It may or may eruptions. Volcanism has been so pro-
not evolve into a full rift that lific here that it has c reated a triangu-
fragments the continent into lar area of new land in the corner of
two parts and leads to Africa from which the Arabian
seafloor spreading. Peninsula pulled away. Remove
the volcanically constructed Afar
region, and the Arabian Peninsula
fits back in Africa.
11.07.a1
Region Around Yellowstone 7. Three large calderas, each issuing huge pyro-
11.07.a2
National Park clastic eruption columns and flows, erupted in
Yellowstone in the last 2.1 million years. Eruptions
5. Yellowstone is located in are not occurring today, but heat from hot volca-
Wyoming and Idaho and sits in nic rock and underlying magma drives the hot
a region that is higher in eleva- springs, geysers, and thermal pools for which
tion than surrounding areas. Yellowstone is famous.
8. Yellowstone is interpreted to mark

6. The Snake River Plain the present location of the hot spot,
of southern Idaho is whereas the Snake River Plain
underlain by thick records the track of North America
sequences of basalt as it moved southwest over the
and other volcanic hot spot.
rocks. It is the site of
recent eruptions at 9. The Basin and Range Prov-
Craters of the ince of Utah and Nevada is a
Moon National broad continental rift adja-
Monument. cent to Yellowstone. It con-
tains normal faults and
rotating and nonrotating
fault blocks.
How Do Continental Hot Spots Evolve?

Many continental hot spots underwent a similar sequence of events. They started with doming and ended
with the formation of a new continental margin and a new ocean formed by seafloor spreading.
1. Hot spots mark where a mostly

solid, hot mass rises, probably from 2. As the upper mantle and crust heat up, a broad,
the lower mantle, and encounters domal uplift forms on the surface. Doming is accompa-
the base of the lithosphere. The nied by stretching of the crust, which commonly begins
rising material melts due to decom- to break apart along three rifts that radiate out from the
pression and also causes melting hot spot.
of nearby lithosphere.
3. All three parts, or arms, of
the rift are bordered by normal
faults, which downdrop long
fault blocks. The downdropped
4. Some mantle-derived magma escapes to the surface blocks form basins that contain
and erupts as basalts, commonly voluminous flood basalts. lakes and are partially filled by
More felsic magma (more granitic in composition) forms sediment and rift-related volca-
where mantle-derived magma causes melting of the crust. nic rocks.
5. Complete rifting of the continent

occurs along two arms of the rift.
This results in a new continental 6. The third arm of the rift begins to become less active
margin and seafloor spreading in and fails to break up the continent into more pieces. This
the new ocean basin. At the onset failed rift is lower than the surrounding continent and
of spreading, the edge of the conti- commonly becomes the site of major rivers.
nent is uplifted because the litho-
sphere is heated and thinned due
to the rifting.
7. Sediment transported by
rivers down the failed rift
will form a delta at the bend
in the continent. This is cur-
8. As seafloor spreading continues, the generation of new oceanic rently occurring along the
lithosphere causes the mid-ocean ridge to move farther out to sea. western coast of Equatorial
The continental margin cools and subsides, and is covered by marine Africa at the large inward
sediment on the newly formed continental shelf. This continental bend in the coast (see the
margin is no longer a plate boundary and is now a passive margin. figure and text below).
11.07.b1–4
Hot Spots and Continental Outlines
G
eologists conclude that hot spots have the site of several major rivers (the riv-
helped define the outlines of the ers are not shown in this figure). Large
continents by shaping the eruptions of basalt (flood basalt) Before You Leave This Page
boundary along which occurred along the rifts, and active
continents separate volcanism near the failed rift Summarize the features that are
from one another. may mark the location of a typical of continental hot spots,
The best example hot spot. This figure shows providing an example of each type
of this is the inward what the area may have of feature.
bend of the western looked like 110 million Summarize or sketch how
coast of Africa. This years ago, after the continental hot spots evolve
bend occurs at the inter- continents first started over time.
section of three arms of a to rift apart.
11.7
rift, two of which led to the Describe or sketch how hot spots
opening of the South Atlantic influence continental outlines,
Ocean. The third failed arm cuts providing an example.
11.07.t1
northeastward into Africa and is
314
11.8 What Features Characterize

the Interiors of Continents?
THE INTERIORS OF CONTINENTS tend to be tectonically stable, largely because they are far from plate boundaries.
Sedimentary rocks formed within continental interiors contain an important record of ancient rivers, lakes, wetlands,
deserts, sea level variations, and changes in global and regional climate.
What Features Are Common in Continental Interiors?

Many continents display a similar pattern, with a central region of older crystalline rocks surrounded by a relatively thin
veneer of younger, nearly flat-lying sedimentary layers.
1. Many continents, including North America, have 2. Surrounding the shield is a broad region called
a central region called a continental shield. A shield con- the continental platform. It is characterized by nearly
sists of relatively old metamorphic and igne- horizontal sedimentary rocks that were deposited on
ous rocks, commonly top of the basement. The sedimentary layers com-
of Precambrian age. monly contain broad basins and uplifts. Erosion
The crystalline (meta- across the gently dipping layers on the
morphic and igne- flanks of these structures exposes
ous) rocks exposed higher and lower rocks at the
in the shield repre- surface from place to place.
sent the kinds of
rocks that underlie
much of the conti-
nent, and are called
the crystalline
basement.
4. The boundary

between the flat-
lying platform sedi-
mentary rocks and
the underlying crys-
talline basement is a 3. Sedimentary
major unconformity. rocks in the interior
It separates rocks of a continent contain
with very different many joints but typically
ages, structural have only a few faults. Most
geometries, and faults are inactive and formed
geologic histories. sometime in the continent’s past, but
some are active and cut the land surface.
11.08.a1
Cross Section Across Ohio 11.08.a2
5. This geologic cross section (⊲) across the

state of Ohio is typical of the geology of
central North America and of continental
interiors in general. In this area, Paleozoic
sedimentary layers dip gently off the flanks
of a dome, called the Findlay Arch. The sec-
tion is vertically exaggerated, so true dips
are less than shown here, and the thick-
nesses of the layers are greatly exaggerated. 6. Igneous and metamorphic rocks of the Precambrian crystalline basement rest
beneath the sedimentary layers and come within less than 800 m of the surface,
but are not exposed. They have been encountered in deep drill holes.
What Regional Effects Influence the Geologic History of Continental Interiors?

The interiors of continents are relatively stable, but they can be affected by tectonic events along distant plate boundaries.
Continental interiors are strongly influenced by global environmental fluctuations, such as climate change and the rise and
fall of sea level.
1. Tectonic activity along the edges of a continent 3. Changes in global climate can cause sea level to rise and fall. Many continents
can cause broad uplifts and basins within the have very low topographic relief, and their edges are barely above sea
continent, commonly in response to level. A sea level rise of tens of meters, therefore, can cause
the loading (extra weight) of sed- significant flooding, in some cases well into the interior
iments along the margin. of a continent. Such changes in sea level
Additionally, thrust sheets dominate the history of many
emplaced onto the conti- continental interiors.
nent can create basins
close to the thrusts and
form uplifts farther 4. The climate of a
away as the continental continent can change
plate flexes under the load. in response to global
effects, such as global
2. Some stresses are transmit- cooling, or from
ted from plate boundaries and from regional effects, including
distant mountain belts to the interiors of the rise of mountains along
continents. If the stresses are large enough, they may the coast. A continent also is
cause movement on ancient faults in the crystalline basement, subjected to different c limates as
forming folds, faults, domes, and regional basins in the overlying the plate upon which it rides changes
sedimentary rocks. latitude (moves north or south).
11.08.b1
11.08.b2 Morgantown, WV 11.08.b3 Manitou Springs, CO

5. Many continental interiors
contain flat-lying layers of sedi-
mentary rock (⊳). These rocks
were originally deposited in vari-
ous environments, including shal-
low seas, beaches, rivers, lakes,
and sand dunes. The layers in
the rocks are nearly flat lying
today because they were depos-
ited in nearly horizontal layers
and have remained largely
undeformed because they were
far from plate boundaries.
6. In many continental interiors, flat-lying to

gently dipping s edimentary layers overlie
11.08.b4
Precambrian basement rocks along an
Mountain Ranges unconformity or nonconformity (▲). The base-
in the Middle of Continents ment rocks were formed at depth, uplifted
7. Some mountain ranges occur in the middle toward the surface, uncovered by erosion, and
of a continent, not along the edges. The Ural later overlain by younger sediment. This can
Mountains of central Russia, shown in this sat- be followed by erosion to expose the layers.
ellite image, are one such range, occurring far
from any continental edge or plate boundary.
Why is there a mountain range here? Before You Leave This Page
8. Most mountain ranges, including the Ural
Summarize or sketch features that are
Mountains, originally formed near a plate
common in continental interiors.
boundary along the edge of a continent.
Subsequent collision between two continents Describe what types of regional or
can cause the continents to join, trapping the global effects can influence the
mountains within the center of a new, larger geology of a continental interior.
continent. In the case of the Ural Mountains,
11.8
part of Europe collided with Siberia 200 to Describe one way that a mountain
300 million years ago. can exist in the middle of
a continent.
316
11.9 What Are Tectonic Terranes?

EMBEDDED WITHIN CONTINENTS are pieces of crust that have a different geologic history than adjacent regions.
These exotic pieces, called tectonic terranes, originate in a variety of tectonic settings. Many are structurally added to
the edges of continents during tectonic collisions. There likely are terranes in the region where you live. They are
common east of the Appalachians, along the Pacific Coast, and buried beneath sediments along the Gulf Coast.
How Do We Recognize a Terrane and Where Do Terranes Originate?

A tectonic terrane is defined as being bounded by faults and having rocks, structures, fossils, and other geologic aspects that
are unlike those in adjacent regions.
1. The boundaries between a terrane and the adja- 3. Rocks in a terrane can differ from adjacent rocks in other
cent regions are major faults or shear zones. The ways, perhaps having different fossils, chemical character-
fault-bounded nature of a terrane, such as this istics, or metamorphic or igneous histories. Some
volcanic terrane, means that the terrane has no rocks record the direction of the magnetic
continuous link with the rocks around it. field when they form, and geologists
can use this record of magnetic
directions to determine that
2. A tectonic terrane has a differ- two terranes came from very
ent sequence of rocks than adja- different places.
cent regions. The terrane on the
left has pillow basalt, overlain by
shale, limestone, and conglomerate, 4. A terrane generally forms
but the continental rocks to the right in a different tectonic setting than
have none of these units. Adjacent ter- rocks adjacent to it. Here, one block
ranes usually also have different ages of rocks has continental sedimentary rocks that were
and different types of structures. These discrep deposited on land and in shallow seas, whereas a
ancies imply that the two pieces of crust had dif- nearby terrane contains oceanic pillow basalts overlain
ferent geologic histories. by shale formed in a deep-marine environment.
11.09.a1
Some Original Settings of Terranes

5. Some terranes contain pillow basalt, deep-sea sediment, and other 8. Some terranes represent oceanic islands or oceanic
attributes that indicate they originated as oceanic crust. Such terranes plateaus. Because islands and plateaus have thicker than
must be later added to the continent, or we would not see them today. normal oceanic crust, they are less likely to be subducted
and more likely to be added to the edge of a
continent. The oceanic plateau shown here is
6. Many terranes consist of andesitic volcanic headed for the trench and a collision with
rocks and volcanic-derived sedimentary rocks the edge of the continent to the right.
that formed as island arcs. Island arcs
are very common terranes
because they may move 9. For a terrane to
across the ocean become attached to
until they a continent, it
collide with, typically
and become enters a
part of, another subduction
landmass. zone, where
it is scraped
off the
subducting
plate and
tectonically
added to the
7. Some terranes have continent. This
more continental process of adding a
characteristics, specifically terrane to another landmass
thick granitic crust and continental is called accretion. An accretion
sediment and rocks. Such terranes generally event is a type of collision that adds a
represent pieces that were sliced or rifted off terrane to a continent and typically causes
another continent and then tectonically transported to mountain building and strong deformation on
their present positions. the adjacent continent.
11.09.a2
How Do We Infer the Origin of a Terrane and the Timing of Terrane Accretion?
Geologists investigate the origins of terranes, especially the tectonic setting in which a terrane formed and when the terrane
was accreted to another landmass.
1. The origin of a terrane is revealed by the kinds of rocks 4. If two terranes and their boundary are overlain by a single
it contains. For example, pillow basalts generally imply rock unit, then they were already together at the time
an oceanic origin. Geologists analyze the chemistry when the overlapping unit was deposited.
of volcanic rocks in order to compare them to
rocks from modern-day mid-ocean ridges,
oceanic islands, island arcs, and 5. Sediment derived from
other volcanic environments. one terrane can be
deposited on top of
adjacent rocks. The patches
2. If rocks on opposite
of brown sediment shown
sides of a major fault are
here contain cobbles of
the same age but are other-
pillow basalt. This indicates
wise dissimilar, it is likely
that the two terranes were
that the rocks were not
close to each other when
close to each other when they
the sediment was deposited.
formed. In this example, the pillow
basalts on the left are the same age as
the metamorphic rocks on the right, but the 6. Two terranes may have been
terranes were probably not in close proximity adjacent to one another if they contain the
when the two very different types of rocks formed. same fossils and if the associated animals could
11.09.b1 not have swum or flown from one terrane to another.
3. An intrusion that invades two terranes, or that crosscuts Conversely, if rocks from two terranes are the same
their boundary, indicates that the terranes were already age but have different fossils, then they probably
together at the time when the intrusion invaded the crust. originated in different settings and locations.
Terranes of Alaska
A
laska, like most of western North ern Alaska, is red on this map. Geologists which pieces were sliced off by strike-slip
America, is a mosaic of terranes.
interpret it to have originated during the Late faults and dispersed northward along the coast.
Some cover huge regions, but others Paleozoic and Early Mesozoic (Triassic) as Pieces of Wrangellia are scattered from west-
are only kilometers long. one or more island arcs that probably started ern Idaho northward to Alaska, but are consid-
Terranes in Alaska, as simplified on the south of the equator. It then moved northward ered to have been part of the same terrane
map here, are interpreted to have formed in until it collided with the West Coast, after because they have similar ages and sequences
many different tectonic settings and places. On of rocks (see below).
this map, the light gray area in the north-
east is part of stable North America.
Blue-colored terranes represent parts
of North America and its conti-
nental margin that were sliced
off and transported some dis-
tance. Purple and green terranes
represent slices of oceanic crust
and accretionary prisms
that were accreted to the 11.09.t2
continent during the
Mesozoic and Cenozoic. Before You Leave This Page
The pink and red terranes
were island arcs or continental
Summarize the characteristics used to
magmatic belts. Yellowish recognize a terrane.
areas depict rocks that
overlapped the terranes Describe a few of the main tectonic
after they were attached settings in which terranes originate
to the continent. and how terranes are added to crust.
11.9
A famous terrane, Summarize or sketch how we

11.09.t1
named Wrangellia for the determine when two terranes were
Wrangell Mountains of south- apart or were brought together.
318
11.10 How Do Continents Form?

TECTONICS CONSTANTLY RESHAPES CONTINENTS. Pieces can be removed by rifting or added by accretion of
tectonic terranes. Continents are also internally rearranged as areas are shortened during compression, stretched during
extension, and shifted horizontally by strike-slip faults.
How Old Is North America?

The crust of North America varies widely in age. The oldest parts of the Precambrian shield formed as early as 3.8 to
4.0 billion years ago, but most of the continent was added later as a series of terranes, mostly during Precambrian,
Paleozoic, and Mesozoic time. Read clockwise, starting from the upper left.
1. This map of North America shows the ages of different rocks 2. One of the oldest dated rocks in the world is exposed
exposed at the surface. Darker browns and reds are Precambrian in the Northwest Territories of Canada. This metamorphic
rocks, purple and blue colors show Paleozoic rocks, greens represent rock, called the Acasta Gneiss, is 4.0 billion years old!
Mesozoic rocks, and yellows and tan show Cenozoic rocks.
3. The eastern half of Canada contains a vast
area of Precambrian rocks, called the Canadian
Shield. These rocks, colored brown and red on
11.10.a1 this map, are mostly 3.0 to 1.7 billion-year-old
metamorphic and igneous rocks.
4. Around 1.1 billion years ago, a

c ontinent-sized terrane, called the
Grenville Province (rusty yellow on
the map), was added to the south-
12. Alaska and western eastern edge of the shield.
Canada are a mosaic of
terranes, including slices 5. Easternmost
of the North American Canada and
continent and oceanic nearby parts of
terranes that were formed the United
far south of the equator. States contain
The terranes were added the Avalon
throughout the Paleozoic, terrane, which
Mesozoic, and Cenozoic. collided with
North America
11. Paleozoic rocks (blue)
in the Paleozoic.
and Mesozoic rocks (green)
cover the center of the conti-
nent and represent the continen-
tal platform. They are underlain 6. A number of late
by Precambrian crystalline rocks Precambrian and
that are locally exposed at the Paleozoic terranes
surface in the Rocky Mountains. are present in the
Appalachian Mountains
and in the Piedmont
10. Western North America Province to the east. These
contains many terranes; some terranes are thought to be
formed far away. These terranes pieces of continents and island
were accreted onto the west arcs that collided with North
coast of the c ontinent during America. Their accretion
Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and occurred primarily during the
Cenozoic times. Paleozoic formation of the
Appalachian Mountains.
9. In the Southwest and

the Southern Rockies, 8. Mexico largely consists of terranes added 7. The tan, yellow, and green areas along the southern and
several large Precambrian to North America from the Paleozoic onward. southeastern edge of North America represent the Coastal Plain.
provinces were added onto The largest terranes are Paleozoic and Meso- This low-lying region is covered by Late Mesozoic and Cenozoic
the southern edge of North zoic island arcs that collided with the west sediments that were deposited after early Mesozoic rifting thinned
America between 1.9 and coast of the Mexican mainland during the crust and blocked out this edge of North America. The
1.4 billion years ago. the Mesozoic. southern half of Florida has a terrane (a piece of Africa) at depth.
What Are the Ages of the Other Continents?

The other continents are similar to North America in that they contain Precambrian shields that are flanked by belts of
successively younger rocks and deposits. The younger rocks consist of either sedimentary and volcanic material deposited
over the Precambrian basement or terranes added to the edges of the shields.
1. On this map, Precambrian rocks are brown, with darker browns 2. Northern Europe contains a Precambrian shield (in Scandinavia), but the
representing the oldest rocks. The other colors are blue for eastern and southern parts of the continent were added in the Paleozoic or
Paleozoic, green for Mesozoic, and yellow for Cenozoic. in the Mesozoic and Cenozoic. The youngest additions are along the
Mediterranean Sea and accreted during
the Cenozoic collisions that
formed the Alps.
3. Most of
Asia was
assembled
from terranes
during the
Paleozoic and
Mesozoic. The areas
of Precambrian rocks
(brown) are continental
fragments incorporated
into this tectonic jumble.
4. Western Australia con-

tains ancient Precambrian
rocks; the eastern part
7. The oldest regions of of the c ontinent was
South America are on 6. Africa has not added until
the eastern side and several Precam- the Paleozoic.
before rifting were con- brian shields, which
tinuous with the older were originally parts of
11.10.b1
rocks of Africa. The western separate continents that
half of the continent was collided and joined late in the Precambrian 5. India is underlain by Precambrian rocks that were
constructed more recently, and at the start of the Paleozoic. Younger once part of the ancient southern supercontinent of
mostly during the Paleozoic rocks, shown in green and yellow, overlie Gondwana. Rifting broke up the Gondwana shield,
and Mesozoic. these older rocks. dispersing fragments around the Indian Ocean.
In Suspect Terrain
C
11.10.t1
alifornia is the area many tinental margin. The map does not show units
geologists think about when that formed in place, such as granites in the
they study how continents Sierra Nevada.
grow from the accretion of tectonic
terranes. John McPhee’s popular
books, In Suspect Terrain and
Assembling California, provide an
accessible account of how terranes
were recognized and how they added
Identify the oldest (Precambrian)
new real estate to North America.
parts of North America and some
This map shows the various types areas that were added as terranes
of terranes added to the continent. in the Paleozoic, Mesozoic,
The terranes include slices of Paleo- or Cenozoic.
zoic and Mesozoic oceanic crust and
sediment, Mesozoic island arcs, and Briefly describe why different parts of
an accretionary prism. The prism a continent can be different ages.
11.10
consists of oceanic material scraped List the types of terranes added to or

off oceanic plates that were displaced in California.
subducted eastward beneath the con-
320
11.11 How Did the Continents Join and Split Apart?

CONTINENTS SHIFT THEIR POSITIONS over time in response to plate tectonics. They have rifted apart and col-
lided, only to rift apart again. Where were the continents located in the past, and which mountains resulted from their
motions? The story of the movement of the continents is the same story as the origin of the modern oceans presented
in chapter 10. But here we emphasize which continents were joined and how they separated. We start with 600 million
years ago and work forward to the present.
600 Ma: The Supercontinent of Rodinia 3. North America was in the initial stages of rifting
1. The images on these pages show one interpretation of where from Rodinia. This rifting outlined the western
the continents were located in the past. Geologist Ron Blakey margin of North America, but geologists are not
created the artistic renderings of the continents, mountains, certain which continent was adjacent to North
and oceans. For most time periods, he created two views, America. Options include Australia,
one focused on the western hemisphere (image on the Antarctica, and Asia.
left) and one on the eastern hemisphere (image on the
4. Large parts of Rodinia were near the
right), generally with some overlap. We begin here with a
South Pole. There is evidence of
single image, centered on the South Pole.
widespread glaciation in Rodinia, but
geologists are debating the extent and
2. Before the Paleozoic, in the last part of the Precambrian, timing of glaciation. Geologists are also
all of the major continents were joined. This supercontinent actively investigating how the continents
is called Rodinia. Nearly all of the other side of the globe were arranged during this time by trying to
is a huge ocean. more precisely match the ages and sequences
11.11.a1 of rocks between different continents.
500 Ma: Dispersal of the Continents 7. With the continents still
mostly clustered together,
5. At 500 Ma, in the early part of the the other side of Earth
Paleozoic, North America and Europe were was a single large
separate, moderate-sized continents that ocean, much larger
had not yet joined. than the size of the
present-day Pacific.
6. Antarctica, Australia, South America,
and Africa were joined in the Southern 8. Island arcs
Hemisphere, together forming the surrounded Europe
southern supercontinent of Gondwana, and parts of Asia.
which was mostly located in the Southern Some of the arcs
11.11.a2
Hemisphere (mostly out of view on these would later collide
figures). Gondwana was separated from the with the continents,
northern continents by some width of ocean. adding tectonic terranes.
370 Ma: Before Pangaea

11. Gondwana remained
9. In the middle of the Paleozoic, at 370 Ma, mostly intact, except for
North America and parts of Europe were some slices of continen-
joined but were not connected with Asia, tal crust that probably
which lay to the north. North America had were rifted away
collided with a microcontinent called from the larger
Avalonia. This created mountains in supercontinent.
what is now the northern Appalachians. Avalonia was prob-
ably an example of
10. North America was approaching one of these rifted
Africa and South America along a con- pieces, but it had
vergent margin. The continents were on 11.11.a3
broken away some-
a collision course as the intervening time before 370 Ma,
ocean became narrower over time. the time pictured here.
280 Ma: The Supercontinent of Pangaea

12. In the late Paleozoic, around 280 Ma, a 14. A wedge-shaped
continental collision between North America ocean, the Tethys Sea,
and the northern edge of Gondwana separated Asia from
(South America and Africa) formed the landmasses farther
Appalachian Mountains along the to the south.
East Coast and the Ouachita Mountains
(not labeled) in the southeastern
United States. The collision also 15. Southern Africa,
affected parts of Europe. Australia, and
Antarctica were
13. After this collision and a series of close to the South
11.11.a4
smaller collisions, all the continents Pole and so at this
were joined in a supercontinent time were partly
called Pangaea. covered with ice.
150 Ma: Gondwana and Laurasia

16. At 150 Ma, in the late Jurassic, North 18. Antarctica was still
America had separated from Africa and attached to the
South America. The Atlantic Ocean now southern tips of
existed, and continents on either side of Africa and South
the Atlantic were moving away from America. India was
each other due to seafloor spreading. attached to the
The left globe is rotated so that the northern edge of
central Atlantic Ocean is in the center Antarctica. These
of the image. continents were
soon to be rifted
17. During this time, North America was 11.11.a5 apart, which would
still joined with Europe and Asia, forming mark the end
the northern supercontinent of Laurasia. of Gondwana.
South America had not yet rifted away
from Africa.
20. When you are done working

Present backward in time, start at 600 Ma
and track the position of every
19. This view shows the present-day continent you can and watch
configuration of continents and each ocean open. By viewing
oceans. Examine these globes this sequence, you are
and think about the present-day observing how our present-
plate boundaries while envisioning day world came to be.
which way the continents are
moving relative to one another. 21. Finally, think about
Use the relative motions to how the position of the
predict where the continents continents will change if
were likely to have been in the 11.11.a6
present-day plate motions
past. Check your predictions by continue into the future.
examining each set of previous What collisions are yet in store
globes as you step backward in time. for North and South America?

11.11
Briefly summarize the general positions of the continents in the past, especially since 280 Ma.
Identify times when the continents were joined in the supercontinents of Gondwana, Laurasia, Pangaea, and Rodinia.
CONNECTIONS 1
11.12 How Did the Appalachian and
Ouachita Mountains Form?
THE APPALACHIAN AND OUACHITA MOUNTAINS lie inboard of the East Coast and Gulf Coast of the United
States. Unlike the settings of many mountain belts, this continental margin is not currently a plate boundary. So why are
there mountains there? When and how did these ranges form? This two-page Connections spread and the next one pres-
ent a view of how geologists interpret the geologic history of two sides of North America.
1. North America has a central 3. The Appalachian Mountains

region of plains, lakes, and rivers. run parallel to the East Coast
This central region is flanked on of the United States. They run
both sides by mountains. from eastern Canada, through
New England, and southward
to Alabama.
2. The presence of mountains in
western North America could be 4. The Ouachita Mountains
predicted because this region is are an east-west range in
near plate boundaries and asso- Arkansas and eastern
ciated mountain building. A Oklahoma. This mountain
mountain-building event, like range and the Appalachians
that which occurred to form the contain folds, thrust faults, and
Rocky Mountains, is called an other geologic structures that
orogeny. Geologists named each record compression.
orogeny for a place where that
event was first recognized or is
clearly recorded.
11.12.a1
Paleozoic Evolution of Eastern North America

Geologist Ron Blakey has portrayed the origin of the Appalachian and Ouachita mountains with a series of maps that illustrate
mountain building (orogeny) and changes in the configuration of plate boundaries and landmasses.
11.12.a2 11.12.a4
1. This map (⊲) depicts the proposed 3. A second mountain-building
tectonic setting of eastern North event, the Acadian orogeny,
America at the start of the Paleozoic occurred in the middle of the
(around 550 Ma). By this time, the Paleozoic, around 400 Ma (⊳).
eastern edge of North America had This event occurred when a
rifted away from another landmass, series of landmasses, referred
perhaps the western side of South to as Avalonia, collided with
America (located in the lower right the eastern coast of North
corner of this figure). America, creating the Avalon
terrane. Farther north, part of
Europe collided with northern
Canada.
11.12.a3 11.12.a5
2. By 500 Ma, a subduction zone
and island arc formed off the eastern 4. A third mountain-building
coast of North America and con- event, the Alleghenian orogeny,
sumed oceanic lithosphere that was occurred in the late Paleozoic
attached to North America (⊲). The (about 330 to 300 Ma). It
arc and North America moved toward resulted from the collision of
each other and, eventually (at 450 Ma), North America with Africa and
the arc collided with, and was thrust South America (⊳), which were
over, North America, causing the part of the Gondwana super-
Taconic orogeny of New England continent. This collision formed
and adjacent areas. the Appalachian and Ouachita
Mountains.
322
M o u n t a i n s , B a s i n s , a n d C o n t i n e n t s 323
Cross Sections Showing the Paleozoic Evolution of the Northern Appalachian Mountains
The evolution of the Appalachian Mountains can also be depicted with a series of cross sections, which show the inferred plate-
tectonic configurations at key times. The cross sections are arranged from oldest to youngest.
1. The earliest event shown here was the initial rifting 2. A landmass, probably South America,
along the eastern edge of North America, probably was rifted away to the right. Prior to that
around 600 Ma. Rifting started as a continental rift time, North America, South America, and
within the supercontinent of Rodinia. the other continents were joined as part
of Rodinia.
3. By the start of the Paleozoic, around 550 Ma, the 4. Seafloor spreading along a mid-ocean
continental rift had evolved into a divergent margin. ridge had moved the two continents
As the spreading center moved away from the land, farther apart, creating a new ocean basin.
the eastern coast of North America became a This time corresponds to the first small
passive margin. map (#1) on the previous page.
5. Later, a change in plate motions formed 6. Over time, the arc approached the east-
a convergent margin where oceanic litho- ern coast, as shown in the second small
sphere attached to North America was map (#2) on the previous page. The arc
subducted eastward beneath an offshore eventually collided with, and was thrust
island arc, named the Taconic Arc. over, the continental margin, causing the
Taconic orogeny at about 450 Ma.
8. In the distance,

7. In the mid-Paleozoic (about 400 Ma), the supercontinent
the landmass of Avalonia collided with and of Gondwana
was thrust over eastern North America, approached North
during the Acadian orogeny. The thrust America by
sheets warped the crust, forming a foreland subducting oceanic
basin for the Catskill Delta. lithosphere.
9. The largest mountain-building event, called the Allegh- 10. Much farther
enian orogeny, formed the thrust faults and folds of the south, along the
Valley and Ridge Province of the Appalachians. This southern coast of
event occurred when Gondwana overrode the eastern North America, the
edge of North America, forming high mountains along the collision between
whole length of the Appalachian Mountains. Thrusts and North America and
folds also formed within Gondwana, but are not shown. the South American
11.12.a6 –10 part of Gondwana
formed the Ouachita
Rifting Starts the Cycle Over Mountains.
A
fter the continental collision with rifted apart, forming normal faults that filled
Gondwana, the Appalachian Mountains with reddish sediment and basaltic lava flows, as Before You Leave This Page
were probably a very high mountain exposed in New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania,
range, comparable to the modern-day Himalaya- the Connecti cut River Valley, and elsewhere. Summarize, using simple maps or
Tibet region. The mountain range was progres Rifting led to seafloor spreading in the Jurassic cross sections, the main events
sively eroded, and rivers carried the resulting (180 Ma), forming the Atlantic Ocean. With this that affected the Appalachian and
sediment away. Large volumes of this sediment last step, eastern and southern North America Ouachita regions.
made it all the way to the western U.S., as we completed a cycle that started with rifting, pro-
Identify the causes of the Taconic,
discovered by determining the ages of individual ceeded through several collisions, and ended with
Acadian, and Alleghenian
datable grains in sandstones in this region. These another episode of rifting.
orogenies.
grains, eroded from crystalline rocks,
have ages common for crystalline Describe why geologists say that
11.12
rocks in the Appalachian Mountains, continents, such as North America,

but not for those in the western U.S. go through a cycle where oceans
By 220 Ma, in the early Meso- open, close, and reopen.
zoic, the collision zone began to be
11.12.t1
CONNECTIONS 2
11.13 What Is the Geologic History
of the Western United States?
THE WESTERN UNITED STATES experienced many changes in tectonic setting during its complex Precambrian to
recent history. After an early history of rifting and evolution into a passive margin, the western edge of North America
was a convergent or transform margin for hundreds of millions of years.
Late Precambrian Rifting 2. Rifting thinned

1. The western edge of North America was first defined in the Late Precam- the crust along the
brian and Early Paleozoic when the supercontinent of Rodinia began to rift western edge of
apart. Geologists are as yet unsure which landmass was rifted away, but it was North America,
most likely Australia, Antarctica, or part of Asia. This cross section shows parts probably occurring
of what was to become western North America (to the right) and the other mostly around
11.13.a1 600 Ma.
unknown landmass (to the left).
11.13.a2
Early Paleozoic Passive Margin 5. The shoreline
generally was near
3. This map depicts the western United the boundary
States in the early Paleozoic (about 510 Ma), between thinned
some time after rifting. The white line shows and rifted crust to
the approximate location of the accompany- the west and
ing cross section. thicker, non-rifted
11.13.a3
crust to the east.
4. Much of the region was a broad conti-
nental shelf, where mostly shallow-water 6. This cross section shows the passive margin (▲), with
sediment was deposited. The edge of the sediment being deposited on thinned continental crust
continent was a passive margin, not a and on the adjacent oceanic crust. Deep-water sediment
plate boundary. was deposited in more oceanic settings to the west.
11.13.a4 11.13.a5
Middle and Late Paleozoic Collisions
7. By the middle Paleozoic 9. By the late Paleozoic (about 300 Ma),
(about 400 Ma), island arcs had several island arcs collided with the
formed within the oceanic crust edge of the continent.
to the west. Some were just off-
shore, probably on the same 10. In the Four Corners region,
plate as the continent. mountains called the Ancestral Rockies
formed but were not related to west-
8. Other island arcs formed in coast events. Instead, they are interpret-
open ocean and advanced ed to have formed because of collisions
toward the continent as they to the east, in the Appalachian and
subducted ocean crust. Ouachita mountains.
End of the Paleozoic (250 Ma)

11. This section shows the configuration of the 12. Collision during the middle Paleozoic
western United States slightly after the end of caused thrusting of deep-water
the Paleozoic. The section is located along the sedimentary rocks (shown in light green)
white line on the previous map. One or more from the continental slope eastward over
volcanic arcs had just collided with the conti- shallow-water rocks. This thrust shuffled the
nent. Today, these volcanic sequences do not deeper and shallower parts of the Early
match rocks within the rest of North America, Paleozoic passive margin. A foreland basin
and they are considered tectonic terranes (⊲). formed east of the thrust belt in eastern
11.13.a6 Nevada and adjacent areas.
324
Early to Late Mesozoic Convergent Margin

15. Subduction caused magmatism within the overriding plate. A
13. The region’s setting changed back-arc basin and an offshore arc ran from California northward.
in the early Mesozoic (about 240
to 150 Ma), when oceanic plates 16. In the Southwest, volcanoes erupted on the continent, partly
subducted beneath much of within a large area of desert sand dunes (shown in orange).
western North America.
17. This cross
section (⊳), along
14. A far-traveled landmass, the white line on
Wrangellia, was offshore and the map to the
approached the trench, destined left, shows back-
for a collision with the mainland. arc thrusting and
an offshore arc
11.13.a7
11.13.a8 at 160 Ma.
18. This map shows the Late Mesozoic (about 85 Ma). During 20. This cross section (▼), located along
this time, subduction continued beneath the western edge of the white line in the map to the left,
North America. Inland from the coast, subduction-related depicts the Great Valley, Sierra Nevada
magma erupted onto the surface and also solidified at batholith, and thrusting that formed a fore-
depth, forming large granitic batholiths in Washington, Idaho, land basin in Utah and adjacent states.
and the Sierra Nevada.
19. Compression associated with the convergent boundary

formed thrust faults and mountains from Canada to Mexico.
Inland, the continent was flexed down by the weight of the
thrust sheets, allowing high sea levels at the time to flood
the center of North America from M exico to the Arctic.
11.13.a9 11.13.a10
Late Mesozoic and Early Cenozoic Laramide Orogeny

21. Late in the Mesozoic (about 80 Ma), the oceanic 22. The new subduction geometry caused
plate started to subduct at a much lower angle and compression farther into the continent,
to scrape along the base of the overriding litho- forming folds, uplifts, and basins in the
sphere. This change in the angle of subduction Rocky Mountains and Four Corners region.
moved magmatism as far east as Colorado and shut This mountain-building event, called the
off the supply of magma to the Sierra Nevada. Large Laramide Orogeny, lasted from 80 to
slices of crust were transported northward along the about 40 Ma.
11.13.a11
coast in the Pacific Northwest (not shown).
Middle and Late Cenozoic Extension 26. Farther to the east, extension formed the Rio
Grande Rift of New Mexico, West Texas, and south-
23. Beginning at about 40 Ma, conver- central Colorado.
gence between North America and the oce- Upwelling of
anic plates slowed. This helped end the asthenosphere
compression of the Laramide Orogeny. beneath the rift
24. By 15 million years ago, the Southwest helped cause
had overrun a spreading center in the Pacific. recent uplift of the
This caused part of the convergent margin to region, including
be progressively converted into a transform 11.13.a12 parts of the
boundary that eventually became the Southern Rockies.
San Andreas fault.
11.13.a13
25. In response to changing plate settings, much of

the Southwest was affected by crustal extension from Before You Leave This Page
about 30 Ma to the present. Extension thinned the
crust and lithosphere, stretching the crust to twice its Briefly summarize or sketch the main
11.13
original width. It shifted the Sierra Nevada hundreds of tectonic events that affected the
kilometers to the west and formed the Basin and western United States during Paleozoic,
Range Province of the Southwest. Mesozoic, and Cenozoic times.
11.14 Where Will Mountains and Basins
Form in This Region?
The figure below shows part of a continent and adjacent ocean. There are no plate boundaries now, but a subduction
zone will form along the western coast of the continent, and the eastern part of the continent will be rifted away. You
will use the typical patterns that form along such boundaries to predict where mountains and basins will form once
the new plate boundaries are fully developed.

• Observe the continent and ocean below, and read the descriptions of the types of features that will form
in the future.
• Use your understanding of plate boundaries and the settings in which mountains and basins develop to predict
where mountains and basins will form. Sketch your predictions on a diagram of the region.
• Predict what the regional topography will be like in different parts of the region, identifying whether an area will
rise or subside, and what changes on the surface, within the crust, or in the mantle would cause this
change in elevation.
1. This view shows a continent and ocean at some time, which we will call Time 1.
The western part of the region is a typical ocean basin and has no trenches,
mid-ocean ridges, or hot-spot islands.
11.14.a1
5. A continental rift has formed, with three

4. Once plate convergence arms radiating out from a high central region,
begins, a magmatic belt will which is a hot spot marked by voluminous
3. The ocean-continent form inland from the coast, near volcanism. This rift will split the continent into
2. A small piece of conti- edge is currently a passive the position of the yellow trian- two pieces. At some later time, the piece of
nent lies offshore in the margin, not a plate bound- gles. Farther inland a thrust belt continent to the right will break away com-
middle of the ocean. When ary. It will become an ocean- will form as shown by the blue pletely, and seafloor spreading will form a
the oceanic plate begins continent convergent bound- dashed line with teeth. In the new ocean basin. Even later, at a time we
to move, this piece of con- ary, and the oceanic material thrust belt, the western part of will call Time 2, the edge of the continent
tinent will be carried will be subducted eastward the continent will be thrust will have evolved into a passive margin (not
toward and will collide with below the continent. eastward over the central part a plate boundary), and the spreading center
the main continent. of the continent. will be out of the region.
326
Procedures
Use the data to complete the following steps, entering your answers in the worksheet or online.
A. Observe the regional features shown on the figure on the left page, which represents the situation at Time 1. Read the descriptions
associated with that figure and decide what each statement implies about the future topography (elevations) of the area.
B. For each feature (subduction zone, thrust belt, etc.) that will form by Time 2, think about how that feature is typically expressed in the
topography. Does it form a mountain range, a basin, or a mountain with a nearby basin?
C. On the worksheet, sketch your predictions about the area’s topography for Time 2 on the simplified figure below, which shows
the same area as the figure on the previous page. The figure shows the overall shape of the continent but not the topography.
Use the following letters: O for an oceanic trench, A for an accretionary prism, M for mountains, V for volcanoes in the continental
magmatic belt, B for a basin, and P for a passive margin. Feel free to sketch some simple lines to portray the locations of the features.
Your instructor may have you predict other features that might develop, such as a tectonic terrane or features related to a collision
D. On the map below are letters A–D. A is along the coast, B is at the future position of the magmatic belt, C is within the future fold and
thrust belt, and D is along the coast from which the other piece of the continent was rifted. In the worksheet, predict what will happen
to the crustal thickness in each of the four locations, and identify the processes that could cause thickening or thinning of the crust or
the mantle part of the lithosphere beneath each site.
Perspective of the Region in the Future (Time 2)

6. This boundary is now marked by a subduc- 7. By this time, subduction will result in a 8. The hot spot is no longer active, but
tion zone, where the oceanic plate is being magmatic belt inland from the coast and its former position is recorded by an
subducted beneath the continent. a thrust belt farther into the continent. indentation in the continent.
11.14.a2
11. The eastern part of the original continent

9. The small piece of continent that was has been rifted away, leaving an ocean basin.
11.14
in the ocean is not shown. You should 10. Rifting has produced a new coast where By Time 2, the mid-ocean ridge that formed
predict where it might have ended up and the other piece of the continent was rifted between the two continental pieces has
how it would have changed the coastline away. By Time 2, the edge of the continent migrated out of the region as it added new
(not shown). is a passive margin, not a plate boundary. oceanic plate to the edge of the continent.
CHAPTER
12 Earthquakes and Earth’s Interior

EARTHQUAKES ARE AMONG EARTH’S deadliest natural phenomena. Ground shaking during an earthquake can
topple buildings, liquefy normally solid ground, cause landslides, and unleash massive ocean waves that wipe out coastal
cities. One earthquake can kill thousands — or hundreds of thousands — of people. What causes earthquakes, and how
do we study them? In this chapter, we explore important aspects about earthquakes and Earth’s interior.
The world’s strongest earthquake in 40 years The earthquake occurred beneath the ocean, The tsunami increased in height as it
struck Indonesia on December 26, 2004. The where the Indian-Australian plate is sliding approached the coasts of Indonesia,
magnitude 9.1 earthquake occurred west of beneath the Eurasian plate. Sudden faulting Thailand, Sri Lanka, India, east Africa,
Sumatra and was caused by m ovement on abruptly uplifted the Eurasian plate, pushing and various islands. Low coastal areas
a fault, shown by the red line on this map. up a large region of seafloor and displacing were inundated by as much as 20 to 30 m
The red line shows the length of the fault overlying seawater. Movement on the fault of water (65 to 100 ft) in Indonesia and
that ruptured during the earthquake. The propagated laterally for several minutes. Uplift 12 m (40 ft) in Sri Lanka. Cities and
fault is part of a plate boundary where the of the seafloor caused a massive wave, called villages were c ompletely demolished
Indian-Australian plate is subducting to the a tsunami, that spread across the Indian along hundreds of kilometers of coastline,
northeast beneath the Eurasian plate. Ocean as a low wave, traveling at speeds leaving more than 220,000 people dead
Yellow dots nearby show the locations of approaching 800 km/hr (500 mi/hr)! The or missing. The n umbers below show
smaller, related earthquakes. curved dark gray lines show a model of the casualties by location.
wave’s position by hour (numbers in small
What causes earthquakes, and where are white circles). How does a tsunami form, how does it move
they most likely to strike? through the sea, and what determines how
What happens when an earthquake occurs destructive it is?
under the sea, rather than on land?
12.00.a1
Bangladesh
(2) Myanmar
India
(61)
(18,045) 10
Thailand
(8,212)
10
Maldives
(180) 20
Somalia 15
(289)
5 Malaysia
Kenya Seychelles Sri Lanka (75)
(1) (35,322) 1
(2)
10
2 5
Tanzania Indonesia
(13) (167,736) 5 10
3
15
4
20
5
8
9
10
11 N 1000 km
328
Earthquakes and Earth’s Interior 329
12.1 What Is an Earthquake? 330 12.11 How Do We Study Earthquakes
12.2 How Does Faulting Cause Earthquakes? 332 in the Field? 350
12.3 Where Do Most Earthquakes Occur? 334 12.12 Can Earthquakes Be Predicted? 352
12.4 What Causes Earthquakes Along Plate 12.13 What Is the Potential for Earthquakes
Boundaries and Within Plates? 336 Along the San Andreas Fault? 354
12.5 How Do Earthquake Waves Travel? 338 12.14 How Do We Explore Earth’s Subsurface? 356
12.6 How Do We Determine the Location 12.15 What Do Seismic Waves Indicate About
and Size of an Earthquake? 340 Earth’s Interior? 358
12.7 How Do Earthquakes Cause Damage? 342 12.16 How Do We Investigate Deep Processes? 360
12.8 What Were Some Major 12.17 CONNECTIONS: What Happened During
North American Earthquakes? 344 the Great Alaskan Earthquake of 1964? 362
12.9 What Were Some Recent Large Earthquakes? 346 12.18 INVESTIGATION: Where Did This Earthquake
Occur, and What Damage Might Be Expected? 364
12.10 How Does a Tsunami Form and
Cause Destruction? 348
12.00.a2
The tsunami caused damage
to low-lying coastlines around the
Indian Ocean, reaching as
2004 Sumatran Earthquake
far away as the eastern coast of
Africa. The destructive power of
and Indian Ocean Tsunami
T
the tsunami is clear from this pho- he 2004 Sumatran earthquake struck on the morn-
tograph of Banda Aceh, the re-
ing of December 26, violently shaking the region
gional capitol of Sumatra’s north-
ernmost province. This city of and triggering the massive Indian Ocean tsunami.
320,000 people was reduced to It ranks as one of the three or four largest earthquakes
rubble, and nearly a third of its in- ever recorded. The magnitude of the earthquake is vari-
habitants were killed or reported ably estimated at 9.0 to 9.3, depending on how the cal-
missing. culations are done. Large aftershocks followed the main
quake, including one with a surprisingly large magnitude
What parts of the world are most of 8.7. From the seismic records of the main quake and
likely to have a tsunami, and are certain types of earthquakes more likely to cause
aftershocks, it is estimated that a fault surface 1,220 km
a tsunami than other types or earthquakes?
(760 mi) in length slipped by as much as 10 m during
the earthquake. The earthquake lasted over 8 minutes, an
The aerial photograph below, taken from a low-flying plane, shows an area near unusually long duration.
Banda Aceh after the tsunami. Nearly all buildings and vegetation were stripped The earthquake started at a depth of 30 km (19 mi)
bare by the water’s rush onto and ruptured all the way up the fault to the seafloor. It
the land and the subsequent lifted a large section of seafloor several meters in height,
retreat back to the sea. The hills displacing tens of cubic kilometers of seawater. The dis-
in the background of the photo- placed water spread out in all directions, forming a wave
graph escaped damage and
called a tsunami. The tsunami rose to heights of more than
retained their forest, because
30 m (100 ft) when it came ashore, and in many places
they were either high enough
above sea level or far enough it washed inland for more than a kilometer.
from the shoreline to escape the As a result of the earthquake, parts of the Andaman
rising waters. As this photograph Islands northwest of Sumatra were changed forever. Coral
indicates, low coastal areas are reefs, which had been undersea, were lifted above sea
more susceptible to tsunamis level. A lighthouse that was originally on land is now
than areas that are higher or far- surrounded by seawater one meter deep. The changes to
ther inland. the land seem insignificant compared to the massive loss
of life in this event, one of the deadliest natural disasters
What factors affect a coastal
12.0
area’s risk for a tsunami? in world history.

12.00.a3
330
12.1 What Is an Earthquake?

AN EARTHQUAKE OCCURS WHEN ENERGY stored in rocks is suddenly released. Most earthquakes are produced
when stress builds up along a fault over a long time, eventually causing the fault to slip. Similar kinds of energy are
released by volcanic eruptions, the underground movement of magma, catastrophic landslides, and natural and human-
caused explosions. Some earthquakes are caused by other human activities, such as the filling of reservoirs behind
dams and the disposal of wastewaters associated with the exploration for oil and gas.
How Do We Describe an Earthquake?

When an earthquake occurs, it releases mechanical energy, some of which is transmitted through rocks as vibrations called
seismic waves. These waves spread out from the site of the disturbance and travel through the interior or along the surface
of Earth. Scientists record the waves using scientific instruments at seismic stations.
The place where the earth- Seismic waves,

quake is generated is called 12.01.a1 once generated,
the hypocenter or focus. Most spread in all direc-
earthquakes occur at depths of tions. The curved
less than 100 km (60 mi), some bands show the
occur as shallow as several peaks of waves
kilometers, and some radiating from the
subduction-zone earthquakes hypocenter. The
occur as deep as 700 km intensity and duration
(430 mi). The epicenter is the of waves are measured
point on Earth’s surface directly by seismic stations
above where the earthquake occurs (locations 1 and 2). Seismic
(directly above the hypocenter). If the seis- stations closer to the hypocenter
mic event happens on the surface, such as dur- (station 1) will detect the waves
ing a human-caused surface explosion, then the epi- sooner than those farther away
center and hypocenter are the same. (station 2).
What Causes Most Earthquakes?

Most earthquakes are generated by movement along faults. When rocks on opposite sides of a fault slip past one another
abruptly, the movement generates seismic waves, while materials near the fault are pushed, pulled, and sheared. Slip along
any type of fault can generate an earthquake.
Normal Faults Reverse and Thrust Faults Strike-Slip Faults
12.01.b1 12.01.b3
12.01.b2
In a normal fault, the rocks above the fault Many large earthquakes are generated In strike-slip faults, the two sides of the fault
(the hanging wall) move down with respect along reverse faults, especially the gently slip horizontally past each other. This can
to rocks below the fault (the footwall). The dipping variety called thrust faults. In thrust generate large earthquakes. Most strike-slip
crust is stretched horizontally, so earthquakes and reverse faults, the hanging wall moves faults are near vertical, but some have mod-
related to normal faults are most common up with respect to the footwall. Such faults erate dips. The largest strike-slip faults are
along divergent plate boundaries, such as are formed by compressional forces, like transform plate boundaries, like the San
oceanic spreading centers, and in those associated with subduction zones and Andreas fault in California.
continental rifts. continental collisions.
E a r t h q u a k e s a n d E a r t h ’ s I n t e r i o r 331
How Do Volcanoes and Magma Cause Earthquakes?
1. Volcanoes generate seismic waves and 3. Many volcanoes have steep, unstable slopes under-
cause the ground to shake through several lain by rocks altered and weakened by hot water
processes. An explosive volcanic eruption heated by magma. The flanks of such volcanoes can
causes compression, transmitting energy as fall apart catastrophically, causing landslides that shake
seismic waves (shown here with yellow lines). the ground as they break away and travel down the
flank of the volcano. Numerous small earthquakes also
occur as the rocks break, prior to the actual landslide.
2. Volcanism can be accompanied by
faulting and associated earthquakes. 4. As magma moves beneath a volcano, it
Volcanoes add tremendous weight can push rocks out of the way, causing
to the crust, and this loading can earthquakes. Magma can push rocks side-
lead to faulting and earth- ways or open space by fracturing adjacent
quakes. The fault rocks and uplifting the earth’s surface. The
shown here caused an emplacement of magma can cause a
earthquake at depth, series of small and distinctive earthquakes,
downdropping the called volcanic tremors. All types of
volcano relative to magma-related earthquakes are closely
its surroundings. monitored by geologists and seismologists
12.01.c1 (scientists who study earthquakes), because
they can signal an impending eruption.
What Are Some Other Causes of Seismic Waves?

Landslides Explosions
Catastrophic landslides, whether on land or Mine blasts and nuclear explosions compress Earth’s surface, producing
beneath water, cause ground shaking. seismic waves measurable by distant seismic instruments. Monitoring
On the Big Island of Hawaii, lava compliance with nuclear test-ban treaties is done in part using a world-
flows form new crust that can wide array of seismic instruments. These instruments recorded detona-
become unstable and suddenly tion of a nuclear
collapse into the ocean. Seismom- bomb. Seismic waves
eters at the nearby Hawaii Volca- generated by a blast
noes National Park often record such as this are more
seismic waves caused by such abrupt than those
landslides and by fractures open- caused by a natural
ing up on land in response to the earthquake.
sliding of the land toward the sea.
12.01.d1
12.01.d2
Earthquakes Caused by Humans
H
umans can cause earthquakes in several Humans have also caused earthquakes by openings enough to allow the extraction of oil
ways. Reservoirs built to store water injecting wastewater underground into a deep and gas from shale and other rocks.
fill rapidly and load the crust, which well (drill hole) at the Rocky Mountain Arsenal
responds by flexing and faulting. After Lake northwest of Denver. This caused more than a
Mead behind Hoover Dam in Nevada and Ari- thousand small earthquakes and two magnitude Before You Leave This Page
zona was filled, hundreds of moderate earth- 5 earthquakes, which caused minor damage
quakes occurred under the reservoir between nearby. When the waste injection stopped and Explain what a hypocenter and
1934 and 1944. Similarly, very shallow (less some waste was pumped back out of the epicenter each represent.
than 3 km deep) earthquakes occur near Mon- ground, the number of earthquakes decreased.
Sketch and describe the types of
ticello Reservoir in South Carolina. Worldwide, Similar small earthquakes are interpreted to
faults that cause earthquakes.
geologists have identified dozens of cases of have been caused by the disposal of wastewa-
earthquakes associated with dams. Most of the ter associated with the process of hydraulic Describe how earthquakes and
12.1
seismic activity occurs during the initial filling fracturing (“fracking”), where drilling fluids seismic waves are caused by
of a reservoir by water, which adds additional are injected in drill holes to increase fluid volcanoes, landslides, and humans.
stress to underlying rocks. pressure in order to open fractures and other
332
12.2 How Does Faulting Cause Earthquakes?

MOST EARTHQUAKES OCCUR because of movement along faults. Faults slip because the stress applied to them
exceeds the ability of the rock to withstand the stress. Rocks respond to the stress in one of two ways — they either
flex and bend, or they break and slip. Breaking and slipping causes earthquakes.
What Processes Precede and Follow Faulting?

Before faulting, rocks change shape (i.e., they strain) slightly as they are squeezed, pulled, and sheared. Once stress builds
up to a certain level, slippage along a fault generally happens in a sudden, discrete jump. Faulting reduces the stress on the
rocks, allowing some of the strained rocks to return to their original shapes. This type of response, where rocks return to
their original shape after being strained, is called elastic behavior.
Pre-Slip and Elastic Strain 2. With time, stress increases along
1. An active strike-slip fault (⊲) has modified the fault as depicted by the up-
the appearance of a landscape for hundreds ward-sloping line on this graph (⊳),
of thousands of years, causing a linear trough which plots stress as a function of
along the fault. Some segments of streams fol- time. In response, the rocks may
low the fault. At the time shown here, the deform elastically, changing shape
strength of the fault is greater than the tec- slightly without breaking. The fault
tonic forces working to slide the blocks past might not be obvious at the surface
each other. The rocks strain and flex, but the because it is beneath the stream or
stresses are not great enough to make the covered with loose rocks, sand,
rocks break. Friction along the fault helps and soil. One clue that the fault ex-
keep it from moving. The sizes of the yellow ists is its expression on the land-
arrows represent the current magnitude of the scape, in this case a break in slope
stress that is building along the fault. along the hillside.
12.02.a1
4. In the stress-versus-time graph

Slip and Earthquake (⊳), the point at which the earth-
3. Over time, stress along the fault (repre- quake occurred is shown as an
sented by the yellow arrows) becomes so orange dot. At this point the rocks
great that it exceeds the fault’s ability to resist were no longer strong enough and
it. As a result, the fault slips (⊲) and the rocks there was not sufficient friction
on opposite sides of the fault rapidly move along the fault surface to prevent
past each other. A large earthquake occurs (at movement. The built-up stress will
the orange dot on the front of the block), gen- be relieved almost instantly as the
erating seismic waves (not shown) that radiate fault slips.
outward from the fault.
12.02.a2
6. In the stress-versus-time graph

Post-Slip (⊳), the release of stress after the
earthquake is only temporary.
5. With the stress partially relieved (⊲), the
The black dot at the end of the
rocks next to the fault relax by elastic pro-
line is the current state of stress,
cesses and largely return to their original,
and the cycle of stress buildup
unstrained shape. The movement that has
and release will continue. In this
occurred along the fault, however, is perma-
way, the rock strains elastically
nent. It is not elastic and is recorded by a
before the earthquake, ruptures
new break in the topography. After the earth-
during the earthquake, and mostly
quake, stress again begins to slowly build up
returns to its original shape after-
along the fault (as represented by the smaller
wards. This sequence is called
yellow arrows). The new, subtle break along
stick-slip behavior because the
the straight part of the stream is a clue that
fault sticks (does not move) and
something happened here.
then slips.
12.02.a3
How Do Earthquake Ruptures Grow?

Most earthquakes occur by slip on a preexisting fault, but the entire fault does not begin to slip at once. Instead, the
earthquake rupture starts in a small area (the hypocenter) and expands over time.
12.02.b1 12.02.b2 12.02.b3
1. A rupture starts on a small section of the 2. As the edge of the rupture migrates out- 3. The rupture continues to grow along the
fault below Earth’s surface and begins to ward, it may eventually reach Earth’s surface, fault plane and the fault scarp lengthens. The
expand along the preexisting fault plane. causing a break called a fault scarp. Seen faulting relieves some of the stress, and ruptur-
Some rocks break adjacent to the fault, but from above, the rupture migrates in both ing will stop when the remaining stress can no
most slip occurs on the actual fault surface, directions, but it may expand farther in one longer overcome friction along the fault sur-
which is weaker than intact rock. direction than in the other. face. At that point, the earthquake stops.
12.02.b5 Borah Peak, ID 12.02.b6 Hebgen Lake, MT

Earthquake Ruptures in the Field 6. The 1959 Hebgen
Lake earthquake in
12.02.b4 Landers, CA southern Montana just
4. The 1992 Land- outside Yellowstone
ers earthquake National Park formed a
ruptured across several-meter-high fault
the Mojave Desert scarp (⊲). The earth-
of California, form- quake and fault scarp
ing a fault scarp were generated by slip
(⊳). In this photo, along a normal fault.
the scarp is cutting
through granite.
The fault had 7. Scarps are most
mostly strike-slip obvious soon after
movement, with they form, but become
some vertical more obscure over
movement. The time. Erosion rounds
fault is part of a off the top edge of the
zone of strike-slip 5. Movement along a normal scarp, and sediment
faults that are fault ruptured the land surface accumulates at the
related to the San Andreas transform boundary, but (▲) during the 1983 Borah Peak base of the scarp, pro-
farther into the continent. The zone is called the East earthquake, forming a fault ducing a rounded step
California Shear Zone and poses a significant risk. scarp along the mountain front. in the topography (⊲).
12.02.b7 La Jencia scarp, Socorro, NM
Buildup and Release of Stress Before You Leave This Page
W
hen a fault slips, it relieves some of On this plot, the magnitude of the stress
the stress on the fault, causing the imposed on the fault builds up gradually. When Describe how the buildup of stress
can strain and flex rocks, leading to
stress levels to suddenly drop. Grad- the amount of stress equals the strength of the
an earthquake.
ually, the stress rebuilds until it exceeds the fault, the fault slips, and the stress immediately
strength of the rock or the ability of friction to decreases to the original level. In this manner, Describe or sketch how a rupture
keep the fault from slipping. The figure below the amount of stress on a fault forms a zigzag begins in a small area and grows over
shows a conceptual model of how the amount pattern on the graph. It increases gradually time and ruptures Earth’s surface.
of stress changes over time. (sloping line), and then decreases abruptly (ver- Describe some characteristics of fault
tical line) when an earthquake occurs. This pro- scarps and ruptures.
Fault Strength cess is called the earthquake cycle, and is one
explanation for why some faults apparently pro- Sketch and describe how stress
12.2
duce earthquakes of a similar size. The average changes through time

STRESS
time between repeating earthquakes is called along a fault according to the

the recurrence interval. earthquake-cycle model.
TIME 12.02.t1
334
12.3 Where Do Most Earthquakes Occur?

MOST EARTHQUAKES OCCUR ALONG PLATE BOUNDARIES, and maps of earthquake locations outline Earth’s
main tectonic plates. There are some regions, however, where seismicity (earthquake activity) is more widespread,
reaching far away from plate boundaries and into the middle of continents. Where do earthquakes occur, and how can
we explain the distribution of earthquakes across the planet?
Where Do Earthquakes Occur in the Eastern Hemisphere?

This map and the one on the next page show the worldwide distribution of earthquake epicenters, colored according to
depth. Yellow dots represent shallow earthquakes (0 to 70 km), green dots mark earthquakes with intermediate depths
(70 to 300 km), and red dots indicate earthquakes deeper than 300 km. Examine these two maps and observe how
earthquakes are distributed. Note how this distribution compares to other features, such as edges of continents,
mid-ocean ridges, sites of subduction, and continental collisions. Go ahead, it’s an interesting exercise!
12.03.a1
1. Most earthquakes occur in narrow
belts that coincide with plate bound-
aries. The belt of earthquakes north
of Iceland marks a divergent plate
boundary along a mid-ocean ridge.
2. Between the belts of earthquakes

are some large regions with relatively
few earthquakes, like the northern
part of Europe.
3. A seismically active zone stretches

along the southern part of Europe and
continues eastward into Asia. This
activity follows a series of mostly con-
vergent boundaries, including continen-
tal collisions, that are occurring from
the Mediterranean Sea to Tibet.
4. A diffuse zone of seismic activity

cuts across eastern Africa, following
the East African Rift, a region of ele-
vated topography, active volcanism,
and faulted blocks. This region is a
continental rift within Africa.
5. Mid-ocean ridges, such as the one

south of Africa, only have shallow
earthquakes (only yellow dots on this
map). In these locations, rifting and
spreading of two oceanic plates pro-
duces faulting and magmatic activity,
both of which cause earthquakes.
6. Large regions of the ocean lack significant 7. Seismicity is concentrated in the western Pacific, with the main zones of seismicity being
seismicity because they are not near a plate associated with oceanic trenches and volcanic islands near Tonga, Java, the Philippines, and
boundary. Some seismicity beneath the Japan. These zones run parallel to oceanic trenches and mark subduction zones. Worldwide,
oceans occurs away from plate boundaries approximately 90% of significant earthquakes occur along subduction zones. Subduction zones
and is mostly related to volcanic activity or to have shallow, intermediate-depth, and deep earthquakes, with deep and intermediate-depth
minor faulting that accompanies cooling and earthquakes being common only along subduction zones. Note that there is a consistent pat-
subsidence of the oceanic lithosphere. tern of shallow earthquakes close to the trench and progressively deeper earthquakes farther
away. What do you think causes this pattern? We address this topic on the next page.
Where Do Earthquakes Occur in the Western Hemisphere and Atlantic Ocean?

The map below shows the Western Hemisphere, including North and South America and adjacent parts of the Pacific
and Atlantic Oceans. Observe the distribution of earthquakes, especially how earthquakes compare to the edges
of continents, mid-ocean ridges, and sites of subduction.
12.03.b1
1. A belt of strong seismic 6. A belt of
activity occurs along the south- shallow earth-
ern part of mainland Alaska quakes follows
and the Aleutian Islands to the the Mid-Atlantic
west. This belt parallels an Ridge, a mid-
oceanic trench and contains ocean ridge
shallow and intermediate-depth formed where
earthquakes. It marks a sub- the North and
duction zone where the South American
oceanic Pacific plate subducts plates spread
beneath Alaska. This belt is a westward from
continuation of the activity in the Eurasian
Japan and the western Pacific and African
(i.e., the Pacific Ring of Fire). plates. The pat-
tern of earth-
quakes mimics
2. Earthquakes follow the the shape of
west coast of North America the flanking
and extend into the moun- continents, and
tains of the West. These the shape of
earthquakes reflect diverse the mid-ocean
types of faulting (strike-slip, ridge is largely
normal, and thrust faulting), as inherited from
well as volcanism. the time when
these continents
3. Intense seismic activity rifted apart in
follows the western coasts the Mesozoic.
of Central America, including
Mexico, and South America.
Included in this activity are 7. Note the rel-
deep and intermediate-depth ative lack of
earthquakes along subduc- seismicity along
tion zones, especially the one the west coast
beneath western South of Africa and
America. Shallow earthquakes the east coasts
are closer to the trench, and of North and
deep ones are farther away. South America.

Summarize some generalizations
about the distribution of earthquakes,
12.03.b2 12.03.b3 especially the relationship to
plate boundaries.
4. A deep oceanic trench flanks the western 5. In a side view, subduction-related
coast of South America, marking a subduc- earthquakes, shown as dots, are shallower Sketch and explain how you could
tion zone where oceanic plates subduct to the west (near the trench) and deeper recognize a subduction zone from a
beneath the western side of the continent. to the east, recording the descent of the map showing earthquakes colored
12.3
Observe the pattern of earthquakes for this oceanic plate. This pattern follows, and according to depth, and how you
area on the large map above before examin- helps define, the position of the could infer which way the subduction
ing the figure to the right. subducted slab, which is inclined from the zone is inclined.
shallow to the deep earthquakes.
336
12.4 What Causes Earthquakes Along Plate

Boundaries and Within Plates?
DIFFERENT TECTONIC SETTINGS have different types of earthquakes. Earthquakes formed along a plate boundary
generally record the relative movement of the two plates along this boundary (divergent, convergent, or transform) or
reflect other processes, such as magmatism, associated with the boundary. Other earthquakes occur in the middle of
plates, for example during continental rifting.
How Are Earthquakes Related to Mid-Ocean Ridges?

Earthquakes are common along mid-ocean ridges, where two oceanic plates spread apart. Most of these earthquakes form
at relatively shallow depths and are small or moderate in size. Some earthquakes reflect spreading of the plates, whereas
others record motion as the two plates slide by one another on transform faults.
3. As the newly created plate
1. Seafloor spreading forms new o ceanic lithosphere that is moves away from the ridge, it
very hot and thin. Stress levels increase downward in cools, subsides, and bends.
Earth, but in mid-ocean ridges the rocks in the The stress caused by the
lithosphere get very hot at a shallow depth, too hot to bending forms steep faults,
fracture (they flow instead). As a result, earthquakes which are associated with rel-
along mid-ocean ridges are relatively small and atively small earthquakes.
shallow, with hypocenters less than about 20 km
(12 mi) deep. 4. Strike-slip earthquakes
occur along transform faults
2. Many earthquakes occur along the axis of that link adjacent segments of
the mid-ocean ridge, where spreading and the spreading center. Largely
slip along normal faults downdrop blocks because of the typically thin
along the narrow rift. Numerous small earth- lithosphere, earthquakes along
quakes also occur due to intrusion of magma these oceanic transform faults
into fissures. are small and shallow.
12.04.a1
How Are Earthquakes Related to Subduction Zones?

A subduction zone, where an oceanic plate underthrusts beneath another oceanic plate or a continental plate, undergoes
compression and shearing along the plate boundary. It can produce very large earthquakes.
1. As the oceanic plate moves toward the 5. Earthquakes can also
trench, it is bent and stressed, causing earth- occur within the overriding
quakes in front of the trench. plate due to movement of
magma and from volcanic
eruptions. Compressive
2. Larger earthquakes
stresses associated with
occur in the accretionary
plate convergence can
prism as material is scraped
cause thrust faulting b
ehind
off the downgoing plate.
the magmatic arc.
Shearing within the prism
causes slip and earthquakes
along numerous thrust faults. 4. The downgoing oceanic
plate is relatively cold, and so
continues to produce earth-
3. Large earthquakes occur quakes from shearing along the
along the entire contact be- boundary, from downward-pulling
tween the subducting plate forces on the sinking slab, and from
and the overriding plate. The abrupt changes in mineralogy. Subduc-
plate boundary is a huge tion zones are typically the only place in
thrust fault called a the world producing deep earthquakes,
12.04.b1
megathrust. Earthquakes along megathrusts are among the most damaging and deadly of all as deep as 700 km (430 mi). Below
earthquakes. During large earthquakes, the megathrust can rupture upward all the way to the 700 km, the plate is too hot to behave
seafloor, displacing the seafloor and unleashing destructive waves in a tsunami. brittlely or to cause earthquakes.
How Are Earthquakes Related to Continental Collisions?

During continental collisions, one continental plate underthrusts beneath another. Collisions can be extremely complex, as
different parts collide at different times and rates. Collisions cause large tectonic stresses that shear and fault a broad zone
within the overriding and underthrusting plates. As a result, earthquakes are widely distributed along the collision zone.
3. Thrust faults also form within

12.04.c1
1. Large thrust faults form near the both continental plates, causing
plate boundary in both the overrid- moderately large earthquakes. The
ing plate and underthrusting immense stresses associated with
plate (not shown), causing a collision can reactivate older
large but shallow earth- faults within the interior of either
quakes. These earth- continent, as is now occurring in
quakes can be deadly in Tibet and China. Strike-slip faults
heavily populated areas, and normal faults may be gener-
such as India, Nepal, ated as entire regions are stressed
Pakistan, and Iran. by the collision zone or are shoved
or sheared out of the way.
2. Large, deadly earth- 4. Any oceanic plate material that
quakes are produced was subducted prior to the collision is
along the plate bound- detached, so actual subduction and as-
ary, or megathrust, sociated earthquakes stop. A few deep
between the two conti- earthquakes have resulted from the sink-
nental plates. 12.04.c1 ing motion of such detached slabs.
How Are Earthquakes Generated Within Continents?

In addition to continental collisions, earthquakes occur in other tectonic settings within continents. These settings include
continental rifts, continental strike-slip faults, magmatic areas, and reactivated preexisting faults.
1. Continental rifts generally produce normal faults, whether the rift is a plate boundary or is 4. Preexisting faults in the crust can
within a continental plate. The normal faults downdrop fault blocks into the rift, causing readjust and move as the continental
normal-fault earthquakes. Such earthquakes are typically moderate in size. plate becomes older and is subjected
to new stresses, such as from distant
2. A transform fault can cut through plate boundaries. Reactivation of these
a continent, moving one piece of structures can occur in the interior of a
crust past another. The strike-slip plate and produce large earthquakes,
motion causes earthquakes that like those in Missouri in 1811.
are mostly shallower than 20
to 30 km (10 to 20 mi), but
some of these strike-slip Before You Leave
earthquakes can be quite
large. The San Andreas This Page
fault of California is the
best-known example Sketch and explain
of a continental trans- earthquakes along mid-ocean
form fault, but large, ridges, including oceanic
destructive earth- transform faults.
quakes also occur
along continental trans- Sketch and explain earthquakes
form faults in Turkey, associated with subduction
Pakistan, Nicaragua zones, including earthquakes in
(Central America), and the overriding plate.
New Zealand.
12.04.d1
Summarize how continental
collisions cause earthquakes.
12.4
3. Intrusion of magma (shown here in red) within a plate can cause small earthquakes as the magma Describe some settings in
moves and creates openings in the rock. Moving magma can produce distinctive earthquakes, which which earthquakes can occur
are unlike those produced by movement along faults. Heat from the magma can substantially weaken within a continental plate.
the crust, causing even more rifting and seismic activity.
338
12.5 How Do Earthquake Waves Travel?

EARTHQUAKES GENERATE VIBRATIONS that travel through rocks as seismic waves. The word seismic comes
from the Greek word for earthquake. Scientists who study earthquakes are seismologists. Geophysical instruments record
and process information on seismic waves, and these data allow seismologists and geologists to understand where and
how earthquakes occur.
What Kinds of Seismic Waves Do Earthquakes Generate?

Earthquakes generate several different types of seismic waves. Seismologists study body waves, which are waves that travel
inside Earth, and surface waves, which travel on the surface of Earth.
1. Shapes of waves – To describe seismic waves, we begin by defining

waves in general. Most waves are a series of repeating crests and
troughs (⊳). Whether moving through the ocean or through rocks,
waves can travel, or propagate, for long distances. However, the mate-
rial within the wave barely moves. Sound waves travel through the air
and thin walls, but the wall does not move much. Think of a seismic
12.05.a1
wave as a pulse of energy moving through a nearly stationary material.
Body Waves
2. Most earthquakes occur at depth, so they first produce seismic waves that travel through the Earth as body waves. The waves propagate (move
outward) in all directions. There are two main types of body waves, P-waves and S-waves, which propagate in different ways.
3. One type of body 4. Secondary waves, also

wave is called a primary called S-waves, shear the
12.05.a3
12.05.a2
wave, or simply a P-wave rock side to side or up

(⊲). A P-wave compresses and down (⊳). This move-
the rock in the same ment is perpendicular to
direction as the wave the direction of travel.
propagates. It is like a The wave shown here
sound wave that com- propagates to the right,
presses the air through which it travels. P-waves can travel through but the material shifts up and down. It could also shift side to side, but
solids and liquids because these materials can be compressed and the motion would still be perpendicular to the propagation direction of
then released. The P-wave is the fastest seismic wave, traveling the wave. S-waves are slower (3.5 km/s) than P-waves and cannot
through rocks at 6 to 14 km/s depending on the properties of the rock. travel through liquids, such as magma. When S-waves fail to pass
For comparison, sound waves in air travel at an average of 0.3 km/s; through some part of the Earth, like the outer core, we infer that this
P-waves are more than 20 times faster. region is mostly molten, rather than a solid.
Surface Waves
5. When body waves reach Earth’s surface, some energy is transformed into new waves that only travel on the surface (surface waves). There are
two main kinds of surface waves: Rayleigh waves and Love waves. Surface waves cause the damage during an earthquake.
6. One type of surface 7. The second type of

wave is a Rayleigh wave, surface wave is a Love
12.05.a5
also called a vertical sur- wave (⊳), which is also

12.56.a4
face wave (⊲) because it described as a horizon-

displaces the surface in a tal surface wave for the
vertical (up and down) way material vibrates
direction. A Rayleigh wave horizontally and shuffles
is similar to an ocean wave, side to side. Like an
in that material moves up and down in an elliptical path. These earth- S-wave, the motion of material in a Love wave is perpendicular to the
quake waves propagate in the direction of the large arrows, or perpen- direction in which the wave travels. This motion, if strong enough, can
dicular to the crests of the waves. Rayleigh waves cause most of the cause buildings to slide sideways off their foundations. When strength-
damage during an earthquake, in part because they accelerate build- ening buildings for earthquakes, one goal is to more firmly secure the
ings up and then down, literally shaking and flexing the building apart. building to its foundation, countering the motion of both types of surface
During large earthquakes, observers sometimes can see these waves waves. To remember the difference between the two types of surface
rippling across the surface. waves, consider that two lovely puppies often walk side by side.
How Are Seismic Waves Recorded?

Sensitive digital instruments called seismometers are able to precisely detect a wide range of earthquakes. The recorded
seismic data are uploaded to computers that process signals from hundreds of instruments registering the same earthquake.
These computers calculate the location of the hypocenter and the magnitude or strength of the earthquake. From these data,
we gain insight about how and where earthquakes occur.
1. A seismometer 3. The mass hangs from a frame that 5. A modern seismic detector, called a seismograph, contains
detects and records in turn is attached to the ground. three seismometers oriented 90° from each other to record three
the ground motion When the ground shakes, the frame components of motion (north-south, east-west, and up-down). From
during earthquakes. shakes too, but the suspended mass these three components,
resists moving because of inertia. As seismologists can deter-
2. A large mass is the ground and frame move under the mine the source and
suspended from a mass, a pen attached to the mass strength of the
wire. It resists marks a roll of slowly rotating record- seismic signal.
motion during ing paper. As a result, the pen draws
earthquakes. a line that records the ground
movement over time. 6. Seismologists place
seismographs away
4. This device only from human noise and
records ground move- vibration and bury them
ment parallel to the red to reduce wind noise.
arrows, so it only records a Seismic waves (in
single direction or single yellow) can come from
12.05.b1 component of motion. any direction.
12.05.b2
How Are Seismic Records Viewed?

1. Prior to the 1990s, seismic waveforms 2. This diagram (seismogram) shows the record of an earthquake as recorded by a seismometer.
were mostly represented as curves on a It plots vibrations versus time. On seismometers, time is marked at regular intervals so that we
paper seismogram, which is a graphic plot of can determine the time of the arrival of the first P- and S-waves. Surface Wave
the waves recorded by a seismometer. Seis-
mologists developed this plot to better visual- 3. Background vibrations, unrelated to the
S-Wave
ize the ground shaking caused by earth- earthquake, commonly look like small, some-
what random squiggles on seismograms. P-Wave
quakes. Today, most seismic data are
recorded by digital instruments and displayed
on computer screens. The seismogram for a 4. After an earthquake, P-waves
single earthquake is shown below. arrive first, marked by the larger
12.05.c2
squiggles. The earthquake
occurred at 8:00 a.m., and the
12.05.c1
time of the P-wave’s arrival was 8:00 a.m.

2.5 minutes later in this example. 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 min.
5. The S-wave arrives later. The delay between the 6. Surface waves arrive last and
P-wave and the S-wave depends primarily on how cause intense ground shaking, as
far away the earthquake occurred. The longer the recorded by the higher amplitude
distance from the earthquake, the greater the delay. squiggles on the seismogram.
Amplitude and Period
S
eismic waves are characterized by how age, because buildings vibrate when shaken by
much the ground moves (wave ampli- earthquakes. Every building has a natural
Contrast the differences between
tude) and the time it takes for a complete period that can match, or resonate with, the P-waves, S-waves, and surface waves,
wave to pass ( period). Period is related to the earthquake wave. Resonance can cause inten- including the way motion occurs
wavelength and velocity of the wave. Both sified shaking and increased damage. compared to the propagation
amplitude and wavelength can be measured of the wave.
from a seismogram. Amplitude is critical when Wavelength
12.5
estimating the strength and damage potential Sketch or describe how seismic
of an earthquake. The period can also be a waves are recorded, and the order
Amplitude 12.05.t1 in which they arrive at a seismometer.
critical component in assessing potential dam-
340
12.6 How Do We Determine the Location

and Size of an Earthquake?
EARTHQUAKES OCCUR DAILY AROUND THE WORLD, and a network of seismic instruments records these
events. Using the combined seismic data from several instruments, seismologists calculate where an earthquake occurred
and its magnitude (how large it was). This can be done automatically using computers.
How Do We Locate Earthquakes?

Seismologists maintain thousands of seismic stations that sense and record ground motions. When an earthquake occurs,
parts of this network can record it. Large earthquakes generate seismic waves that can be detected around the world.
Smaller earthquakes are detected only locally.
1. Seismometer Network Senses a Quake 2. Select Earthquake Records

Seismometers in the U.S. National Seismic Network (some of Records from at least three stations are compared when calculating
which are shown below) represent a fraction of all seismometers. an earthquake location. Ordinarily, records from many stations are
used in an automated computer-based process.
P-waves travel faster than S-waves and so reach a seismic station some
time before the S-wave arrives. The time interval between the arrival of the
P-wave and S-wave is called the P-S interval. The farther a station is from
the earthquake, the longer the P-S interval will be. Identifying the arrival
of the P-wave and S-wave on these graphs is not always easy, but it can
be done by seismologists or by computer.
The three seismo-

12.06.a1 grams show differ-
ences in the P-S
interval. Based on the
P-S intervals, ISCO,
On October 1, 2005, a moderate earthquake is felt in Colorado. which has the short-
Three seismic stations (labeled DUG, WUAZ, and ISCO) record est P-S interval, is the
wave arrivals and are chosen to locate the epicenter. Seismic closest station to the
stations are given abbreviated names that reflect their locations— earthquake, followed
for instance, ISCO is the code for Idaho Springs, Colorado. by DUG and WUAZ. 12.06.a2
3. Estimate Station Distance from Epicenter 4. Triangulate the Epicenter

The P-S interval is proportional to the distance from the epicen- The distance from each station to the earthquake can be plotted as a
ter to the seismic station, although slightly affected by the types circle on a map to find the epicenter.
of materials through which the waves pass. This relationship is
shown on a graph as a time-travel plot. A circle is drawn around each
station, with a radius equal to the
12.06.a3 distance calculated from plotting
P-S intervals are measured
800 the P-S interval on the graph.
from the seismograms
DUG
DISTANCE (km)
600 WUAZ shown in part 2 and then The intersection of three circles is
400 plotted on the graph. This the epicenter of the earthquake. If
gives the distance from more circles were plotted, they
200 each station to the earth-
ISCO
should intersect at the same point.
0 quake’s epicenter.
0 20 40 60 80 100
P-S INTERVAL TIME (sec)
We calculate the depth of the earth-
quake’s hypocenter in a similar way,
Station Distance (km) From the graph, the dis- using the interval between the P-wave
tance from each station to and another compressional wave that
WUAZ 670 the epicenter is now known, forms when the P-wave reflects off
DUG 540 but not the direction. Earth’s surface near the epicenter.
12.06.a4
ISCO 65
How Do We Measure the Size of an Earthquake?

The magnitude of an earthquake is a measure of the released energy and is used to compare the sizes of earthquakes.
There are several ways to calculate magnitude, depending on the earthquake’s depth. The most commonly mentioned
scale, called the “Richter” or “Local” magnitude (Ml) scale, is illustrated here.
12.06.b2
500
Measuring Amplitude Magnitude 800
8.0
700 200
1. Seismometers are calibrated so that the measurements 3. The amplitude of S-waves decreases as a
made by two different instruments are comparable. wave propagates. We plot the relationship between 600 7.0 100
WU
distance and S-wave amplitude on a graph (⊲)
AZ
500 50
12.06.b1
2. The maximum called a nomograph. 400
6.0
20
height (amplitude) O
of the S-wave is 4. For each seismic station, we draw a line 300 5.0 ISC 10
measured on the connecting the distance and amplitude of 5
the S-wave. 200
seismogram. It is 4.0
2
proportional to
the earthquake 5. The earthquake’s magnitude is where each
DU
100 3.0 1
G
energy. This line crosses the center column. These three 60 0.5
measure is used lines for the 2005 Colorado earthquake all 40 2.0
0.2
for shallow agree, and they yield a 4.1 local magnitude 30
earthquakes. (Ml). Magnitude is a logarithmic scale, so a 1.0 0.1
one-unit increase in magnitude represents a 20
tenfold increase in ground motion. DISTANCE MAGNITUDE AMPLITUDE
(km) (mm)
What Can the Intensity of Ground Shaking Tell Us About an Earthquake?

Some of the most damaging earthquakes occurred before seismometers were invented. For such events, we rely on reports
of damage and shaking intensity as a way to classify the relative sizes of earthquakes.
The Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale, abbrevi- III. Felt strongly by persons indoors, especially on upper
ated as MMI, describes the effects of shaking floors of buildings.
in everyday terms. A value of “I” reflects a
barely felt earthquake. A value of “XII” indicates V. Felt by nearly everyone; many awakened. Some dishes
complete destruction of buildings, with visible and windows broken. Unstable objects overturned.
surface waves throwing objects into the air.
VI. Felt by all, many frightened. Some heavy furniture
A series of very large earthquakes in 1811 and moved. Some plaster on walls and ceilings cracks and
1812 shook Missouri, Arkansas, Tennessee, and falls. Damage slight.
the surrounding areas. Shaking was felt over a
X and XI. Some well-built wooden structures destroyed. Most
wide region. The intensities on this map, num-
masonry and frame structures destroyed, along with founda-
bered from III to XI, indicate what people in differ-
tions. Bridges destroyed. Rails bent. Damage extensive.
ent areas felt and saw when the earthquake hap-
12.06.c1
pened. Some of the intensities are listed to the From such maps of intensity, the earthquake is generally near
right of the figure. the bulls-eye in the center of the worst damage, but other
factors, such as the type of soil, locally influence the intensity.
Energy of Earthquakes Before You Leave This Page
T
he Richter magnitude describes the on the fault and the size of fault area that
amount of ground motion, but the scale slipped. Moment magnitude is applicable for Observe different seismic records of
is logarithmic. The ground motion both large and small earthquakes and is widely an earthquake and tell which one was
increases by a factor of 10 from a magnitude 4 used by scientists. How do earthquakes com- closer to the epicenter.
to a 5, from a 5 to a 6, and so on. The amount pare to other energy releases with which we are Describe how to use arrival times of
of energy released increases more than 30 times familiar? An average lightning strike (Mw ∼2) P- and S-waves to locate an epicenter.
for each increase in magnitude, so a magnitude is miniscule compared to a small earthquake.
8 releases approximately 30 times more energy However, an average hurricane is larger than Explain or sketch how we calculate
local magnitude.
12.6
than a magnitude 7. the energy released by the largest historic

Another common measure of earthquake earthquakes, such as the ones that struck Chile Explain what a Modified Mercalli
energy is moment magnitude or Mw, which is in 1960, Alaska in 1964, Sumatra in 2004, and intensity rating indicates.
calculated from the amount of slip (displacement) Japan in 2011.
342
12.7 How Do Earthquakes Cause Damage?

MANY GEOLOGISTS SAY that “earthquakes don’t kill people, buildings or tsunamis do.” This is because most deaths
from earthquakes are caused by the collapse of buildings or other structures. Destruction and collapse may result from
ground shaking during an earthquake, or it can occur later due to landslides, fires, and floods caused by the earthquake.
Earthquakes on the seafloor can spawn large ocean waves that can devastate coasts near and far.
What Destruction Can Arise from Shaking Due to Seismic Waves?

Direct damage from an earthquake results when the ground shakes because of seismic waves, especially surface waves
near the epicenter of the earthquake. Damage can also occur after the earthquake, such as from fires and flooding that
are triggered by the earthquake. In the example below, most damage occurred during or shortly after the earthquake.
1. Mountainous regions that 2. The ground can rupture along parts of 3. Damage to structures from shaking depends on
undergo ground shaking the fault that slip during an earthquake, or the type of construction. Concrete and masonry
may experience land- from shaking of unconsolidated materi- structures are rigid and do not flex easily. Thus,
slides, rock falls, als. The fault scarp and other they are more susceptible to damage than wood
and other earth cracks can destroy build- or steel structures, which are more flexible. In this
movements. ings and roads. area, a flexible metal bridge in the center of the
city survived the earthquake. Horizontal motions
tend to be more damaging to buildings than verti-
cal ones, because buildings are naturally
designed to withstand vertical stresses.
4. A concrete bridge farther

downstream was too rigid
and collapsed.
Furthermore,
it was built
upon delta
sediments that
did not pro-
vide a firm
foundation
against shaking.
In general, loose,
unconsolidated sedi-
12.07.a1 ment is subject to
more intense shaking
than solid bedrock.
5. A tsunami is a giant

8. Historically, most deaths wave that can rapidly travel
from earthquakes are due across the ocean. An earth-
to collapse of poorly con- quake that occurs undersea or
structed houses and build- 7. Ground shaking along coastal areas can generate
ings, such as ones com- of unconsolidated, a tsunami, which can cause dam-
posed of mud, loosely water-saturated sediment age along shorelines thousands of
connected blocks, and causes grains to lose grain-to- kilometers away.
earthen walls. Even modern grain contact. When this happens,
reinforced concrete, like that the material loses most of its strength and
in freeways and bridges, begins to flow, a process called liquefaction. This
can fail (▼). can destroy anything built on top (▼). 6. Aftershocks are smaller earthquakes that
12.07.a2 Oakland, CA 12.07.a3 San Francisco, CA occur after the main earthquake, but in the same
area. Aftershocks occur because the main earth-
quake changes the stress around the hypocenter,
and the crust adjusts to this change with more fault-
ing. Aftershocks are very dangerous because they
can collapse structures already damaged by the
main shock. Aftershocks after a tsunami can cause
widespread panic.
What Destruction Can Happen Following an Earthquake?

Some damage results from secondary effects triggered by an earthquake, including earthquake-caused fires.
12.07.b1 Northridge, CA 12.07.b2 San Fernando, CA 12.07.b3 Sumatra
Fire is one of the main causes of destruction Flooding may occur due to failure of dams as Earthquakes may cause both uplift and subsi-
after an earthquake. Natural gas lines may a result of ground rupturing, subsidence, or dence of the land surface by more than
rupture, causing explosions and fires. The liquefaction. Near Los Angeles, 80,000 people 10 m (30 ft). Subsidence accompanied the
problem is compounded if water lines also were evacuated because of damage to 2004 Sumatra earthquake, causing areas that
break during the earthquake, limiting the nearby dams during the 1971 San Fernando had been dry land before the earthquake to
amount of water available to extinguish fires. earthquake (Mw 6.7). become inundated by seawater, flooding
buildings and trees. Subsidence and uplift can
occur during or after an earthquake.
How Can We Limit Risks from Earthquakes?

The probability that you will be affected by an earthquake depends on where you live and whether that area experiences
tectonic activity. The risk of earthquake catastrophe depends on the number of people living in the region, how well the
buildings are constructed, and individual and civic preparedness.
12.07.c2 Salt Lake City, UT
1. Earthquake hazard maps (▼) show zones of potential earthquake damage. Near Salt Lake City,
Utah, the risk is greatest (areas colored red) near active normal faults along the Wasatch Front,
the mountain front east of the city. Living away from the fault is less risky.
2. Some utility compa-

nies and hospitals
have computerized
warning systems that
are notified of impend-
ing earthquakes by
seismic equipment.
The system will auto-
matically shut down
gas systems 3. Earthquakes have different periods,
(to avoid fire) and turn durations, and vertical and horizontal
on back-up generators ground motion. This makes it difficult to
to prevent loss of design earthquake-proof buildings. Some
electrical power. rest on sturdy wheels or have shock absorb-
ers (▲) that allow the building to shake less
12.07.c1 than the underlying ground.
What to Do and Not Do During an Earthquake Before You Leave This Page
T
here are actions you can take during an During the shaking, stay away from glass Describe how earthquakes can cause
earthquake to reduce your chances of windows and doors, bricks, and heavy objects destruction, both during and after the
being hurt. If an earthquake strikes, you that could fall. Always keep a battery-operated main earthquake.
can seek cover under a heavy desk or table, flashlight handy. Avoid using candles, matches,
Describe some ways to limit our risk
and protect your head. You can also stand or lighters, since there may be gas leaks.
from earthquakes.
under door frames or next to inner walls, as Earthquakes may interrupt electrical and water
12.7
these are the least likely to collapse. If possi- service. Keeping 72 hours’ worth of food, Discuss ways to reduce personal
ble, stand clear of buildings, especially those water, and other supplies in a backpack is a injury during an earthquake.
made of bricks and masonry. prudent plan for any type of natural disaster.
344
12.8 What Were Some Major North American

Earthquakes?
SOME VERY LARGE AND DAMAGING EARTHQUAKES have struck North America in the last several centuries.
Here, we discuss seven important earthquakes chosen not because they are all the largest, but because they illustrate a
range of processes, damage, and locations.
1. This map of the conterminous United States has yellow dots show- 12.08.a1
ing the locations of earthquakes with a magnitude greater than 4 that
occurred during the last several decades. The red lines on the map
are faults that are interpreted to have slipped during the last 2 million
years. Compare the distribution of earthquakes and these relatively
young and active faults. Most active faults are in the western states,
and most large earthquakes are in these same areas. Earthquakes
have occurred elsewhere in the country, but most of these were
too small to break the surface and form a fault scarp.
12.08.a2
Alaska, 1964
2. A magnitude 9.2 (Mw) earth-
quake, one of the three or four
largest earthquakes ever recorded,
struck southern Alaska in 1964. It
killed 128 people, triggered land-
slides, and collapsed parts of down-
town Anchorage and nearby neigh-
borhoods. This event was caused by thrust faults associated with
the Aleutian Islands subduction zone. Most deaths and much dam-
age were from a tsunami generated when a huge area of the
seafloor was uplifted. The photograph above shows damage from
the tsunami. This earthquake, like Alaska, is not shown on the map.
12.08.a3
San Francisco, 1906

3. A huge earthquake occurred when the San Andreas fault ruptured
near San Francisco. The earthquake was likely a magnitude 7.7 to 7.8 (Mw)
although not directly measured on seismometers. The earthquake ruptured
the surface, leaving behind a series of cracks and open fissures. Within San
Francisco, ground shaking destroyed most of the brick and mortar buildings.
More than 3,000 people were killed and much of the city was devastated
by fires that broke out after the earthquake. Geologists determined that
470 km (290 mi) of the fault ruptured during the event.
Mexico City, 1985

5. A magnitude 8.0 (Mw) earthquake occurred at a subduction zone
Northridge, Los Angeles Area, 1994 along the southwestern coast of Mexico, well west of Mexico City (not
4. This magnitude 6.7 (Mw) earthquake was generated by a thrust shown on this map). It damaged or destroyed many buildings in
fault northwest of Los Angeles. The earthquake killed 60 people and Mexico City and killed at least 9,500 people. Destruction was so extensive
caused $20 billion in damage. A section of freeway buckled, crush- partly because Mexico City is built on lake sediments deposited in a bowl-
ing the steel-reinforced concrete shaped basin. This geologic set-
slabs. The thrust is not exposed on ting amplified the seismic waves
the surface, but when it ruptured it and caused intensified and highly
lifted up a large section of land. destructive ground shaking. Sur-
Geologists are concerned about a face waves, which caused the
similar fault causing this type of most damage, traveled 200 km
earthquake right below downtown (120 mi) from their source.
Los Angeles.
12.08.a4 12.08.a5
Hebgen Lake, Yellowstone Area, 1959

6. This magnitude 7.3 (Mw) event was generated by slip along a normal fault northwest of
Yellowstone National Park. Ground shaking set loose the massive Madison Canyon slide (⊳),
which buried 28 campers and formed a new lake, aptly named Earthquake Lake.
12.08.a6 New Madrid, 1811–1812

7. New Madrid, Missouri, experienced a series of large (Mw 7.8–8.1) earth-
quakes generated over an ancient fault zone in the crust. The 1811–1812
earthquake death toll was relatively low because of the sparse population
at the time. The New Madrid zone has a high earthquake risk and, as
shown on the earthquake-hazard map below, is one of two areas in the
eastern United States that are predicted to e xperience strong earth-
quakes in the future. Memphis lies in this zone, yet most of its buildings
are not constructed to survive large earthquakes.
12.08.a7
Highest
Hazard
64+
48-64
32-48
16-32
8-16
4-8
0-4
Lowest
Hazard
Colors and values reflect

ground acceleration.
12.08.a8
Charleston, 1886
8. This earthquake occurred at the highest risk
area along the East Coast, near Charleston, South
Carolina. It had an estimated magnitude of 7.3 (Mw),
the largest ever recorded in the southeastern
United States. Buildings incurred some damage (⊲),
and 60 people died. The tectonic cause for this
earthquake is still debated by geologists. The East
Coast, including Washington, D.C., occasionally
experiences earthquakes strong enough to be felt.
Earthquakes in the Interiors of Continents

W
hy do large earthquakes like the ones buried beneath the cover of sediment. In the
at New Madrid, Missouri, occur in case of New Madrid, seismic and other geo- Describe some large North
the middle of continents? Although physical evidence suggest that the area is under- American earthquakes and how
the interior of North America is not near a plate lain by an ancient rift basin that formed about they were generated.
boundary, the region is subjected to stress gen- 750 million years ago during the breakup of the
Summarize the various ways these
erated at far-off plate boundaries. In this case, supercontinent of Rodinia. Modern-day stress
earthquakes caused damage.
12.8
the stresses are probably generated by a plate- related to the current plate configuration is
driving force, known as ridge push, that origi- interacting with the ancient faults, occasionally Describe evidence that the eastern
nates along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. These causing them to slip and trigger earthquakes. United States has earthquake risks.
stresses can reactivate ancient faults that lie
346
12.9 What Were Some Recent Large Earthquakes?

THE WORLD HAS ENDURED a number of large and tragic earthquakes. These earthquakes have struck a collection
of geographically diverse places, causing many deaths and extensive damage. Most large earthquakes have occurred
along or near plate boundaries, especially along subduction zones. Some happened on faults that are close to, but not
actually on, a plate boundary. Major earthquakes occurred recently in Japan, Haiti, and New Zealand. Each was destruc-
tive, but in different ways.
What Happened During the Catastrophic Tohoku Earthquake of 2011?

A huge and catastrophic earthquake struck off northeastern Japan on March 11, 2011. It had an extremely large magnitude
of 9.0 (Mw), making it one of the five largest earthquakes ever measured. Ground shaking during the earthquake caused
extensive damage, especially on the large island of Hokkaido, nearest to the epicenter. The earthquake and resulting tsunami
destroyed 125,000 buildings, left 24,000 dead or missing, and caused more than $300 billion in economic damages, making
it the most expensive natural disaster in history.
1. The epicenter of the earthquake, shown here as a 2. The earthquake represented a sudden upward
red dot, was on the seafloor east of Japan, along an movement of rocks at depth. Based on the distri-
oceanic trench that marks where the Pacific bution of aftershocks and other seismic data,
plate subducts beneath Hokkaido. The the fault slipped over an area of
earthquake occurred at depth, along 300 km parallel to the trench and by
the subduction zone (plate 150 km perpendicular to the trench,
boundary) that dips beneath nearly spanning the entire distance
Japan. The main hypocenter between the trench and the coastline.
was 32 km deep, so this is The fault rupture grew upward from
classified as a shallow the hypocenter toward the seafloor, up-
earthquake. In many re- lifting a large swath of seafloor by up to
gards, it was a typical, but very 3 m. The displaced water formed into an
large, megathrust earthquake. It was extremely damaging tsunami that locally
followed by many aftershocks (shown as was higher than 10 m (33 ft), perhaps several
small yellow dots), which show how large an times that in small stretches of the coast. A
area of the plate boundary slipped during and after tsunami-warning system warned, and saved,
the main earthquake. Some of the aftershocks were large many residents, but thousands of people were
(magnitude 6), causing damage to already weakened build- trapped by the fast-moving, rising waters that
ings and raising fears of a new tsunami. 12.09.a1 spread far inland.
12.09.a2 12.09.a3
3. News reports showed dramatic footage of seawater spilling onto

the land and then gradually rising higher and higher, flooding low
areas, destroying most buildings in its path, and pushing wrecked
ships far inland (▲). As the tsunami moved farther inland, it became a
slower moving wall of sludge containing automobiles, boats, parts of
destroyed buildings, and other debris. When it was done, the tsunami
had inundated nearly 500 km2 of Japan. It destroyed entire towns and 4. This map (▲) shows the forecasted maximum wave amplitudes mod-
heavily damaged the Fukushima Nuclear Power Plant, which had a re- eled for the 2011 earthquake by tsunami forecasters at NOAA. As pre-
actor-core meltdown because the tsunami destroyed the cooling sys- dicted, a tsunami of measurable height reached most Pacific shorelines,
tem, backup power generation, and other parts of the facility. including Hawaii and the west coasts of North and South America.
How Were Recent Earthquakes in Haiti and New Zealand Similar and Different?
Large earthquakes struck Haiti in 2010 and New Zealand in 2010 and 2011. The Haiti earthquake was a magnitude
7.0 (Mw), the 2010 Canterbury (New Zealand) earthquake was magnitude 7.1 (Mw), and the 2011 Christchurch
(New Zealand) earthquake was magnitude 6.3 (Mw). All of these earthquakes were near, but not on, a plate boundary that
mostly consists of strike-slip (transform) movement. However, the three earthquakes varied greatly in the amount of damage
and death they inflicted. Why is this so? Let’s examine these three earthquakes.
12.09.b2
Haiti, 2010
1. The Haiti earthquake occurred on land,
25 km west of the capital, Port-au-Prince.
The epicenter (shown as a red dot) is
near, but not on, an active strike-slip fault
that cuts east-west across the country.
On this map, aftershocks are yellow
dots, green lines are strike-slip faults,
and red lines have thrust movement.
The area is within a zone of complex
faulting near the boundary between the
Caribbean plate to the south and the 2. Most deaths during the Haiti earthquake
North American plate to the north. The were caused by collapsing buildings. Haiti is
earthquake flattened more than the poorest country in the Western Hemi-
300,000 buildings in and around Port- sphere, and most houses and buildings
12.09.b1
au-Prince and killed perhaps 200,000 were poorly constructed. Most fared worse
people. The poverty of the country, combined with a devastated infrastructure and an inefficient than the National Palace (▲), which was only
response by relief agencies, led to hunger, suffering, and disease after the quake. partly collapsed.
12.09.b4
New Zealand 2010, 2011 12.09.b3
3. The two main earthquakes in New Zealand had

epicenters (shown as red dots) on a broad coastal
plain that lies east of the rugged Southern Alps
and the Alpine fault, a mostly transform plate
boundary that runs down the length of the is-
land. Both earthquakes were very shallow
(less than 15 km), were not on the plate
boundary, and occurred on two different,
but probably related, faults. Both were fol-
lowed by abundant aftershocks (shown in
yellow and orange), but only the 2010 4. The Canterbury quake was a magnitude
quake ruptured the surface and was on 7.1 (Mw), caused moderate damage, and only
a known fault (green line on map). injured two people. The 2011 Christchurch
quake was smaller, but killed nearly 200 peo-
ple. It destroyed or damaged 100,000 build-
Fatalities Mw Year Location
ings, some by liquefaction of the soil and asso-
Deadly Earthquakes 830,000 8 1556 Shaanxi, China ciated expulsion of water from the ground (▲).
E
The main difference in the amount of destruc-
arthquakes kill about 10,000 people 11,000 6.9 1857 Naples, Italy tion was that the 2011 epicenter was very near
per year on average. Most 70,000 7.2 1908 Messina, Italy Christchurch, New Zealand’s second largest
earthquake-related deaths are due to city, and the quake had more vertical motion,
200,000 7.8 1920 Ningxia, China destroying already weakened buildings.
collapse of poorly built structures in cities
and villages. Earthquake-generated tsuna- 143,000 7.9 1923 Kanto, Japan
mis account for a large part of the destruc-
200,000 7.6 1927 Tsinghai, China
tion. The table to the right shows some Before You Leave This Page
deadly earthquake events. The highest death 32,700 7.8 1939 Erzincan, Turkey
tolls are due to a deadly combination of Briefly summarize the four
66,000 7.9 1970 Colombia
high population densities, substandard con- earthquakes presented here, including
struction practices, and being situated along 23,000 7.5 1976 Guatemala their tectonic settings and how each
12.9
subduction zones or other high-risk areas. 242,000 7.5 1976 Tangshan, China caused destruction.
Earthquakes discussed in this chapter are
not included on this table. 31,000 6.6 2003 Bam, Iran Discuss why the amount of damage
and death varied among the quakes.
88,000 7.9 2008 Sichuan, China
348
12.10 How Does a Tsunami Form

and Cause Destruction?
AN EARTHQUAKE BENEATH THE OCEAN can cause a large wave called a tsunami, which can wreak havoc on
coastal communities, such as those in Japan. Most of Earth is covered by oceans, so many earthquakes, landslides, and
volcanic eruptions occur beneath the sea. Each of these events can generate a deadly tsunami.
How Are Tsunamis Generated?

Tsunamis are waves generated by a disturbance in the sea or much less commonly in a lake. They are generated by abrupt
changes in water level in one area relative to another, such as occurs when seafloor is unevenly uplifted or downdropped
during an earthquake. A large tsunami requires a large disturbance, like the rupture of a major fault that has a large
amount of slip and significant displacement of the seafloor. Unlike typical ocean waves, which affect only the upper part
of the sea, a tsunami can affect an entire body of water from top to bottom.
1. Subduction zone megathrusts (⊳) can lock for long periods of time, causing the seafloor above
the overriding plate to bulge, strain, and flex up or down as it accommodates the forces of conver-
gence. This upward and downward flexing is typically most prominent near the trench.
12.10.a1
2. When the megathrust finally ruptures in an earthquake (along the red asterisks), the bulging plate
changes shape catastrophically. The water above the plate responds by lifting up from the ocean
bottom toward the surface, forming a ridge of higher water (⊳). Formation of this large wave and
accompanying troughs in the water can cause the ocean to retreat from the shoreline, which was
observed in the 2004 Sumatra earthquake-caused tsunami and in other deadly tsunamis. A sudden
retreat of the ocean along a coastline is a warning sign that a tsunami may be coming.
12.10.a2
3. A tsunami, or a series of tsunamis, radiates away from the disturbance (⊳), traveling at speeds
between 600 and 800 km/hr (370–500 mi/hr). In deep water, the wave energy is distributed over
the entire water depth, forming a wave only a meter or so high but more than 700 km (435 mi)
across (in wavelength). If you were in the open ocean, you probably would not notice its passing.
As the wave approaches the shore, its energy concentrates in shallower and shallower water. The
velocity of the front of the wave decreases to 30 to 40 km/hr (20 to 25 mi/hr), causing the follow-
ing water to pile up in a higher wave. Near shore, the tsunami becomes a massive, thick wave,
12.10.a3
like the front wall of a plateau of water. It may be a series of such waves.
Tsunamis Triggered by Landslides Tsunamis Caused by Eruptions

4. A large mass of rock entering the water, or shifting from one part of the water 5. The 1883 eruption of Krakatau in Indonesia, and the
to another, can catastrophically displace the water, generating a tsunami that collapse of its immense caldera, generated a series of
radiates outward. This has occurred repeatedly off the west side of the Big huge tsunamis that killed 36,000 people. A single
Island of Hawaii, where huge landslide-debris deposits (shown in light green catastrophic volcanic explosion produced the loudest
below) sit on the ocean floor. sound ever heard, and most of Krakatau Island was demol-
ished. The tsunami was as high as 40 m (more than 130 ft),
and some effects of the tsunami were recorded 7,000 km
The tsunami generated by away! The painting below is an overly dramatic represen-
one of these slides carried tation. Most tsunamis are not simply a large, curled wave
rocks and coral 6 km (3.7 mi) like the one shown here.
inland. The volume of water
displaced during these 12.10.a5
events probably produced

a tsunami that struck
coastlines around the
Pacific about 120,000
years ago.
12.10.a4
What Kind of Destruction Can a Tsunami Cause?

Like the one associated with the Tohoku earthquake off northeastern Japan in 2011, tsunamis cause death and
destruction along coastlines where human populations are concentrated. On May 22, 1960, the largest earthquake ever
recorded on a seismometer (Mw 9.5) occurred in the subduction zone (megathrust) offshore of southern Chile. The
tsunamis that followed flattened coastal settlements in Chile and traveled across the Pacific to devastate coastlines in
Hawaii and Japan.
12.10.b1 12.10.b2
Chile, May 22, 1960
Japan ⊳ 1. During this earthquake, tsunamis were generated
20 parallel to the coast. One headed in toward the shoreline,
Hawaiian quickly striking Chile and Peru. Another set of tsunamis
Islands
15 swept out across the Pacific Ocean at 670 km (420 mi)
per hour. Each stripe equals one hour of travel time.
10 ⊲ 2. In Chile, the first tsunami struck 15 minutes after the

earthquake. On Isla Chiloe, a 10-meter-tall surge of water
5 swept over towns. The waves killed at least 2,000 people
Isla Chiloe along the coasts of Chile and Peru.
1000 km
Hawaii, May 23, 1960 Hokkaido, Japan 1993 Papua New Guinea, 1998
3. About 15 hours after the earthquake in 4. In 1993, a magnitude 7.8 earthquake 5. In 1998, a magnitude 7.1 earthquake and
Chile, the tsunami related to the earthquake occurred off the west coast of Hokkaido. Within associated underwater landslides generated
hit Hilo and other parts of Hawaii (▼). A tsu- five minutes a tsunami struck the coastline. The three tsunami waves that destroyed villages
nami 11 m (36 ft) high killed 61 people, dam- tsunami killed at least 100 people and caused along the country’s north coast, killing 2,200
aged buildings, and caused $23 million in $600 million in property loss. It swept these people. A 10-meter-high surge of water
damage. Seven hours later, the tsunami killed boats inland across a concrete barrier built destroyed a row of populated houses along
140 people in Japan. along the shoreline (▼). the coast shown here (▼).
12.10.b3 12.10.b4 12.10.b5
Tsunami Warning System
I
n an international effort to save lives, the the one shown below, which can relay tsunami
United States National Oceanic and Atmo- data by satellite. These buoys relay small
spheric Administration (NOAA) maintains changes in sea level detected by ocean bottom
two tsunami warning centers for the Pacific sensors as a tsunami passes overhead.
Ocean. Twenty-six nations participate in this Describe the different mechanisms
12.10.t1
effort. Informed by worldwide seismic net- by which tsunamis are generated.
works, these centers broadcast warnings based Summarize the kinds of damage
on an earthquake’s potential for generating a tsunamis have caused.
tsunami. After the huge loss of life from the
12.10
Briefly describe how tsunamis are

2004 Sumatran tsunami, the United Nations
monitored to provide an early-
implemented a warning system in the Indian
warning system.
Ocean. Scientists deployed warning buoys, like
350
12.11 How Do We Study Earthquakes in the Field?

GEOLOGISTS USE A VARIETY of tools and techniques to study evidence left behind by recent and ancient earth-
quakes. They examine and measure faults in natural exposures and in trenches dug across faults. Satellites and other
tools allow faults to be studied in new and exciting ways.
How Do We Study Recent Earthquakes in the Field?

Where a fault is visible at Earth’s surface, it can be scrutinized in order to understand how it moves during an earthquake.
Geologists investigate numerous features along a fault, some of which are shown below.
12.11.a1 Parkfield, CA
1. When a fault rup- 2. Shallow trenches dug across a fault expose what is just below the surface. Most
tures the surface (⊳), trenches are several meters deep, allowing geologists to examine the fault zone for clues
geologists carefully about its earthquake history. In the
measure its location, trench seen in this photograph
dimensions, and orien- (⊳), a recent rupture of the San
tation. Detailed draw- Andreas fault offsets dark layers
ings and photographs of carbon-rich peat, which were
are essential for used to date the layers and there-
documenting features fore date the history of earth-
along the fault. An quakes on this fault. Rocks and
earthquake opened up soils, both in natural exposures
a series of ground fis- and in trenches dug to study a
sures across this grad- fault, preserve a history of motion.
uate student’s thesis They give clues to the magni-
area on the San tudes and recurrence of past
Andreas fault. earthquakes.
12.11.a2 Pallet Creek, CA
3. When a fault moves, it can off- 4. Faulting commonly causes
set natural and human-made fea- changes in the topography of
tures. Streams and gullies, as well the land surface. A fault can
as roads, fences, and telephone be expressed as a linear fea-
lines, provide pre-earthquake ture, especially if faulting
reference points. Geologists downdrops rocks along the
can measure how much and in fault, forming a linear
what direction the fault has trough occupied by ponds
offset these features. In this and linear streams. Uplift
figure, a stream channel during faulting can also
bends where it crosses the form linear ridges, new
fault. The offset of the hills, or a topographic
stream channels seen here step along the fault.
and other clues tell us that Uplift of one side of
along this fault (the San the fault can cause
Andreas fault) the Pacific drainages to erode
plate is sliding northward down into the land,
past the North American as occurred on the
plate as shown by the northeast (right)
two arrows. Can you side of this fault.
see evidence of
another location where
the same stream chan- 12.11.a3
nel was abandoned by
past movements along 5. Geologists search for distinctive rock units or other geologic features that have been cut and displaced by the fault.
the fault? Hint: look for Such offset rocks and features provide evidence of the amount of displacement a fault has accumulated over its history,
a stream channel that which may span many millions of years. For example, a fault may displace a granite pluton, moving part of the pluton
does not seem to con- kilometers or hundreds of kilometers along the fault. Along the San Andreas fault, geologists have matched pebbles in
tinue anywhere. a conglomerate on one side of the fault with the bedrock source of the pebbles on the other side of the fault, demon-
strating hundreds of kilometers of strike-slip motion on the fault over the last 10 million years.
How Do We Study Faults with Satellites?

The topography around a fault changes when the fault moves. Very small
changes in elevation can be detected through laser surveying or by comparing
satellite radar data sets before and after faulting. To use the satellite method,
an area is mapped before and after the e arthquake. The two maps are com-
bined into an interferogram, which shows how Earth has deformed near the
fault rupture. In this image (⊲), color bands or fringes indicate strike-slip move-
ment associated with the 1999 Hector Mine earthquake (Mw 7.1) in southern
California. The fault is cutting diagonally northwest through the view.
12.11.b1
How Do We Study Faults Associated with Prehistoric Earthquakes?
Earthquake Studies Along the North Anatolian Fault, Turkey

1. In 1999, a magnitude 7.4 (Mw) earthquake ruptured over 100 km
(60 mi) of the North Anatolian fault in Turkey. Soon after the earthquake,
geologists conducted field studies to determine how much and how often
the fault moved in the past. They used surveying equipment to precisely
measure the heights of the fault scarps (⊲) to determine how much the
fault moved. During this earthquake, one side of the fault moved up by
1.59 m (5 ft), but much movement was horizontal and so is not repre-
sented in this topographic profile. 12.11.c1
12.11.c2
2. Several trenches dug along the fault revealed a wealth of infor-
mation about its prior history. The geologists meticulously examined
the walls of the trenches and carefully mapped how the fault offset
layers of sediment and soil (⊳). They documented that older layers
were offset by several distinct earthquake events. The colors on this
figure indicate different ages of sediment. Samples of charcoal were
dated by the carbon-14 method (in years AD), providing a timeline for
interpreting when the fault moved.
3. From these studies, the geologists determined that a major

earthquake occurs along this fault about every 200 to 300 years,
and that previous events were about the same size as the 1999
event. Such earthquakes are characteristic of this fault. Determining
the recurrence and likely size of earthquakes will help the people in
this region plan for future earthquakes.
San Andreas Experiment
G
eologists in California are engaged in a
novel experiment as part of the Earth- Before You Leave This Page
scope seismic project. The San Andreas
Fault Observatory at Depth sank a deep drill Summarize the kinds of field and
hole through part of the San Andreas fault. The remote measurements geologists use
drill hole is equipped with geophysical instru- to investigate recent earthquakes.
ments to provide data on this active fault sys-
Summarize the methods of investi
tem. The scientists hope to record a large earth-
12.11
gating prehistoric earthquakes on

quake as it happens. In this figure, a drill hole
faults, including observations within
crosses the fault at 3.2 km (2 mi) depth. trenches dug across a fault.
12.11.t1
352
12.12 Can Earthquakes Be Predicted?

EARTHQUAKES CAN BE DEVASTATING to places and people. For this reason, we have a great interest in finding ways
to predict when and where earthquakes will occur. Although much is known about where earthquakes occur, there is
no reliable way to predict exactly when one will strike.
Can We Anticipate Which Areas Are Most Likely to Have Earthquakes?

We try to predict which areas will have earthquakes by understanding the (1) frequencies and sizes of historic earthquakes,
(2) geologic record of prehistoric earthquakes, and (3) tectonic settings of different regions.
World Earthquake Hazard

This seismic-hazard map shows the intensity of shaking expected on land. Red areas have the highest hazard, gray areas have the lowest hazard,
and yellow and green areas are considered to have a moderate to low seismic hazard.
1. The patterns on this map largely reflect the locations of plate boundaries. Which parts of the world have a low hazard for earthquakes,
and which regions have high hazard?
3. The Middle East is highly susceptible
to earthquakes, largely because the
2. Note the pattern along conver- collision of the Arabian plate with
gent plate margins, including the Eurasian plate is causing
the western coast of South thrust faults and strike-slip
America. The greatest faults across the region.
hazard is from mega-
thrust earthquakes
4. Australia experiences
along the coast (near
few earthquakes, mostly
the trench). Hazard
because it is not along
potential decreases
a plate boundary. Islands
into the continent as
to the north (New Guinea)
the distance from the
and southeast (New Zea-
convergent boundary in-
land) straddle active plate
creases and the subduction
boundaries and face higher
zone becomes deep.
12.12.a1
hazards.
United States Earthquake Hazard

These maps show the most seismically active areas of the United States, including Hawaii and Alaska. Which regions experience little damage from
earthquakes, and which regions experience the most damage? Do some areas surprise you?
2. The upper Midwest and Gulf Coast areas have few active faults
1. For the United and very low earthquake hazards.
States, the risk of Alaska
earthquakes is Highest
Colors and values reflect Hazard
greatest in the ground acceleration. 64+ 12.12.a3
most tectonically 48–64
active areas, 32–48 4. Historically,
especially near 16–32 large earth-
the plate margin 8–16 quakes have 5. Southern Alaska
in the western 4–8 occurred in has large subduction-
United States. The 0–4 related earthquakes and
New Madrid,
San Andreas fault Lowest has a high seismic hazard.
Hazard Missouri,
forms the bound- marked by the
ary between the red area along the Mis- 6. Seismic haz-
Pacific plate and sissippi River. Earth- ard in Hawaii is Hawaii
the North Ameri- 12.12.a2 quakes have also struck higher to the
can plate. It is in Charleston, South southeast, close Hawaii
responsible for Carolina, and along the to the most

about one magni- 3. Parts of the western United States are being St. Lawrence River near active volcanism
tude 8 or greater stretched horizontally, creating many active normal New York, so these over the oce- 12.12.a4
earthquake per faults. The intermountain seismic belt, from Utah through areas have at least a anic hot spot.
century. the Yellowstone region, is especially dangerous. moderate hazard.
How Do We Approach Long-Range Earthquake Forecasting?

Long-term forecasting is based mainly on the knowledge of when and where earthquakes occurred in the past. Thus,
geologists study present tectonic settings, geologic evidence of past events, and historical records. These studies aim to
determine the locations and recurrence intervals of past earthquakes.
1. One approach to long-range forecasting is to mea- 2. In the top section, three segments 4. From various data, the USGS assigned
sure patterns of seismic activity along a fault. These of the fault have fewer earthquakes probabilities of a magnitude 6.7 earthquake
two cross sections show seismicity along the San than other sections. These segments, on faults of the area before 2032. The
Andreas fault in northern California. The top cross called seismic gaps, are “locked” (not combined probability is over 60%.
section shows earthquakes that occurred along the moving), and are accumulating stress. 12.12.b2
fault prior to October 17, 1989; the bottom one shows The three seismic gaps were at San Sacramento
seismicity after the Loma Prieta earthquake on Francisco, Loma Prieta, and Parkfield.
October 17, 1989.
San
Francisco
SAN ANDREAS
FAULT SYSTEM
Pacific Ocean
12.12.b1
3. In 1989, a magnitude 7 earthquake struck the Loma Prieta gap. This earthquake and its after-
Santa Cruz
shocks, shown in the lower section, filled in the gap. The Parkfield gap was similarly filled by an 30 km
earthquake and aftershocks in 2004. When will an earthquake fill the San Francisco gap? 3% 30%
PROBABILITY OF M-6.7 OR GREATER QUAKES

BEFORE 2032 ON THE INDICATED FAULT
How Successful Are Short-Term Predictions?
Short-term prediction involves monitoring the activity along an earthquake-prone fault. There are often precursor events,
which can be gauged using sophisticated scientific equipment. The complexity inherent in fault systems means that prediction
techniques are still developing, but they hold promise.
12.12.c1 Parkfield, CA
⊳ 1. Seismologists shine 2030
12.12.c3 4. The blue line shows when the six large his-
lasers across a fault to 2004 Mw 6.0 toric Parkfield earthquakes actually occurred
monitor small-scale move- versus when they would have occurred if they
ments that might be pre- Predicted were spaced exactly 22 years apart.
cursors to a larger earth- 1980 Next Quake
quake. They can even 1966 5. The next big earthquake was predicted to
ACTUAL DATE
record movement during a occur between 1988 and 1993. The earth-
larger earthquake. 1934 quake finally happened in 2004, 11 years later
1930
1922 than expected.
2. Measurements taken near active faults sometimes show that 1901
prior to an earthquake, the ground is uplifted or tilted as rocks 1880 1881
swell under the strain building on the fault. The buildup in
stress may also cause many small cracks. These can slip and 1857
produce foreshocks, small
12.12.c2
earthquakes that may 1830 Describe areas of the world that

1830 1880 1930 1980 2030
Fresno advertise an upcoming experience a high risk of
Salinas PREDICTED DATE
DI
main earthquake. earthquake activity.

A
BL
O
SA
RA
⊳ 3. Prior to 2004, the Parkfield segment of the San Andreas Summarize why certain areas of
NT
N
GE
A
fault, southeast of San Francisco, had had six magnitude ~6 the United States experience
LU
C
(Mw) quakes since 1857. These occurred approximately every

IA
earthquakes, while others do not.

RA
22 years and had similar characteristics. This situation pro-

N
12.12
GE
Parkfield vided an opportunity to study the short-term precursors of the Summarize ways geologists do
2004 next earthquake. Seismologists used a detailed array of seis- long-range forecasting and short-
San Simeon mic instruments to record numerous earthquakes, shown here range prediction.
as red, black, and yellow symbols.
San Luis Obispo
354
12.13 What Is the Potential for Earthquakes

Along the San Andreas Fault?
THE SAN ANDREAS FAULT is the world’s best-known and most extensively studied fault. It runs across
California from the Mexican border to north of San Francisco, and it is responsible for many destructive earthquakes.
What has happened along the fault in the recent past, and what does this history say about its likelihood of causing
large earthquakes? The USGS and others have forecasted a 99% probability that California will have a magnitude 6.7
or larger earthquake in the next 30 years.
12.13.a1
Recent Earthquake History of Different Segments
of the San Andreas Fault and Related Faults
1. The San Andreas fault has distinct segments that behave differently. These seg-
ments vary in the size and frequency of earthquakes. As a result, the earthquake
hazard varies along the fault. This map shows some of the major segments of the
San Andreas fault that have caused earthquakes in California. Circles show epicenters
of some of the more important earthquakes. The San Andreas fault accounts for the
largest quakes, but there are many other recently active faults (shown in green). Some
of these have caused damaging, moderate-sized earthquakes.
12.13.a2
2. The northern segment of the San Andreas fault
was responsible for the famous 1906 earthquake
that destroyed much of San Francisco. The earth-
quake had a magnitude of 7.7 (Mw) and ruptured
430 km (270 mi) of the fault, from south of the city all
the way to the north end of the fault (the part that
ruptured is shown in red). Damage (⊳) was caused by
ground shaking, fires, and liquefaction of water-
saturated soils in areas that had originally been part
of San Francisco Bay.
12.13.a3
3. The southern part of this segment ruptured in 1989 in
the magnitude 7.1 (Mw) Loma Prieta earthquake, which
was centered south of San Francisco. This earthquake is
famous for disrupting a World Series baseball game.
Ground shaking and liquefaction collapsed buildings
(⊳) and parts of bridges and freeways.
4. The next segment to the south, shown in blue, is the central creeping
segment. The two sides of the fault creep past one another somewhat contin-
uously and slowly, rather than storing up energy for a large earthquake. Creep
continues to the north along the Hayward fault, also colored blue, through
Oakland. The Hayward fault was the site of a ruinous earthquake in 1868, with
an estimated magnitude of 7 (Mw).
5. South of the creeping segment is the Parkfield segment, a short segment included here as part of a larger orange-
colored segment discussed below. It produces moderate-sized earthquakes that occur, on the average, every couple of
decades. The Parkfield segment receives special scrutiny from geologists and seismologists because the frequent earth-
quakes provide an opportunity to study the behavior of a fault before, during, and after an earthquake.
6. The San Andreas continues to the southeast through a segment (shown in orange) that last ruptured during the great
Fort Tejon earthquake of 1857. This earthquake ruptured 300 km (190 mi) of the fault, from Parkfield all the way to east of
Los Angeles. The earthquake was approximately magnitude 8 (Mw), but damage was limited because the area was much less
populated than it is now. This part of the San Andreas commonly is called the locked segment because it has not ruptured
since 1857. It has the potential to cause a great earthquake, commonly called “the big one.”
Features Along the San Andreas Fault

The San Andreas fault generally has a clear expression in the landscape. It is marked by a number of features that are
common along active faults. Some of these features can also form in ways unrelated to active faulting.
12.13.a4
12.13.a5 Parkfield, CA 12.13.a6 Carrizo Plain, CA
1. Geologists explore the 2. The aerial photo-

fault to find localities that graph to the right (⊲)
preserve a record of past shows the same part of
faulting. Detailed studies of the San Andreas fault
trenches dug across the as depicted in the fig-
fault (⊲) help geologists ure above. Can you
unravel hundreds or thou- match some of these
sands of years of the features between the
fault’s movement history. two images?
3. North and east of the San Andreas is a series of faults, called the East Califor-
nia Shear Zone. This zone caused several >7 magnitude earthquakes in the
1900s and the large 1872 Owens Valley earthquake on the eastern side of the
Sierra Nevada. The zone continues from the eastern side of the Sierra Nevada
southward through the Mojave Desert, where it unleashed the 1992 Landers
earthquake (Mw 7.3) and the 1999 Hector Mine earthquake (Mw 7.1).
4. On the map, note that the San Andreas fault has a distinct
curve or bend in the middle of the southern locked (orange)
segment. The bend causes regional compression and thrust
faults, some of which are not exposed at the surface.
These thrust faults caused the 1994 magnitude
6.7 (Mw) Northridge earthquake in metropolitan Los
Angeles, and they have uplifted the large
mountains, like the San Gabriel Mountains,
north and northeast of the city.
5. East of Los Angeles, the San Andreas
branches southward into several faults. Briefly summarize the main segments
Some of these experienced several of the San Andreas fault and whether
they have had major earthquakes.
12.13
moderate-sized earthquakes in the 1900s,
including some close to important agricul- Summarize features that might help
tural areas. The fault scarps for these events
you recognize the fault from the air.
are colored pink and lavender on this map.
356
12.14 How Do We Explore Earth’s Subsurface?

OUR VIEW OF GEOLOGY is typically limited to those rocks and structures that are exposed at the surface. In deep
canyons we can glimpse subsurface rocks and structures, but only for hundreds to thousands of meters deep. How else
do we determine what lies beneath the surface?
12.14.a2 Shiprock, NM
1. The region shown on the large figure has a few hills of 2. As magma rises to the surface, it can
granite and a dark lava flow, but is otherwise covered by incorporate pieces of the rock through
soil and v egetation. There are few clues as to what types which it passes. Geologists study such
of rocks and structures lie below the surficial cover. There pieces (⊳), called inclusions, to determine
are two general approaches for investigating subsurface the types of rocks that lie beneath volca-
geology: (1) obtaining samples of rocks at depth, and noes. The inclusion shown here is a piece
(2) performing geophysical surveys that measure the sub- of granite in a volcanic rock.
surface magnetic, seismic, gravity, and electrical properties.
3. We can gain a sense of what is below the surface by examining

rocks and geologic structures that have been uplifted and exposed
at the surface. Geologists study rocks using microscopes and other
instruments to constrain the temperature and pressure condi-
tions under which the rocks formed and to infer the geologic
processes that created the rocks at depth.
12.14.a3 Kidd Creek, Ontario, Canada
4. Mines provide a more

detailed subsurface view
because the tunnels pro-
vide continuous exposures of
rocks and structures (⊳). Some
South African mines are deeper
than 5 km (3 mi).
5. The geometry of rock units and geologic structures can be explored by sending seismic energy (sound
waves) into the ground and measuring how the waves are reflected back to the surface off boundaries between
12.14.a1
rock types. This commonly is accomplished by using large trucks that shake the ground in a controlled manner. The
sound waves bounce off rock layers, faults, and other boundaries. They are then recorded using seismic receivers, called
geophones, which are buried or stuck into the ground (such as the red-topped geophones shown on the next page). This
data-collection and data-processing procedure is a seismic-reflection survey.
12.14.a4
6. Seismic-reflection data are pro- 8. Geologists and engineers drill holes
cessed using sophisticated com- to search for petroleum, minerals, ground-
puter programs that produce the water, and scientific knowledge. Most drill
thin and commonly discontinuous holes are less than several hundred
lines shown in this drawing (⊲). meters deep, but some reach depths of
The lines represent the location of 5 km (3 mi) or more. Cylinder-shaped sam-
layers and surfaces that reflected ples of rock, called drill cores (▼), can be
seismic energy, guiding geologists retrieved during the drilling process to
who interpret the below-ground provide samples of rocks from depth.
geometry of the rock units, folds, 12.14.a5 Thabazimbi, South Africa
faults, and unconformities. 7. The geometry of the reflections (▲), as expressed on the
seismic profile, is integrated with information about the
area’s rock sequence and structures. We can then construct
a geologic cross section (the colored zones and heavy
lines) representing an interpretation of the subsurface.
9. Instruments that measure 10. Magnetic data are 12. A curving mag-
the intensity of Earth’s mag- generally portrayed as a map netic low, repre-
netic field can be used to (⊲), with warmer colors (reds) sented by the
determine the subsurface representing more magnetic darker blue colors,
distributions of magnetic rocks and cooler colors (blues) coincides with a
rocks. The equipment can representing areas with buried stream
be carried on foot or towed lower magnetism. channel. In the
behind a plane. Earth scien- central figure, the
tists who measure and inter- channel forms a
pret magnetic, seismic, grav- 11. The red and orange areas band of gray soil
ity, and other types of (⊲) mark the dark lava flow where the two
physical data are geophysi- and hills of gray granite, teams of geophysi-
cists. Such data are called a which are more magnetic cists are standing.
geophysical survey. Many than the sediments that cover
geology graduates are the rest of the area.
involved with geophysical
surveys at some point in 12.14.a6
their careers. 13. The strength of gravity varies slightly from one place to another on Earth’s
surface. This is because some rocks, such as basalt, are relatively more dense
and cause a stronger pull than less dense materials, such as sediment. The
variations in gravity can be measured using sensitive gravity meters.
14. In this area, the team of geophysicists measured gravity

across the buried stream channel and plotted the data on a
profile relative to the average value of gravity for the area.
The plot shows a gravity minimum caused by low-density
sediment within the buried channel (▼).
12.14.a7
+2 GRAVITY +2
+1
(Relative to
+1
Local Average)
0 0
-1 -1
-2 -2
LOCATION ALONG SURVEY
▼ 15. From the gravity profile, computer pro-

grams can model possible density configura-
tions that are consistent with the data.
12.14.a8
16. Some rocks, such as clays, conduct

electrical currents better than other
rocks. Rocks containing groundwater con-
duct an electrical current better than dry
rocks. Geologists and geophysicists use
17. The results of an electrical survey across these principles to explore for mineral
the buried stream channel are plotted in deposits and groundwater. An electrical
cross section and contoured, with warmer transmitter runs current into the ground
colors for rocks with higher conductivity, (▼), and one or more electrical receivers Before You Leave This Page
such as those with more water. Geologists some distance away measure how much
compare all the various types of data to current reaches the surface. Summarize how volcanic inclusions,
infer the subsurface geology. 12.14.a9 exposed geology, drill holes, and
12.14.a10 mines provide observations of
the subsurface.
Briefly summarize what is measured
12.14
by the various types of geophysical

surveys (seismic, magnetic, gravity,
and electrical).
358
12.15 What Do Seismic Waves Indicate

About Earth’s Interior?
EARTHQUAKES, EXPLOSIONS, AND OTHER SEISMIC EVENTS generate seismic waves that can be used
to interpret Earth’s internal structure. The way seismic waves travel through Earth enables us to identify distinct layers
and boundaries within the interior, including the crust, mantle, and core.
How Do Seismic Waves Travel Through Materials?

An earthquake or other source of seismic energy generates seismic waves, 2. Most seismic waves encounter boundaries between materials
which radiate out from the source in all directions. with different physical properties,
causing the waves to reflect,
1. The path that any part of the speed up, or slow down. Some
wave travels is a seismic ray. If the of the energy is reflected off the
physical properties of the material interface as a reflected wave.
do not change from place to place,
then a seismic ray travels in a 3. Some of the energy is bent
straight line. In this case, a family as it crosses the boundary. This
of straight rays diverges outward process of bending is known
from the source. as refraction.
12.15.a1 12.15.a2
How Seismic Waves Refract Through Different Materials
12.15.a3 12.15.a4 12.15.a5
4. If a seismic wave passes into a material 5. If a descending seismic ray passes 6. If a rising seismic ray passes from a fast
that causes it to slow down, it will be refracted from a slow material to a faster one, it material to a slower one, it will be refracted
away from the interface at a steeper angle. will be refracted to a shallower angle. upward toward the surface.
How Do Seismic Waves Travel Through Earth’s Crust and Mantle?

2. In the figures below, an earthquake sends seismic waves into the crust and mantle. Both
12.15.b1
waves are refracted back toward the surface. Waves in the mantle travel faster than those in the
crust, resulting in an interesting and useful phenomenon.
3. Close to the earthquake, waves that travel 4. Farther from the earthquake, waves that
through the crust arrive sooner than those travel through the mantle arrive at the surface
from the mantle because the crustal waves first because the faster velocity lets them
travel a shorter distance. overtake the crustal waves.
1. Refraction causes seismic waves to take
curved paths (▲) through the Earth. Because 12.15.b2 12.15.b3
rocks get denser deeper in Earth, steeply
descending rays will first be refracted to
shallower angles as they encounter faster
and faster material at depth. Subsequently,
the waves will then be bent back toward the
surface as they pass back through slower,
less dense material.
5. Seismologists observe at what distance from the hypocenter the mantle waves begin to arrive
first. They then use simple computer models of velocities, crustal thicknesses, and ray paths to
calculate the depth to the crust-mantle boundary.
How Are Seismic Waves Used to Examine Earth’s Deep Interior?

Seismologists recognize distinct boundaries within Earth, largely based on changes in seismic velocities and other behaviors.
Such changes reflect the physical and chemical properties of the rock layers through which the seismic waves pass. Not all
seismic waves make it through every part of Earth. Observing where particular kinds of waves are blocked helps determine
which parts of Earth are molten.
1. As P-waves travel through Earth, they speed

up and slow down as they pass through differ- Earthquake Source
ent kinds of material. Their velocity depends
upon three factors: (1) how easily the 2. As P-waves and S-waves travel through
rocks are compressed; (2) how rigid Earth, they are refracted and follow curved
the material is; and (3) the density paths that return them to the surface.
of the material. Based on these
ths
Pa
factors, seismologists conclude
103
that faster velocities indicate ay
SR
º
denser rocks. The graph
below (▼) plots P-wave 3. Along the core-mantle boundary, some
P&
velocity as a function of P-waves are refracted inward because the

depth. Overall, P-wave outer core has a slower velocity than the
velocity increases with adjacent mantle. These P-waves pass
depth in the mantle and Core through the core and out toward the other
in the core because the side of Earth.
rocks in each part
become more rigid and
dense downward.
103 º
es
4. There is a zone, called the P-wave
Wav
shadow zone, that receives no direct
103
No
P-waves. This is because the P-waves

º
tP
are either refracted upward before they
Dir
rec
reach this area or are refracted inward
ec
Di
tP
through the core. Some weak P-waves

No
W
es reach the surface in this zone, but they

av
took indirect routes by reflecting and

42
º
42
º re 1 refracting around Earth’s core.

1
PW He
aves d
Receive 12.15.c1
No e re
S W d H
aves Receive
5. On the opposite side of Earth from the seismic source, there is also an S-wave shadow zone
that receives no direct S-waves. This implies that S-waves cannot pass through the core. From
this and other observations, seismologists conclude that the outer part of the core is molten and
blocks S-waves. From the sizes and locations of the P-wave and S-wave shadows, we can deter-
12.15.c2
mine the diameter and depth of Earth’s core. Seismologists also learn about Earth’s interior by
studying indirect waves. These are waves that have reflected off boundaries or have changed
wave type as they crossed a boundary (e.g., mantle to core).
The Moho
T
he boundary between the crust and We can calculate the depth to the Moho by
mantle is named the Mohorovicic Dis- observing whether the first waves to arrive Before You Leave This Page
continuity after the last name of the came through the crust or the mantle, as
Croatian seismologist who discovered it. Most described on the previous page. The depth to Sketch or describe reflection and
geoscientists simply call it the Moho. the Moho can sometimes be identified as refraction of seismic waves.
Much effort is expended trying to deter- reflections on seismic- reflection profiles.
Sketch and explain how seismic
mine the depth to the Moho because this tells Since seismic waves travel through the crust at
waves pass through the crust
us how thick the crust is. Geophysicists inves- approximately 6 km per second, it takes
and mantle.
tigate this problem using various approaches. 10 seconds for a wave to travel 30 km (19 mi)
12.15
Some observe the arrivals of seismic waves down to the Moho, bounce off, and travel Explain how we use seismic waves to
from naturally occurring earthquakes, whereas 30 km back up. It takes less time if the crust infer the diameter of the core and to
others use mine blasts as the seismic source. is thin and more time if it is thick. show that the outer core is molten.
360
12.16 How Do We Investigate Deep Processes?

ROCK PROPERTIES, SUCH AS DENSITY, temperature, pressure, and composition, change through Earth.
Seismologists use seismic-wave velocities to determine how rock properties change with depth and how material moves
in Earth’s mantle and at the core-mantle boundary.
How Do We Investigate Deep Conditions?

Much of what we know about Earth’s interior comes from observations of rocks and our knowledge of seismic-wave
velocities and how they vary within Earth’s interior.
12.16.a1 Chuckwalla Mtns., CA 12.16.a2 College Station, TX 12.16.a3
One way to constrain the conditions deep Computers and sophisticated numerical mod-
within Earth is to examine rocks that have els are used to model processes that are too
resided at great depths. Some metamorphic In the laboratory, we subject rocks to high deep to observe directly. Such models can
rocks in Norway and China contain high- temperatures and pressures in order to deter- illustrate how seismic waves travel through
pressure minerals, which indicate that they mine the conditions under which the rocks the mantle, as shown here, or how the mantle
were buried at ultra-high pressures and melt, solidify, or flow in the solid state. Many might flow upward, downward, or laterally if
depths of 60 to 100 km (40 to 60 mi). Docu- minerals change into another mineral at high there are lateral variations in d
ensity. Such
menting the minerals and structures that temperatures, high pressures, or both. The density variations are caused by differences
formed under these c onditions provides conditions under which these changes occur in temperature and in the types of minerals
insight into what processes and conditions are then inferred for equivalent depths and that are present.
occur at depth. temperatures within Earth’s interior.
How Does Seismic Tomography Help Us Explore the Earth?

Seismologists examine Earth using earthquakes in much the same way that medical doctors examine the internal parts of the
body with CT scans and other types of imaging technologies. The technique seismologists use is called seismic tomography,
where “tomography” means an image of what is inside.
Seismic Observations
⊳ Using seismic tomography, scientists examine earthquake waves that have passed
through the same subsurface region but from different directions. In this diagram, lines
called ray paths show the directions the seismic waves traveled. Ray paths coming from
points A and B are recorded on five different seismometers, shown as triangles. If part of
the crust or mantle has a higher seismic velocity than other areas, like a granite within
less dense sedimentary rocks, then waves passing through that area will arrive sooner
12.16.b1 than expected. Those that travel through slow regions will arrive later than expected.
Seismic Interpretation
⊳ This figure models the velocities in the same region using seismic tomography.
Areas that are slower than expected are shaded red and may represent areas that
are hotter than normal. Some areas, like the granite body, will be faster than
expected and so are shaded blue. Fast areas might be abnormally cool or com-
posed of stiff, dense rocks. Earthquakes do not come from every direction, so many
details cannot be resolved.
12.16.b2
What Processes Are Occurring in the Mantle and the Core-Mantle Boundary?
Seismic wave velocities increase abruptly at the Moho (crust-mantle boundary), when they pass from the crust down into
the mantle. The velocities vary within the mantle due to major changes in mineralogy and increasing density with depth,
and because of upward and downward flow of mostly solid mantle material.
Seismic Velocities of the Lowermost Mantle

1. This globe shows computed velocities of 3. Cooler colors (blues) are interpreted as dense plates
seismic secondary waves in the lower- that have been subducted into the lowermost mantle.
most mantle, as modeled using seis- Not all geologists agree with this interpretation.
mictomography. Red areas repre-
sent seismically slow materials, 4. Recent advances in seismic instruments,
and blues represent materials computer processing, and numerical approach-
that are seismically faster than es have led to the discovery of a thin layer
average. The outlines of the along the boundary between the core and
continents (centered on North mantle. This boundary layer, called D’’
and South America) are shown (dee-double-prime), is irregular in thick-
on the surface for reference. ness and is interpreted to have upwell-
ings, as shown in this model (▼).
2. The red areas in the model 12.16.c2
are interpreted to represent rising Lower Mantle
masses of hot, mostly solid mantle
material. Many, but not all, seismolo-
gists regard these rising masses as
somehow related to mantle plumes
and hot spots. D"
12.16.c1
Outer Core
A Model of Flow Within Earth
5. Seismologists and other geologists 10. Mid-ocean ridges do not show prominently on this figure
strive to develop models for the flow because they are not believed to represent large-scale convec-
of materials throughout Earth. Uppe tion currents in the mantle or upwelling from the lower man-
r Ma
This figure, from seismologist 41600 ntle tle. Instead, when two oceanic plates spread apart, the
6
Ed Garnero, presents one space is filled by local flow from the shallow part of
view of the inner work- LOWER
Lower the asthenosphere. There may be some exceptions,
ings of Earth. There are MANTLE
Mantle such as where a mid-ocean ridge coincides with a
many other views. D˝ v)
hot spot, like at Iceland.
SLABS
MB
Core-Mantle 9. This model shows large-scale upwelling of
6. In this model, Boundary
material from the core-mantle boundary,
cold, dense above and near the red areas in the
material from ICB tomography figure above. Material rising
subducted from the tops and edges of these upwell-
slabs sinks ings may provide material for mantle
deep into the Inner
Core plumes and hot spots.
mantle. These Plumes
slabs corre-
spond to the
blue, fast Before You Leave This Page
Outer
velocities in Ed Core
Garnero’s seis-
mic tomography Describe three ways we can
figure above. investigate or model Earth’s interior.
Summarize how seismic
8. Spirals tomography identifies different
in the regions within Earth.
7. Some cold slabs are outer core
interpreted to travel all the are aligned par- Describe some ideas about flow
12.16
way down to the base of the 12.16.c3 allel to Earth’s spin in the mantle and core-mantle
mantle, where they pile up to form axis and represent the flow of boundary that have arisen from
the D’’ layer. This figure greatly exagger- material and electrical current to gen- seismic tomography.
ates the thickness of this layer. erate Earth’s magnetic field.
CONNECTIONS
12.17 What Happened During the Great Alaskan
Earthquake of 1964?
THE SOUTHERN COAST OF ALASKA experienced one of the world’s largest earthquakes in 1964. The moment
magnitude 9.2 earthquake, which is the strongest to have ever struck North America, destroyed buildings, triggered
massive landslides, and unleashed a tsunami that caused damage and deaths from Alaska to California. The region also
has active volcanoes, further evidence that this is a tectonically active area.
What Types of Damage Did the Earthquake Cause?

2. The blue line on the map marks the limit
1. The earthquake occurred along the southern of shaking, and subsequent cracking, of the
coast of Alaska but was felt throughout the ground and ice during the earthquake. The
state, except for the far north coast. Ground red line closer to the epicenter out-
shaking destroyed buildings and generated lines the region where prop-
huge landslides of rock and soil. This earth- 12.17.a1 erty damage occurred.
quake-triggered, dark-colored, rocky landslide
(▼) covered parts of the white Sherman Glacier.
12.17.a2 Southern Alaska
4. The epicenter of the earthquake was along

the southern coast of Alaska, between the
12.17.a3 Anchorage, AK cities of Anchorage and Valdez. The large
earthquake began at depths of 20 to 30 km
(12 to 19 mi). Based on the wide distribution of
about 600 aftershocks, seismologists estimate
that the earthquake ruptured a fault surface
that was over 900 km (560 mi) long and 250
3. Parts of downtown Anchorage km (160 mi) wide.
were demolished (⊳) when shaking The earthquake
caused the underlying land to slip occurred on a
and collapse. Some buildings sank thrust fault that
so much that their second stories dips from the
were level with the ground. Severe Aleutian trench
damage occurred in the Turnagain gently north and
Heights area of Anchorage, where a northwestward
layer of weak clay liquefied, carrying beneath Alaska.
away shattered houses (⊲). 12.17.a4 Anchorage, AK
362
What Happened in the Sea During the Earthquake?

Because it occurred along the coast, the earthquake also caused (1) faulting and uplift of the seafloor, (2) huge waves from
landslides, and (3) a tsunami that struck the coasts of Alaska, British Columbia, Washington, Oregon, California, Hawaii,
and even Japan. 12.17.b1 Southern Alaska 12.17.b2 Kodiak Island, AK
1. The main fault that caused the

earthquake did not break the land
surface, but two subsidiary faults did.
One fault (⊲) cut a notch into a
mountain and uplifted the seafloor 4
to 5 m (15 ft). The white material on
the uplifted (left) side of the fault
consists of calcareous marine organ-
isms that were below sea level
before the earthquake. The maxi-
mum observed uplift was 11.5 m
(38 ft). Other areas subsided as
much as 6 m (20 ft) during the earth- 2. Faulting uplifted a large area of seafloor off the
quake, flooding docks, oil tanks, and southern coast of Alaska, sending a large tsunami
buildings along the coast. out across the sea and up the many bays and inlets
along the coast. The highest tsunami recorded was
67 m (220 ft), in a bay near Valdez. The photograph
above (▲) shows damage done to Kodiak Island by a
wave 6 m (20 ft) high. The tsunami killed 106 people in
Alaska and 17 more in Oregon and California.
What Are Some Other Manifestations of Tectonics? 12.17.c3 Mount Redoubt , AK
12.17.c1
1. Immediately after the earthquake, a
team of scientists and surveyors investi-
gated the coastline, measuring uplift and
subsidence at hundreds of sites. They
plotted and contoured the elevation
change measurements on a detailed map,
which they then generalized into a sum-
mary map (⊲) that identifies broad zones
of uplift and subsidence. As a result of
the earthquake, a region of more than
250,000 km2 (100,000 mi2) changed ele-
vation, either up or down. Repetitions of
earthquake events, hundreds of times
over millions of years, could uplift a new
mountain range where the sea is now 3. Southern Alaska also has a number of active
and form a basin where there is currently volcanoes like Mount Redoubt (▲), and these
a ridge. Earth’s elevations and landscapes volcanoes continue out across the ocean to
are dynamic, always changing. form the Aleutian Islands, an active island arc.
The volcanoes display large, somewhat sym-
metrical shapes with steep slopes — they are
2. The surveying and other studies along the coast led to the recognition that the earthquake dangerous composite volcanoes. They are
occurred along a thrust fault beneath the southern shoreline of Alaska. This study interpreted the related to subduction of an oceanic plate
earthquake as resulting from oceanic material being pushed beneath Alaska (⊲), along what today beneath Alaska, the same process that caused
we call a megathrust. These conclusions, in the 1960s, were drawn before development of the the Great Alaskan Earthquake of 1964.
theory of plate tectonics. In fact, the studies of this earthquake, using a variety of geographic
tools like surveying, prepara- A A´
tion of contour maps, and sur- 11.3 m 12 m
veys of changes to the land- Vertical Displacement 5.0 m 3.5 m

8
4 Before You Leave This Page
scape, was an important step 0
Volcanic Montague Middleton Aleutian
in the development of plate Summarize events associated with the
12.17
Arc Anchorage Island Island Trench
tectonics. Today, geographers, SL Alaskan earthquake, including effects
NORTH AMERICAN
geologists, and other scientists CONTINENTAL PLATE on land and sea, and how studies of
would also use GPS devices, Megathrust
Aleutian
-50 km
this area helped lead to the theory of
12.17.c2
GIS, and satellite data. PACIFIC OCEANIC PLATE

plate tectonics.
-100
475 400 300 200 100 0 km
12.18 Where Did This Earthquake Occur, and
What Damage Might Be Expected?
THIS COASTAL REGION CONTAINS TWO FAULTS, an active volcano, and several steep-sided mountains prone
to landslides. Any of these features could cause ground shaking. You will use seismic records from a recent earthquake
to determine which feature caused the observed shaking. From this information, you will decide what hazards this
earthquake poses to each of the small towns in the area.

• Examine the large illustration and read the text boxes describing the types of features that are present.
• Use three seismograms to determine which feature is likely to have caused the earthquake.
• Consider potential earthquake hazards to determine what dangers each small town would face from
the earthquake.
• Decide which town you think is the safest from earthquake-related hazards, and justify your decision
with supporting evidence.
2. Along one part of 3. The town of Sandpoint is

the coastline, there is built upon land that was
a thin, steep beach, reclaimed from the sea by
Procedures called Roundstone piling up loose rocks and
The area has several small towns and three seis- 1. There is a deep Beach, that rises beach sand until the
mometers, each named after the nearest town. ocean trench along upward to some area was above
the edge of the nearby small hills. The sea level.
Seismograms recorded at each seismic station continent. Ocean seafloor offshore is
during a recent earthquake are shown at the top drilling encountered also fairly steep as it
of the next page. Use the available information fault-bounded slices drops off toward
to complete the following steps and enter your of oceanic the trench.
sediment.
answers in the appropriate places on the work-
sheet or online.
A. Observe the features shown on the three-dimensional

perspective. Read the text associated with each location,
and think about what each statement implies about
earthquake hazards.
B. Inspect the seismograms for the three seismic stations to
determine where the earthquake probably occurred. You can
get an idea from simply comparing the time intervals between
the arrivals of P-waves and S-waves for each station.
C. Use the graph next to the seismograms to determine the distance
from each station to the epicenter. This will allow you to more precisely
locate the epicenter. Detailed instructions for this procedure are listed in
topic 12.6 earlier in this chapter. For plotting your results, a map view of the
area is included on the next page and a larger version is on the worksheet.
D. From the general location of the earthquake, infer which geologic feature is likely
to have caused the earthquake.
E. Use the information about the topographic and geologic features of the landscape to
interpret what types of hazards the recent earthquake posed for each town. From 12.18.a1
these considerations, decide which three towns are the least safe and which two are
the safest for this type of earthquake. There is not necessarily one right answer, so 11. Offshore is a coral reef that blocks larger
explain and justify your logic on the worksheet, if asked to do so by your instructor. waves, creating a quiet lagoon between the
reef and the shore.
364
Earthquakes and Earth’s Interior 365
12.18.a2
Seismograms 13. Use this graph (⊲) to 12.18.a3
12. These seismo- determine the distance 8

grams (⊲) represent the from each seismic station
DISTANCE (km)
time period from just to the earthquake’s epi- 6
before the earthquake center. Find the appropri-
to 1.5 seconds after it ate time on the horizon- 4
occurred. The first ar- tal axis, follow it upward
rivals of P-waves and to the line, and read off 2
S-waves are labeled for the corresponding dis-
each graph, along with tance on the vertical axis. 0
the P-S time intervals. 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
P–S TIME INTERVAL (sec)
4. A picturesque town, called Hillside, lies inland 5. In the northern part of the area, there is a flat-topped mountain, known as Red Mesa,
of some small mountains. The town is built on a surrounded by steep cliffs. A new landslide lies along the southern flank of the mountain.
flat, open area flanked by hills with fairly gen- A small town and a seismic station, both called Mesaview, lie
tle slopes. It is a little higher in elevation between the mesa and a high volcano.
than the nearby towns of Cascade Village
and Riverton. The Hillside Seismic Station,
shown by a triangle symbol on
the map on the lower right,
lies just to the east of 6. A volcano called Lava Mountain rises
the town. above the region. It has steep slopes and is
surrounded by layers of volcanic ash that
appear to have erupted quite recently.
Every so often, the volcano releas-
es steam and makes
rumbling noises. The shaking
triggers landslides down
the hillsides. The small
town of Ashton is
on the flanks of the
volcano and has a
picturesque setting
with huge, colorful
blocks of volcanic
rocks near the town.
7. The Gray Cliffs form a nearly vertical step in the

landscape. Streams pour over the cliffs in pleasant wa-
terfalls, each taking a jog to the left after crossing the cliffs.
The small settlement of Cascade Village is located next to one of
the waterfalls. Rocks along the cliffs are fractured and shattered.
8. The small village of Cliffside lies next to a gray cliff. It was built on a marshy area that was un-
derlain by soft, unconsolidated sediments. Several streams drain into the area, but no streams are
able to leave because the area is lower than the surrounding landscape. As a result, the soil is
commonly very soft and people sink in as they walk.
9. Riverton, a pictur- 12.18.a4
esque town, is built
near a river at the
10. White Sands is head of a sandy bay.
a resort town along The seafloor slopes
a white, sandy out to the bay at a
beach. The sand gentle angle. Muddy
comes from the off- waters from the river
shore coral reef. prevent reefs from
There is a seismic growing offshore in
station, shown by a front of the bay.
12.18
triangle symbol in
the image to the
right, with the same
name as the town.
CHAPTER
13 Climate, Weather, and Their

Influences on Geology
CLIMATE AND WEATHER are often mistaken for one another. Weather is a daily description of the temperature,
pressure, and precipitation conditions of the atmosphere for a specific place. Climate is a longer term view of these
same factors, typically taken over a period of many years. Weather and climate are responses to global circulation of
water and air and help shape the landscape by eroding mountains and filling basins. Climatic variations from place to
place result in deserts, rain forests, and a diversity of other environments.
13.00.a2
The Indian subcontinent has some of the most extreme changes in land elevation and climate in the world.
India is bordered by the Indian Ocean to the west, south, and east, and so it is dominated by interactions
between the land and the warm ocean water. Parts of India receive heavy rains, and other parts are desert.
What causes some regions of India to be desert and others to receive seasonal downpours of rain?
13.00.a1
▲ This satellite image shows

a desert sandstorm and dust
storm blowing across north-
western India.
What types of materials

does wind move and how
does wind move them?
Parts of the Indian Ocean

are teeming with life be-
cause of abundant nutri-
ents. These areas are
shown in green on the
satellite image below.
What process brings

nutrient-rich, deep ocean
water to the surface?
Rain forests and jungles with lush vegetation cover many parts
of the subcontinent (⊲).
13.00.a3 What climates allow so much vegetation to be sustained?

13.00.a4
366
C l i m a t e , W e a t h e r, a n d T h e i r I n f l u e n c e s o n G e o l o g y 367
13.1 What Causes Winds? 368 13.10 What Are Deserts and How Do They Form? 386
13.2 What Causes Some Local and Regional Winds? 370 13.11 How Does Wind Transport Material? 388
13.3 Why Does It Rain, Snow, and Hail? 372 13.12 What Features Are Common in Deserts? 390
13.4 How Does Rising Air Cause Precipitation? 374 13.13 What Is the Evidence for Climate Change? 392
13.5 How Do Hurricanes, Tornadoes, 13.14 What Factors Influence Climate Change? 394
and Other Storms Develop? 376 13.15 What Are the Consequences
13.6 What Is the Global Pattern of Surface Currents? 378 of Climate Change? 396
13.7 How Do Ocean Currents Influence Climate? 380 13.16 What Is the Relationship Among Climate,
13.8 What Causes Short-Term Climatic Variations? 382 Tectonics, and Landscape Evolution? 398
13.9 What Controls the Location of Rain Forests? 384 13.17 CONNECTIONS: What Happened During
Hurricane Sandy? 400
13.18 INVESTIGATION: What Kinds of Climate and
Weather Would Occur in This Place? 402
The Himalaya are the highest mountains in the world. When the
Himalaya and adjacent Tibetan Plateau were uplifted during the
collision of India and Asia, they actually changed the atmospheric
circulation patterns of the entire planet. The mountains are a major
climatic boundary (⊲). They trap moisture-laden air to the south,
causing a desert in Tibet to the north, as shown by the sparsely
vegetated land in the foreground of this photograph. India and
Nepal are on the opposite, rainy side of the mountains.
What climatic effects are caused by the extreme change in

elevation from the low Indian plains to the Himalaya and
Tibetan Plateau?
13.00.a5 Tibet
The Brahmaputra River, shown in this perspective (⊲),

along with the Ganges River farther south and west, are
two of the most important rivers in the world. They
begin in the high regions to the north and cross
India and Bangladesh. During the rainy season,
these rivers flood many low areas, displacing vast
numbers of people and carrying huge volumes
of sediment.
Why do some areas have a rainy season

followed by a dry season? In general,
what causes Earth’s seasons?
13.00.a6
The Monsoon of India
T
he word monsoon is Arabic and refers to winds that reverse directions depending on
the season. From June to September, India’s prevailing winds blow strongly from the
Indian Ocean, which lies to the south. From December to March, the winds reverse
and blow southeast across the land and out to sea. The winds are caused by heating in both
cases. In the summer, heating in the Himalaya and Tibet causes the air to warm and rise,
generating low atmospheric pressure. Air from surrounding regions rushes in toward the low
pressure. The air coming in from the Indian Ocean is rich in water vapor, which condenses
13.00.a7 when the air rises and cools over the mountains. The runoff from the torrential rain erodes
13.0
Huge storms, such as the one shown here, deluge the steep slopes, providing sediment to the Brahmaputra, Ganges, and other rivers. During
the region with torrential rainfall. the winter, the winds change direction, drawing dry air from inland and blowing southeast
across the region. causing a dry season.
How do hurricanes and other large storms form?
368
13.1 What Causes Winds?

WIND IS MOVEMENT OF AIR relative to Earth’s surface. It forms in response to differences in air pressure from place
to place and between different heights above the Earth’s surface. Such differences in air pressure are generated primarily
by uneven solar heating, especially as a function of distance from the equator, by temperature differences between dif-
ferent heights in the atmosphere, and by differences in how land and water respond to changes in temperature. Air flows
from areas of higher pressure, where air sinks, to areas of lower pressure, where air rises.
What Is Air Pressure?

Pressure is an expression of the force exerted on an area, usually from all directions. In the case of a gas, pressure is related
to the frequency of molecular collisions that occur when a freely moving object or gas molecules collide with other objects,
such as the walls of a container holding the gas. It is such collisions that keep a balloon, soccer ball, or bicycle tire inflated.
1. Molecules of gas in a 3. What happens if

sealed glass container we put a weight (⊲)
move rapidly in random on top of the lid
directions, and some (center container)
molecules strike the walls and then cool the
of the container. The container? What
force imparted by these will happen if we
collisions is pressure. heat the gas in
The more collisions there the container?
are, the more pressure is
exerted on the walls of
the container. 13.01.a1 4. If we cool the container by
13.01.a2
placing it in ice, the molecules
2. If we push down on the lid of the container, the same number of become less energetic and so 5. If we instead heat the container,
molecules are confined into a smaller space. Lower parts of the con- strike the walls and lid of the the gas molecules become more
tainer walls are now struck by a greater number of the more closely container less often — the gas energetic and strike the walls and lid
packed gas molecules, so the pressure is greater. In other words, pressure decreases and the lid of the container more often — the gas
decreasing the volume of a gas increases its pressure. moves down. pressure increases and lifts the lid.
What Causes Atmospheric Pressure and How Is It Measured?

Earth’s atmosphere is composed of gas molecules, including nitrogen (N2) and oxygen (O2), that have mass and are kept
from escaping to space by Earth’s gravitational field. The weight of these molecules exerts a force on Earth’s surface and
on other objects, including us. Pressure (force/area) is applied equally in all directions.
Thermosphere
Pressure Decreases Measuring Pressure with a Barometer

with Altitude 2. We can measure air pressure
1. The density of molecules in with an instrument called a
-90˚C the atmosphere decreases barometer. The barometer
80 upward, and the force of shown to the right (⊲) is a sealed
TEMPERATURE
Earth’s gravity also decreases glass tube fixed in liquid

The number of air molecules decreases with height.
Mesosphere
70 away from the surface. This mercury. Changes in air pressure

results in a decrease in pres- cause the liquid level in the tube
60 sure (⊳) as fewer gas molecules to rise or fall, allowing the mea-
ALTITUDE (km)
exert force on the surfaces surement of relative pressure.

0˚C 50 below them. Atmospheric pres- Such barometers have units of
sure is generally highest at low inches (or centimeters) of mer-
40 elevations, like near sea level, cury. Pressure is also reported in
Stratosphere
and is measured in millibars units of a bar, with one bar

30 (1/1000 bar). It is much less at being approximately equal to the
13.01.b2
high elevations, where there is average air pressure at sea
20 less air and less gravity. level. Modern digital instruments
Tropopause record pressure in millibars.
-70˚C 10
sphere
Tropo-
3. When air pressure is higher, it pushes down harder and forces the mer-
15˚C
15˚C Sea level - 0 cury higher in the tube. The opposite happens if air pressure is lower.
13.01.b1 0 400 800 1200
PRESSURE (mb)
How Does Air Pressure Vary Laterally?

13.01.c1
1. Air pressure also varies 10
2. Such maps of air pressure contain numbered
laterally, from area to area, 00 lines, called isobars, that connect locations with
10
00
and from hour to hour, equal pressure. If you could follow an isobar across
100
and these variations are 4 100
4 the countryside, you would follow a path along
typically represented on 100 100
which the pressure values, once corrected to their
8
maps, like the one shown 8 sea-level equivalents, would be equal. Successive
here (⊲). Such maps either 1016 isobars are numbered to represent different values
show the pressure condi- 1020 of air pressure, usually in millibars (e.g., 1,020). Note
tions at a specific date 1028 1012 that isobars do not cross, but can completely encir-
and time or show pres- 1024 cle an area. Such maps are commonly used to
sure values averaged 10 1016 describe the daily regional weather conditions.
32
over some time period, 1020
3. Most maps of air pressure feature the large capi-
like a month or a year. To
1024 tal letters H and L. An H represents an area of rela-
allow us to compare dif-
10 tively higher pressure called a high-pressure area or
ferent regions and to see 36
simply a high. An L represents a low-pressure area,
the larger patterns, the
1028
commonly called a low. An elongated area of high
map uses pressure values
pressure can be called a ridge of high pressure
that are corrected to sea 102
4 1024
and an elongated area of low pressure is a trough.
level, or their sea-level
equivalent. In this way, we 0 4. The map patterns change with time, corre-
102 sponding to changes in air pressure that accom-
eliminate the effects of
differences in elevation 1020 pany changes in weather. Patterns typical for a
from place to place. region also change from season to season.
How Do Variations in Pressure Cause Air to Move?

Air moves because there are variations in air pressures, in density of the air, or in both. Such pressure and density variations
are mostly caused by differential temperatures of the air (due to differences in solar heating) or by air currents that converge
or diverge. The atmosphere is not a closed container, so air can compress or expand. The resulting volume changes can
make air pile up or spread out, causing variations in air pressure.
13.01.d1
Movement of air occurs to equalize a
difference in air pressure between two
adjacent areas (⊲), that is, a pressure
gradient. Air molecules in high-
pressure zones are packed more
closely together than in low-
pressure zones, so gas mole- 13.01.d2
cules in high-pressure zones
tend to spread out toward low-pressure zones. As a result, air moves from higher to lower High-pressure zones and low-pressure zones can
pressure, in the simplest case (as shown here) perpendicular to isobars. be formed by atmospheric currents that converge
or diverge (▲). Converging air currents compress
more air into a smaller space, increasing the air
pressure. Diverging air currents move air away
Describing Wind Directions from an area, causing lower pressure.
W
13.01.t1
ind direction is conveyed as the

direction from which the wind is Before You Leave This Page
blowing. Wind direction is commonly
expressed with words, such as a northerly Explain what air pressure is and how we
wind (blowing from the north). It can also be measure it.
described as an azimuth in degrees clockwise
from north. In this scheme, north is 0°, east is Explain how atmospheric pressure
090°, south is 180°, and west is 270°. changes with altitude.
The atmosphere also has vertical motion, Describe how air pressure is portrayed on
such as convection due to heating of the surface
13.1
maps, what low- and high-pressure zones

by sunlight. A local, upward flow is an updraft, are, and how variations in air pressure
and a downward one is a downdraft. cause air to move.
370
13.2 What Causes Some Local and Regional Winds?

VA RI AT I O N S IN A IR PR E SS UR E cause wind at all scales, from local winds affecting a relatively small area to
regional ones affecting large parts of the globe. The origin and patterns of such winds reflect influences from unequal
heating by sunlight, by heat related to the evaporation of liquid water and the condensation of water vapor, by differing
thermal responses of land versus sea, and other factors. Such circulations contribute to the climate of a place, which in
turn influence many aspects of geology.
What Causes Breezes Along Coasts to Reverse Direction Between Day and Night?
An example of how local conditions can cause local winds is experienced by people who live along coasts, where gentle
winds sometimes blow in from the sea and at other times blow toward the sea. The gentle wind is called a sea breeze if it
blows from sea in toward the land and a land breeze if it blows from the land out to sea. Such breezes are mostly due to
differences in the way that land and sea warm up during the day and cool down at night. A key aspect of these winds is
that heated air is less dense and rises, while air that is cooled is more dense and sinks.
The Sea Breeze (Daytime) 2. At the same time, air over the water body is cooled by the relatively cool water temperatures and
by cooling associated with evaporation. The relatively cool air over the water sinks, inducing a local
1. During daytime hours, land heats up high-pressure area over the water.
significantly, particularly in summer. Land 3. The difference between
heats up more overall and more rapidly the low pressure over land
than water does. The hot air over the and the high pressure over
land surface rises, inducing a local low- the water represents a pres-
pressure area over the land. sure gradient, which pushes
air near the surface from
higher pressure to lower
13.02.a2 Frankfort, MI pressure. This flow is an
onshore breeze or sea
breeze that feels cool to
people on the beach.
13.02.a1
5. In this photograph (⊳), heating of the land causes air 4. Air aloft moves in the opposite direction,
over the land to rise, drawing in moist air from the adjacent from land to sea. This is a response to an
water. Rising of the moist air along the coast forms thin, upper-level pressure gradient caused by the
scattered clouds, but can draw in much thicker masses of “extra” air rising over land and less upper-
clouds, forming coastal fog and overcast skies. level air over the sea, due to air sinking.
The Land Breeze (Nighttime) 7. The water body doesn’t cool as much at night, so air over the water stays relatively warm compared
to the air over the land. Therefore, this air rises, generating relatively low pressure over the water body.
6. At night, land cools significantly,
particularly if there isn’t much cloud 8. The difference between
cover. The relatively cool air over the the high pressure over land
land surface sinks, inducing a surface and the low pressure over
high pressure area. Sometime in the the water is a pressure gra-
evening hours, the surface low dient. The pressure-gradient
formed over the land during the force pushes near-surface air
day weakens and becomes a high. from higher to lower pres-
sure, from the land to the
water as an offshore breeze
13.02.a4 Philippines or land breeze.
13.02.a3
11. In this photograph (⊳),

an early morning offshore 9. Aloft, the air that rose over the low pressure over the water flows toward land in
flow, from the land to the order to replace the air that sank to create the surface high.
sea, pushes moist air off-
shore, moving clouds out 10. The strength of sea and land breezes is proportional to the difference in tempera-
to sea and causing clear ture between the water and land. The land breeze circulation strengthens through the
conditions along the night, begins to weaken at sunrise, and stops sometime in the morning. Then, the wind
shoreline. reverses to a sea breeze, which then strengthens until peaking in the afternoon.
Why Do Regional Wind Patterns Develop?

The Sun warms equatorial regions of Earth more than the poles, setting up a flow of warm air toward the poles.
This flow of warm air is balanced by a flow of cold air from the poles toward the equator. Earth’s rotation
complicates the wind directions, producing curving patterns of circulating wind.
Rotation and Deflection Prevailing Winds

1. Earth is a spinning globe, with the equatorial 5. Recall that wind direction is referenced by the direction from which
region having a higher spin velocity than polar regions. it is coming. A wind coming from the west is said to be a “west wind.”
As a result, air moving north or south has an appar- A wind that generally blows from the west is a westerly.
ent deflection sideways caused by the rotation,
a response called the Coriolis effect. 6. Polar regions receive the least solar heating and are
very cold. Surface winds move away from the poles,
2. Sunlight strikes equatorial regions carrying cold air with them. Polar easterlies blow
more directly than it does areas away from the North Pole and are deflected
closer to the poles and so prefer- toward the west by Earth’s rotation.
entially heats the e quatorial
regions. As Earth rotates, the 7. Westerlies dominate a central belt
Sun’s heat forms a band across the United States and Europe, so
of warm air that encir- weather in these areas generally
cles the globe and is moves from west to east.
re-energized by sun-
light each day. 8. Northeast trade winds blow from
the northeast and were named by
sailors, who took advantage of the
winds to sail from the Old World
to the New World.
9. Southeast trade winds blow

3. Warmed equatorial from the southeast toward the
air rises and flows equator. Near the equator, they con-
north and south, away verge with the northeast trade winds
from the equator. Air at in a stormy boundary called the Inter-
the surface flows toward tropical Convergence Zone.
the equator to replace
the air that rises. The 10. Westerlies also occur in the Southern
Coriolis effect deflects this Hemisphere and are locally very strong
surface wind toward the west. because this belt is mostly over the oceans
and has few continents to disrupt winds.
4. These flows of air combine into huge,
tube-shaped cells of circulating winds, called flow 13.02.b1 11. Polar easterlies flow away from the South Pole
cells. Some flow cells have surface winds flowing toward and deflect toward the west but are mostly on the
the poles. Others have winds flowing toward the equator. back side of the globe in this view.
Why the Coriolis Effect Occurs

12. How does the Coriolis 13. Therefore, as air moves toward the
effect deflect air (and water) poles, it is rotating faster toward the
movement on Earth’s east than the land over which it
surface? Air, like the sur- moves. It appears from the sur- Before You Leave This Page
face, is being carried face to be deflected to the east.
around Earth by rota-
14. The opposite occurs as Sketch and explain how surface
tion. The surface has
a faster velocity air moves toward the equa- temperature differences result in
near the equator tor and encounters areas variations in air pressure and changing
than at the poles with a faster surface veloc- wind directions along coasts.
because it has to ity. The air appears to lag Sketch and explain the directions and
travel a greater behind, deflecting to the causes of global wind patterns.
distance in 24 hours. west as if it were being left
13.2
Thick, blue arrows show behind by Earth’s rotation. Sketch and explain the Coriolis
the rate of rotation. effect and how it influences global
13.02.b2
wind patterns.
372
13.3 Why Does It Rain, Snow, and Hail?

PRECIPITATION TAKES THE FORM of water drops, snowflakes, and hail. Whether precipitation occurs and which
of these forms it takes depends on conditions in the atmosphere. A key factor is the amount of water vapor in the air,
or the humidity. With enough humidity and the proper conditions of temperature, and to a lesser extent pressure, water
drops and ice crystals can form, producing clouds. If the drops and crystals become large and dense enough, they will
fall toward the Earth’s surface as precipitation — rain, snow, or hail.
What Controls the Physical State of Water in the Atmosphere?

Water occurs in three phases in the atmosphere: vapor, liquid, and solid. It converts between the different phases in response
to changes in its temperature and pressure.
1. Evaporation and Condensation 2. Droplet and Snowflake Formation

13.03.a2
Evaporation occurs when individual water molecules escape as As water vapor con-
gas from liquid water. These molecules mix with the n itrogen, denses, it forms micro-
oxygen, and other gases in the atmosphere. Evaporation at the drops, which can join to
ocean’s surface is the primary contributor of water vapor to the form larger falling
atmosphere, but evaporation occurs from any body of water on drops. As they fall,
Earth’s surface, including lakes, rivers, wetlands, and canals. drops flatten due to
wind resistance. Some
13.03.a1
Condensation occurs drops may break apart
when water vapor when they become too
molecules in air bind large. Others evaporate
together to form drop- while still in the air, pro-
lets of liquid water. viding vapor molecules
Condensation usually that can be incorpo-
occurs when air cools, rated into other drops
as when air rises and or into ice crystals of
expands. Water drop- snow and hail.
lets produced by con-
densation form most The solid phase of water consists of ice crystals in snowflakes and in
clouds. Additional con- hail. Snow and ice form at cooler atmospheric conditions, producing
densation occurs to clouds at high altitudes and in colder climates. Once formed, hail and
create raindrops. snow can fall toward Earth’s surface or remain suspended in clouds.
3. Water: Vapor, Liquid, and Ice 4. Cooling and Heating the Air
Each of the three phases of water can exist at Earth’s present-day When water in the atmosphere changes phase, it releases or takes in
surface temperatures. This graph shows conditions under which thermal energy, heating or cooling the surrounding air. This diagram illus-
each phase is stable in terms of temperature and atmospheric trates the change in air temperature during phase changes. Red arrows
pressure. A pressure of 1.0 bar is close to the average atmospheric indicate that the air heats up,
13.03.a4
pressure at sea level, and 25°C is a standard temperature. and blue arrows indicate that
the surrounding air must pro-
13.03.a3 Ice occurs at low temper- 1.0 vide heat to the phase
atures, whereas liquid change, and so the air cools.
PRESSURE (bars)
1.0 and water vapor are

favored by higher
Liquid
PRESSURE (bars)
temperatures. Higher Energy must be released into

pressure acts to hold the Ice
the surroundings for water to
Liquid water molecules within go from a less ordered to a
the liquid rather than 0.005 Vapor
more ordered molecular state.
allowing them to escape Heat is released (red arrows)
0.005 Ice into the air. This graph
Vapor explains why the cooling 0.01 when water vapor forms
TEMPER 100˚C droplets or ice crystals, or
of water vapor in air, ATURE
when liquid water freezes.
0.01 whether by a passing
TEMPER 100˚C cold front or by causing
ATURE
air to rise and cool over a Heat is taken in from the surroundings (blue arrows) when ice melts or
mountain, can cause rain. water evaporates, or ice sublimates directly into vapor. This cools the air.
How Do Water Droplets Form and Grow? 13.03.b2
1. An important factor in how water droplets in a 3. The figure to the right
cloud grow to become raindrops is that the immense illustrates what can hap-
drops are huge compared to the size of water drop- pen to a moving water
lets that form a cloud, as shown by their relative sizes drop that interacts with
in the properly scaled diagram below. smaller cloud droplets
around it.
4. Some larger drops

form when liquid water
droplets in clouds merge
and grow to a size that
can be pulled down by
gravity. A water droplet
begins to fall as soon as
the downward-directed
gravitational force 5. In other cases, the 6. Alternatively, wind resis-
exceeds the upward- smaller droplets simply tance can reshape the fall-
directed force of rising slide past the falling drop, ing drop until it breaks into
air. This occurs sooner because the collision is separate drops. In this way,
for larger droplets than not enough to break the a falling raindrop becomes
13.03.b1
for smaller droplets, and surface tension that tends smaller, which can also
the larger drop over- to keep each drop intact. occur if water molecules on
2. It is energetically difficult for the tiny water droplets takes the smaller drop- In this case, the falling the outside of the drop
in clouds to just form by themselves, but it is easier for lets on their descent, drop will not increase in simply evaporate into the
them to form if they condense around even tinier par- making the falling drop size as it falls. This situa- surrounding air.
ticles, such as dust, salt, and smoke. Due to this role, even larger. Eventually it tion is likely under many
such particles are called condensation nuclei. falls as a raindrop. atmospheric conditions.
How Do Ice Crystals Form and Help Raindrops Grow?

1. If the conditions are cold enough, a situation common in 3. Through this process, water molecules
many clouds, the water freezes, becoming small crystals of can move back and forth among water
ice, or snowflakes. If the flakes are large and dense vapor, water drops, and snowflakes. In a
enough, they can fall toward the ground, causing snow. somewhat complicated process, this trans-
fer of water molecules makes it easier to
2. If temperatures are close to freezing, water vapor, water form water drops and snowflakes large
drops, and snowflakes can all occur at the same time. enough to fall toward the ground. The
Under these conditions, water drops can be evaporating, main reason for this is that it is easier to
producing more water vapor. This added water vapor can grow an existing water drop or ice crystal
remain as vapor, rejoin and enlarge a water drop, or add than it is to start a new one.
more ice to the outside of a snowflake. In a similar way,
snowflakes can be losing water molecules into water vapor,
which can enlarge other drops and snowflakes. 13.03.c1
13.03.c2 Phoenix, AZ
4. Hail is a ball of ice, called a hailstone, that forms Before You Leave This Page
under freezing temperatures within certain types of
storm clouds. Once formed, hailstones can fall Describe the processes of water
toward the surface and be anywhere between pea- evaporation and condensation,
sized (⊲) to larger than a baseball. Large hail that including the formation of raindrops
reaches the surface can do so at high enough and snowflakes.
speeds and with enough force to smash windows,
dent cars, and destroy entire fields of crops. Sketch and describe how water drops
can change in size with time.
5. Hail forms when vertical air currents (updrafts and downdrafts) within a cloud cause a particle Summarize how snowflakes and hail
13.3
of ice to be taken up and down within a cloud, causing the outer part of the ice crystal to alter- form, and how water molecules can
natively thaw and refreeze. This causes successive layers of ice to build up, forming a hailstone, move between water vapor, water
which can eventually become so large that wind currents cannot keep it aloft and the hailstone drops, and snowflakes.
crashes toward the Earth’s surface.
374
13.4 How Does Rising Air Cause Precipitation?

PRECIPITATION TAKES THE FORM of water drops, snowflakes, and hail. It occurs when moisture-rich air is lifted
or cooled in the atmosphere. Surface water evaporates, is carried in the atmosphere, and then returns as precipitation.
This movement of water transfers energy from place to place and shifts energy between the ocean and atmosphere.
This helps regulate our climate.
What Happens When Water Evaporates or Condenses?

The evaporation and condensation of water are linked processes that occur continuously in the atmosphere.
The atmosphere contains about 1% water vapor, but the percentage varies greatly from place to place.
1. Sunlight heats an 2. Wind moves the vapor-enriched air 3. As air rises over mountains, it expands and cools. This causes the water
ocean or a lake, across the water or, in some cases, molecules to combine and form liquid droplets or ice crystals, which form
raising its surface carries the moisture over the land. clouds. If the drops and ice crystals become large enough, they fall toward
temperature and Earth, or precipitate as rain, snow or hail.
causing liquid water
13.04.a1
to evaporate into
water vapor and mix
with the air. The
solar-heated air, with
its supply of water
vapor, then rises
through higher,
cooler air layers. As
the air rises, it cre-
ates a low-pressure
zone, drawing in air
from surrounding
regions (not shown).
4. In the area shown here, much of
the vapor condenses and precipitates on the windward
side of a mountain range (to the left). A dry region, called a rain
shadow, forms on the downwind side of the range, forming a desert to the far right.
What Are Weather Fronts and How Do They Cause Clouds and Precipitation?
Earth’s atmosphere has some masses of air that are relatively cold and others that are warmer. The narrow zone separating
two different air masses is called a weather front and is often the site of rising atmospheric motion. Whenever different air
masses meet along a front, the less dense, warmer air will be pushed up over the more dense, colder air. If the rising air
cools enough, cloud formation will begin, perhaps followed by precipitation. There are three main types of fronts, which
differ in the manner in which one air mass is displacing the other.
Cold Front Warm Front Stationary Front

1. In a cold front, the cold air mass displaces 3. In a warm front, a warm air mass follows 5. Sometimes, for a period of several hours or
the warm air mass. Cold air is more dense and displaces a cool air mass. As it does, it days, neither the cold air mass nor the warm
and stays close to the ground, forcing the slides up and over the colder air. air mass is displacing the other. There is a
warm air upward in a relatively narrow band. temporary stall in motion of the front, and so
13.04.b2
such a stalled front is a stationary front.

13.04.b1
13.04.b3
4. If the rising air cools to a low enough

temperature, a layer of sheetlike clouds forms,
perhaps accompanied by precipitation.
Compared to a cold front, the clouds and
2. If the rising warm air cools enough, thick, precipitation along a warm front are spread 6. A stationary front can have characteristics
puffy clouds form, often followed by precipita- out over a significant width. Under some of a cold front or a warm front, but is not mov-
tion and locally severe weather. conditions, freezing rain can occur. ing as much or at all.
How Do Weather Maps Depict Weather Fronts and High and Low Pressure?
Weather maps contain information about high-pressure and low-pressure regions in the atmosphere as well
as the location and movement of weather fronts separating masses of warm and cold air.
1. A low-pressure system (L) has 3. The location of a
relatively low atmospheric pressure. warm front is marked by
Areas of low pressure lift and cool a red line decorated with
moist air, causing rain and other types red semicircles that point
of unsettled weather. In the Northern in the direction of move-
Hemisphere, winds and clouds ment of the front.
flow counterclockwise around a low-
pressure system because of the
Coriolis effect. 4. Cold fronts are blue
lines with blue teeth
pointing in the direction
2. A high-pressure system (H) has
in which the cold air
relatively high atmospheric pressure.
mass is moving.
High pressure is accompanied by
sinking air and is generally associ-
ated with fair weather (i.e., not rainy 5. Stationary fronts
or stormy). In the Northern Hemi- are shown with alter-
sphere, air circulates clockwise nating red and blue
around the center, and winds diverge lines. On this map, a
from its center. In the Southern Hemi- stationary front runs
sphere, circulation directions are north-south through
reversed (counterclockwise around the western U.S. and
highs and clockwise around lows). into western Canada.
13.04.c1
How Does Large-Scale Atmospheric Circulation Affect Precipitation?

Differential solar radiation drives circulation both in the atmosphere and in the oceans. The atmospheric circulation patterns
that develop draw cooler air toward zones of low pressure. These large-scale circulation patterns, or cells, result in different
climatic zones encircling Earth.
1. The area north of 60° north, roughly corresponding to the polar region, is dominated by the northernmost cir-
culation cell. In this cell, cold air descends at the pole and surface winds bring this cold air south. A similar situa-
tion occurs in the south polar region. Both polar regions have very cold temperatures, and most precipitation
in these areas is as snow. This perspective shows the North Pole, but not the South Pole.
2. Most of Europe (and the mainland United States) is affected by a large but often poorly
defined circulation cell between 30° and 60° north. At the northern boundary of this cell, north-
moving air at the surface meets the air flowing south from the pole, causing the air to rise
and cool, promoting rain and snow along the boundary.
3. Sunlight has its maximum heating

effect at Earth’s equator, where ris-
ing hot air forms a band of low pres-
sure. The rising air cools, causing
condensation and significant rainfall Before You Leave This Page
that causes many equatorial lands to
be tropical forests and jungles, such Sketch and describe how water
as the Congo of central Africa. After enters, moves in, and leaves the
rising and losing water vapor, the air atmosphere, causing rainfall along a
flows aloft away from the equator, mountain front and a rain shadow.
descends, and then flows back
toward the equator. Sketch and describe a cold front,
warm front, and stationary front,
4. Near 30° south and 30° north, in
indicating how they are shown on a
regions called the subtropics, cells com-
weather map.
13.04.d1 ing from the south and north meet and form
13.4
descending masses of air. This downward flow Summarize how large-scale

dries out the air in these regions, resulting in low rainfall. atmospheric circulation affects
Such dry regions include the Sahara and Kalahari Deserts precipitation and climate.
of Africa, deserts of the Middle East, and deserts of the American Southwest.
376
13.5 How Do Hurricanes, Tornadoes,

and Other Storms Develop?
HURRICANES, TORNADOES, AND OTHER SEVERE STORMS are some of nature’s most awe-inspiring spectacles.
A hurricane can last for days and travel thousands of kilometers across the sea, spreading heat and moisture over a
wide region. Other storm events, such as supercell thunderstorms and tornadoes, are generally land-based disturbances
that last from minutes to hours. How do such storms form, and how do they operate?
What Is a Hurricane?
Tropical hurricanes, typhoons, and cyclones are all names for immense seasonal storms that form primarily in the warm
waters of the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian oceans, respectively. They are characterized by swirling high-velocity wind, heavy
rain, and high storm surges that cause high waves and flooding ahead of the storm.
1. Hurricanes and related storms 5. Dry air flows down the center of the storm, compresses, and evaporates 4. Hurricanes, like other
are huge, circulating masses of clouds, forming a cylinder of relatively clear, calm air, called the eye. low-pressure zones, spiral
clouds and warm, moist air. They counterclockwise in the
are zones of low atmospheric Northern Hemisphere. The
pressure that cause air to rise overall path of the hurri-
and condense, creating cane is steered by air
locally intense rainfall. currents high in the
atmosphere.
2. Warm ocean water in the
hot tropics is the driving force
in hurricane formation.
Warm water evaporates
from the sea surface,
mixes with the air, and
rises. As the warm, 3. If the
vapor-rich air rises, hurricane
it cools and its vapor encounters
condenses to liquid additional
water (rain). Condensa- warm, evaporating water
13.05.a1
tion heats the air, which as it moves, more heat is added, wind increases,
rises higher and draws in more and the hurricane grows in strength and size. A hurricane
moisture-rich air to replace the rising air. dissipates in strength when it passes over land or cool water.
Why Do Hurricanes Rotate? Where Do Hurricanes Occur?

6. Earth’s rotation deflects air and water movement on its surface 8. Hurricanes are most common between the subtropics and the equator,
in accordance with the Coriolis effect. The rotation of hurricanes is and they occur seasonally as seawater warms.
13.05.a3
one manifestation of this effect. The Coriolis effect deflects moving
air to the right of its trajectory in the Northern H
emisphere
and to the left of its trajectory in the Southern Hemisphere. June-
June- August-
December October
November
7. When a low-pres-
sure zone forms by the
heating of air at the
June-October
ocean’s surface, cool
air flowing in from all
directions is deflected January-March
by the Coriolis effect.
This produces a vortex January-March
shape. This deflection
to the right forms the
counterclockwise spin 9. Hurricanes can form only in warm sea-surface water temperatures, in the
of Northern Hemi- regions portrayed on this map in shades of orange. D
ue to seasonal effects,
sphere hurricanes. different parts of the oceans reach these temperatures at different times, so
hurricanes arise during various months, as shown on this map.
13.05.a2
What Is a Supercell Thunderstorm?

Supercell thunderstorms are huge compared to ordinary thunderstorms, and they account for most of the damage caused by
thunderstorm activity. These storms can generate powerful tornadoes and can last for hours.
13.05.b2 Carrizo Mtns., AZ
1. Thunderstorms (⊳) are columns of turbulent, moist air with 2. Some large thunderstorms, including supercell
variable amounts of lightning, thunder, rain, hail, and strong wind. thunderstorms, are capped by a rounded upper
Well-developed thunderstorms develop a flat-topped, anvil dome. This indicates that strong updrafts are
shape. The long point of the anvil generally points in the direc- taking moist air up higher than is typical for an
tion the storm is moving (left to right in the figure below). average thunderstorm.
13.05.b1
3. A supercell
thunderstorm begins
as a horizontal vortex
7. Microbursts are strong, downward-mov-
or spinning air mass
ing winds that can flatten trees or struc-
that becomes vertical.
tures. Unlike tornadoes, microbursts typi-
All supercells have
cally produce winds that move in a
a rotating updraft.
straight line, rather than rotating.
4. Intense rain and

hail form within the
storm and fall
toward the ground,
often in brief but heavy 5. Strong upward-moving winds, called updrafts, 6. Lightning results from electrical currents within the storm. It
bursts (downpours). can rotate, spawning tornadoes as extensions can discharge in the air or reach the ground. Thunder results
of the updraft. About one-third of supercell from rapid heating and expansion of the air along the path of
thunderstorms form tornadoes. the lightning bolt.
What Are Tornadoes and Where Do They Strike?

Tornadoes are violent, rotating funnel-shaped columns of air that extend down to the ground. A funnel that does not reach
the ground is called a funnel cloud. Tornadoes and funnel clouds develop in thunderstorms and along weather fronts where
storm rotation is initiated. Wind speed in a tornado is commonly hundreds of kilometers per hour. Each year, tornadoes
destroy parts of towns, like Xenia, Ohio (1974), Joplin, Missouri (2011), and Tuscaloosa, Alabama (2011).
13.05.c2 Eastern Colorado
Tornadoes in the United States occur mostly
in the central and eastern parts of the country,
in what is sometimes called tornado alley.
Tornado alley is the large, orange and red
area in the center of the map (⊳).
Describe how hurricanes form and

▲ Most tornadoes where they get the energy to grow.
have a downward- Sketch and summarize the various
tapering funnel characteristics of a supercell
13.05.c1
shape, but some are thunderstorm.
shaped like a wide
13.5
cylinder. Many are Describe the characteristics of

dangerously obscured tornadoes, what they represent, and
within accompanying where in the U.S. they are common.
heavy rain and hail.
378
13.6 What Is the Global Pattern of Surface Currents?

O C E A N C U R R E N TS C IRC U LATE huge volumes of seawater across entire oceans and also toward and away
from the equator. In addition to moving water, ocean currents transfer large amounts of energy as well, carrying warm
waters toward the poles and cold water toward the equator. Ocean currents have major influences on the climate and
dominant geologic processes characteristic of a region. The global figure below depicts major surface currents in the
oceans. The smaller globes and accompanying text each highlight major currents in different regions. The details about
individual currents are less important than the overall patterns.
1. This large map shows the locations, flow directions, and characteristics of ocean currents on a global scale. Warm currents are shown in red, and
cold currents are shown in blue. Adjacent warm and cold currents can link up in an oval-shaped circulation pattern called a gyre.
13.06.a1
Indian Ocean Western Pacific Ocean

2. Most of the Indian Ocean lies south of the equator. 3. The largest ocean basin on Earth, the Pacific basin, displays two gyres, each
Surface circulation in the Indian Ocean is dominated by centered in the subtropics, one in the Northern Hemisphere and one in the
the flow around a gyre in the subtropics, consisting of (1) Southern Hemisphere.
the warm, south-flowing Mozambique Current east of
Africa, (2) the cool, north-flow- 4. Northwestern Pacific: Water enters the
ing Western Australian western Pacific driven by westward flow on
Current, and (3) a either side of the equator. As waters north
west-flowing seg- of the equator approach the Philippines
ment along the and Asia, they turn north, carrying warm
equator to com- water past southern China and Japan
plete the loop. in the Kuroshio Current. At about 40° N,
South of 40° S, this flow then turns east as the
waters become North Pacific Current.
entwined with
the Antarctic 5. Southwestern Pacific: South of the
Circumpolar equator, a west-flowing current along
Current. Surface the equator turns south down the east
flow patterns coast of Australia as the warm East
vary seasonally. Australian Current. Farther south, it
becomes enmeshed with the strong West
13.06.a2
Wind Drift, driving eastward toward South 13.06.a3
America.
Northern Atlantic Ocean Southern Atlantic Ocean

6. The Atlantic Ocean north of the equator consists of a wide part 7. The part of the Atlantic Ocean south of
between North America and Africa (the the equator, between South America and
central Atlantic) and a narrower part Africa, is the south Atlantic. Within
between North America and this region is a subtropical gyre,
Europe (the north Atlantic). which includes the cold
Within the central Atlantic is Benguela Current, which flows
a subtropical gyre that north along the western coast
includes the northerly flow- of southern Africa. After flow-
ing Gulf Stream, which ing west, the gyre turns
transports warm water up south along the eastern
the East Coast of the U.S. coast of South America,
To the north, the Gulf becoming the warm Brazil
Stream gives way to the Current. To the south, this
North Atlantic Drift, which current is deflected to the
brings warmth and moisture east by its interactions with the
to northwestern Europe. From Antarctic Circumpolar Current,
Europe, the cooler Canary Cur- 13.06.a5 flowing eastward.
13.06.a4
rent flows south along the coast
of northwest Africa.
Arctic Ocean Northern Pacific Ocean

8. Unlike its southern equivalent, the 9. A subtropical gyre in the Pacific pro-
northern polar region, north of duces a cold current, the California
80° N, is occupied entirely by Current, that flows southward,
ocean. The major outlets down the west coast of North
include the Pacific basin by America. This accounts for
means of the cold Bering the relatively cold waters off
Current, and the Atlantic Califormia beaches. Some
via the Labrador and east-moving, warm water
Greenland currents, which turns northward along the
bring cool water down the coast of northern British
east coast of Canada and Columbia and Alaska as
Greenland. A major flow of the Alaska Current, bring-
warm ocean waters into the ing somewhat warmer
Arctic Ocean is accom- waters to these coasts.
plished by the North Atlantic
13.06.a6
Drift flowing northward along 13.06.a7
the coast of northwestern Europe.
Southeastern Pacific Ocean Southern Ocean

10. The cold waters of a current flow- 11. Ocean waters surrounding Antarctica
ing east from Australia turn north are regarded as the southern parts of
along the west coast of South the Pacific, Indian, and Atlantic
America. During this long oceans. No land interruptions
track across the southern other than the southern tip of
Pacific, the waters turn South America and New Zea-
cold and form a very pro- land exist in this region. The
nounced cold current, entire polar zone is occupied
called the Humboldt by continental Antarctica.
Current. As the Humboldt Strong pressure gradients
Current approaches the and relative lack of land
equator, it turns back to interruptions induce extremely
the west, toward Australia, strong westerly winds at these
to complete the circuit of latitudes. Circling around
this huge gyre. Antarctica is the strong Antarctic
13.06.a8 13.06.a9 Circumpolar Current. 13.6
Before You Leave Sketch and explain the main patterns of ocean currents in the Northern Hemisphere versus those in
This Page the Southern Hemisphere, noting similarities and differences with a simple one-ocean model.
380
13.7 How Do Ocean Currents Influence Climate?

EARTH’S OCEANS ARE UNEVENLY HEATED by the Sun. This results in large differences in sea-surface tem-
perature (SST), which varies from bath-water warm in the tropics to nearly freezing near the poles and in the deeper
parts of the ocean. There are also regional variations in salinity of seawater, primarily resulting from regional differ-
ences in evaporation, precipitation, and freezing. Shallow surface currents are driven mostly by the wind, whereas deep
currents are driven by density differences caused by variations in temperature and salinity of the water. A linked sys-
tem, involving deep flow and surface currents, controls many climates on Earth.
How Do Sea-Surface Temperatures Vary from Place to Place?

13.07.a1 13.07.a2
1. These two globes both show 4. The patterns of SST reflect the
SST averaged over the entire influence of ocean currents. Com-
year and over several pare the patterns of SST with the
decades. Red and orange main ocean currents identified
represent the warmest tem- on previous pages. In the
peratures, purple and blue northern Atlantic Ocean, the
indicate the coldest tem- Gulf Stream current pushes
peratures, and green and warm water along the east-
yellow show intermediate ern coast of North America.
temperatures. What are Colder waters off the coast
the main patterns? of Africa are due to cold cur-
rents returning water away
2. The most obvious pat- from the poles.
tern in the SST data, not
surprisingly, is the large tem- 5. Waters off the west
perature change between coast of South America are
low-latitude regions (i.e., relatively cold, owing to the
near the equator and in the cold Humboldt Current that
adjacent subtropics) and brings very cold water from
polar regions. Polar regions 3. Note, however, that the warmest seas (in red) are not necessarily along the near Antarctica northward
are green, blue, and purple equator. Although this region receives the most sunlight, and so might be along the coast. Waters off
(from cold to coldest) on this expected to have the warmest seas, the equator is overlain by rising air and so California are also cooled
globe — they are the coldest commonly has cloud cover that reflects some sunlight. Some of the warmest by the cold, south-flowing
seas on Earth. seas are therefore in the subtropics, where descending air dries out the sur- California current.
face, limiting cloud cover and permitting more sunlight to reach the water.
Where Do Deep Ocean Currents Flow?

Oceans have distinct currents at different depths. A deep-water current called the thermohaline conveyor takes deep water
on a long journey. The conveyor is driven by variations in density of seawater caused by differences in temperature and
salinity. Water that is cold or especially saline is denser than warm or less saline water. Follow the flow counterclockwise
around the figure.
1. A northerly flowing current moves warm, salty water up toward 4. The deep water flows northward, surfacing in the northern
the cold North Atlantic. Cold waters from the Greenland Pacific (6), bringing deep-sea-derived nutrients that
Sea (1) on the map and the Labrador Sea make this area rich in marine life.
(2) cool these salty waters in the North After surfacing, the current loops
Atlantic, making them sufficiently dense back to the south and then west
to descend deep into the Atlantic. to complete the loop. The entire
trip takes about 1,000 years.
2. The dense, deep water flows
south through the Atlantic Ocean,
between Africa and the Americas, 3. Most of the deep waters
crossing the equator, and turning continue eastward toward
east (3) when it encounters Ant- the Pacific (4), where they
arctica. It mixes with dense, turn north, crossing the
salty water left over from the equator. Some deep
formation of sea ice near waters turn north into
Antarctica (freezing excludes the Indian Ocean (5),
salt, so water left behind by where they are
freezing is relatively salty). forced upward.
13.07.b1
How Do Ocean Currents Affect Temperatures and Precipitation on Land?

The temperatures of surface currents, combined with the prevailing wind, control many local climates. Oceans heat up and
cool more slowly than land, and so they help moderate temperatures.
Surface Currents The Gulf Stream

1. The combination of wind patterns and surface currents has a 5. The Gulf Stream brings waters heated from the tropics to the North
controlling effect on climate. Atlantic, helping warm the region.
13.07.c1
13.07.c2
2. The warm East 6. When warm
Australian Current flows waters of the
south along the Gulf Stream
continent’s east side. enter the
North Atlantic,
3. Prevailing easterly they lose
winds pick up some heat
moisture from the to wind that
current and then flow blows to
over Australia, caus- the east.
ing rain along the
east coast.
7. Winds blowing from the ocean toward the land help moderate land
4. The driest continent on Earth would likely be even drier temperatures and bring moist air over northern Europe, influencing
without the moisture associated with this warm current. its temperature and rainfall.
El Niño and La Niña

8. Periodically, the Pacific Equatorial Counter Current, which flows east across the Pacific toward South America, naturally strengthens or weakens.
This significantly changes the weather conditions across the Pacific for up to a year at a time. A stronger-than-normal current causes what is called
an El Niño condition and a weaker-than-normal current is a La Niña condition. These are clearly visible on maps of satellite data for sea-surface
temperatures. Warm colors (red and orange) show warmer seas, whereas cool colors (blue and purple) show cooler water.
9. El Niño occurs when 10. The increased sea temperatures in the east-
warmer-than-average ocean ern Pacific Ocean during an El Niño condition
surface temperatures occur lead to increased evaporation, causing more
in the central and east-central rainfall in nearby parts of South and Central
equatorial Pacific. This image America. In the United States, El Niño conditions
shows the p attern of are expressed by warmer-than-normal winters in
increased sea-surface tem- the upper Midwest, cooler-than-normal winters
peratures (red and orange) in the Southeast, and increases in winter
during El Niño. precipitation in the Southwest. El Niño and La
Niña conditions also greatly affect ocean cur-
rents (not shown) and influence long-term warm-
ing and cooling trends on land.
13.07.c3
11. La Niña occurs when
the Pacific Equatorial
Counter Current weakens, Before You Leave This Page
accompanied by an
increase in easterly trade Sketch and describe the main flow of
winds. High sea-surface
surface currents in the Northern and
temperatures become
Southern Hemispheres and how they
restricted to the western
influence sea temperatures.
and central Pacific and the
region near Indonesia. Describe the thermohaline conveyor.
This causes an increase in
rainfall for nearby parts of Summarize how ocean currents
Australia and Indonesia. influence temperature and precipi
13.7
13.07.c4 tation on adjacent lands, using

12. La Niña causes cooler-than-average ocean surface temperatures in the eastern equatorial Australia, Europe, and El Niño
Pacific. In the U.S., this results in relatively drier and warmer winters in the South and Southwest, and La Niña effects as examples.
and warmer and wetter winters in the Northwest.
382
13.8 What Causes Short-Term Climatic Variations?

THE OVERALL CLIMATE OF A REGION is controlled by its latitude (how far north or south it is), its elevation,
the types of ocean currents that affect the region, the prevailing winds, and other factors. Many regions display dramatic
shifts in overall climate from season to season or over years and decades. These occur in response to changes in the
wind and ocean currents and to persistent, but atypical, weather patterns for that region. Such changes can bring the
onset of torrential rains or can bring drought. Temperature, wind, and rainfall patterns also change during the seasons,
from winter to summer or wet to dry.
What Is a Monsoon?
The word monsoon signifies a change in the prevailing wind direction from one season to another. In some areas, the
changing wind patterns cause torrential rainstorms.
1. The most dramatic monsoon 13.08.a1 3. As the moist air flows farther inland, it
affects India. During the summer begins to rise over the Himalaya, where it
months, the lands of Asia, such cools, forming thick clouds (▼). These thick
as the Gobi Desert north of clouds cause massive rainfall along the south
Tibet, heat up from the more flank of the range and impressive amounts of
direct summer sunlight. The snow in the higher peaks. The p recipitation is
heated air rises, producing heavy because of the extreme elevation
massive low-pressure zones change from the low-lying plains in India to
over the land. the high H imalaya.
2. Air over the Arabian 13.08.a2 Himalaya, Nepal and Tibet
Sea and Bay of Bengal
(parts of the Indian
Ocean) flows inland
toward the low-
pressure zones, bring-
ing ocean-derived
moisture with it. This
onshore flow of
moist air causes
an increase in the
amount of rainfall.
13.08.a3 13.08.a4

Explain what a monsoon is and
how it affects rainfall, using India
as an example.
Summarize some common
manifestations of drought and
three causes of drought.
Sketch and explain how the tilt of
4. These satellite images show increased vegetation due to monsoon-related rains along the Earth’s axis causes the seasons.
west coast of India. The left image is from May 2003, during the dry season, when wind patterns Include a sketch showing the
do not bring in moist air. The right image is from October 2003, right after the end of the mon- northern summer and one for the
soon. During the monsoon, winds from the south brought abundant moisture into the area. Note northern winter.
the increase in plant cover (green areas) during the monsoon-caused rainy s eason.
What Causes a Drought?

Drought is an extended period of below-average precipitation, either a relative lack of rainfall, lack of snowfall, or both.
Drought places stress on plants and animals and can cause normally green and fertile land to dry up into eroded, dusty
plains. Drought can cause water shortages by drying up streams, rivers, and lakes, and by decreasing flow into groundwater.
Three causes of drought are described below.
13.08.b1 13.08.b2 13.05.b3

A persistent weather pattern or change in Drought can be caused by weather patterns A temporary change in the direction or the
ocean currents can cause an unusual shift that are atypical for an area. Persistent high strength of an ocean current can last one
in wind direction. This can bring dry air pressure, with its sinking air, can cause a or more years, as occurs with La Niña,
over a region and cause drought. region to be drier than normal. causing a temporary change in climate,
possibly including drought.
How Does the Tilt of the Earth Cause the Seasons?

The reason why we have summer and winter has nothing to do with being closer to the Sun during some seasons. Instead, it
is because the spin axis of Earth is tilted relative to the plane in which Earth orbits around the Sun.
1. Earth’s orbit around the Sun is nearly circular, when viewed from 4. At this position of Earth, and on the one on
directly above the plane of the orbit (⊲). The axis about which the opposite side of the orbit, the spin axis is
Earth spins on a daily basis, to produce day and night, is tilted tilted neither toward nor away from the Sun,
relative to this plane. The spin axis does not change its ori- and the Northern and Southern Hemispheres
entation, except over time periods of thousands of years. experience spring or fall.
Over the course of a year as Earth orbits around the Sun,
Earth’s spin axis is tilted toward the Sun during some
months and away from the Sun during other months. As a
result, sunlight shines more directly on the Northern Hemi- 5. When Earth is in this position relative
sphere during some months and on the Southern Hemi- to the Sun, the spin axis is tilted away
sphere during other months, causing the seasons. from the Sun. This results in winter in
the Northern Hemisphere, as shown in
2. At some times of the year, Earth’s position in its the figure below.
orbit around the Sun causes the spin axis going
through the North Pole to be tilted toward the Sun. 13.08.c1
This results in the situation shown below. 6. When the spin axis is
tilted away from the Sun,
sunlight shining on the
3. When the spin axis Northern Hemisphere is
is tilted toward the less direct and has to
Sun, sunlight strikes travel through more
the Northern Hemi- atmosphere than sun-
sphere more directly, light hitting the Southern
and these direct rays Hemisphere. Less sun-
of sunlight pass light in the Northern
through less atmo- Hemisphere means less
sphere than rays energy transmitted back
striking the Southern to the atmosphere,
13.08.c2 13.08.c3
Hemisphere. More resulting in colder tem-
sunlight means more peratures and the north-
energy hitting the land and water, and more heat transmitted back ern winter. In contrast, the Southern Hemisphere now receives
13.8
to the atmosphere. This results in warmer temperatures, and sum- more direct sunlight and so experiences summer. When it is sum-
mer, in the Northern Hemisphere. In contrast, less sunlight strikes the mer in the Southern Hemisphere, it is winter in the Northern
Southern Hemisphere, and the Sun’s rays strike the Southern Hemi- Hemisphere, and vice versa. This would not be the case if the
sphere at an angle, so the Southern Hemisphere experiences winter. seasons were in any way related to distance from the Sun.
384
13.9 What Controls the Location of Rain Forests?

RAIN FORESTS CONTAIN EXTREMELY LUSH GROWTHS OF PLANTS and are one of Earth’s most important
ecosystems. Rain forests comprise only 2% of Earth’s land surface, yet hold nearly half of terrestrial life. The majority
of rain forests are tropical and lie along or close to the equator.
What Is a Rain Forest?

A forest with high annual rainfall, no freezing temperatures, and a rich collection of plant and animal communities is
a rain forest. Rain forests have the greatest diversity of species of any land ecosystem.
Tropical Rain Forests Temperate Rain Forests Rain Forest Structure 13.09.a3
1. Tropical rain forests are warm and humid, 2. Temperate rain forests experience cool 3. Treetops form a
supporting a multitude of plant and animal winters and are limited to certain coastal canopy or umbrella
species. They are the most abundant type of areas with high rainfall. Compared to tropical over the forest floor,
rain forest, with rapid plant growth caused by rain forests, they have lower plant density capturing most of
tropical heat and high amounts of rainfall. and less diverse vegetation and animals. the sunlight. Rain
13.09.a1 Costa Rica 13.09.a2 Forks, WA
forest canopies con-
tain most of the rain
forest’s species.
4. The understory

layer is shaded, so
the main plants in
this setting are short
with broad leaves.
5. The forest floor is

very dark, and organic debris decomposes rapidly.
The soil is highly leached by high amounts of
rainfall and so contains few nutrients.
Where Do Rain Forests Occur?

Most of the world’s rain forests lie in the tropics and are associated with the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ), the
sinuous line along the equator where the northeast and southeast trade winds converge. The ITCZ swings north and south
seasonally, shifting low pressure and immense rainfall to different regions. Temperate rain forests are not governed by the
ITCZ; instead, they are located along coastal mountains.
1. The Pacific Northwest contains almost two-thirds of the world’s temperate rain forests. In this area, 5. India’s rain forest
onshore winds bring winter rain and summer fog. locations are related to
13.09.b1
the ITCZ and to inland
2. The typical flow of moist air during
June position of the monsoon.
the ITCZ is the
6. Tropical rain forests,
orange band, and
including those in South-
the December
east Asia, thrive along the
position is the
equator, where every day
blue band.
has 12 hours of sunlight.
3. The Amazon Rising water-rich air within
in South Amer- low-pressure zones brings
ica is the world’s frequent rain to promote
largest and most lush plant growth.
diverse rain for- 7. Australia has both
est. The ITCZ is tropical and temperate
located over the rain forests. Rain is pro-
Amazon nearly vided by prevailing winds
year round. 4. The central African rain forest is the second largest in the world. It receives heavy rainfall that blow over warm
from the ITCZ for much of the year, but especially in December and January. ocean currents.
Why Are Rain Forests Disappearing?

Deforestation of rain forests is occurring at a rapid rate of millions of acres per year. The main cause of rain-forest
destruction is economic pressure, mostly in developing nations.
13.09.c2
1. Commercial logging for tropical hardwoods like 2. Exploitation of copper, gold, oil, and other
mahogany consumes large areas of rain forest. natural resources has destroyed tracts of rain
Logging commonly involves clear-cutting (⊳), where forest, especially in Africa, South America,
all the trees are removed. and Indonesia.
13.09.c3 Central America
3. Cattle ranchers clear rain for-

est and then plant pasture
grasses. Clearing the
land for whatever
reason allows
soil erosion.
This precludes
the reestablishment of 6. The greatest threat to
indigenous forest species. rain forests is subsistence
farming, where forests are
4. Major highway construction and road cleared by “slash-and-burn”
building in support of logging and other 5. Dam construction, practices (▲). This occurred in
development destroy swaths of forest. such as for hydroelectric countries such as Brazil, where
New roads provide arteries for other power, destroys forests in areas millions of homeless people
types of development, leading to more flooded by the reservoirs and may withhold 13.09.c1 were encouraged by their
loss of pristine rain forest. water from rivers downstream. government to farm poor soil.
What Role Do Rain Forests Play in Ecology?

Rain forests are critical ecosystems with key ecologic niches. Extreme rainfall (150–400 cm/yr) and infiltration into the
ground leaches nutrients from the soil. The rain forest ecosystem of plants, animals, insects, and microbes is nutrient
recycling — organisms die, rapidly decompose, and return nutrients to the system.
Carbon Dioxide Uptake Diversity Storehouse Local Climate

Rain forests are responsible for about 30% of Rain forests are estimated to contain at least Rain forests intercept and use solar energy
the photosynthetic activity on Earth. If CO2 lev- 5 million species of plants and animals. They that would otherwise strike the ground. As a
els in the atmosphere increase because of are the genetic storehouse for the world’s result, rain forest trees and plants provide
volcanic activity (▼) or other natural or human- ecology, including lush environments like the shade and help to keep the land underneath
related causes, rain forests can increase their trees and plants below. cooler and sheltered during the day.
CO2 uptake. Thus, they act as a buffer against 13.09.d2 Costa Rica
climate change.
13.09.d1 Hawaii
Describe the characteristics and
vertical structure of a rain forest.
Summarize where rain forests occur
and what conditions produce enough
precipitation to form a rain forest.
13.9
Explain threats to rain forests and why

rain forests are ecologically and
genetically important.
386
13.10
What Are Deserts and How Do They Form?
Deserts are dry lands, often with little vegetation, that cover around one-third of Earth’s land surface. It is a miscon-
ception that most deserts are barren sand dunes. Instead, deserts have plants and animals adapted to life in a dry envi-
ronment. What conditions create deserts, what controls desert locations, and are deserts expanding with time?
What Is a Desert?
An arid region receives less water as precipitation than it could lose to evaporation and other processes. In general,
arid regions that have less than 25 cm (10 in.) of rainfall per year tend to be deserts. Vegetation is sparse in deserts,
commonly covering less than 15% of the ground. Many deserts lack permanent streams, although some deserts contain
rivers that begin flowing from areas where rainfall is more abundant. Some examples of deserts are described below.
Sahara Desert and Sahel Mojave and Sonoran Deserts

13.10.a2 Joshua Tree NP, CA
1. This satellite image 3. The Mojave Desert of
shows the northern S outhern California (⊲)
half of Africa. Most of has rocky m ountain slopes
the region is tan and broad valleys, which
colored because it can be sandy or rocky.
consists of sand and Joshua Trees, shown here,
rock, with very sparse are locally common, but
vegetation. This tan vast areas of this desert
region is the Sahara have few large plants.
Desert, stretching from
Morocco to Egypt. 4. The Sonoran Desert of
Arizona receives more rain
13.10.a1 than the Mojave Desert,
much of it during a sum-
2. South of the Sahara is the Sahel, a region that is relatively dry but not quite a desert. mer monsoon. The
A region intermediate between a true desert and a more humid climate is called Sonoran has more cacti
semiarid or a steppe. The Sahel is vulnerable to the encroachment of deserts from the and other heat-adapted
north. The region has recently experienced a number of devastating droughts. plants. It can be quite
green (⊲) after spring rains.
13.10.a3 Bighorn Mtns., AZ
Where Do Deserts and Other Arid Lands Occur?

Examine the three globes below, which show deserts and other arid lands in tan. Where are most of the world’s arid
lands? Do they occur in certain settings? Compare the distribution of these lands with the (1) locations of atmospheric
cells of rising and descending air, and directions of prevailing wind, (2) locations and directions of ocean surface
currents, and (3) locations of mountains between the deserts and oceans. The latitude lines on these globes mark the
equator and 30° and 60° latitude.
These three globes do
not show Antarctica
because they are slightly
tilted to better display
the Northern Hemi-
sphere, which contains
most of the world’s land
and therefore terrestrial
biomes. Antarctica, like
Greenland, is partly clas-
sified as a desert
because many areas,
such as the dry valleys
of Antarctica, receive
less than 25 cm of pre-
cipitation (mostly snow)
per year, but they do not
look like a typical desert.
13.10.b1-3
In What Settings Do Deserts and Other Dry Lands Form?

Large deserts occur beneath descending air in subtropical belts, in rain shadows associated with mountain ranges, far inland
from sources of moisture, near cold ocean currents, and in cold, dry polar regions.
13.10.c1
1. The world’s largest deserts, 4. Continental deserts form in
including the Sahara, Sonoran, and the interiors of some conti-
Australian deserts, are subtropical nents, far from sources of mois-
deserts. These deserts form where ture, or where prevailing winds
the general atmospheric circulation blow toward the sea. In many
brings dry air into the subtropics such settings, summers are
(near the Tropic of Cancer and the hot and winters are very cold,
Tropic of Capricorn). These areas like in the Gobi Desert of China
are situated beneath descending and Mongolia. The flow of rela-
flow cells and are associated with tively dry air from a continental
high pressure (indicated as “H” in interior can form deserts in
the globe below). adjacent lands.
2. When moist air rises up over mountains, 3. Coastal deserts form where cold, upwelling ocean cur-
rain may form. As the air descends on the rents cool the air and stabilize the atmosphere. The Kala-
downwind side of the mountain, it dries, hari Desert of southwestern Africa is coastal desert, in
forming a rain-shadow desert. The Andes land adjacent to the cold Benguela current. This also
mountains extract moisture from mid-lati- applies to the Atacama Desert, one of the driest places
tude winds, forming the Patagonia Desert on Earth, which is in western South America, adjacent to
to the east. The setting of a typical rain the cold Humboldt current. A cold-ocean-current effect
shadow is shown below (▼). can be enhanced by dry air blowing in from a continent.
13.10.c2
13.10.c3 13.10.c4
What Is Desertification?
Extended periods of drought, overgrazing by livestock, poor farming techniques, and diversion of surface water can cause
soil loss and change grasslands to desert. Converting other lands to desert is called desertification. The cycle often begins
with livestock overgrazing and destroying plant root nets. With the soil no longer anchored by roots, wind and water erode
the soil. Soil compaction from livestock and the collection of firewood further reduce plant cover.
2. Desertification can
13.10.d1
cause giant dust storms

like this one in northern
China. Dust may provide
vital minerals, like iron,
for nutrient-deprived
areas of oceans, but it
can also carry toxic farm
pesticides and industrial
pollutants from power
plants and factories.
13.10.d2
Describe what deserts and other arid lands are and

where they occur.
1. The global risk of desertification is shown here. Red and orange indicate
13.10
areas with high to very high risk. Areas most at risk include the Sahel of cen- Summarize how/where different kinds of deserts form.
tral Africa, southwest Asia, and parts of the U.S. Addressing desertification
requires a multifaceted approach involving planting shrubs and trees to anchor Describe desertification and its geographic extent.
the soil, water conservation, and development of drought-resistant species.
388
13.11 How Does Wind Transport Material?

WIND CAN PICK UP, TRANSPORT, AND DEPOSIT MATERIAL. It moves sand and finer particles by rolling them,
bouncing them, or lifting them up and carrying them. The incorporation of sediment and other material into wind
results in dust storms, soil erosion, and the formation of sand dunes. Wind is especially important in dry climates, such
as deserts, where there is less vegetation to hold down soil and other loose sediment.
How Does Wind Transport Sediment and Other Materials?

Wind is capable of moving sand and finer sediment, as well as pieces of plants and other materials lying on the surface. It
generally moves material in one of three ways.
13.11.a1
1. Most materials on 4. Wind can pick up and carry
Earth’s surface are finer material, such as dust, silt,
not moved by the and salt. Particles of this size
wind because they drift or sail in air currents. This
are too firmly at- mode of transport is called
tached to the land suspension, and wind can
(such as rock out- keep some particles in the air
crops), are too large for weeks, transporting them
or heavy to be long distances.
moved, or are both.
2. If wind velocity is great enough, it can 3. Very strong winds can lift sand grains, carry them short
roll grains of sand and silt and other loose distances, and drop them. This process is akin to bouncing
materials across the ground. a grain along the surface and is called saltation.
What Are Dust Storms and Whirlwinds?

Strong winds can pick up large volumes of sand and dust, forming a cloud that travels across the surface as a sandstorm
or dust storm. At a smaller scale, whirlwinds are columns of rapidly rotating air common in open fields and deserts.
13.11.b2 Phoenix, AZ
1. In this satellite image, a massive sandstorm blows sand and dust 2. The front edge of
west from the deserts of North Africa 1,600 km (1,000 mi) into the a dust storm can be
Atlantic Ocean. Dust storms are most common in desert areas and sharp and well
near cultivated fields because these areas often lack sufficient veg- defined, appearing
etation to bind the soil to the land. Low-pressure cells can lift dust as an ominous,
high into the atmosphere, where it can drift across an entire ocean. turbulent cloud of
fast-moving dust.
13.11.b1
Such storms are

common around
thunderstorms in
dusty regions.
13.11.b3 Southern Arizona

3. Whirlwinds are rotating col-
umns of wind that are typically
tens to hundreds of meters
across and less than 1 km high.
The fast-moving winds pick up
loose dust and sand, and are
commonly called dust devils.
They last only minutes, do not
move much material, and do
not carry material very far.
Spacecraft on Mars have
observed dust devils and the
twisting tracks they leave on
the Martian surface.
What Landforms Does Wind Produce?

Windblown sand and silt accumulate to produce some distinctive features, such as sand dunes. The shapes of dunes are
mostly controlled by whether wind blows consistently in one direction or is more variable in direction. Sand dunes generally
have a more gently sloping side on the windward (upwind) side and a steeper side on the leeward (downwind) side. Wind
generates other landforms and smaller features as well, which are most obvious in deserts.
13.11.c1 Morocco 13.11.c4 Sunland Park, NM
1. Some dunes have a cres- 4. Dunes that are actively
cent shape (⊲), with tails moving and being
pointing in the prevailing reshaped by the wind are
downwind direction (from left called active dunes. Some
to the right in this case). This dunes are not so active,
common type of dune is a allowing plants to take hold
crescent dune or barchan (⊳), sometimes starting on
dune. Each dune migrates in the sheltered, leeward side.
the direction of the tails, We commonly call such
which is the direction of the dunes stabilized dunes.
prevailing wind.
13.11.c2 Namibia 13.11c5 Namibia
2. Other dunes are more 5. Some winds are strong
linear or gently curved (⊲), enough that sand is blown
and can be many kilometers through without accumulating
long. They are longitudinal in sizeable dunes. Winds can
dunes if they form parallel instead leave thin streaks of
to prevailing winds and are sand (⊳) parallel to the pre-
transverse dunes if they vailing wind. Such wind
form perpendicular to pre- streaks can form on the
vailing wind direction. downwind (leeward) side of
small plants and stones.
13.11.c3 Namibia 13.11.c6 Tibet

3. Many dunes have more ir- 6. Loess is wind-deposited
regular, complex shapes, like silt and clay. Recently formed
these dunes (⊲). If a dune deposits can be a thin blan-
has variably trending sand ket over topography or
ridges radiating out from a thicker accumulations in val-
central peak, it is a star leys (⊳). Loess is very com-
dune, like these. Star dunes mon in parts of the Midwest
and other irregular dunes of the United States, where
form where wind directions it was the starting material
are highly variable over time. for highly productive soils.
What Happens When the Wind Causes Erosion?

The scarcity of vegetation in desert environments and drought-stricken areas makes
them susceptible to wind erosion. Strong wind can strip unprotected sand, silt, and
clay-sized particles from the ground, causing locally severe soil erosion. Before You Leave This Page
Strong winds can remove so much material that Wind can also bombard rocks on the sur- Explain the ways in
the ground elevation is lowered. This wind ero- face with windblown sand, silt, or even ice, which the wind transports
sion can scour away soils, causing the land to essentially sandblasting them. Many such sediment and other
be less productive. In this photograph, wind has rocks take on a smooth, polished appear- loose material.
sculpted soft sedimentary rocks into two pillars, ance as projections and rough spots get
remnants of the sedimentary layers that form the rounded off. Others take on odd shapes, Describe the characteristics
ridge in the background. like the ones shown here. of sandstorms, dust storms,
13.11.d1 Badlands NP, SD 13.11.d2 and whirlwinds.
Describe common types of
windblown deposits.
13.11
Describe some features

formed by wind erosion.
390
13.12 What Features Are Common in Deserts?

THE DRYNESS OF DESERTS is expressed in the sparseness of vegetation and a lack of well-developed soil on many
hillsides. Deserts have a number of other characteristic landscape features, including sand dunes, dry lake beds, chan-
nels that are normally dry, and dark coatings on rock faces.
What Landscape Features Are Characteristic of Deserts?

The low rainfall, dry atmosphere, and sparse vegetation in most deserts result in several common features. These include
alluvial fans, desert washes, playa lakes, and sand dunes.
13.12.a1 Death Valley, CA 13.12.a2 Franklin Mtns., TX
1. Alluvial Fans — Loose rocks accumulate on rocky mountain 2. Desert Washes — Deserts contain sand- and gravel-rich channels
slopes, are transported by streams and debris flows, and are called washes or arroyos, which are normally dry. During intense
deposited as fan-shaped aprons called alluvial fans. Alluvial fans rain, such as summer thunderstorms, a wash can rapidly fill with
form where steep, confined channels encounter more level terrain water draining off the land and rocky hillslopes. This causes a rapid
at the mountain front or where a smaller stream joins a larger one. rise in water and a flash flood.
13.12.a3 Badwater, Death Valley, CA 13.12.a4 Namibia
3. Playas — Shallow, closed basins are playas. They receive water 4. Dunes — Some sand in deserts is not held down by vegetation.
from precipitation, runoff, or springs, but the water has no outlet. It will form dunes if there is a sufficient supply of sand, such as
Many playas partially or totally dry up, forming salt flats, like those from washes, and if the wind is strong enough to pick up and
that flank Badwater, the lowest point in the United States. concentrate material.
5. This computer-generated perspective 7. The lighter colored streaks running
of Death Valley shows alluvial fans that across the alluvial fans are desert
build out from the mountain front and washes, which branch and spread out
down to the less steep basin floor. over the fans in a network of chan-
nels. These are normally dry but con-
tain water and muddy debris during
6. The flat parts of the basin heavy rainfall and the resulting flash
floor contain sand dunes and floods. Older parts of the alluvial fans
lake beds, including salt, 13.12.a5 are darker because of desert varnish
deposited when playa lakes and desert pavement (described on
were more extensive. the next page).
What Features Develop Over Time on Desert Landscapes?

Landscapes develop a number of features, some of which are more common in deserts than in other environments.
Some of these features reflect the relative lack of rainfall in deserts.
13.12.b1 Cima Dome, Mojave Desert, CA 13.12.b2 Granite Wash Mtns., Sonoran Desert, AZ
1. Pediment — Erosion and weathering of bedrock can carve a 2. Desert Pavement — Over time, many desert surfaces become
gently sloping erosion surface called a pediment. The broad dome armored by rocks, forming a natural pavement. Rocks become
in the distance is a gently sloping pediment. Pediments are visible concentrated on the surface because finer materials blow away,
in many deserts, especially where erosion has occurred over a wash away, or move down into the soil. Desert pavement takes
long time, but pediments are not confined to deserts. thousands of years to fully develop.
13.12.b3 Tempe, AZ 13.12.b4 Butler Wash, UT
3. Caliche — Over time, soil in many environments accumulates 4. Desert Varnish — Exposed surfaces of resistant rocks can get
soluble minerals, such as calcium carbonate (calcite). These coated with iron and manganese oxides and other materials, forming
minerals dissolve in rainwater, which percolates down into the dark, natural rock varnish. The material in the varnish is largely wind-
soil. When the water evaporates, the dissolved components pre- derived clays, oxides, and salts. Varnish takes thousands of years to
cipitate as coatings on clasts or as a distinct, hard layer, shown form. In the example above, Native Americans carved into the var-
here, called caliche. In wetter environments, dissolved material is nish to create larger-than-life petroglyphs. The larger figures carved
flushed completely through the soil by descending waters. into this varnish-coated wall are several meters high.
13.12.b5 Yampa River, UT

5. Natural Stains — Many
desert cliffs display verti-
cal streaks of red, Before You Leave This Page
brown, and black. These
colors are mostly coat-
Describe some features of deserts
ings of iron oxides. They
and how each forms. These features
were deposited by
water that flowed down include alluvial fans, washes,
the rock face and playas, dunes, pediments, desert
13.12
evaporated. Such stains pavement, caliche, desert varnish,

are most obvious in des- and natural stains.
erts but can develop in
other environments.
392
13.13 What Is the Evidence for Climate Change?

EARTH’S CLIMATE HAS CHANGED, both over geologic timescales and in the past 150 – 200 years. The planet
has experienced much colder temperatures than today, such as during the Ice Ages, and much warmer ones too, tens of
millions of years ago. More recently, we have measured atmospheric temperatures for several centuries, and this record
shows an overall increase in temperatures — global warming. What is the evidence that Earth’s climate is changing?
What Is the Evidence for Recent Climate Change?

Climate change can include global trends in warming, cooling, precipitation, wind directions, and other related measures.
Global warming means increasing global atmospheric and oceanic temperatures from some point in the past to the present,
and is usually expressed as the temperature compared to the mean global temperature for some time period (e.g., averaged
from 1961 to 1990). Scientists examine various records of Earth’s climate to investigate past changes, including recent ones.
Thermometer Record Sea-Surface Temperatures

1. Thermometers provide a direct measurement of air temperature. These 3. Another direct measurement of temperature is sea-surface
measurements are compared with average temperatures for some reference temperature (SST), which is collected from buoys, ships, and
time to calculate what is called an anomaly (a positive anomaly is warmer than more recently by satellites. Observe the SST graph below
the reference time and a negative anomaly is colder). The graph below plots and then compare it to the air-temperature data to the left.
recent temperatures relative to the reference time period. Most such calcula-
tions use a reference time period in in the 1980s and 1990s. 13.13.a2
13.13.a1
4. SST data show a relatively cold period (a negative anom-

2. From these calculations, temperatures were cooler than average (a negative aly) prior to 1940, then overall warming until 1998, when there
anomaly) in the late 1800s and from the 1940s to the 1970s. Overall, average was a strong El Niño. As with air temperatures, the rate of
air temperatures have increased over the last century, especially since the SST warming decreased but temperatures remained high, well
1970s. Global and U.S. temperatures remain well above the long-term average. above the long-term average (a positive anomaly).
Using Satellites to Investigate Temperature Changes

13.13.a3
5. Increasingly, satellites are used to more reliably 6. This plot 1.0
measure and monitor changes in temperature and SATELLITE-BASED TEMPERATURE
(▲) shows OF GLOBAL LOWER ATMOSPHERE
other expressions of climate with instruments monthly aver- 0.8 El Nino Warming
TEMPERATURE DEPARTURE
FROM 1981-2017 AVG. (˚C)
designed to measure different aspects of change. ages of satel-

0.6
For example, some satellites measure temperature, lite measure-
moisture, or cloud cover in the lower atmosphere, ments of 0.4
whereas others measure temperature, abundance temperatures
of different gases, and attributes of higher parts of in the lower 0.2
the atmosphere, like the stratosphere. One atmosphere.
advantage of using satellites is that they can The data 0.0
provide a truly global data set as they show an over- -0.2
systematically orbit the planet. Data sets of land all warming Mt. Pinatubo Cooling
temperatures must rely on weather stations that trend, with -0.4
are not uniformly distributed (most are near shorter peri- YEAR
centers of population), and some large regions, ods of cooling 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015
such as Antarctica and central Africa, have few and warming. The largest upward increases in temperature, including warm peaks around 1998
such stations. As a result, land-based temperature and 2016, occurred when there was a strong El Niño event, a phase of ocean and atmospher-
data must be processed to estimate temperatures ic circulation where warm water spreads from the western Pacific into the central and eastern
in areas with sparse data coverage. Satellite data Pacific, warming the waters off the west coasts of South America and Central America. During
involve much computer processing too, but they and after an El Niño, the warm water spreads away from the equator, leading to warming of
start with a global data set. nearby parts of the Pacific and an overall rise in global temperatures.
How Do We Use Proxy Data to Investigate Past Changes in Climate?

Earth’s climate has been changing since the planet formed 4.55 billion years ago, varying over decades to billions of years.
Geoscientists examine the record of climate in rocks, fossils, tree rings, ice cores, and many other observable or measurable
characteristics of rocks and fossils. Such types of data are called proxy evidence, because they are not an actual
measurement of the past climate but are some attribute that can be used to infer past climatic conditions. Some proxy data
consist of direct observations or measurements of features, like the width of tree rings, whereas others employ chemical
analyses, such as measuring the isotopes of oxygen and hydrogen, referred to as stable isotopes. The International Panel on
Climate Change (IPCC) and U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) have summarized the kind of proxy data that are available.
The lengths of most of the world’s Stalactites (⊳) and other cave for-
glaciers (⊲) have decreased dra- mations have a sequence of thin
matically over the last 200 years, layers that record successive
due to melting caused by higher stages of growth. We can mea-
temperatures. The reductions in sure isotopes and other chemical
length are directly observable, but elements from these layers to
scientists can model how much infer conditions under which the
warming would be required to cave formations grew. A similar
explain the melting of glaciers far- approach is used with coral
ther back in time, and this is reefs, providing a proxy for tem-
proxy data. 13.13.b1 Icefields Parkway, Alberta, Canada 13.13.b4 Carlsbad,Caverns NP, NM
peratures of past shallow seas.
Modern climatic zones, such as Marine organisms, including

the tropics, have certain charac- microscopic ones (⊳), reflect the
teristic plants and animals. If we conditions under which they
find fossils of similar organisms in lived, so isotopic measurements
ancient rocks, we can infer that of the shells or skeletons of such
the region had a similar type of creatures provide a proxy for
climate at that time. The structure past conditions. This approach
of fossil leaves (⊲), such as how provides a long record of climate
straight or jagged the edges are, since we have fossils for millions
also varies with climate, so fossil of years in outcrops and in drill
leaves are climate proxy. holes into seafloor sediments.
13.13.b2 Florissant Fossil Beds NM, CO 13.13.b5 Foraminifera
In climates that have seasons, Accumulation of glacial ice pro-

trees produce alternating dark and duces seasonal bands that can
light bands (⊲) of tree rings when be counted and measured for sta-
they grow. We can use measure- ble isotopes in the ice and in
ments of the width of tree rings trapped bubbles of atmospheric
and the density of wood to infer gases. Ice cores (⊳) from drilling
past climatic conditions, such as sites in Antarctica and Greenland
average temperature. We also provide a record of past climate
measure variations in carbon and over the past 100,000 years or
oxygen isotopes from ring to ring more. These are very important
as a proxy for temperature. proxies of past temperatures.
13.13.b3 Tree Ring 13.13.b6 Ice Core
Weather, Climate, and a Scientific Approach
T here is much discussion, and contro-

versy, about one important aspect of
climate change — global warming. As
shown on these two pages, evidence for global
warming since the mid-1800s is clear, but there
entific tactic used by members of the general
public and media, on both sides of the global
warming debate, is to point to a specific weather
event, like a single hurricane or tornado, a Mid-
Describe what climate change means,
some ways it can be directly
western blizzard, or a lack of snow in some
is active debate about how much of the warm- region, and say that this proves or disproves, measured, and evidence indicating
ing is attributable to human introduction of or is a direct consequence of, global warming global warming in the last 100 years.
greenhouse gases (mostly CO2) and how much or the lack thereof. Such short-term events are Summarize some of the main types
13.13
is due to natural causes. Scientists are always weather, not climate, and have a complex and of proxy data, including physical
testing, refining, or refuting new, old, or even still incompletely understood relationship to cli- or chemical characteristics that can
widely accepted hypotheses — it is part of the mate change that is being investigated, largely be measured.
scientific method. One misleading and nonsci- through the use of complex computer models.
394
13.14 What Factors Influence Climate Change?

CL I M AT E C H A NG E IS A LWAYS OCCURRI NG , including global warming since the mid-1800s. There are many
natural causes of climate change, including changes in Earth’s orbit around the Sun and changes in solar activity. Many
scientists propose that human activities, including the burning of fossil fuels and the clearing of forests, contribute to
climate change by releasing greenhouse gases to the atmosphere. Other factors may lead to global cooling, including
ash from large volcanic eruptions and an increase in certain aerosols in the atmosphere. Here, we examine some of the
factors that can influence our climate.
What Processes Influence Atmospheric Temperature Change?

Earth’s surface temperatures are dominated by energy from the Sun (insolation). Insolation heats the oceans, land, and
atmosphere, but several factors influence how much of this energy reaches the surface and how much is retained.
Interaction of Insolation with Earth’s Atmosphere, Oceans, and Land 2. Some insolation is absorbed by the
13.14.a1
atmosphere (shown as an orange disk
1. Nearly all of Earth’s in the figure), and some is reflected off
heating at the surface Insolation Reflected by the atmosphere. Much of the reflected
Atmosphere, Clouds
Solar E
comes from insolation, and Particles insolation returns to space without

which heats the atmo- heating Earth or its atmosphere, as
Infrared
nergy
sphere, land, and oceans. Energy depicted by the blue arrows.

Most of this energy even-
tually escapes back into 3. Insolation is also absorbed by
space in the form of clouds, by soot from burning, and by
longwave infrared fine particles (aerosols), which are pro-
energy. The rest is duced by volcanoes, industry, and
delayed by interactions automobiles. Some of this absorbed
with Earth, keeping the energy radiates back into space as
planet warm by a pro- infrared (longwave) energy (shown by
Energy the wavy red arrow). Clouds and par-
cess called the green- Absorbed by ticles also reflect some insolation.
house effect. The amount Atmosphere,
of insolation hitting Earth Clouds, and 4. Some insolation is reflected back to
varies regularly, by a Particles
space from the land surface and
small amount, due to oceans. Ice in continental glaciers is an
orbital fluctuations and Insolation effective reflector. As glaciers melt,
changes in the Sun’s Reflected darker land or ocean is uncovered. This
energy output, as Energy Absorbed by Land and
Oceans increases the amount of energy that is
expressed by changes in by Land and Oceans absorbed by Earth and subsequently
sunspot activity. Sunspots re-radiated back to the atmosphere.
are the darker areas that,
on average, appear and 5. Some insolation is absorbed by the land and the oceans, both of which then radiate infrared energy back into
disappear on the surface the atmosphere. Some of this infrared energy is absorbed by atmospheric gases, such as water vapor (H2O),
of the Sun in an 11-year carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), and nitrous oxide (N2O), which are called greenhouse gases. Some portion
solar cycle. of these gases is produced naturally and some is produced by human activities.
Greenhouse Gas Production

13.14.a2
6. Several gases in Earth’s atmosphere absorb infra- 7. Our oceans are a huge reservoir
red radiation emitted by Earth. This causes them to for dissolved gases and other chemi-
vibrate and heat up, and then to emit infrared radia- cal components, including CO2. As
tion. This radiation can escape into space or be the CO2 of our atmosphere increases,
absorbed by other greenhouse gases, mostly lower a large amount of this CO2 goes into
in the atmosphere where the concentration of green- the oceans, where it affects seawater
house gases is the highest. Since 1957, atmospheric chemistry, especially the acidity.
scientists have collected air samples on the high Ocean acidification is being studied
peaks of Hawaii. The data for Mauna Loa are plotted to assess its impact on sea life. Sea-
on this graph (⊲), which shows CO2 content in the water can dissolve less CO2 when it
atmosphere as a function of time. The concentration is warm, so it releases CO2 back to
of CO2 in air, represented by the red line, has the atmosphere as it warms, as is
increased by 20% in the last 40 years. Most of this occurring now. So some increase in
increase is attributed to humans, especially through the atmospheric CO2 could be a
the burning of fossil fuels. result of recent warming.
Greenhouse Gases and Temperature Change Records from Ice Cores

1. Long-term records of CO2 and other green-
house gases are contained within ice cores and Inferred Temperature CO2 Concentration 13.14.a3
can be traced back hundreds of thousands of 380 4.0
MEAN TEMPERATURE (°C)

INFERRED TEMPERATURE
years. Ice cores from Antarctica have been ana-
RELATIVE TO GLOBAL
lyzed for CO2, isotopic temperature, and isotopic 340
age. The data, shown on this graph (⊲), allow 0.0
300
CO 2 (ppm)
comparison between prior natural variations and
changes in the last several hundred years.
280 -4.0
2. How well do CO2 concentrations in the atmo-
sphere track temperature change? On this graph, 220
-8.0
the two trends are very similar. Graphs of other
greenhouse gases, such as CH4 versus tempera- 180
400,000
350,000
300,000
250,000
200,000
150,000
100,000
50,000
0
ture and N2O versus temperature, show a similar
correspondence. These large fluctuations in the
past have natural causes. YEARS BEFORE PRESENT
3. Scientists have used data from ice cores and other proxies to interpret how atmospheric gases changed in the past few hundred years. These
data indicate that levels of CO2, CH4, and N2O have increased since the start of the Industrial Revolution of the last part of the 18th century. Many
scientists infer that these increases in greenhouse gases are partly responsible for the recent increase in temperature, but there remains debate
about how much our human activities have affected, or will affect, our climate.
Orbital Variation Variations in Solar Radiation

13.14.a5
4. Earth’s orbit is affected almost exclu- 5. The Sun is a candidate for
sively by the Sun and Moon, causing it causing climate change. We
to cycle from more elliptical to more cir- can directly measure the
cular paths, with one cycle completed amount of solar radiation
over about 100,000 years. This influ- reaching Earth and also use
ences Earth’s climate, but the current proxies for solar activity, includ-
Less global warming has occurred in less ing the number of sunspots (⊲)
Sun Eccentricity than 200 years. This is too short a and isotopic data from ice
Earth time period for orbital changes to cores and tree rings. There
have caused the observed recent have been large variations in
episode of warming. The tilt and the number of sunspots, but
More direction of Earth’s axis of rotation most other data suggest that
Eccentricity also change, which changes the con- the Sun’s energy emission has
trast of the seasons, but these effects varied only slightly over the
13.14.a4 occur over tens of thousands of years. last 2,000 years, so the Sun is interpreted to not be the
main cause of recent warming.
Ocean Oscillations, Climate Change, and Climate Models
R ecent discoveries have changed our last a year or two. Variations in sea-surface undergoes cycles that last several decades.
view of the relationship between ocean temperatures (SST) and atmospheric pressure These cycles also relate to periods of abundant
currents and climate. Studies of the can be used to calculate a numerical index for or rarer tropical cyclones. They also show
oceans have documented that separate ocean each oscillation, as a way to represent the some similar patterns to global temperatures,
basins (e.g., the Pacific Ocean) display varia- changes. The graph here shows values for the so because of such correlations, climate scien-
tions in temperature that occur over years or Atlantic Ocean (AMO) relative to its long- tists are increasingly examining whether oscil-
decades — ocean oscillations. term average. The AMO represents SST in the lations are primarily a cause or an effect of
One long-recognized oscillation is the El Atlantic basin — high numbers indicate warm climate change.
Niño–La Niña effect and is called the El SST. This graph shows that Atlantic SST
Niño – Southern Oscillation
(ENSO for short). More 0.6
recently, we have discovered
0.4
AMO DEPARTURE
other ocean oscillations, includ- 0.2

ing the Pacific Decadal Oscil- Summarize the major factors that
lation (PDO) and the Atlantic 0.0 influence atmospheric temperatures.
13.14
Multidecadal Oscillation -0.2 Summarize how atmospheric

(AMO). As their names imply, -0.4 greenhouse gas concentrations can
these oscillations may last correspond to temperature changes.
-0.6 13.14.t1
decades, whereas ENSO cycles
1860 1880 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000
YEAR
396
13.15 What Are the Consequences of Climate Change?

C L I M AT E C H A NG E H A S MANY POTENTI AL I MPACTS , ranging from obvious ones like an increase in
global temperatures, to less obvious ones, such as a possible increase in certain diseases. Some consequences are highly
probable, whereas others are very speculative. On these pages, we briefly introduce some of the most likely results of
climate change, specifically those related to global warming. Abundant information is available elsewhere, including
reports by governmental and nongovernmental organizations, if you are interested in following up on this topic.
What Are Some Possible Consequences of Climate Change to the Environment?

1. The figure below illustrates some consequences of global warming, 6. An increase in global temperatures is predicted to increase evapo-
but many more are possible. Examine the figure and think about what ration from warmer surface waters. This would increase the amount of
you know about each feature being depicted and how it might water vapor in the air. Warmer temperatures and more humidity may
respond to an increase in average temperatures. Then read the text. increase precipitation. More precipitation, along with more melting of
glaciers, would lead to more runoff from streams, with an associated
2. The most obvious result of global warming would be, well, an increase in the amount of flooding. Increased runoff also means a
increase in global temperatures. However, computer models of climate larger influx of fresh water into the ocean.
indicate that many areas, especially those near the poles, will indeed
increase in temperature, but other regions might get colder. 7. Climate change has the
13.15.a1 potential to change the fre-
3. Higher temperatures would be quency and intensity of
predicted to cause more melting of severe weather. For vari-
snow and ice, resulting in glaciers ous reasons, global warm-
melting back and becoming less ing can either increase or
extensive, as has been observed. decrease the frequency of
certain types of severe
storms. These are pre-
4. Higher temperatures and altered
sented on the next page.
ocean circulation could lead to
more drought in some places and
even the expansion of desert areas, 8. Global warming is pre-
the process of desertification. dicted, and observed, to
cause an increase in global
5. Changes in global temperatures and sea-surface temperatures
accompanying changes in precipitation (SST) and a decrease in
patterns can affect the distribution of com- the amount of sea ice, at
munities of plants and animals. In response least in the Arctic.
to warming, such communities may shift to
higher elevations or higher latitudes to stay 9. The various consequences have
within an optimal temperature range. Climate complex interactions, as between SST,
change is predicted to decrease the geographic humidity, precipitation, runoff, and influx of
range of some communities, while increasing the fresh water into the ocean. Such interactions could
range of others. Included in this consideration are result in other changes, like a change in ocean cur-
croplands, some of which will benefit from global rents, including those involved in the thermohaline
warming, while others will suffer. conveyor, an important moderator of global climate.
10. The computer-generated images below show the decrease in the amount of 11. Since the middle of the 1800s and before, sea level has
sea ice in the Arctic from 1979 (left globe) to 2015 (right globe), the period of the been slowly increasing, rising 0.2 meters in 200 years. Cur-
most rapid global and regional warming. In response to weather patterns, there rently, there is scientific debate about whether the rate of sea
are some year-to-year increases but an overall decrease. level rise is remaining the same or is accelerating with time.
100
Global Mean Sea Level (GMSL) Change
50
GMSL CHANGE (mm)
0
13.15.a2
13.15.a3
-50
-100
-150
Tide Gauge Data
-200 Satellite Altimeter Data
-250 YEAR 13.15.a4
1880 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 2020
How Might Climate Change Promote More Severe Weather?

People have speculated that we are moving into an era of more numerous and destructive tropical cyclones, with the increase
attributed to climate change. What do the actual science data say about these important questions? Observed increases in the
frequency of all forms of severe weather are at least partially the result of more land-based, weather-radar stations and other
improved remote-sensing technology, which allow us to detect storms more easily. One approach is to compile data on
severe storms over time, to examine whether the frequency and severity of storms correlates with observations of climate
change. But remember that simple correlation does not demonstrate causation.
13.15.b1
1. Observational and modeling studies suggest that 3. Global warming could cause
climate change will increase SST, which in turn changes to upper-level circulation,
might increase the intensity and duration of the which in turn could cause underlying
strongest storms. Warming might also lengthen the areas to experience more frequent
severe tropical cyclone season. In theory, increased precipitation or drought. Changes in
SST would allow an increase in evaporated water, upper-level circulation patterns might
which increases the amount of warming in the make the upper levels of the atmo-
atmosphere. Increased evaporation can result in sphere more or less favorable for
more energy for storms. The end result is larger, storm development. Specifically, if cli-
taller clouds fueling more powerful storms. mate change displaces or decreases
the flow of upper-level westerlies,
2. Warmer sea and land surfaces are also likely fewer developing tropical cyclones
to affect atmospheric stability. Warming of the may have their tops sheared off as
land and water surfaces causes increased rising they move westward. Alternatively,
of the adjacent air, which can enable clouds to global warming could increase verti-
continue growing upward. Taller clouds, fed by cal wind shear, which might cause
more rising air, can increase the severity of the tropical cyclones to be less severe.
associated storms. What do the actual data say?
Frequency of Tropical Storms Frequency of Tornadoes

4. The graph below plots the number of Atlantic storms for each year. 6. Another question to evaluate is whether global warming has
The time periods represented on the graph correspond to the interval caused an increase in the number of tornadoes. Some scientists
of time when global temperatures have demonstrably increased have proposed that warming provides additional energy that might
(although in detail temperatures have gone up and down during several enhance the environment for such severe storms. Examine the
approximately 30-year cycles). Research using these and similar data graph below, which plots the number of tornadoes per year during
suggests that short-lived Atlantic tropical storms may have become more the time when most warming occurred.
frequent over the years, but moderate-duration storms have not.
30 13.15.b3
13.15.b2
Annual Number of Atlantic Storms and Hurricanes, 1880-2014
25
Tropical Storms Hurricanes
NUMBER PER YEAR
20
15
10
0
1880 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000
YEAR
5. The research on this question is ongoing, with some studies 7. The data indicate that the number of strong-to-violent tornadoes
predicting an increase in intensity, while others find a decrease in in the U.S. has not increased over time. One possible explanation
intensity. Other studies acknowledge that changes in tropical cyclones is that increasing surface temperatures would presumably be
under climate change scenarios will be small in relation to other fac- accompanied by increases in upper-level temperatures, leading to
tors that create variability in tropical cyclones, such as ENSO. no net change in the number of storms.

13.15
Sketch and explain some possible consequences of climate change, specifically global warming, to the environment.
Discuss some ways that climate change could increase the frequency and strength of severe weather and some relevant data.
398
13.16 What Is the Relationship Among Climate,

Tectonics, and Landscape Evolution?
PLATE MOVEMENT AND DEFORMATION CHANGE CLIMATES by altering land elevation, pumping volcanic
gases into the atmosphere, rearranging the configuration of landmasses and ocean currents, and changing sea level via
changes in seafloor spreading rates. Climate can also influence how mountains form.
How Does Plate Tectonics Affect Climate?

The current arrangement and topography of the continents and ocean basins help guide wind and ocean currents that
redistribute heat around Earth. Volcanic activity associated with plate boundaries releases gas and particles into the
atmosphere, changing its chemistry and affecting global temperatures.
Mountains and Uplift Seas and Subsidence Volcanic Gas and Dust
13.16.a1 Last Hope Sound, Chile 13.16.a2 Portage, AK 13.16.a3 Augustine volcano, AK
Mountain ranges intercept wind and water vapor, Rapid seafloor spreading displaces water Volcanic activity releases CO2 and water
causing rain shadows, concentrated rainfall, and from the ocean basins, flooding low parts vapor, which cause atmospheric warming.
other climatic effects. Tectonic uplift also of continents. Such flooding, or tectonic Volcanic ash and SO2 gas from volcanoes
exposes land to chemical weathering, which subsidence (▲), changes local climates and reflect solar radiation, causing regional or
removes CO2 from the atmosphere. moves CO2 from air to rocks and soil. global cooling.
How Does Climate Change as a Plate Moves?

As a tectonic plate moves, it changes position relative to Earth’s climatic zones. Plate movements open and close channels
that connect oceans, thereby changing ocean currents. Tectonics can uplift mountain ranges, form new ocean basins, or bring
continents together. These changes can alter a region’s elevation, temperature, wind-flow patterns, and the amount and
frequency of precipitation, as in these examples from North America.
In the Permian (260 million years ago), North In the Cretaceous (75 million years ago), In the last 20 million years (Neogene),
America was part of the supercontinent of shallow inland seas inundated the continent mountains along the West Coast increasingly
Pangaea. The newly formed Appalachian during a phase of rapid seafloor spreading. blocked prevailing westerly winds, causing in-
Mountains blocked easterly winds, causing The seas produced a warm, wet climate over creased precipitation along the coast and a
a rain shadow and deserts farther west. most of the continent. rain shadow with deserts inland.
13.16.b1 13.16.b2 13.16.b3
How Does Climate Affect Tectonics?

Climatic conditions control the speed of erosion, which removes rocks at the surface and causes uplift of deeper parts of the
mountain belt. In some mountain ranges, such as the Himalaya, erosion is thought to cause deep rocks to flow sideways and
rise upward. When viewed in this way, erosion helps to maintain mountains.
2. As mountains are uplifted,

Uplift and Climate rocks at the surface are removed
1. Continental collisions produce extremely high by erosion via water, ice, land-
mountains, which force wind belts to flow around slides, and the slower movement
and over them. Even though the plate collisions of material downhill. In some
continue for tens of millions of years, these moun- mountain ranges, erosion is
tains rise to a maximum size of about 4 to 5 km almost as rapid as uplift and so
(2.5 to 3 mi) high and 120 to 240 km (75 to 150 mi) there are limits to the heights the
wide. This suggests that a balance is achieved mountains can achieve. The
between uplift and erosion when viewed at an Coast Range of British Columbia
appropriate timescale. Uplift of the mountain leads (⊳), the Olympic Mountains of
to regional climate changes, which act to lower the coastal Washington, and the
range through increased erosion. A balance Southern Alps of New Zealand
between erosion and uplift will likely be reached, are examples of mountains that
but it may take several million years. are being rapidly eroded.
13.16.c1 Coast Ranges, British Columbia, Canada
Episodes of Imbalance
5. This graph is a
3. Some regions of the Himalaya are estimated to be “in balance.” In other areas, topographic profile,
uplift seems to outpace erosion. Again, the scale of such observations is important. showing the slope
Nepal
In Earth’s history, countless large mountain ranges have been uplifted and then 13.16.c3 of the land. Moun-
worn down. Bhutan tain slopes of cen-
13.12.c2 tral Nepal have a
4. Solar heating on 6 curved topographic
the Tibetan Plateau
profile that may
causes heated air
reflect a near
to rise, drawing in Nepal
MEAN ELEVATION (km)
3
balance between
monsoon moisture
uplift and erosion.
toward the moun-
tains. This climatic 0
pattern results in 13.16.c4
6. Slopes in Bhutan
intense rainfall on 6
have straighter
the south-facing topographic profiles,
mountain slopes in Bhutan which may indicate
3
Nepal and Bhutan. that the mountains
are uplifting faster
0 than erosion can
100 200
HORIZONTAL DISTANCE (km) wear them down.
Lateral Movement of Material and Its Relationship to Climate

7. Geologists working in the Himalaya propose that the removal of material by erosion in Nepal
and Bhutan is causing the crust to flow laterally beneath the region. According to this idea, as
material is removed by erosion along the mountain front, thick, weak crust beneath Tibet flows Before You Leave This Page
southward (to the left), as shown by the large arrow, to replace the lost material. In other words,
erosion in this area is allowing the weak, lower crust to flow, helping the mountains to rise.
Describe how plate tectonics
affects climate.
13.12.c5
Summarize different ways that
13.16.c5 the arrangement of plates
affects climate.
13.16
Explain how landscapes are a

product of tectonics and climate.
CONNECTIONS
13.17 What Happened During Hurricane Sandy?
S E V E RE STO R MS are extremely dangerous, capable of killing thousands of people and inflicting incomprehensi-
ble damage. Severe weather — and the more benign varieties — develop, operate, move, and dissipate according to fun-
damental principles presented in this chapter. Here, we examine Hurricane Sandy, which in 2012 tracked up the East
Coast of the U.S. before coming onshore in New Jersey.
13.17.a1 13.17.a2
1. Hurricane Sandy began as a storm
in the tropics (tropical cyclone) and
became a hurricane that skirted the
East Coast of the U.S. before coming
onshore in New Jersey on October 29,
2012, as what many in the media and
public called “Superstorm Sandy.” On
this satellite image (⊳), Sandy appears
as a swirl of clouds off the East Coast.
Clearly visible is a well-defined center
of the storm — the eye of the hurricane.
To the west of Sandy is a long band of
clouds, stretching from Florida to New
England. What type of weather system
do you think these clouds represent?
Sandy later merged with this second
weather system, which consisted of a
cold front associated with low pressure
centered over New England. Sandy 2. The superstorm was large compared to
was weakening from hurricane status typical hurricanes, with winds of 65 km
to tropical storm status as it came on (40 miles) per hour extending across an
shore, but the interactions with the area more than 1,500 km (900 miles) in
second weather system had catastrophic diameter. In this satellite image (▲), clouds
results: over $75 billion in damages associated with the storm cover the entire
and nearly 150 deaths, about half in northeastern U.S. and large areas of adja-
the U.S. cent Canada and the Atlantic Ocean.
13.17.a3 13.17.a4
3. Enhanced infrared satellite
images, like this colorful map (⊳),
are a mainstay of daily weather
reports. In this map, clouds are
shown in light gray where they are
relatively thin but blue, green, yel-
low, and red where thicker, with red
being the thickest. We can extract
estimates of cloud thicknesses from
an infrared image because the tem-
perature of the top of a cloud is
mostly a function of how high it
is — colder typically means a higher
top, greater overall thickness, and
more precipitation. Examine this
scene and consider what each fea-
ture is and what processes are
occurring in each place.
5. The image above shows wind speeds near the

ocean surface as measured by radar on an earth-
4. Sandy, still a hurricane at this time, is the large area of intense clouds and rainfall on the orbiting satellite. Wind speeds above 65 km
right side of the image (▲). The storm has a coiled shape, reflecting rotation due to the (40 miles) per hour are yellow, those above 80 kph
Coriolis effect. It is moving north, as many storms do in this part of the Atlantic. Note a sec- (50 mph) are orange, and those above 95 kph (60
ond line of clouds and precipitation to the west on land. These clouds formed along a cold mph) are dark red. At the time shown in this image,
front, a boundary between cold air to the west and warm air to the east. Sandy is on the strong winds along the western side were striking
warm and humid side of the front. On this image, the different shades of gray on either the Outer Banks of North Carolina, which is an
side of the front reflect the temperature contrast between the two air masses, colder (lighter especially v ulnerable area for flooding due to storm
gray) to the west and warmer (medium gray) to the east. surges associated with hurricanes.
400
Movement and Evolution of Hurricane Sandy

13.17.a5
13.17.a6
13.17.a7
6. Hurricane Sandy originated in the tropics 7. In this second image (▲), Sandy has 8. In this final image (▲), Sandy and the cold
and then migrated northwest toward the North moved farther north, to a position off the front have collided, causing exceptional storm-
American continent before turning north and Outer Banks. It has become more tightly iness across the Northeast. Many hurricanes
tracking along the East Coast. This sequence coiled and better organized, which causes turn northeast and head out to sea as they
of three satellite images shows the evolution the hurricane to intensify and the destruc- come up the coast, but Sandy turned north-
of Sandy with time, with the earliest image on tive winds to speed up. As the hurricane west, directly into New Jersey. This unusual
the left and the latest image on the right. In and the cold front to the west get closer, track was caused by an area of high pressure
the earliest image (▲), Sandy is leaving the they begin to interact. Note that the south- located over easternmost Canada, which
tropics as a somewhat dispersed, poorly orga- ern “tail” of the cold front is curving toward blocked Sandy from moving northeast. The
nized storm. Note the curved cold front cross- the east, as it gets drawn into the counter- interaction between Sandy and the second
ing the center of the U.S. clockwise circulation around the hurricane. storm made the situation much worse.
Hurricane Sandy
H urricane Sandy began as a tropical dis- standards, affecting essentially the entire east- houses, especially those facing the ocean (on
turbance in the Caribbean. The system ern half of the U.S. in one way or another, even the right side of the aerial photograph). The two
strengthened considerably because it though its wind speeds were not very strong by photographs below are from Coney Island, New
remained over very warm waters. Sandy evolved comparison to other hurricanes. A second fac- York, and the coast of New Jersey. Consider
into a named tropical storm and then a hurri- tor was the way Sandy interacted with the cold what factors resulted in such severe damage to
cane. The storm moved over Jamaica and Cuba, front to the west. Sandy formed fairly late in all three sites.
where it was weakened due to interactions with the hurricane season, and the front, with its
the land. It was downgraded to a tropical storm accompanying very cold air, was fairly early
as it moved into the Atlantic. Once over open, for that type of winter storm. The interaction
warm waters of the Gulf Stream, it was rein- between the tropical-derived moisture and very
vigorated, partly because of the approaching cold air caused extremely heavy precipitation,
second storm to the west. including snow, ice, and blizzards, aspects we
Several aspects of Sandy were very unusual, do not typically associate with hurricanes.
accounting for the excessive amount of dam- Third, Sandy struck a part of the coast that
age. First, Sandy was a huge hurricane by any does not experience frequent hurricanes, so
some structures, especially
those along the beach, were
not built to withstand such 13.17.t2 Coney Island, NY
storms.
The three photographs
included here represent a
small sample of the destruc-
tion caused by Sandy. The
large aerial image to the left
shows damage to the Man-
13.17
toloking area of New Jersey,

including destruction of a
highway and critical bridge,
as well as severe damage to
13.17.t3 New Jersey coastline
13.17.t1 Mantoloking, NJ
13.18 What Kinds of Climate and Weather Would
Occur in This Place?
PLANET G is a hypothetical replica of Earth. It has plate tectonics, oceans, and an atmosphere very similar to Earth’s.
You will map the climatic zones on this planet, identifying cold and warm ocean currents, prevailing winds, potential
locations of rain forests and deserts, places where the climate and topographic setting would be suitable for agriculture,
and sites at risk for hurricanes.

• Observe the general map patterns and photographs from different parts of the planet. Note any clues
about climate.
• Create a map showing probable climatic conditions, based on ocean currents and prevailing winds.
• Locate likely sites for rain forests, deserts, agricultural areas, and locations where storms will strike land.
Procedures
Follow the steps below, entering your answers for each step in the appropriate place on the worksheet or online.
A. Observe the distribution of continents and oceans on the map below and on the larger version on the worksheet. Examine the
photographs of the various areas and infer the environments and climates that are represented. Each photograph has a letter
that corresponds to a letter on the map. Some photographs are on the next page.
B. Carefully examine the various types of data on the next page. For each data set, examine the climatic, weather, or geologic
implications for different parts of the planet.
C. Draw on the worksheet your interpretations of whether each ocean current is warm, cold, or neither, and whether prevailing winds will
bring warmth or coolness and cause dryness or precipitation. Alternatively, answer questions about these factors online.
D. Map the main climatic zones. Include the likely locations of rain forests, deserts, and areas suitable for croplands. Think about which
areas are at risk for hurricanes and other major tropical storms. Be prepared to discuss your observations and interpretations.
07.16.a1
13.18.a2
13.18.a3
13.18.a5 13.18.a6 13.18.a7

13.18.a4
402
Some Important Observations About the Planet

1. The planet revolves around its axis once every 24 hours in the same direction Earth does. Therefore it has days and nights similar to
Earth’s. It orbits a sun similar to our own, at about the same distance. Its spin axis is slightly tilted relative to the orbital plane.
2. The process of plate tectonics is operating on this planet at rates similar to those observed on Earth. Volcanoes, mid-ocean ridges,
and mountain-building processes are also similar to those on Earth. There are continents, ocean basins, and polar ice caps.
3. The oceans are likewise similar to those on Earth. They show similar variations in sea-surface temperature and have ocean currents
that circulate around the edges of the main ocean basins and through gaps between the continents.
4. The planet has well-developed atmospheric currents, with wind patterns similar to those on Earth.
Preliminary Interpretation of Ocean Currents Preliminary Interpretation of Wind Data
13.18.a11
13.15.a12
This map shows the directions of ocean surface currents. From these These data show the directions of prevailing winds, which are s imilar
data, identify which currents are probably cold, warm, or neither. to the patterns on Earth. Different wind directions occupy bands
Water temperatures will be key in inferring probable climates. encircling the planet, parallel to the equator.
Ocean Water Temperatures and Sea-Surface Temperatures

This map depicts satellite data for
sea-surface temperatures during
13.18.a8
late summer. Orange and red

show warmer waters, whereas
blue and purple show colder
waters. The numbers give the
temperature values in degrees
Celsius (°C).
13.18.a9
Climate Analysis 13.18.a13
On the version of this map on the

worksheet, show the probable
locations of the following features
by writing the associated letters
on the map: rain forests (R), des-
erts (D), potential agricultural
areas (A), and lands at highest
risk for hurricanes (H). You can
use colored pencils to shade in
the extent of land associated with
13.18.a10
each letter. Your instructor may

13.18
have you provide justification for

your interpretations.
13.18.a14
CHAPTER
14 Glaciers, Coasts, and

Changing Sea Levels
GLACIERS AND COASTS ARE GEOLOGICALLY ACTIVE PLACES that shape the landscape over short and long
timescales. Glaciers sculpt the landscape and cause large changes in sea level as the volume of ice on land increases
or decreases. Past sea levels have been more than 200 m (660 ft) higher than today, flooding large parts of the conti-
nent and any other low-lying land. At other times in the past, sea level was about 120 m (390 ft) lower than today,
exposing large parts of the continental shelves. The most rapid sea level changes are related to changes in the extent
of glaciers and continental ice sheets.
The northeastern United States and adja- Huge, smooth troughs (each labeled with Curiously curved ridges (labeled with an
cent Canada, shown in this shaded relief a T on the map) cut across the landscape. R on the map) cross some of the smooth
map, have a striking collection of features Examples are near the northwestern corner areas, and are especially noticeable south-
on land and along the coasts. The map of the map, in western Minnesota and the west of Lake Erie and Lake Michigan.
extends from North and South Dakota (in Dakotas, and southwest of Lake Erie, in
the northwestern corner of the map) across Ohio and Indiana. What are these ridges, how did they form,
the Great Lakes as far east as Maine and and what do they tell us about the geologic
Virginia. The northern part of the map What caused these smooth areas of the land- history of this region?
includes southeastern Canada. scape, and is the process still occurring?
14.00.a1
G l a c i e r s , C o a s t s , a n d C h a n g i n g S e a L e v e l s 405
14.1 What Are Glaciers? 406 14.13 How Is Material Eroded, Transported,
14.2 How Do Glaciers Form, Move, and Vanish? 408 and Deposited Along Coasts? 430
14.3 How Do Glaciers Erode, Transport, and Deposit? 4
10 14.14 What Landforms Occur Along Coasts? 432
14.4 What Are the Landforms of Alpine Glaciation? 412 14.15 What Are Some Challenges of Living
Along Coasts? 434
14.5 What Are the Landforms of Continental
Glaciation? 414 14.16 How Do We Assess the Relative Risks
of Different Stretches of Coastline? 436
14.6 What Features Are Peripheral to Glaciers? 416
14.17 What Happens When Sea Level Changes? 438
14.7 What Is the Evidence for Past Glaciations? 418
14.18 What Causes Changes in Sea Level? 440
14.8 What Happened During Past Ice Ages? 420
14.19 CONNECTIONS: What Would Happen to Sea
14.9 What Starts and Stops Glaciations? 422
Level if the Ice in West Antarctica Melted? 442
14.10 What Processes Occur Along Coasts? 424
14.20 INVESTIGATION: What Is Happening Along
14.11 What Causes High Tides and Low Tides? 426 the Coast of This Island? 444
14.12 How Do Waves Form and Propagate? 428
North of the Great Lakes,

the landscape of Canada is
Ice Ages and Coasts
L
rough on a small scale, con- andscapes in the Great Lakes area contain evidence
taining many lakes.
that huge ice sheets once flowed across this part of
Why does this region have so the continent — in the recent geologic past. This
many lakes, and when and conclusion arises from comparing the distinctive land-
how did this landscape form? scape features and their associated sedimentary deposits
with those observed today near currently active glaciers.
The Maine coastline is very With glaciers, as with most geologic features, the present
irregular, with many bays,
is the key to interpreting the past.
where the ocean reaches
inward like fingers into the For the last two and a half million years, Earth has expe-
land. Offshore are a variety rienced an ice age, during which large regions of the Northern
of islands, for which the Hemisphere, as well as Antarctica and South America, were
region is well known. covered year-round with ice and snow. Where the ice was
thick enough, or rested on a steep enough slope, it moved
How did this coastline form, downhill as a mass of flowing ice called a glacier. Some
and has it always been glaciers were small and restricted to mountain areas, whereas
this way?
others covered large parts of the continents, forming continen-
Cape Cod, Massachusetts, tal ice sheets. Continental ice sheets flowed southward from
protrudes into the ocean like Canada and smoothed off and carved grooves into the under-
a flexed arm or a boot with lying landscape by grinding ice, rocks, and sand against the
curled toes. bedrock. The smooth troughs on this map were carved by
continental glaciers that flowed southward from Canada.
How did Cape Cod form,
Some areas south of the ice had large lakes that formed in
and what processes along
the coast caused it to have association with the glaciers.
this shape? As the climate warmed over the past 20,000 years, the ice
sheets and glaciers melted and covered less area. Rocks and
Delaware Bay and Chesa- other sediment once carried in the ice were dropped along the
peake Bay to the south con- front of the melting glaciers, forming a series of curved ridges
nect to the ocean, but their south of the Great Lakes. The ice also left piles of glacially
shapes resemble river valleys. derived sediment on Long Island and Cape Cod.
How did these large bays Water released from melting ice carved new river valleys
14.0
form, and if they started as and flowed into the sea, causing global sea level to rise. The
river valleys, when and why rising seas flooded coastlines and river valleys, forming the
did they become flooded by many inlets and bays along the Atlantic coast of the eastern
the ocean? United States.
406
14.1 What Are Glaciers?

GLACIERS ARE MOVING MASSES OF ICE, ranging in size from huge ice sheets that cover large regions to smaller
glaciers that are restricted to a single mountain or valley. Most glaciers are primarily ice and snow, but they typically
contain significant amounts of rocks and finer sediment that were incorporated into the glacier as it flowed from higher
elevations to lower ones. Glaciers create spectacular scenery when they are still around and when they have melted away.
What Are the Characteristics of Glaciers?

3. Ice can cover broad areas, but glaciers can
1. Glaciers form where snow and ice accumulate become confined within valleys as they
faster than they melt, so many flow from higher elevations to lower
glaciers begin in snowfields ones. As adjacent ice-filled valleys
in higher elevations or at merge, so do the glaciers, pro-
higher latitudes (closer to the ducing a wider and com-
poles). Glaciers only form if an monly thicker mass
area is cold and receives of flowing ice.
enough snowfall to allow ice
and snow to accumulate faster
than they melt.
2. As the snow gets buried, it com-

presses into ice, turning blue in the pro-
cess. As a result, the icy parts of glaciers
have a distinctly blue appearance. Most gla- 4. Whether a glacier
ciers also have lines (grooves, ridges, and sedi- forms depends partly on
ment-rich streaks) formed by flow within the gla- the slope of an area. Areas with
cier. These are fairly straight or gently curved if the gentle slopes allow snow and ice to
glacier has a simple pattern of flow, but they are accumulate to sufficient thicknesses, whereas
contorted and folded if the glacier experienced more some mountain slopes are so steep that snow
complex patterns of flow. and ice slide downhill instead of piling up.
14.01.a1 Dry Valleys, Antarctica
14.01.a2 Patagonian Andes, Argentina 14.01.a3 Swiss Alps

5. This glacier of blue ice 6. As a glacier
flows down a steep valley moves past bed-
and ends in a lake of rock, it plucks
meltwater from the glacier away pieces of
(⊳). As a glacier moves, rock, and its sur-
internal stresses cause its face may be
upper surface to break, partially or totally
forming fractures, each of covered by rock
which is called a cre- pieces derived
vasse. Crevasses are from nearby
especially abundant and steep slopes (⊳).
well developed where a It grinds up
glacier flows around a some rock into a
curve, like around a bend fine rock pow-
in a valley, or where the der. The glacier carries away this material, coarse and fine, depositing
land beneath the glacier it where the glacier melts. The glacier in the photograph above has
changes slope, either from dark fringes of rocky material on both sides and at its end.
a steep slope to a more
gentle one or from a gen-
tle slope to a steeper
drop. The glacier shown Before You Leave These Pages
here breaks apart, open-
ing up crevasses as it Describe the characteristics of glaciers, including the three
flows around a bend and main types (ice sheets, valley glaciers, piedmont glaciers).
over a steep drop-off.
Summarize which places have ice sheets and glaciers.
Glaciers, Coasts, and Changing Sea Levels 407
What Are the Types of Glaciers?

1. The largest accumulations of ice are in
continental ice sheets (⊲), regionally contin-
uous masses of ice like those covering
nearly all of Antarctica and Greenland.
Such ice sheets tie up huge amounts of
water when they form or when they
increase in regional extent or thickness,
causing global sea level to fall, sometimes
more than 100 m. Continental ice sheets
release these same large volumes of water
when they melt, and nearly all this water
flows into the sea, resulting in a significant
rise in global sea level.
14.01.b1 Antarctica
2. Glaciers that flow down 3. As some valley glaciers

valleys (⊲) are called val- or ice sheets flow out of
ley glaciers or Alpine the mountains into
glaciers (named after broader, less confined
the Alps). Valley glaciers topography, they can
tend to be fairly nar- spread out (⊲), form-
row (several kilome- ing a piedmont
ters wide) but can glacier (pied-
flow down valleys mont means
for tens of foot of the
kilometers. mountain).
14.01.b2 Dry Valleys, Antarctica 14.01.b3 Southeastern AK
Where Are Most Ice Sheets and Glaciers?

Glaciers form where snow and ice accumulate faster than they melt, so they form in cold climates. Most glaciers are
therefore in high latitudes (closer to the North or South Pole), at high elevations, or some combination of high latitude and
high elevation.
3. Glaciers cover many of the highest parts of the Tibetan Plateau and
1. In the Southern Hemisphere, glaciers occupy high peaks of the Himalaya, the highest mountain range on Earth, even though this
the Andes, especially in Patagonia, the most southerly part of the region has a fairly low latitude (not close to the poles). Glaciers and ice
mountain range. sheets are present elsewhere in Asia, especially in islands and peninsulas
along the Arctic Ocean.
2. The largest ice mass 4. Large ice sheets and smaller
on Earth is on the con- glaciers occupy 80% of Green-
tinent of Antarctica, land and large areas of the
which sits neighboring islands,
squarely over including Iceland.
the South
Pole. Ice and
snow cover
5. In the main part of
about 98%
North America, gla-
of the
ciers are present in
continent,
Alaska, northern
mostly in
Canada, the Rocky
the form of
Mountains of the
huge ice
United States and Can-
sheets. Val-
ada, the Coast Range
ley glaciers
of British Columbia, and
14.1
form where an
on the larger volcanoes
ice sheet flows
14.01.c1 14.01.c2 and other high peaks of
into valleys.
the Cascade Range.
408
14.2 How Do Glaciers Form, Move, and Vanish?

GLACIERS FORM, MOVE DOWNHILL, AND EVENTUALLY MELT AWAY. How does a glacier form? Once
formed, how does a glacier move across the landscape, and what happens to it as it flows downhill, toward warmer
areas with more melting and generally less snowfall?
How Do Snow and Ice Accumulate in Glaciers?

1. Glaciers, including the ones below, form by the accumulation 2. Snow falls as individual flakes. Once on the
of snow and ice. The snow is derived from snowfall, but it can ground, flakes get pressed together by the weight of
be moved around by the wind or by avalanches, which are other snowflakes on top. Loose snow can contain
masses of snow and ice that fall, slide, or flow downhill. 90% air between the flakes.
3. As more snow accumulates on top, snowflakes far-

ther down are compressed, forcing out more than 50%
of the air. The snowflakes become compressed into
small, irregular spheres of more dense snow.
4. With increasing depth and pressure, the snow begins
to recrystallize into small interlocking crystals, forming
solid ice. Ice is a crystalline material and is considered
to be a type of rock. Crystalline ice contains less air and
commonly has a bluish color. The blue color is due to
the way oxygen-hydrogen bonds in water molecules
interact with light (the same reason why water bodies
14.02.a1 La Perouse Glacier, AK 14.02.a2
are blue).
How Does a Glacier Form and Change as It Moves Downhill?

Glaciers form when the amount of snow and ice accumulating from snowfall exceeds the amount lost by melting and other
processes. In this situation, the snow and ice pile up and may start to move as a glacier.
1. The upper part of the glacier or ice sheet, where 2. As the glacier moves downhill, it loses more and more ice and
snow and ice are added faster than they melt, is the snow by melting, by wind erosion, and by loss of ice molecules
zone of accumulation. Gravity, working on the directly to the air, a process referred to as sublimation. At some
weight of accumulating snow, causes point along the glacier, the losses of ice and snow exactly balance
the glacier to flow downhill. the amount of accumulation; this boundary is called the equilibrium
line. The equilibrium line is sometimes, but not always, marked by a
gradational boundary between snow-covered ice upslope on the
glacier and exposed bluish ice downslope. The bluish ice
14.02.b1
formed at depth and became exposed at the
surface as upper levels of ice and
snow were removed. In some
cases, the entire length
of a glacier may be cov-
ered with snow, but blue
ice can be observed at
depth in fractures (cre-
vasses) that cut the gla-
cier’s upper surface.
14.02.b2 Morteratsch, Swiss Alps
4. At lower elevations, ice

melts away faster than it can be 3. The valley
replenished by downward movement of glacier in the photo-
ice within the glacier and by snowfall. graph to the right has an
This causes the glacier to end or termi- upper, snow-covered part (zone
nate, either on land or in the sea. The of accumulation) and a lower
end (also called the front) of a glacier is area of blue ice and rocks
called the terminus. below the equilibrium line.
How Do Glaciers Move?

Glaciers move downhill because the ice is not strong enough to support its own weight against the relentless downward pull
of gravity. As glaciers move and spread downward, they move by internal shearing and flow of the solid ice, by simply
sliding across the bedrock, or by some combination of these two mechanisms.
1. As gravity pulls the ice downhill, friction along the base 4. The rates at which glaciers move are extremely variable.
of the glacier causes the bottom of the glacier to lag Many glaciers move about a meter per day, but some
behind the upper, less constrained parts. The upper part of move centimeters per day. The fastest ones move
a glacier (▼) therefore flows faster than the lower part, more than 30 meters per day.
causing internal shearing within the glacier.
2. If the
interface
between the
glacier and the
underlying
bedrock is very
irregular and is
relatively dry,
14.02.c2 the base may
become locked
to the bedrock and not move at 3. If the bedrock-glacier interface is less
all. Only the coldest glaciers are irregular (i.e., smoother) or contains water 14.02.c1
completely frozen at their bases. from melting ice, the glacier may be able to
slide over the bedrock. Such glaciers can
14.02.c3 move relatively rapidly.
14.02.d2 Glacier Bay, AK
What Happens When a Glacier Encounters the Sea or a Lake?

1. When a glacier reaches the ocean or a lake, it may float on 2. As ice along the leading edge of a gla-
the water if the sea or lake is deep enough. Ice, even the cier floats, it tends to spread or be pulled
dense blue variety within glaciers, floats because it is apart, forming large crevasses within the ice.
less dense than either fresh- These allow large blocks of ice (⊲) to col-
water or salt water. lapse off the front of the glacier, a natural
process called calving.
14.02.d3 Antarctica
3. As the blocks of ice fall into the water,
they float, forming icebergs. As much as
90% of an iceberg is beneath the water. As
icebergs melt, rocks and other sediment
within them drop into the water. Some ice
14.02.d1
sheets and glaciers flow into the sea with
such large quantities of ice that they form a
large ice shelf that floats on seawater (⊲).
These can be hundreds of kilometers wide.
Glaciers, Snowfields, and Sea Ice

N
ture of ice, so sea ice melts to form water
ot every large mass of ice on Earth’s that is largely fresh (not salty). In the pho
surface is a glacier. Some accumula- tograph below, broken sheets of sea ice sur- Sketch and describe how snow is
tions of snow and ice never move, round small, rocky islands in Antarctica. transformed by pressure into ice.
and these are simply called snowfields.
Large masses of ice also form when the Summarize or sketch the differences
in a glacier above and below the
upper surface of a lake or the sea freezes. In
equilibrium line.
the ocean, such ice is called sea ice. In all
but the coldest places, like parts of the Arc-
14.2
Describe how glaciers move and what

tic Ocean, sea ice freezes in the winter and happens when they encounter a lake
thaws in the spring or summer. Freezing or the sea.
excludes most salt from the crystalline struc-
14.02.t1 Antarctica
410
14.3 How Do Glaciers Erode, Transport, and Deposit?

GLACIERS ARE CAPABLE OF INCREDIBLE amounts of erosion, often gouging into landscapes hundreds of meters
deep. Some of us picture glaciers as uniformly white and free of debris, but most glaciers are engorged with debris and
act as conveyor belts transporting debris many kilometers. Once deposited, glacially carried and deposited debris forms
distinct landforms that are used for agriculture, recreation, and urbanization. What processes are involved in glacial erosion,
transport, and deposition? How can we identify these processes and glacial deposits in the landscape?
How Do Glaciers Erode?

Ice is not a hard material, but the base and sides of a glacier contain rocks and other material that can gouge (pluck) and
scrape (abrade) the underlying land surface, smoothing off rough edges and removing rocks and other sediment. Once
plucked and abraded from the bedrock, the debris can become incorporated into the ice, transported some distance, and
eventually deposited. Meltwater at the glacier’s base and front (terminus) can also cause erosion.
1. Glaciers cause erosion in three main ways: plucking, 3. On the upflow side of the hill, the
abrasion, and from glacial meltwater. In the example here, motion of the glacier is pressing material
a glacier is moving over a small hill (⊲) that predated the against the bedrock, which is in the
advance of the glacier. way. As a result, this side of the hill is
heavily abraded and smoothed off,
2. At a glacier’s base, pressure is great enough that resulting in a more streamlined,
ice melts, forming a thin film of water through a phe- almost aerodynamic, shape that is
nomenon known as pressure melting. This water can less resistant to the flowing ice. With
refreeze inside joints that were either preexisting or abrasion concentrated on the upflow
where reduced pressure (unloading) at a bedrock side and plucking concentrated on the
step creates jointing by expansion. As the glacier downflow side, the glacially eroded hill
moves, rock is torn away (plucked) from the joint takes on an asymmetric shape.
and incorporated into the glacier.
14.03.a1
Abrasion Plucking Glacial Meltwater

4. Rock and smaller sized sediment at the 6. Plucking is concentrated on the downflow 8. Part of the glacier can melt along its base
glacier’s base scrapes at underlying bed- side of irregularities in the underlying bedrock, from pressure melting or on the surface from
rock through a process called abrasion. but it can occur anywhere beneath a glacier. sunlight, in either case forming meltwater.
14.03.a2 Kelley‘s Island, OH
14.03.a6 Mendenhall Glacier, AK

14.04.a3 Marquette, MI
14.03.a4 Rockwodd, CO
7. Plucking can occur where rocks become

loosened by and incorporated into ice at the
5. When ice sheets base of a glacier. The combination of plucking 9. The meltwater can flow in a channel along
flow across the sur- and abrasion can sculpt an asymmetric fea- the base of the glacier. The pressurized, flow-
face, they smooth ture — a roche moutonnée (▲). Abrasion domi- ing meltwater is heavily laden with rocks and
and polish rocks over broad areas. They nated on the right side, grinding a smooth and other glacial sediment and so exerts strong
typically carve the top of bedrock into a polished surface. Plucking occurred on the left erosive power on the bedrock underlying gla-
relatively smooth, polished surface, which side, resulting in a steep, more angular face. cial sediment. The water typically leaves the
is gouged by scratch marks, called glacial Plucking liberates large rocks that are left glacier at its front.
striations. Such polished surfaces and behind, perhaps hundreds of kilometers from
scratch marks are evidence that a glacier their origin, when the glacier melts. These
once moved across the area (note, how- rocks typically are compositionally different Before You Leave These Pages
ever that fault movement can form similar than the local bedrock and so seem out of
features). If the gouge marks are large and place; such a boulder (▼) is a glacial erratic. Describe how glaciers erode,
deep, they are glacial grooves, which pro- transport, and deposit material.
14.03.a5 Pinedale, WY
vide evidence of erosion by dragged sedi-

ment and boulders at the base of a glacier. Summarize or sketch the differences
Glacially derived water can help carve or in a glacier above and below the
accentuate some glacial grooves. equilibrium line.
How Do Glaciers Transport Material?

Once material is eroded by glacial abrasion and plucking, glaciers can entrain (incorporate) and transport vast amounts of
debris, ranging from house-sized boulders to microscopic clay particles. Debris is carried on the surface of the ice, within
the ice, and at the base of the ice. Together these processes make glaciers effective conveyor belts of debris transport.
Transport Within Ice Transport on Top of Ice Transport Near Base of Ice
2. Some debris is
transported on top of
the ice (⊲), especially
debris added through
erosion of steep
slopes flanking a gla-
cier. Such debris can
fall into crevasses
(cracks), becoming
encased in the ice.
14.03.b2 Glacier Bay, AK 14.03.b3 Muldrow Glacier, AK 14.03.b4 Mendenhall Glacier, AK
1. Material can be encased within the ice, 3. Sediment transport also occurs at the
carried along with the moving ice. The ice-bedrock interface (▲), as exposed in
glacier can retain this debris somewhere the meltwater tunnel in the photograph
within the glacier, or internal shearing above. In some glaciers, ice moves
along the inclined shear planes shown along a “soft” bed of deformable sedi-
here can bring debris within the ice ment. The finely ground sediment, called
upward to the surface of the glacier, rock flour, turns meltwater gray and can
where it is then carried on top. Such be carried out to the glacier’s margin.
inclined shear planes develop when mov- Many glaciers are laced with a plumbing
ing ice segments encounter immobile ice system of tunnels funneling meltwater
and “ride” over and past this obstruction. 14.03.b1
and sediment within, below, and out of
the glacier.
How Do Glaciers Deposit Material?

Any sediment carried by ice, icebergs, or meltwater is called glacial drift. In any of these three cases, the debris eventually
comes to rest. If deposited directly by ice, the material is generally unsorted (particles are not segregated by size) and
unstratified (lacking layers) — it is called till. If deposited by meltwater, the glacial deposits are sorted and stratified
(layered) in appearance.
14.03.c1 Marcus Baker Glacier, AK 14.03.c3
1. This glacier is directly 3. In this photograph (⊳),
depositing dark till at its ter- meltwater in the foreground
minus. There is debris on top is issuing from the glacier
and along the sides of the in the background and car-
glacier (⊲), and there is more ries abundant sediment.
debris inside and at the base Deposition of sediment by
of the glacier. If the terminus glacial streams is called
of a glacier remains at about glaciofluvial deposition,
the same place, the till piles where the term refers to
up into an irregular mass (the the involvement of glaciers
lumpy hills at the downhill and streams (fluvial).
end of the glacier).
14.03c2 Athabaska Glacier, Alberta, Canada 14.03.c4 Milwaukee, WI
2. This material (⊲) was directly 4. Glaciofluvial deposition
deposited by ice and is a involves running water and
glacial till. It is characteristically so creates sorted and strati-
unsorted and unstratified. Most fied deposits, as in the sed-
fragments (clasts) are generally iments shown here (⊳). Run-
angular, but others become ning water can sort larger,
somewhat rounded as their heavier clasts, such as peb-
corners get knocked off and bles, from those that are
14.3
ground (abraded) away as smaller and lighter, such as

they are carried by the ice. sand, producing a layered
Note the people for scale in deposit composed mostly
the lower right. of glacial debris.
412
14.4 What Are the Landforms of Alpine Glaciation?

A S G LAC I E R S MOV E , the ice scours underlying rock and unconsolidated materials, picking up the pieces and
carrying debris toward lower elevations. In mountainous areas, glaciers pluck rocks from peaks and ridges, producing
some distinctive landforms that we can use to recognize landscapes that are glacially carved. Glaciers and ice sheets
grind into the underlying land surface, wearing down hills and other topographic high points, and locally polishing
smooth surfaces onto bedrock.
How Does Glacial Erosion Modify Landscapes?

Glaciers occupy and modify landscape features that existed before glaciation and imprint into the landscape clues that
glaciers were once there. Glacial erosion reshapes a valley, typically changing it from a pre-glacial, river-carved, V-shaped
valley to a glacially carved U-shaped valley. Glaciers deposit the eroded material locally or farther away.
14.04.a1 14.04.a2 14.04.a3 Denali NP. AK
In these two computer-generated perspectives of the San Juan Mountains of Colorado (▲), gla- One result of glaciation (▲) is formation of a
ciation in the left image (an artist’s interpretation) results in the present-day landscape of the U-shaped valley (i.e., a “U” shape in profile),
second image (a satellite image combined with topography). which contrasts with V-shaped stream valleys.
What Landforms Do Valley Glaciers Form When They Deposit Sediment?

Valley glaciers erode and transport debris along their sides and bases, but flow within the glacier and the merging of
adjacent glaciers distributes debris throughout much of the glacier. The sides contain especially abundant sediment because
the ice receives loose materials from the mountainous slopes and streams flanking the glacier. The base of a glacier is also
relatively rich in sediment because it plucks away pieces of bedrock and any loose materials over which the glacier moves.
An accumulation of sediment that was carried and deposited by a glacier is a moraine. That is, moraine is an accumulation
of till that can form ridges or be a somewhat flat sheet of till covering the land surface. We classify moraines into different
types, according to where they form. 14.04.b2 Sawtooth Mountains, ID
14.04.b1 Denali NP
1. A lateral moraine forms
along the sides of the gla-
cier and is expressed as a
dark fringe of rocks and
other debris (⊲). When the
glacier melts, lateral
moraines commonly form
low ridges along what
were the edges of the
glacier. The computer-
generated image to the
far right displays lateral
moraines from three now-
gone glaciers.
2. A medial moraine is a sediment-rich belt in 3. A terminal moraine forms

the center of the glacier. A medial moraine (▲) at the termination of a glacier
forms where two glaciers join, trapping their lat- and marks the g lacier’s far-
eral moraines within the combined glacier. thest downhill extent (⊲).
Medial moraines may not be well preserved.
What Alpine Landforms Form in Bedrock?

In mountains, glacial erosion produces distinctive landforms chiseled out of bedrock, including bowl-shaped basins flanked
by steep ridges, and U-shaped valleys carved by the moving ice. We can use these features to recognize landscapes carved by
glaciers, even after the ice melts away. The three-dimensional terrain below shows many of these features from the aptly named
Glacier National Park in Montana, and photographs of examples are below the main figure.
1. Near the uppermost end of an alpine 2. A lake within a glacially scoured 3. Hard bedrock ridges that flank cirques are
glacier, the ice plucks pieces from the bed- depression in a cirque is referred to as commonly narrow, sharp, and jagged, like the
rock, excavating a bowl-shaped depression a tarn. Some lakes within cirques are ridge shown in the photograph below. Such a
called a cirque. When the ice melts, it connected, one after another, by a ridge is an arête and is jagged because it has
exposes the cirque. stream down the glacially carved valley. been glacially eroded from both sides.
14.04.c2 Absaroka Mountains, WY
14.04.c3
14.04.c4 Sierra Nevada, Independence, CA
14.05.c1
14.04.c6 Silverton, CO
4. Glaciers from smaller valleys can merge with a larger, thicker glacier flow-
ing down a main valley. The larger glacier scours deeper into the bedrock, so
the main valley is deepened more than the side valleys, forming a U-shaped
glacial trough. When the glaciers melt away, the side valleys are higher than the
main valley, and we refer to one of these as a hanging valley (⊲). A U-shaped
14.04.c5 Zermatt, Switzerland valley eroded below sea level and subsequently flooded by a rise in sea level
is a fjord (▼), famous examples of which are in Norway, Alaska, and the Arctic.
5. Where three or
14.04.c7 Baffin Island, Canada
more cirques merge

by headward erosion,
they form a pyramid- Before You Leave This Page
like feature called a
14.4
horn. The most famous Summarize what happens at the base and sides of a glacier.
of these is the Matter-
horn (▲) near Zermatt, Describe the origins of landforms formed by glacial erosion.
Switzerland.
414
14.5 What Are the Landforms

of Continental Glaciation?
CONTINENTAL ICE SHEETS can cover large areas of continents, completely reshaping the landscape by scouring
down the surface and depositing sheets and lumps of sediment beneath, within, and in front of the ice sheet. When the
ice melts away, the entire surface tends to have low relief because any protruding topography was planed off and many
low points are filled with sediment. Accumulations of glacially affected sediment form distinctive features.
14.05.a2 McMullen Hill - Parnell Esker, WI 14.05.a3 West Dundee, WI
1. Meltwater carves tunnels through and along the
bases of many g laciers, depositing sediment within the
tunnels and out in front of the glacier. When the glacier
melts back, sediment sorted and deposited along these
meltwater channels forms long, s inuous ridges (⊲) called
eskers. The sinuous ridges on the map to the left and
the photograph to the right are eskers, left behind by a
retreating glacier. Eskers are an “endangered species”
of glacial landforms in that many have been removed
because they are highly prized as a source of gravel
for roadbeds, construction fill, and other uses.
14.05.a4 McMullen Hill, WI 14.05.a5 Great Plains, ND
3. These
flat to gently
rolling plains
(⊳) are com-
posed of
sediment
deposited
from the
2. Kames, such as this one in
base of
Wisconsin (▲), are believed to
the ice
have formed where meltwater in
as ground
stagnant ice deposited sediment
moraine,
in ice crevasses or in the space
which occurs in many parts of the Great
between the glacier and the land
Lakes region and upper Midwest of the
surface. In the map above, a
U.S. The ground moraine has enriched
kame forms a fairly round hill.
the soils for farming, and the smooth-
Like eskers, kames are often
ened topography makes the area just
excavated for gravel (because
well-drained enough, while not too sus-
their deposits are well sorted).
ceptible to erosion.
4. As a glacier retreats, it leaves behind blocks of ice

encased in the glacial and glaciofluvial sediment.
5. As the glacier remains nearby, or after it has retreated

14.05.a7 Northeastern SD
farther, the ice block can become partially or totally bur-
ied by glacial outwash deposited by glacial streams.
6. When an ice block melts, as in the bottom diagram, it

creates a small depression, called a kettle, within the
sediment. This depression can fill with water, becoming
a kettle lake, as in the photograph to the right (⊲). If the
kettle does not fill with water, it may simply look like a
pit in the ground. Kettles can also form in till, not just
outwash. Kames and kettles commonly reside together,
forming a rugged terrain of steep hills, ponds, and poor
drainage.
14.05.a6
7. On the 3D perspective and photograph below and on the map to the right (⊲) are some curi-
ously shaped hills that resemble teardrops, each with its blunt, steep end pointing to the direc-
tion from which the ice flowed (from the north in both cases). Each of these streamlined hills is
composed of till and glaciofluvial deposits and is called a drumlin. A drumlin forms as a moving
glacier sculpts these soft materials into a shape designed to minimize drag, similar to the shape
of a submarine. Drumlins form in groups or fields, called drumlin fields, as shown in the 3D per-
spective below. The greatest concentrations of Drumlins are in eastern Wisconsin (▼) and in cen-
tral New York. Drumlins are the only glacial feature on this page formed by advancing ice. All the
rest are formed when the ice is stagnant or
melting back.
14.05.a9 Eastern Wisconsin 14.05.a10 Marion, NY
8. Recessional moraines form as the front of

the glacier melts back and stagnates for a
while in one location, depositing a pile of sed-
iment along the front of the glacier. The shape
and distribution of a recessional moraine repli-
14.05.a8 cate the shape of the front of the glacier when it stag-
nated. Recessional moraines form curvilinear patterns around the
Great Lakes (⊲). Between moraines are flatter terrain consisting of ground
moraine and outwash plains. Most of the curved ridges displayed in the
large figure in the opening pages of this chapter are recessional moraines.
9. A terminal moraine represents the maximum forward extent of the front
of the glacier, whether it is a continental ice sheet or an alpine gla- 14.05.a11
cier. It has the same shape and character as a recessional
moraine, but it is farthest in front. Areas between a termi-
nal moraine and the present-day glacier, if it still
exists, were once covered with ice. Moraines,
such as this one pictured to the right
(⊲), can have considerable relief, up to
100 m above the surrounding landscape.
The steep terrain is usually forested, pro-
viding opportunities for hiking, skiing, and
wildlife habitat. Flatter outwash plains and
ground moraine are used for agriculture and
urban settlement.
10. Melting ice sheets produce large braided

streams that carry glaciofluvial sediment away from
recessional or terminal moraines and deposit it either 14.05.a12 Kettle Moraine SF, WI
nearby or some distance away. This landform is a gla-
cial outwash plain, which can be pitted by kettles that
form depressions or ponds (▼).
14.05.a13 Before You Leave This Page
Summarize where continental

glaciers carry and deposit
sediment, explaining the three
main types of moraine.
Sketch and describe the features
14.06.a1 associated with continental ice
14.5
sheets, and explain how each

type of feature formed.
416
14.6 What Features Are Peripheral to Glaciers?

REGIONS WITH COLD CLIMATES exhibit other features that are either related to glacial processes or are simply re-
lated to freezing of the ground. Some other features form in the cool, wet climates that accompany continental glaciation
but in regions too warm for glaciers.
What Types of Deposits Are Related to Glacial Episodes?

Glaciers produce an abundance of sediment and water, so glacially derived sediment can accumulate over wide regions and
can be transported far from the actual glaciers by streams, wind, and waves.
14.06.a1 Tibet
14.06.a2 Shaanxi Province, China

Glacially produced sediment of all sizes mixes with abundant glacial Glaciers pulverize entrained rocks, producing abundant silt-sized material
meltwater to form large rivers with waters loaded with sediment. The that can be blown away by the wind. Accumulations of windblown silt are
rivers and streams deposit sediment on broad outwash plains in front called loess, and many loess deposits are glacially derived, such as these
of the glaciers. The gravel deposits shown here were deposited during soft, tan deposits that drape over topography. This particular deposit from
the Pleistocene and are being eroded into by a modern stream. China formed during the recent glacial episode.
What Is Permafrost and Where Does It Occur?

In cold regions, below some depth, water in and below the soil remains frozen year after year, a condition called
permafrost. The uppermost parts, called the active layer, thaw during summer.
1. The ground below the 2. In North Amer-
surface in this photograph ica (⊲), large
(⊳) is permanently frozen areas of continu-
and so it is permafrost. ous permafrost
During warm months, the are restricted to
top few meters of the northern Canada
ground (the active layer) and Alaska. In other
thaw, allowing some areas, permafrost is
vegetation to grow. either discontinuous or
Permafrost commonly occurs in high, cold
does not allow trees to mountains. When frozen,
grow. Trees on the edge permafrost is a very hard 14.06.b2
of permafrost are typically material, but it weakens consid-
short and stunted. erably if it thaws.
14.06.b1 Denali NP, AK
3. The smooth, lower part of this 4. Patterned ground consists of
ledge (⊳) is permafrost, and it has geometric patterns, such as poly-
a hard, icy appearance. On top is gons and circles, above perma-
a thin, brownish layer that is not frost. It has several different
always frozen (the active layer). expressions, but it forms when
Trees on permafrost commonly expansion and contraction from
lean in various directions because frost action concentrates gravels,
permafrost keeps the roots shal- stones, or boulders at the surface.
low, and thawing of the active These geometric patterns repeat
layer limits how well the roots over wide swaths of continuous
support the trees. and discontinuous permafrost.
14.06.b3 Kolyma River, Siberia, Russia 14.06.b4 Aerial photograph, North Slope, AK
What Types of Lakes Were Associated with Glacial Times?

The cool, wet climates that favor glaciers also favor an increase in precipitation and the formation and maintenance of lakes.
In the western United States, huge lakes existed at times during the recent ice age, but largely dried up when the climate
changed about 15,000 years ago. Evidence of the extent and height of these lakes is still visible.
14.06.c1 14.06.c3 Bonneville Salt Flats, UT
1. An ice-age lake filled low, interconnected
basins in the Rocky Mountains of western
Montana. This lake, named Lake Missoula,
caused catastrophic flooding, as described in
more detail below. Shorelines from this lake
were etched as horizontal lines into the hills
surrounding Missoula, Montana (▼).
3. The Great Salt Lake of Utah

is a remnant of a much larger
ice-age lake named Lake
Bonneville. As the large lake
dried up, it left the Bonneville
Salt Flats (▲), home to rocket
testing, land-speed records,
and many square miles of salt.
14.06.c2 Missoula, MT
4. Smaller lakes formed in
2. A large ancestral lake, named Lake Lahontan, closed basins across much of
filled the low basins of western Nevada. The lake the American Southwest. In
was up to 240 m (790 ft) deep about 13,000 places, they left salt flats, fine-
years ago, and some modern lakes in the area grained lake deposits, and
are remnants of this larger ice-age lake. shorelines carved onto hillsides.
Lake Missoula and the Channeled Scablands
A
14.06.t1 14.06.t2 West Bar, Columbia River, WA
famous story among
geologists is the his-
tory of Lake Missoula
and a peculiar topographic
region in eastern Washington
known as the Channeled
Scablands. The scablands are
so named because the area is
crossed by many gorges, which
curiously do not contain
streams or rivers large enough
to have carved the gorges.
In the 1920s, geologist
J. Harlan Bretz proposed a hypothesis to (above right). The shapes of the ripples record Before You Leave This Page
explain this mystery, but it took decades to be immense currents moving downstream, from
accepted by the larger geologic community. right to left in this view. These ripples are so Describe the characteristics of
According to this hypothesis, on more than one large that they were hard to recognize as such. different deposits related to glacial
occasion, glacial Lake Missoula breached the episodes and how each type forms.
glacial dam holding back its waters, and cata-
Describe permafrost and where
strophic torrents of water raced across the
it occurs.
landscape to the west, carving the scablands.
The huge floods carried gigantic boulders,
14.6
Describe several large ice-age lakes

carved smooth depressions (pot holes) into the and some of the features they formed,
bedrock (⊲), and formed enormous r ipples either while full or while emptying.
14.06.t3 Dry Falls, WA

418
14.7 What Is the Evidence for Past Glaciations?

SEVERAL LINES OF EVIDENCE CONFIRM that huge ice sheets once covered the land. This evidence is directly
expressed as features and deposits within the landscape and is recorded indirectly in ice cores, in isotopic compositions
of marine fossils, and in the pollen record.
What Features Indicate the Former Presence of Glaciers?

To be able to recognize past glaciations, geoscientists visit active glaciers and ice sheets to observe what types of landforms
and deposits suggest glaciation. These modern-day examples can help explain the origin, form, and distribution of
Pleistocene landforms and deposits, an example of how “the present is the key to the past.”
14.07.a1 Absaroka Mtns., WY 14.07.a2 Fort Atkinson, WI
1. The most obvi- 2. Other landscape features
ous evidence of are diagnostic of glaciers,
glaciers includes including eskers, low ridges
landscapes that of moraine, and drumlins.
contain features Some of these features may
diagnostic of past be subtle, like these two
glaciations, includ- hills (⊳), each of which is a
ing cirques, drumlin. The concentric
aretes, tarns, and strips on these hills are the
U-shaped valleys. result of farming, but they
Each of those fea- help define the oval to tear-
tures is visible in drop shape of each hill. The presence of these features across much of
this scene. Can New England and the Great Lakes region demonstrates that glaciers
you find them? once covered these areas, leaving behind clues to their former presence
after the glaciers had totally disappeared.
14.07.a3 Marquette, MI 14.07.a4 Kimberly, South Africa

3. When glaciers and ice sheets flow across the land, they
smooth and polish underlying rocks and deposit glacial sedi-
ments (till) on the polished surface. This site (⊳) has a shiny,
polished surface that displays scratch marks and grooves cut
into the bedrock by stones carried along the base of the gla-
cier. The polish and marks remain as clues that glaciers once
covered this region.
4. As glaciers advance and melt back across the landscape,

they deposit layers or patches of poorly sorted till (⊲). Ancient
examples, such as this one from Kimberly, South Africa, have
lithified into rock; consolidated till is tillite. The tillite provides
evidence for ancient g laciations, in this case near the end of
the Permian Period, about 250 million years ago.
14.07.a5 Pinedale, WY 14.07.a6
5. Glaciers can carry huge rocks, some as big as a house,

and leave them scattered about the landscape (⊳). Glaciers
may transport large blocks hundreds of kilometers, taking
them to places where such rock types are not present in the
local bedrock. Such out-of-place blocks, like the ones shown
here, are glacial erratics.
6. An unusual feature of some marine and lake sediment is

the presence of scattered stones in an otherwise fine-
grained, clastic sediment (⊲). We call these dropstones
because they have been carried within floating icebergs
and then dropped into fine sediment on the seafloor or
lake bottom.
How Do We Determine Where and When the Most Recent Ice Age Occurred?
From diverse lines of evidence, geologists determine which areas were once covered by ice and which ones were not. They
then use fossils and isotopic dating methods to determine when glaciers were most widespread, a time called a glacial
period or glacial maximum. A time during an ice age when glaciers are melting and retreating is an interglacial period. A
glaciation, because it affects sea level and the influx of freshwater into the ocean, can also be investigated by examining the
nature and chemistry of marine fossils and sediment.
1. During evaporation of seawater or 2. As the water vapor condenses into clouds and precipitation
freshwater, heavier isotopes of an element (rain, snow, or hail), the water, snow, or ice contains the higher
preferentially remain in the water, proportion of lighter isotopes that was in the water vapor. If
while lighter isotopes more snow and ice accumulate on land, they tend to keep the light
easily escape into the isotopes from returning to the sea. As a result, an increase in
water vapor. In the the amount of snow and ice on land, as during a glacial event,
case of oxygen will cause seawater to be more enriched in heavy isotopes.
isotopes,
evaporation 3. As glaciers and ice sheets melt, they release their water,
causes the which was relatively enriched in lighter isotopes. Streams and
water to melting icebergs return these light-isotope-enriched waters to
become the sea. A decrease in glaciation, therefore, causes seawater to
enriched in shift toward lighter isotopic compositions, just the opposite of
the heavier an increase in glaciation. As a result, isotopic compositions of
isotope ice on land and on water in the sea are indications of changes
oxygen-18 (18O) in the amount of snow and ice on land.
while enriching
the water vapor in
the lighter isotope 14.07.b2
14.07.b1
oxygen-16 (16O). 4. This graph (⊳) shows
temperatures inferred from
oxygen-isotope compositions of
14.07.b3 Cayman Islands ice from part of a 3 km-deep
5. As they grow, some marine hole that scientists drilled into
organisms (⊳) build shells the ice sheet of central
of calcium carbonate by Greenland. The data show how
extracting the necessary chemi- scientists interpret temperatures
cals from seawater. As the in central Greenland (a very
chemistry and temperature of cold place) to have varied over
the water change, so does the the last 100,000 years. Points to
chemical composition of the the right indicate that average
shells formed in that water. temperatures were warmer, as
Geoscientists analyze oxygen they are today, and glaciers
and carbon isotopes in fossils were less widespread. Data that
to infer changes in seawater plot to the left indicate that
temperature and chemistry glaciers were more widespread.
over time. We can then use From these and other data,
such changes to infer the times geologists infer that glaciers
of glaciation or times when decreased and increased in
melting of glaciers released extent many times during the
freshwater into the ocean. last 100,000 years.
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 14.07.b4

6. This graph (⊳) shows oxygen-isotope
Higher
compositions of marine shells, which

Glacial Period Before You Leave This Page
record the isotopic composition of
seawater when the animal was alive.
O/ O RATIO
Higher ratios of 18O/16O mark times of Describe evidence used to infer that
glaciation, when snow and ice on land glaciers once covered a landscape.
tied up the lighter isotope (16O), increasing
16
the relative amount of the heavier isotope Discuss how glaciations can be
18
14.7
(18O) in seawater and the shells. These expressed in ice and the ocean,
Lower
Interglacial Period data indicate that glaciers increased and and how we can use this record to
decreased in volume many times over the interpret when glaciation occurred.
past two million years.
0 0.5 1.0 1.5
AGE (millions of years)
420
14.8 What Happened During Past Ice Ages?

OVER THE PAST TWO AND A HALF MILLION YEARS, huge ice sheets and glaciers intermittently covered large
areas of the Northern and Southern Hemispheres. The ice sheets and glaciers increased during some time periods we
call glacial periods, and decreased during other times, called interglacial periods. Overall, the past two and a half
million years had a marked increase in glacial periods compared to most other times in Earth’s geologic history. As a
result, geologists call this time period the Ice Age. The Ice Age coincides with the Pleistocene Epoch of the Quaternary
Period of the geologic timescale.
What Parts of the Earth Were Covered with Ice During the Ice Age?
By examining landscapes for glacially polished surfaces, moraine, and other indications of glaciation, geologists can infer
which areas were covered by ice in the past and which ones were not. We also can use sedimentary records from lakes,
determining whether a lake existed at some time or was still covered by ice. By considering other factors, including
elevation and latitude, we can extrapolate the actual observations to produce maps that show the interpreted extents of
glaciers and ice sheets at different times during the Ice Age.
Approximately 28,000
This figure, centered on Green- years ago, ice sheets and
land, shows the present-day glaciers were much more
distribution of ice in the extensive on Earth,
Northern Hemisphere. It including in the
also shows sea ice that Northern Hemi-
covers much of the sphere. Note that a
Arctic Ocean between large ice sheet
North America and covered nearly all
Siberia (northeastern of Canada and
Asia). Note that the much of the north-
only large land areas ern parts of the
covered by ice are United States. Ice
Greenland, adjacent sheets and glaciers
islands in northern Can- also covered much of
ada, and parts of Alaska northern Asia, northern
and westernmost Canada. 14.08.a1 14.08a2 Europe, and the Alps of
southern Europe.
What Parts of North America Were Covered by Ice and When Did the Ice Retreat?
The maps below show interpreted ice cover for North America at two times. The left map shows a time when the ice cover
was close to a maximum, approximately 20,000 years ago, whereas the map on the right shows the position of ice at about
10,000 years ago, after the ice sheets had retreated and as the Ice Age was ending.
3. Ice sheets extended from Canada into the 4. When we say that the ice sheets retreated,
1. Most of Alaska northern parts of the United States, covering we mean that ice within the sheets was still 5. By 10,000 years
was not covered New England, the Great Lakes region, and the flowing forward, but the front of the ice sheet ago, the ice sheets
by ice. This upper Midwest. Glaciers also occupied parts of moved back (retreated) because ice melted had melted back,
allowed people the Rocky Mountains but are not shown. faster than it could be replenished. covering only part
and animals of north-central
from Asia to 14.08.b1 14.08.b2 Canada.
migrate into
North America. 6. As the ice
retreated, the
2. The center of northern United
the ice sheet States emerged
was in northern from beneath the
Canada. Here, ice, the Great Lakes
the ice is inter- formed, and river
preted to have systems like the
been several upper Mississippi
kilometers thick. began to develop.
What Record Did Past Glaciations Leave in the Northern United States?
Glaciers once covered northern parts of the conterminous United States, leaving behind evidence of which areas they
covered and which ones they did not. The shaded-relief map below shows the area south of the Great Lakes. The small
inset map highlights the locations of ridges of moraine left behind as ice sheets retreated from the region. Try to match the
moraines on the small map to the same feature on the large map.
14.08.c1
1. A continental ice sheet
once covered much of the
area south of the Great
Lakes, in the upper Mid-
west of the United States.
The largest features formed
by glaciation are smooth
troughs that in this area
trend from northeast to
southwest, or locally north
to south. These smooth
areas were once covered
by ice sheets, which
smoothed off the underly-
ing landscape as they
moved southwest and
south out of Canada.
2. As the ice sheets melted
away, they left a veneer of
glacial sediment on the land-
scape. Ridges, representing piles of glacial sediment, 3. Areas with rougher topography south of the troughs, including those in the lower right
mark the position of the front of the ice sheet as it corner of this map, were never glaciated. They are called driftless areas because they
melted back. Most of these ridges, highlighted in red were not glaciated and so do not have a covering of glacial drift (glacial sediment).
on the inset map, are recessional moraines.
14.08.c2
ce 5. Glaciers left behind other evi-
h
dence in the Northeast and
ru
ne
k
rc
Elm
Oa
Sp
Bi
Pi
0
Great Lakes area, including out-
1,660 YBP crops that display glacial
2
scratches and polish. As the gla-
ciers retreated, meltwater col-
4 lected in low areas, forming
DEPTH (m)
5,450 YBP
numerous small and large lakes.
6 Sediment accumulating in lakes
and in other settings contain a
7,120 YBP
8 record, in the form of pollen, of
the types of plants that grew at
10,230 YBP
10 different times. These pollen
4. Glaciers also covered New England. They piled up glacial sediment, records (⊳) document a dramatic
forming ridges of moraine, shaded red in the small inset map (▲). Moraine shift from spruce trees to leafy
12
forms ridges on Long Island, Rhode Island, Cape Cod, and the islands of trees as glaciers retreated and
20 40 60 20 20 20 20 40 60
Martha’s Vineyard and Nantucket. Identify these ridges on the larger map. POLLEN FREQUENCY (%) the climate warmed.
14.08.c3
The Ice-Age Hypothesis
T
he idea that huge ice sheets covered the polished bedrock far beyond the existing gla-
land was not intuitive, but arose to ciers in the Alps. European naturalists of the
explain an ever-growing number of hard- time debated how to explain these curious fea-
to-understand observations made in Europe and tures. In the 1820s, they hypothesized that Describe what parts of the Northern
Hemisphere and North America
North America. As discussed in A. Hallam’s widespread, prehistoric glaciations had occurred
were covered with ice during the
book Great Geological Controversies, these in the Alps and northern Europe. Today, we call
Ice Age.
observations included bones of reindeer and this interval of time the Ice Age, and we recog-
14.8
Arctic birds in southern France, large out-of- nize that glaciers grew and shrank many times Discuss evidence for past glaciations
place boulders (erratics) scattered across much during the last two million years. in the United States.
of Europe, and the presence of scratched and
422
14.9 What Starts and Stops Glaciations?

TO UNDERSTAND THE REASONS for glacial and interglacial times, we need to further explore what causes global
changes in climate. Earth’s climate system is very complex, and human history is short compared to the timescales on
which global climate change occurs, so we do not completely understand all the causes.
What Variations in Earth’s Tilt and Orbit Influence Global Climate?

Some variations in climate, those that occur over a timescale of thousands to tens of thousands of years, are likely
controlled by the amount of solar radiation reaching Earth. Milutin Milankovitch, a Serbian astronomer and geophysicist,
recognized that Earth’s climate could be influenced by periodic changes in the amount and direction of Earth’s tilt and
Earth’s orbit shape. We call such cyclic changes in Earth’s tilt, wobble, and orbit Milankovitch cycles.
Changes in Earth’s Tilt (Obliquity)

Over time, Earth’s axis of rotation changes its tilt relative to its plane of orbit around the Sun. About every 40,000 years,
the tilt changes from 22.5° to 24.5° and back again. The amount of tilt toward the Sun affects Earth’s climate because tilt affects
how much summer sunlight strikes higher latitudes. The diagrams below are for winter in the Northern Hemisphere.
1. The maximum tilt angle of 2. The present-day 3. When Earth’s tilt is at
position of Earth’s tilt 23.5° its minimum tilt angle 22.5° Axis of
Earth’s rotation axis is 24.5° Axis of Axis of
24.5°. This amount of tilt Rotation is 23.5°. Earth’s tilt Rotation (22.5°), high lati- Rotation
increases the effects is currently tudes receive
of the seasons. adjust- less direct
When combined ing back from sunlight dur-
with other cli- the maxi- ing the
matic factors, it EQU
mum 24.5° EQU summer, EQU
ATO
ATO AT O R
can lead to a R tilt, which R causing
decrease in gla- last occurred cooler sum-
cial activity near the end mers, less
because warmer of the Pleisto- melting, and
summer temperatures 14.09.a1 cene glacial 14.09.a2 an increase 14.09.a3
melt more polar ice. advance. in glaciers.
Wobble of Rotation Axis (Precession) Shape of Orbit (Eccentricity)

4. Precession is similar to what happens when a 6. Eccentricity is the term for the noncircular shape of Earth’s orbit around the Sun.
spinning top slows down and wobbles. As Earth Earth’s orbit changes over long timescales, sometimes being more circular and some-
wobbles, its spin axis changes from pointing at the times slightly more elliptical. These changes cause variations in the amount of insolation
North Star (Polaris) to pointing at the star Vega and reaching Earth.
back again.
7. This change from a more circular to a less
5. Precession causes NORTH circular orbit is thought to only slightly affect
VEGA STAR climate, but when added to other astronomical
December to be win-
ter in the North- Precession cycles, its effect might be significant. The
ern Hemisphere dur- eccentricity cycle lasts about 100,000 years.
ing some times in 23.5
° Sun
Less
Earth history, but 8. Scientists have computed the effects of Eccentricity
June to be winter at each of these factors (tilt, precession, and Earth
other times in Earth eccentricity) and then combined the effects to
history. If the effects investigate how they interact, both in the past
of precession are and in the future. When used to try to recon- More
added to other EQU struct past events, the calculated effects can be Eccentricity
ATO
astronomical factors, R compared with records of past climate, like the isoto- 14.09.a5
these phenomena pic composition of ice cores. Such comparisons support
could affect global the hypothesis that Milankovitch cycles can explain many
climate. The preces- past climatic variations, including the waxing and waning of
sion cycle lasts about 14.09.a4 glaciations. Computer models can also be used to predict future
23,000 years. Milankovitch-related climate changes, but these results are currently
being debated by the scientific community.
Can Variations in Solar Heating and Atmospheric Composition Influence

the Intensity of a Glacial Episode?
Several factors may not, by themselves, cause the onset or demise of a glacial episode, but they can influence how severe
the resulting glaciation is. For example, the amount of energy given off by the Sun is not constant, and the composition of
Earth’s atmosphere is not constant. As a result, the amount of energy that can pass through the atmosphere and be retained
by Earth is variable and can lead to a warmer or cooler climate.
1. Every 11 to 14 years, the level of sunspot 3. Volcanoes release millions of tons of carbon dioxide (CO2) into
activity on the Sun increases, producing the atmosphere every year, and plants and marine life extract
very small changes in solar energy output. Sun some of this CO2. An increase in the amount of CO2 and methane
This energy fluctuation can influence (CH4), both greenhouse gases, tends to warm the planet. The
Earth’s climate system, affecting tempera- amounts of CO2 and CH4 were relatively lower during glacial
ture, precipitation, and other weather phe- episodes and higher during interglacial p
eriods.
nomena. When sunspot activity declines,
evidence shows that Earth’s climate cools 4. Large, explosive volcanic eruptions can add sig-
by a small amount. nificant quantities of volcanic ash, dust, and sulfur
dioxide (SO2) (which is converted to sulfuric acid
2. During glacial episodes, snow and ice aerosols) to the atmosphere. These aerosols
cover more of Earth’s surface, and cloud reflect insolation back into space, allowing
cover also increases. Both of these increase less sunlight to reach Earth’s surface. A major
the reflectivity, also called albedo, of Earth so volcanic eruption will increase the amount of
that more insolation gets reflected off Earth’s ash and dust in the a tmosphere, perhaps
surface and is lost to space. This loss of heat resulting in global cooling. It is thought that
makes the climate cooler. A cooling climate can volcanic eruptions in the tropics during the
result in more snow, ice, and clouds, leading to 13th and 15th centuries, along with decreased
more cooling. In this way, the system reinforces solar activity, may have triggered an unusually
itself — a positive feedback. cold period in Europe.
14.09.b1
What Is the Role of Ocean Currents and Continental Positions in Glaciations?

Ocean currents transport water of different temperatures from one part of the ocean to another. Such currents can warm or
cool land areas, helping to increase or decrease glaciation on land.
NORTH
1. Upwelling currents can bring deep Ice
3. Warm currents bring tropical waters northward, waters that have
cold water to the surface. Cold been heated by the Sun. These currents can warm adjacent parts of a
currents help cool the land, perhaps continent, inhibiting glaciations. Warm currents also bring warm, moist
allowing glaciers to form, if there is air, increasing precipitation, which can allow more ice to accumulate if
sufficient precipitation. Continent the temperature is cold enough.
Warm
Upwelling
2. Cold currents, however, Current 4. The position of continents affects the geometry of ocean currents,
can also inhibit the growth deflecting currents in certain directions or blocking the connection
of glaciers because they between different oceans. In this way, continental p ositions influence
put less moisture into the ocean currents, which impact regional and local climates.
atmosphere, leading to
less snowfall. 5. A continent located at or near the North or South Pole provides a
Cold Cu
14.09.c1
rrent large landmass on which continental ice sheets can form.
Ice
Causes of Ice Ages Before You Leave This Page
T
he ice age lasting from approximately idly in geologic terms, in some cases over less Describe how variations in Earth’s tilt
2.6 million years ago to the present has than several thousand years. Some scientists and orbit influence global climate.
included many glacial and interglacial regard the present time as an interglacial.
Describe how global climate can
periods. This time span lies mostly in what has The cause of ice ages remains controversial,
be affected by atmospheric gases,
traditionally been called the Pleistocene Epoch, but the factors described on these two pages are
volcanic ash, and the amount of snow,
which ended with the end of the last major gla- among the culprits that can help instigate an ice ice, and cloud cover.
ciation about 12,000 years ago. Major glacial age or influence how pronounced one is. Also
periods commonly lasted about 40,000 to
14.9
involved are other factors, such as changes in Describe the role of ocean currents
100,000 years, with interglacial periods lasting solar activity and the amount of atmospheric and continental positions on
about 10,000 years on average. Changes between greenhouse gases. glaciations.
the two conditions apparently could occur rap-
424
14.10
What Processes Occur Along Coasts?
COASTS ARE THE INTERFACE BETWEEN LAND AND WATER and so respond to processes that arise from both
sides and from changes in sea level. Waves and tides affect a coast from the water side, while rivers, wind, and other
transport agents contribute sediment from the land. Together these processes sculpt the coast, redistribute sediment, and
present challenges for people who live along a coast.
What Types of Processes Affect Coasts?

14.10.a2
1. From the water side, most coasts are strongly 2. From the land side, streams can be
affected by waves (⊳), which are near-surface fea- important contributors of sediment into
tures generated by wind blowing across the water. the coastal system. Silt, sand, and coarser
Waves typically form far from shore but can sediment carried by streams accumulate
approach and break upon the shore, where they close to where a stream meets the sea or
erode rock and loose material, deposit sand and lake, commonly forming a delta.
other sediment, or s imply move sediment around. Fine-grained sediment suspended
in river water can be carried farther
away from shore.
3. Wind can move sand and finer

sediment away from, toward, or along a
beach, depending on the direction the
wind blows relative to the
orientation of the coast. Many
beach areas are backed by
coastal sand dunes,
most of which are held
partially in place by
some vegetation (▼).
14.10.a1
14.10.a3
4. Currents
form when ocean
or lake water flows
in a certain direction. A
single current can affect
the entire thickness of water,
or currents can push shallow 5. Faulting and
water in one direction and other tectonic
deeper water in another. activity can raise parts
of the coast above sea level
or drop parts of the land, sub-
merging areas along the coast.
14.10.a4 Mont-Saint-Michel, France 14.10.a5 Mont-Saint-Michel, France
6. Changes in sea level greatly affect c oasts. In most

places, tides raise and lower sea level relative to the
land twice a day. Longer term changes in sea level are
primarily due to changes in climate and tectonics. Tidal
flats, such as the one surrounding Mont-Saint-Michel in
France, shown in both of these photographs, are uncov-
ered by low tides (⊳) and flooded by high tides (⊲) and
storms. Such low areas could be submerged by an over-
all rise in sea level accompanying climate change.
What Factors Affect the Appearance of a Coast?

Coasts around the world have diverse appearances, from sandy white beaches to dark, craggy cliffs that plunge vertically
into the sea, with no beach at all. A number of factors control these differences, including orientation of the coast, slope of
the seafloor, hardness of the rocks, and contributions of sediment from the land.
Factors on the Water Side Factors on the Land Side 14.10.b2 Scotland
1. The appearance of a coast is greatly influenced by the strength 5. On the land side, the appear-
of the waves and tides that impact the shore. Stronger waves will ance of the coast reflects the hard-
typically cause greater erosion and move larger clasts of sediment ness of the bedrock along the
along the coast. coast. Hard rock that resists ero-
sion tends to form rocky cliffs (⊲),
2. The size and intensity of storms influ- whereas erosion sculpts softer
ence the appearance of a coast because sediment and rock into
storms bring with them large waves, more gentle slopes
strong winds, and intense rain- and rounded hills.
fall. Some coasts are rav-
aged by h urricanes,
whereas others rarely
14.10.b1
experience the ero-
sive effects of
powerful 6. Coastal landscapes also reflect
storms. the amount and size of avail-
able sediment. A coast
cannot be rocky if the
only materials present
3. The are soft and fine
slope of the grained. Streams pro-
seafloor is also a vide a fresh influx of
factor. Steep slopes sediment into the
can allow large waves coastal environment.
to break directly against
rocks along the shore, 7. Coasts undergoing uplift have a
whereas more g entle slopes different appearance than those where
cause waves to break a short the land has dropped relative to water
distance offshore. level. A rise in sea level flooded stream valleys
along the North C arolina coast, producing a coastal
outline marked by long, narrow inlets and bays (▼).
4. The orientation of a coastline is also
important, because waves typically approach
from specific directions in response to prevailing 8. Climate is a major factor
winds. The dominant wave direction may change influencing coastal landscapes.
with the season (summer versus winter or dry ver- Wet climates provide abundant
sus rainy seasons). Also, some parts of the coast precipitation for erosion, forma-
will receive less wave action because they are tion of soil, and the growth of
sheltered in a bay or are protected by an island, vegetation. Vegetation stabi-
barrier reef, or other offshore feature. The c oast lizes soil and limits the amount
below is rocky and affected by strong waves, of material that can be picked
especially during powerful storms. up by wind and water or
moved downslope by gravity.
Dry climates result in less veg-
14.10.b4 Acadia NP, ME etation, less soil, and less
stable slopes.
14.10.b3

Summarize or sketch the types of processes that affect coasts.
14.10
Summarize or sketch how different factors, from the water side

and from the land side, affect the appearance of a coast.
426
14.11 What Causes High Tides and Low Tides?

THE SEA SURFACE MOVES UP AND DOWN across the shoreline, generally twice each day. These changes, called
tides, are observed in the oceans and in bodies of water, such as bays and estuaries, that are connected to the ocean.
What causes tides to rise and fall, and why are some tides higher than others?
What Are High and Low Tides?

Tides are cyclic changes in the height of the sea surface, generally measured at locations along the coast. The difference
between high and low tide is typically 1 to 3 m, but it can be more than 12 m or almost zero.
High Tide Average Sea Level Low Tide
14.11.a1 14.11.a2 14.11.a3
During high tide, the height of water in the Following high tide, the water level begins to When the water level reaches its lowest level, it
ocean has risen to its highest level relative fall relative to the land — the tide is going out. is at low tide, and more of the shore is exposed.
to the land. At this point, the water floods At some time, water level will reach the aver- Low tide in most places also occurs every 12
onto the shoreline, covering more of the age sea level for that location, but it keeps hours and 25 minutes. Water level begins to rise
beach. In most places, high tide occurs falling on its way to low tide. again after low tide, and the tide is coming in.
every 12 hours and 25 minutes. Rising tide spreads water across the land.
What Causes High and Low Tides?

Tides rise and fall largely because water in the ocean is pulled by the gravity of the Moon and to a lesser extent the Sun.
As Earth rotates on its axis, most coasts experience two high and two low tides in each 25-hour period.
1. This figure depicts Earth and the Moon as if looking directly down 4. On parts of Earth that are facing neither toward
on Earth’s North Pole. It shows the Moon much closer to Earth than it nor away from the Moon, sea level is lower as water is
would be for the size of the two bodies. Earth rotates (spins) counter- pulled away from these regions toward areas of high
clockwise in this view and, relative to the Sun, completes tide. Coastal areas here experience low tide. At this
a full rotation once every 24 hours. place, for the next six hours and 12 minutes tides will be
rising — a situation called flood tide.
2. The Moon makes one complete orbit
around Earth each 29 days, also counter- 5. On the side of Earth opposite the Moon,
clockwise in this view. Due to this motion, the water is relatively far from the Moon
it takes 24 hours and and so feels less of the Moon’s gravita-
50 minutes for a point tional pull (recall that the force of gravity
on Earth facing the decreases with distance). The water
Moon to rotate bulges out, called the tidal bulge, and
all the way the side of Earth facing directly away
around to from the Moon therefore experiences
catch up with high tide. At this place, for the next
and again face six hours and 12 minutes tides will be
the Moon. The falling — a situation called ebb tide.
extra 50 minutes is
because the Moon
will have orbited 1/29th 6. Earth rotates much faster than the
of the way around Earth Moon orbits Earth, so it is best to think of the
14.11.b1
after 24 hours. mounds of water — but not the water itself — as
remaining fixed in position relative to the Moon as
Earth spins. During a c omplete rotation of Earth, a
coastal area will pass through both mounds of
3. The Moon exerts a gravitational pull on Earth and its water. This pulls the water in the water, causing most coasts to have two high tides
ocean toward the Moon, causing it to mound up on the side of Earth nearest to (i.e., (and two low tides) in each 24-hour and 50-minute
facing) the Moon. Coastal areas beneath the mound of water experience high tide. On period. Odd coastal configurations can cause local
this figure, the thickness and mounding of the (blue) water are greatly exaggerated. differences in the number of daily tides.
Why Are Some High Tides Higher Than Others?

From week to week, not all high tides at any location reach the same level — some are higher and others are lower than
average. Similarly, some low tides are very low and others are not very low. Such variations are related to the added
influence of the Sun’s gravity and follow a predictable pattern that repeats about every 15 days.
Spring Tides Neap Tides

1. Like the Moon, the Sun exerts a 2. The Sun’s gravity attracts a mound of 5. Approximately seven days after each spring
gravitational pull on Earth and its water. water on the side of Earth facing the Sun tide, the Moon journeys 1/4 of the way around
The Sun is larger and more massive and causes another mound on the side Earth. In this position, the Moon’s and Sun’s
than the Moon, but it is so much farther facing away from the Sun. These thin gravity are pulling at right angles to one
away from Earth that the mounds, shown in dark blue, another, and one acts to cause a high tide
Sun’s gravitational effect are always in the same while the other acts to cause a low tide.
on Earth is about half position relative to the
that of the Moon. Sun. Locations on
Earth rotate through
14.11.c1
each position once
every 24 hours.
4. About two 14.11.c2
3. The Moon weeks later, here

orbits all the labeled Time 2,
way around the Moon has
Earth in about moved around to the
29 days. About side of Earth opposite 6. At these times of the month, the effect of
once a month, here the Sun. However, the the Sun’s gravity partially offsets the effects of
labeled Time 1, the Moon forces of the Moon and Sun the Moon’s gravity, so the differences between
and the Sun are on the same side are again aligned, so another spring high tide and low tide are less than average.
of Earth. The gravity of the Sun and Moon then tide occurs. Note that spring tides These lower-than-average high tides and
pull the ocean in the same direction, causing the occur when the side of the Moon higher-than-average low tides occur every two
high and low tides to be more extreme than nor- facing Earth is either not illuminated weeks and are called neap tides, from an Old
mal. These extreme tides are called spring tides, at all by the Sun (a new moon) or is English word for “lacking.” They happen when
but they occur during all months of the year. fully illuminated (a full moon). the Moon, as viewed from Earth, is only half
illuminated by sunlight (called a quarter moon).
The Most Extreme Tides in the World
S
14.11.t1-2 Bay of Fundy, eastern Canada
ome places have higher tides than others. use the large tides to generate electricity for
The difference between high and low Nova Scotia. These two photographs illustrate
tide, or the tidal range, can be so small the extreme tidal range within the Bay of
as to be nearly undetectable, or it can be so Fundy.
extreme as to be dangerous. The Mediterranean
Sea and Gulf of Mexico have very little tide
because they are largely surrounded by land, Before You Leave This Page
which limits the flow of water into and out of
the basins. Much of the Caribbean has only one Describe or sketch what tides are.
tide each day. Southampton in the United King-
dom has four high tides a day. The world’s Sketch and describe how tides
highest tides are in the Bay of Fundy, along a relate to the position of the Moon
large embayment in the Atlantic coast, flanking and why.
14.11
Nova Scotia. In this place, the geometry of the Sketch or summarize how the
coast and sea bottom funnel water in and out of gravity of the Moon and Sun cause
the bay at just the right rate to cause a tidal spring tides and neap tides.
range of as much as 16 m (52 ft). Canadians
428
14.12 How Do Waves Form and Propagate?

WAVES ARE THE MAIN cause of coastal erosion. Most ocean waves are generated by wind and only affect the
uppermost levels of the water. Waves transport and deposit eroded material along the coast. How do waves form, how
do they propagate across the water, and what causes waves to break?
What Is an Ocean Wave and How Is the Size of a Wave Described?

1. Waves are irregularities on the 2. In deep, open 3. The lowest part of a wave is the trough, the highest part is the crest, and the
surface of a body of water usu- water, many waves vertical distance between the two is the wave height. The distance between two
ally generated by wind. They occur in sets, where adjacent crests is the wavelength. All of these features can vary greatly with location
vary from a series of curved adjacent waves are and time. A typical ocean wave is s everal meters high, with a wavelength of several
ridges and troughs to more irreg- similar in size and tens of meters.
ular bumps and depressions to shape to one
breaking curls (▼). another and follow Wavelength 4. Most waves
one behind another. are near-surface
Height Crest features. They
14.12.a1 Two Points SP, ME
affect only the sur-
Trough face of the water
Distance is equal and depths typi-
Wave Base to 1/2 the wavelength cally down to sev-
eral tens of
Wave Action
meters. Below
No Wave Action some level, called
14.12.a2
the wave base,
the wave ceases to have any effect. The depth of the wave base is about half the
wavelength, so if two wave crests are 20 m apart, then the wave base is about
10 m deep. The equation that expresses this relationship is:
depth of wave base = wavelength ∕ 2
How Do Waves Propagate Across the Water?

A set of waves can travel a long distance across an ocean or other body, but the water through which the wave passes
moves only a short distance. To visualize this, imagine shaking a rope into a series of waves. The waves move along the
rope, but any part of the rope stays about the same distance from your hand.
1. Water waves propagate in a manner s imilar PROPAGATION OF WAVES 4. During the passage of an 5. Water particles on
to waves in a rope or to seismic surface waves. entire wave (crest to crest), the surface of the
Water molecules move up and down and from 2nd Wave 1st Wave points A and B will each have water travel the
side to side, but they mostly stay in about the followed a small, circular path. most, going up and
same place. Compressive forces cause water A The figure below (▼) shows the forward and then
within the wave to push against the water in B circular paths of 20 d ifferent down and back, in a
front of it. The three figures shown here (⊲) are Wave Base points at different depths and circular motion, as
snapshots of a set of waves propagating to the C positions along the wave. the wave passes.
right. Examine the motion of water at points A,
B, and C within the wave.
2nd 1st
Wave Wave
2. Here (⊲), the waves have propagated Wave Height
through the water to the right, but the lettered
A
reference points have moved only a short dis-
tance. Point A, which is close to the surface, B
Wave Base Wave Base
moves more than point B, which is deeper. C
Point C is below the wave base and does not
move at all.
No Wave Action
3rd 2nd 1st 14.12.b2
Wave Wave Wave
3. Later, points A and B are beneath the
wave trough (⊲) and have nearly returned to 6. Deeper within the wave, water particles travel smaller
their positions on the reference line. As the A circular paths, and the paths become smaller with depth.
next wave crest approaches, they will move B Water that is right above the wave base barely moves,
left and upward, and then right, returning to Wave Base and water below the wave base does not move at all as
near their starting points. C the wave passes.
14.12.b1
Reference Line
How Do Waves Form and What Happens When They Reach Shallow Water?
As a wave moves from deep water into shallower water, it starts to interact with the bottom and changes in size and shape.
A wave can also bend (refract) as one part of the wave encounters the bottom before other parts do.
How Waves Form 3. With greater wind speed, waves get larger, both in height and wavelength. The stronger
the wind, the larger the wave generated. Long-wavelength waves move faster than
1. Most ocean waves shorter wavelength ones and can travel farther before dying out.
are caused by wind
blowing across the 4. Waves continue to move, even if the wind dies or the
surface of the water. waves move away from the windy area. Such
waves existing independently of winds or
2. When a gentle storms are called swell.
breeze is blowing,
5. If the wind gets too strong, a wave
gas molecules in the
becomes too steep to be stable and its top
air collide with the
collapses (breaks), even if it is still out in
surface of the water,
open water. This collapse traps air and
transferring some of
forms a white, foamy wave, a whitecap.
their momentum to the water.
This forms waves that are small in 6. Most of the time, there are multiple sets
height and wavelength. Once a wave forms, of waves, propagating in different direc-
it catches the wind even more and so can tions, resulting in wave interference. Where
increase in height and wavelength. wave crests from two sets join, the waves
14.12.c1
get higher. Interference results in a choppy
sea surface with bumps and depressions.
How Waves Break Upon the Shore

Wave Direction Breaking Wave
7. As waves approach the shore,
they encounter s hallower water Increase in Height,
and change in a fairly Decrease in Wavelength
systematic way. In this figure, Wavelength
waves are moving to the
right, toward the shore.
8. In deep water, Wave Base

waves propagate Wave Base = 1/2 Wavelength
unimpeded as long
as the sea b ottom is
14.12.c2
deeper than the
wave base. The deep- 9. When a wave reaches water that 10. Near shore, the wave becomes too high and steep to support itself.
water waves shown is shallower than the wave base, its The top of the wave, which is moving faster than lower parts, topples
here have a longer lower parts begin shearing against over (breaks), forming a plunging breaker or a jumble of spilling water. In
wavelength and lower the bottom. The waves slow, crowd contrast to waves in the swell, these waves have horizontally moving
height than waves together, and get higher as their water molecules. The area where waves break on the shore is the
nearer shore. wavelengths get shorter. swash zone, or simply the surf zone.
How Waves Bend Before You Leave This Page

14.12.c3
12. As a wave begins to encoun-
ter the bottom, its side closest to
11. Due to varying wind Sketch and label the parts of a wave,
shore is slowed more than the
directions and underwa- including the wave height, amplitude,
segment in deeper water. This dif-
ter topography, waves wavelength, and wave base.
ference in velocity causes the ini-
typically approach the tially straight waves to refract Explain how the propagation of a
shore at an angle, (bend) — wave refraction. wave differs from the motion of the
rather than straight
on. In this figure, water through which the wave travels.
13. Water flowing back out to sea
waves propagate after the wave comes ashore (back- Sketch and explain why a wave
toward the shore wash) moves perpendicular to the rises and breaks as it reaches
obliquely, from shore. The flow can take the form of shallow water.
14.12
left to right. In fast and dangerous rip currents, which

deep water, cause many drownings. Rip currents Explain why waves bend if they
the wave crests are straight tend to disrupt the normal wave pattern. Always approach the shore at an angle.
or only gently curved. swim parallel to the shore if caught in a rip current.
430
14.13 How Is Material Eroded, Transported,

and Deposited Along Coasts?
SOME COASTS ARE ENERGETIC ENVIRONMENTS where solid rock is eroded into loose sand, pebbles, and other
kinds of sediment. Sediment can also be brought in by streams, wind, waves, and ocean currents. Once on the beach,
sediment moves in and out from the beach, and often laterally along the beach, as waves alternately transport and
deposit sediment.
How Do Waves Erode Materials Along the Coast?

Most erosion along coasts is done by waves. Waves crash against rocky shores and onto beaches, breaking off pieces of
bedrock that can then be reworked by more wave action and ultimately transported away.
1. When waves break onto a rocky coast, they cause erosion by 4. Once pieces of rock are loose and within the surf zone, waves
swirling away loose pieces of bedrock and by picking up and smash them together, rounding off angular corners and fracturing
crashing these loose pieces back against the bedrock. They also larger pieces into smaller ones. In this way, large angular
grind away rocks by scraping sand back and forth against the rocks, derived from bedrock, over time become the
bedrock. Salt crystals from the sea and ice (which rounded and flattened stones that dominate
expands as it forms) force pores open through many beaches. With further action,
salt wedging and frost wedging, respectively. stones wear down into sand.
2. Crashing and grinding water and sediment

wear away at the b edrock, especially at the
level where wave action is strongest. Over
time, this repeated erosion in the same place 5. Through this
may carve a wave-cut notch into a rocky mechanism,
coast. The notch undercuts overlying rocks, waves liberate
leaving them unsupported and prone to col- and rework
lapsing into the sea. pieces of bedrock.
14.13.a1 In the process they create
3. As waves wash sand and stones back and forth across the sea bottom, they smooth off stones and sand that help the
the underlying bedrock, carving a wave-cut platform. Knobs of resistant bedrock locally rise up waves erode and rework even more bed-
above the platform, but they may eventually be worn away by the erosive action of waves. rock, and break other stones into sand.
How Does the Shape of a Coast Influence Wave-Related Erosion?

Most coasts are not straight but have curves, bays, and other irregularities. As a result, some parts of the coast are
somewhat protected, while other parts bear the brunt of oncoming storms and waves.
1. Waves approach a coast from a 2. A promontory, which is a ridge of land that juts out into the water, is in a vulner-
specific direction, usually at an able position. The steep sides of many promontories allow large, powerful waves
angle to the shore. Curves in the to focus all their energy on the rock, instead of losing energy through interaction
coastline form inward-curving bays, with a gently sloping bottom.
whose quiet waters are protected
from the largest waves. From 3. The seafloor flanking
season to season, the pre- a promontory can Before You Leave
vailing wind may change cause waves to These Pages
direction, causing bend (refract)
what was once around the Describe how waves erode
protected to be promontory material from the coast and how
subjected to and strike it the shape of a coastline influences
strong waves. from all sides. wave erosion.
Parts of the All other things
shore that are being equal, more Sketch and describe how waves
struck head-on by waves means more move sand and other sediment
the waves will experi- erosion, so p romontories on the beach.
ence more wave action and tend to be preferentially
erosion than those that are at an worn away, eventually result- Summarize the factors controlling
angle to the full force of the ing in a straighter c oastline. whether a coast gains or loses
oncoming waves. sand over time.
14.13.b1
How Do Sand and Other Sediment Get Moved on a Beach?

1. During normal (non- 2. After a wave breaks on the beach, most water 3. During storms, large, vigorous waves can carry sediment
stormy) conditions, waves flows directly downslope off the beach, carrying farther up the beach than normal, d epositing it out of the
wash sand and other sediment back toward the sea. Sediment gets re- reach of smaller waves that characterize more typical, less
sediment back and forth worked back and forth by the waves, but it may stormy conditions. Storms can also erode material from the
laterally near the beach. not be transported very far. The area on a beach beach, carrying it farther out to sea. Some beaches lose sand
Sediment on the sea bot- where broken waves run up onto the beach is and become rocky during the winter because of the
tom is churned up and the swash zone. The return flow, back toward the increased energy of larger winter waves, but they regain
carried toward the beach sea, is called backwash. sand and become sandy and less rocky in the summer.
by incoming waves.
14.13.c1
14.13.c2
5. Wind is common along coastlines
and can carry sand and finer materi- 6. If waves approach the coastline at an angle, the sand
als long distances along or away from and other sediment can be moved laterally along the
4. Sediment along beaches and farther the beach. Low- to moderate-strength coast (▲). Incoming waves move the sand at an angle
offshore can slump downhill if the sea wind cannot dislodge sand that is wet relative to the coastline, and then the sand washes
bottom is too steep to hold the sediment. because surface tension from the directly downslope when the water washes back into
Sediment will also slump if it is physically water between sand grains tends to the sea. By this process, the sand moves laterally along
disturbed, perhaps by deep wave action hold the grains together. Wind is the coast (beach drift). Sand and sediment farther off-
during a storm, by shaking during an earth- more effective above the shoreline shore can also move laterally due to ocean currents
quake, or if sediment piles up too fast. where the sand is dry and loose. paralleling the shore, a process called longshore drift.
What Determines Whether a Coast Gains or Loses Sand with Time?

A coastline can gain or lose sand, depending on the rate at which sand enters the system and the rate at which
it leaves. Many coastlines retain approximately the same amount of sand over time. The amount of sediment
available to the system is described as the sediment budget, and it controls many factors of the coast.
1. On most coasts, sand and 3. Streams provide an influx of sediment into 4. Coastal sand dunes commonly consist of sand
other kinds of sediment largely the coastal system. Deltas formed at the inter- blown inland from the beach, beyond the backshore,
derive from erosion taking place face between a stream and the sea can be representing a net loss of sand from the beach. Other
inland. Larger volumes of sedi- reworked, contributing sediment that is trans- dunes may derive their sand from the uplands and add
ment are produced and carried ported offshore or along the coast. sand to the coastal system. Many dunes, however, sim-
to the ocean if the land ply swap sand with the beach as wind alternately blows
receives sufficient p
recipitation landward and seaward, or from season to season.
to generate runoff and is
not overly protected by 5. Most areas have an atmospheric circulation
vegetation that limits that steers a current flowing along the
the effectiveness coast. This longshore current transports
of erosion. sediment parallel to the coast. Such
currents can add sand to the beach
system, remove sand, or add as much
2. Sediment sand as they remove (so the amount of
is generated sand is more or less in e quilibrium).
by wave
erosion and
6. Waves erode reefs and offshore islands,
associated
especially during storms, and carry loose sedi-
slumping of
ment toward the coast. Many white-sand beaches
rocks along the
consist of c alcium carbonate sand eroded from coral
coast, which adds to
14.13
reefs and shells. These creatures build their shells from

the sand b udget. Waves
chemicals dissolved in the water, so they increase the
can bring sand in from offshore,
amount of sand in the system when the shells are smashed
pick up and take sand out to deeper
14.13.d1 and broken by the waves.
water, or simply swash it back and forth.
432
14.14 What Landforms Occur Along Coasts?

COASTLINES CAN DISPLAY SPECTACULAR LANDFORMS. Erosion carves some of these landforms, while sed-
iment deposition forms others. Erosion is dominant in high-energy coastal environments, whereas deposition is more
common in low-energy environments. Another controlling factor is whether the coastal zone has been uplifted relative
to sea level or has been submerged under encroaching seas.
What Coastal Features Are Carved by Erosion?

In a high-energy coastal environment, the relentless pounding of waves wears away the coastline, eroding it back toward the
land. Such erosional retreat is not uniform but is often concentrated at specific locations and certain elevations. This results
in some distinctive landforms along the coast.
14.14.a1 Southern Australia 14.14.a3 Southern Australia
1. Sea Cliffs — Coasts 3. Sea Caves and Sea
composed of hard bed- Arches — Erosion concen-
rock can be eroded trates in the tidal zone
into cliffs (⊳) that plunge where waves can undercut
directly into the surf or cliffs, forming caves (⊳). Ero-
that are fronted by a sion can cut through small
narrow beach. Sea cliffs promontories jutting out
are more common in into the sea, forming arches
regions with active or windows through weaker
tectonism, especially spots in the bedrock.
where the land has Caves and sea arches are
been uplifted. most common along
uplifted coasts.
2. Wave-Cut Platforms — 4. Sea Stacks — Erosion

Continued erosion at sea along a coastal zone is not
level can bevel off bed- uniform, and some areas
rock, forming a flat, wave- of rock are left behind as
cut platform (⊳). It may be erosion cuts back the
covered by water at high coast (⊳). Such remnants
tide but fully exposed at can form isolated, steep-
low tide. A platform can be sided knobs called sea
uplifted above sea level, at stacks, such as these
which point we call it a along Australia’s famous
marine terrace. Great Ocean Road.
14.14.a2 Crete
14.14.a4 Southern Australia
Formation of a Sea Cave and Sea Stack

5. A sea stack forms where a promontory 6. If parts of the rock are weaker than oth- 7. Continued erosion can collapse the roof
extends out into the sea. As waves approach ers, because of differences in rock type or of a cave and carve a passage behind the
the shore, they refract, focusing erosion on the relative concentration of fractures, rock former tip of the promontory. The more
the front and sides of the promontory. behind the tip of the promontory may resistant knob of rock becomes s urrounded
erode faster than the tip, forming a sea cave. by the sea and is a sea stack.
14.14.a5–7
What Coastal Features Result from Deposition?

As sediment moves along a coastline, it can preferentially accumulate in places where water velocity is slower, forming a
variety of low, mostly sandy features. These include sandbars, barrier islands, and sand spits.
14.14.b1 Goodland Bay, FL 14.14.b2 Dauphin Island, AL 14.14.b3 Tigertail Beach, FL
1. Sandbar — Offshore of many coasts is a low, 2. Barrier Island — Offshore of many coasts 3. Spit — Along some coasts, a low ridge of
sandy area, called a sandbar or gravel bar. are low islands that act as barriers, partially sand and other sediment extends like a
Bars are typically submerged much of the protecting the coast from large waves and prong off a corner of the coast. Such a fea-
time and can shift p osition as waves and rough seas. Many barrier islands are barely ture is a sand spit or a spit and is easily
longshore currents pick up, move, and above sea level and consist of loose sand, eroded, especially by storm waves. A spit
deposit the sand. including sand dunes, and saltwater marshes. can change length over time, reflecting
gains and losses in the sediment budget.
Formation of a Spit, Baymouth Bar, and Barrier Island

14.14.b4–6
4. A spit forms when waves and longshore 5. If a spit grows long enough, it may cut off 6. If sea level rises enough to submerge
currents transport sand and other beach a bay, becoming a baymouth bar. This bar low-lying parts of the spit or baymouth bar,
sediment along the coast, building a long but shelters the bay from waves, creating a former spits and bars may become long,
low mound of sediment that lengthens in the lagoon, and may allow it to fill in with sedi- sandy barrier islands. Barrier islands may
direction of the prevailing longshore current. ment, forming a new area of low-lying land, also form if mounds of sediment, deposited
perhaps creating a marsh. by streams when sea level is lower, become
islands when sea level rises.
14.14.t1
Cape Cod
C
ape Cod sticks out into
the Atlantic Ocean from
the rest of Massachusetts
like a huge, flexed arm. The
“curled fist” is mostly a large
Describe the different types of
spit. Other features are bars and
coastal features.
barrier islands. Much of the sed-
iment was originally deposited Sketch and summarize one way that
here by glaciers, which retreated a sea stack, spit, baymouth bar, and
from the area 18,000 years ago. barrier island can each form.
As the glaciers melted, global List the types of features that are
14.14
sea level rose, flooding the piles present on Cape Cod, and discuss
of sediment and causing them to how these types of features
be reworked by waves and typically form.
longshore currents.
434
14.15 What Are Some Challenges of Living

Along Coasts?
COASTS CAN BE RISKY PLACES TO LIVE because of their dynamic nature. Destruction of property and loss of
life result from waves, storm surges, and other events that are integral to the coastal environment. Beaches and other
coastal lands can be totally eroded away, along with poorly situated buildings. How can homebuyers and investors
identify and avoid such unsuitable and potentially risky sites?
What Hazards Exist Along Coasts?

Most coastal hazards involve interactions between water and land, but strong winds also pose risks. Significant hazards
accompany storms, which can produce large waves, strong winds, and surges of water onto the land.
14.15.a1 Pemaquid Point, ME 14.15.a2 Long Beach Island, NJ 14.15.a3
1. Waves are constantly present but are not 2. A storm surge is a local rise in the level of 3. Strong winds and rain accompany storms
always a threat to land, buildings, and people the sea or large lake during a hurricane or other that strike the coast. Communities right on the
along coasts. The most damage from waves storm. A storm surge results from strong winds coast are especially susceptible to these
occurs during extreme events, such as that pile up water in front of an approaching hazards because they often lack a windbreak
hurricanes and other storms. Waves can erode storm, inundating low-lying areas along the between them and open water. Also, many
land and undermine hillsides, causing sloped coast. Surges are a ccompanied by severe ero- coastal lands are flat, so structures built in low-
land and buildings to collapse into the water. sion, transport, deposition, and destruction. lying areas are prone to rainfall-related flooding.
Before After
14.15.a4 Topsail Island, NC 14.15.a5 Topsail Island, NC
4. These images document damage caused by Hurricane Fran in 1996 5. This photograph, taken after the hurricane, shows the loss of beach
along the beach on Topsail Island, North Carolina. This photograph and destruction of houses caused by waves, storm surge, and e rosion.
shows the area before the hurricane. White numbers mark two The hurricane came ashore with sustained winds measured at 185 km/
houses in both photographs. Compare these two photographs to hr (115 mph) and a 4-meter-high (12-foot) storm surge. It caused more
observe what happened to the two houses, and to houses nearby, than $3 billion in damage.
during the hurricane.
What Approaches Have Been Attempted to Address Coastal Problems?

Various tactics are used to minimize the impacts of natural coastal processes, including erecting barriers, trying to
reconstitute the natural system, or simply avoiding the most hazardous sites.
14.15.b1 Dauphin Island, AL 14.15.b2 Clearwater, FL
1. One way to limit the 2. Another type of wall,
amount of erosion is to called a jetty (⊳), juts out
construct a seawall into the water, generally
along the shore. Such to protect a bay, harbor,
walls consist of con- or nearby beach. Jetties
crete, steel, large rocks are commonly built in
(⊳), or some other pairs to protect the sides
strong material that can of a shipping channel. In
absorb the impacts of an attempt to protect
waves, especially dur- one area of the coast,
ing storms. As shown in jetties, like many other
this photograph, large engineering approaches
rocks and other debris to coastal problems, can
can be placed along the coast to armor it, in an attempt to protect it have unintended and problematic consequences. Jetties and other
from erosion. Material used in this way is called rip rap. Building a walls can focus waves and currents on adjacent stretches of the coast.
seawall commonly results in loss of beach in front of the wall These directed waves and currents, deprived of their normal load of
because the supply of sand from inland is choked off. sediment by the wall, erode the adjacent areas as they try to regain an
equilibrium amount of sediment.
3. Low walls, called groins, 4. A wall, called a breakwater,

are built out into the water can be built out in the water to
to influence the lateral bear the brunt of the waves
transport of sand by and currents. Breakwaters are
longshore currents and by built parallel to the coast to
waves that strike at an protect the beach from severe
angle to the coast. A groin erosion and to cause sand to
is intended to trap sand on accumulate on the beach
its up-current side, but it behind the structures. Some
has the sometimes unin- communities bring in sand
tended consequence of to replenish what is lost to
causing the beach imme- storms and currents. This pro-
diately down-current of the cedure of beach nourishment
groin to receive less sand is expensive and may last only
and to become eroded. until the next storm.
14.15.b3 Presque Isle SP, PA
Avoiding Hazards and Restoring the Coastal System to Its Natural State
O
ne approach preferred by some people, In many cases, such geologic concerns are wind. Examining the balance of sediment
including many geologists, is simply either ignored or are overruled by financial moving in and out of the system can help
not to build in those places that have and aesthetic interests of developers, commu- identify non-natural factors, such as dammed
the highest likelihood of erosion, coastal flood- nities, and people who own the land. Beach- rivers, which if restored to original conditions
ing, coastal landslides, and other coastal haz- front property is desirable from an aesthetic would bring more sediment into the system and
ards. Geologists can map a coast and conduct standpoint and so can be expensive real estate, stabilize beaches, dunes, and marshes.
studies to identify the most vulnerable stretches which some people think is too precious to
of coastline. With such information in hand, leave undeveloped.
the most inexpensive approach — in the long
Another approach is to try to return the
run — is to forbid the building of houses or system to its original situation, or at least a
other structures in those areas identified as Summarize some of the hazards that
stable and natural one, rather than trying to
affect beaches and other coastlines.
high risk. In the wake of the destruction of “engineer” the coastline. Engineering solutions
New Orleans and nearby communities by can be expensive, may not last long, or may have Describe approaches to address
14.15
Hurricane Katrina, there is a debate about
detrimental consequences to adjacent beaches. coastal erosion and loss of sand,
whether to rebuild those neighborhoods that Returning the system to a natural state may including not building and trying to
are at highest risk, such as those that are well involve restoring wetlands and barrier islands restore systems to a natural state.
below sea level. that buffer areas farther inland from waves and
436
14.16 How Do We Assess the Relative Risks

of Different Stretches of Coastline?
UNDERSTANDING THE LANDFORMS AND DYNAMICS of a coastal zone is the first step in assessing the poten-
tial risks posed by waves, currents, coastal flooding, and other coastal processes. Coastal geoscientists study coastlines
using traditional field methods and high-technology methods that involve lasers and satellites.
What Field Studies Do We Conduct in the Coastal Zone?

To investigate potential coastal hazards, coastal geoscientists map and characterize the topographic and geologic features of
the land, coast, and nearshore sea bottom. They combine this information with an understanding of the important coastal
processes to identify those areas with the greatest hazard.
1. To assess coastal hazards, a first 2. Areas that are close to sea level 3. Mapping the bedrock geology, as well as the loose sedi-
step is to document the land sur- may be subject to flooding by storm ments along the beach, helps us assess how different areas
face elevations. High areas clearly surges and storm-related intense rain- will erode. Coasts backed by resistant bedrock, as along a
have less risk of being flooded by fall that cause flooding along coastal cliff, will be less likely to be eroded by strong waves and cur-
the sea. Precise measurements of rivers. Vulnerable low-elevation areas rents. Parts of a cliff may fail over time, however, as they are
elevations of the land are taken may extend far inland, in this case undercut by constant wave action.
with various surveying tools, some along a low river valley.
using satellites (Global Positioning
4. Scientists map the distribution and height of
System, or GPS) or lasers that scan
coastal dunes. Dunes, especially those that are
the ground s urface from an air-
large or are stabilized by vegetation,
plane. These surveys identify areas,
decrease the risk inland for storm
such as this high marine terrace,
surge and associated erosion.
that are too high to be
Marshlands, such as those
flooded, even during
on a delta, also help
a hurricane.
buffer areas farther
inland from waves,
storm surges, and
strong coastal winds.
5. We can also map the location

and height of sandbars, islands,
reefs, and other offshore barriers.
These barriers can protect the coast
from wave action. In the photograph below
(▼), a thin strip of sandy land produces a shal-
6. To help assess potential low, quiet-water lagoon to the right. The sand
hazards, we can also document and shallow waters of the lagoon generally protect
the slope of the land adjacent to the the coast from large, potentially damaging waves from
shore. A steeper slope limits how far storm the sea to the left, except during strong storms, when a
surges can encroach on the land, whereas a storm surge can raise water levels, deepen water close to
14.16.a1
more gentle slope allows the sea to wash shore, and overtop the sand barrier.
farther into the land.
7. Coastal geoscientists commonly document the width of beaches. An

area with a wide beach between the shoreline and houses is generally
less risky than an area where houses sit right behind a narrow beach.
Seawalls, groins, and other c onstructed features can greatly affect beach
width and therefore p otential risk. A seawall can limit the amount of
landward erosion and may protect buildings from storm surges, but sand
in front of the seawall may be lost, allowing waves to break directly
against the seawall, weakening it. A groin affects the width of the beach
differently on either side. It may decrease the risk of storm erosion to
the beach on the up-current side, which gains sand and becomes wider,
but increase the risk of storm erosion to the beach on the down-current
side, which loses sand and becomes n arrower. Beach width, wave size,
and potential hazard are also affected by barrier islands and reefs,
which can protect the coast.
14.16.a2 Tigertail Beach, FL
What Can New High-Resolution Elevation Data Tell Us About Coastlines?

Satellite data (GPS) and other new methods of mapping elevation now allow geoscientists to characterize coastal regions
more accurately and track in detail how a coast changes during storms. One relatively new method is lidar, which is an
acronym for LIght Detecting And Ranging.
Twin Engine Aircraft
1. In the lidar method, a laser beam is bounced off the ground, detected back at the airplane, and timed as
to how long it takes to travel to the surface and back to the instrument. The shorter the time the beam
Aircraft Elevation
takes to reach the ground and return, the shorter the distance between the plane and the ground — and ≈300 meters Scan Angle
therefore the higher the elevation of the land. Lidar elevations are accurate to within about 15 cm (6 in.) or 30 degrees
less and can be quickly collected over larger areas than is practical to cover with conventional surveying.
Overlapping
2. As the plane flies forward, mirrors direct the laser toward different areas beneath the lidar sensor. Thou- Swaths
Scan Width
sands of data measurements are recorded each second in a narrow belt, called a swath, across the land. ≈300 meters
The plane flies back and forth over the area, overlapping adjacent swaths to ensure that there are no gaps
in the measurements. A GPS unit mounted on the plane allows technicians to register the lidar data with 14.16.b1
geographic map coordinates and to match the data to features on the ground.
Flight Direction Parallel to Beach
Mapping Hurricane-Related Changes in Coastal Alabama
C
14.16.t1–3 14.16.t4–5
oastal Alabama has been hit by a series
of powerful hurricanes, including
Hurricane Ivan in 2004 and Hurricane
Katrina in 2005. The U.S. Geological Survey
(USGS) and other government agencies have
used lidar to investigate the changes that such
large hurricanes inflict on the coastline. One
detailed study was of Dauphine Island, an
inhabited barrier island along the Gulf Coast
of Alabama.
The three images to the left show perspec-
tive views of detailed lidar elevations taken at
three different times (before Hurricane Ivan,
after Ivan, and after Hurricane Katrina). Red
arrows point to the same house in all five
images. The first image shows a central road
with houses (the colored “peaks”) on both
sides. In the second image, the storm surge
from Hurricane Ivan has washed over the low
island from left to right, eroding the left beach,
covering the road with sand, and redepositing
some of the sand on the right. Some houses are
in the water after the storm!
The aftermath of Hurricane Katrina, bottom
left, is even more dramatic. All but a few
houses were totally washed away. Both the
width and height of the island decreased, leav-
ing the remaining houses even more vulnerable
to the next storm surge.
The two images to the right show the
calculated changes caused by each storm. Each Before You Leave This Page
of these two images was produced by comparing
the before and after data sets and computing Describe how studying the geologic
the difference. Features shown in reds and features along a coast can help
pinks represent losses due to erosion, green identify areas of highest hazard.
areas show where deposition occurred, and
Summarize how lidar data are
whitish features (houses) were unchanged by
14.16
collected, and provide an example of

that storm. From all these data, how risky do
how they can be used to document
you think this place is? Should people rebuild
changes in a coastline.
here? Would you?
438
14.17 What Happens When Sea Level Changes?

SEA LEVEL HAS RISEN AND FALLEN many times in Earth’s history. A rise in sea level causes low-lying parts of
continents to be inundated by shallow seas, whereas a fall in sea level can expose previously submerged parts of the
continental shelf. Changes in sea level produce certain landscape features along the coast and farther inland, and they
can deposit marine sediments on what is normally land. Changing sea level produces two kinds of coasts: submergent
coasts and emergent coasts.
What Features Form if Sea Level Rises Relative to the Land?

Coastlines adjust their appearance, sometimes substantially, if sea level rises or falls relative to land. A relative change
in sea level can be caused by a global change in sea level or by tectonics that causes the local land to subside or be
uplifted relative to the sea. Distinctive features form along a coast when sea level rises relative to the land.
1. Submergent coasts 2. The shape of the land exerts a strong 4. Hills and ridges in 5. Preexisting deltas and
form where the land control on how the coastline will look after the original landscape coastal dunes, when flooded,
has been inundated it is flooded by rising sea level. Examine are surrounded by rising may become offshore bars or
by the sea because this figure (▼) and predict what will happen seas, forming islands sandy barrier islands. Barrier
of a rise in sea level to different features if sea level rises. along the shore. islands may become totally
or subsidence of Try it, it’s an interesting exercise. submerged by rising seas.
the land.
3. After the land is

inundated, flooded river
valleys give the coast an irregular
outline, featuring branching estuaries
and other embayments.
14.17.a1 14.17.a2
14.17.a4 Norway
6. An estuary is a coastal body of water that is influenced 7. The coasts of
by the sea and by fresh water from the land. A common Norway (⊲), Greenland,
site for an estuary is a delta or a stream valley that has Alaska, and New
been flooded by the sea, either of which allows fresh water Zealand all feature
from the land to interact with salt water from the sea. Water narrow, deep embay
levels in the estuary and the balance between fresh and ments called fjords.
salt water are affected by tides and by changes in the Fjords are steep-sided
amount of water coming from the land. The satellite image valleys that were
below shows the Chesapeake Bay estuary. The bay was a carved by glaciers and
valley originally carved by rivers, but it was flooded when later invaded by the
sea level rose at the end of the last glacial episode (▼). sea as the ice melted
and sea level rose.
14.17.a3
14.17.a5 North Carolina

8. Many barrier islands
(⊲) are interpreted to
have been formed by
rising sea level. Some
barrier islands began as
coastal dunes or piles
of sediment deposited
by streams. As sea
level rose, the rising
water surrounded the
piles of sediment,
resulting in new islands.
What Features Form if Sea Level Falls Relative to the Land?

Some features suggest a fall in sea level, or uplift of the land by tectonics or by isostatic processes. Tectonic processes can
result in a gentle uplift of the shore, resulting in emergent features. Another mechanism for creating emergent features is
through isostatic rebound where the shore rises after glacial retreat. A fall in sea level can expose features that were
submerged and can greatly affect what happens on the adjacent land.
1. Emergent coasts form where the sea has retreated 4. After sea level drops, erosion incises (cuts) valleys into the land. If sea level
from the land due to falling sea level or due to uplift drops in a series of stages, emergent wave-cut notches form topographic steps
of the land relative to the sea. What on the land, and wave-cut platforms form a series of relatively flat benches,
would the area below look like known as marine terraces.
if sea level drops?
14.17.b2
2. Submerged 5. Sandbars
features that that originally
may be exposed by 3. As sea level falls formed offshore
falling sea levels or the land rises, coral reefs can become coastal
include reefs, offshore can become exposed on land, dunes, or the sand can
sandbars, and the underwater 14.17.b1 a sure sign that a coast be blown onshore or eroded
parts of deltas. has emerged. and returned to the sea.
14.17.b3 California 14.17.b4 Windley Key Fossil Reef State Geological Park, FL
6. Wave-cut platforms form within the surf zone along many rocky 7. Coral reefs and other features that originally formed at or below
coasts and, when exposed above sea level, form relatively flat terraces sea level can be exposed when seas drop relative to the land.
on the land. The surface of such marine terraces may contain marine These coral reefs, now well above sea level, provide evidence of
fossils and wave-rounded stones. relative uplift of the land.
14.17.b5 Palau
8. A wave-cut notch is an originally
horizontal recess eroded into rock Before You Leave This Page
by persistent wave erosion at sea
level along a coast. This photo-
graph, taken at low tide, shows a Summarize what a submergent coast
notch cut by waves and by the is and what types of features can
soluble rocks being dissolved. Uplift indicate that sea level has risen
of the land, or a drop in sea level, relative to the land.
can leave a wave-cut notch high and
dry, a hint of what occurred. Summarize what an emergent coast is
14.17
and what types of features indicate

that sea level has fallen relative to
the land.
440
14.18 What Causes Changes in Sea Level?

SEA LEVEL HAS VARIED GREATLY IN THE PAST. Global sea level has been more than 200 m higher and more
than 120 m lower than today. What processes caused these changes in sea level? Large variations in past sea level
resulted from a number of competing factors, including the extent of glaciation, rates of seafloor spreading, and global
warming and cooling. These processes operate at different timescales, from thousands to millions of years.
How Does Continental Glaciation Affect Sea Level?

The height of sea level is greatly affected by the existence and extent of glaciers and regional ice sheets. At times in Earth’s
past, ice sheets were more extensive than today, and at other times they were less extensive or absent.
1. The ice in glaciers 2. When glaciers and ice sheets
and continental ice melt, they release large volumes of
sheets accumulates from water that flow back into the ocean,
snowfall on land. When causing sea level to rise (⊳).
glaciers and ice sheets
are extensive, they tie 3. The growth and shrinkage of
up large volumes of ice sheets and glaciers is the
Earth’s water, causing main cause of sea level change
sea level to drop (⊲). 14.18.a1–2 on relatively short timescales
(thousands of years).
How Do Changes in the Rate of Seafloor Spreading Affect Sea Level?

At times in Earth’s history, the rate of seafloor spreading was faster than it is today, and at other times it was probably
slower. Such changes cause the rise and fall of sea level.
1. The shape and elevation of a mid-ocean ridge and adjacent seafloor reflect 3. If seafloor spreading along a ridge is relatively
the rate of spreading. As the plate moves away from the spreading center, fast (10 cm/year or faster), the ridge is broad
it cools and contracts, causing the seafloor to subside, creating space for seawater. because still-warm parts of the plate move farther
outward before cooling and subsiding. So an
2. If seafloor spreading along a increase in the seafloor spreading rate
ridge is slow, the ridge is nar- is accompanied by broader ridges
rower because the slow-moving that displace water out of
plate has time to cool and con- the ocean basins (⊳),
tract before getting very far from causing sea level to
the ridge. Slow seafloor spread- rise. In other words,
ing and narrow ridges leave faster spreading yields
more room in the ocean basin more young seafloor,
for seawater (⊲). So over time, a 14.18.b1–2 and young seafloor is
decrease in the spreading rate less deep than older
causes sea level to fall. seafloor, raising sea level.
How Do Changes in Ocean Temperatures Cause Sea Level to Rise and Fall?
Sea level is affected by changes in ocean temperatures, which cause water in the oceans to slightly expand or contract. Such
effects accompany global warming or global cooling and result in relatively moderate changes in sea level.
1. Water, like most materials, contracts slightly as it cools, taking 3. Water expands slightly when heated, taking up more
up less volume. The amount of contraction is greatly exagger- volume. Again, the amount of expansion is exaggerated
ated in this small in this small block of water.
block of water.
4. When ocean temperatures
2. When ocean tem- increase, water in the ocean gen-
peratures fall, water in erally expands slightly, causing a
the ocean generally small rise in sea level (⊳). The
contracts, causing sea percentage of expansion is small,
level to fall (⊲). but it can cause a moderate rise
14.18.c1–2 in sea level.
How Does the Position of the Continents Influence Global Sea Level?
As a result of plate tectonics, continents move across the face of the planet, sometimes being near the North or South poles
and at other times being closer to the equator. These positions influence sea level in several ways.
1. Glaciers and continental ice sheets form on land, 3. At other times in
and so they require a landmass to be cold enough Earth’s past, the larger
to allow ice to persist year round. This occurs most continents were not so
easily if a landmass is at high latitudes (near the close to the poles (⊳). This
poles) or is high in elevation. lower latitude position of
continents minimized or
2. At most times in Earth’s past, ice ages eliminated widespread
occurred when one or more of the continents glaciation (the non-ice-age
were near the poles (⊲), like Antarctica is now. periods in Earth’s history).
Continents at high latitudes usually include This low-latitude configu-
glaciers, so such a configuration of the continents ration of the continents
can cause global sea level to drop because therefore tends to keep
water is stored in glaciers. 14.18.d1-d2 sea levels high.
How Do Loading and Unloading Affect Land Elevations Relative to Sea Level?
Weight can be added to a landmass, a process called loading. A weight can also be removed, a process called unloading.
Loading and unloading can change the elevation of a region relative to sea level.
2. If the weight is unloaded from the land,
1. Weight loaded on top of a region
the region flexes back upward, a process
imposes a downward force that, if large
known as isostatic rebound.
enough, can downwarp the land
The uplifted, rebounding
surface beneath the load and
region rises (⊲) relative to
in adjacent areas (⊲).
sea level.
Loading, such as by con
tinental ice sheets, lowers 3. Unloading and
the loaded region relative isostatic rebound
to sea level. This can allow can occur when con-
seawater to inundate regions tinental ice sheets melt.
near the ice sheets. The ice in this Rebound begins as soon
figure and the amount of subsidence are as significant amounts of ice
very stylized and vertically exaggerated. are removed, but it can still be
14.18.e1 14.18.e2
occurring thousands of years after all
the ice is gone.
Ongoing Isostatic Rebound of Northeastern Canada
T
he northern part of North America has weight of these continental ice sheets loaded occurred in northeastern North America over
been covered by glaciers off and on for and depressed this part of the North American the last 6,000 years. Some areas have experi-
the last two and a half million years. The plate. When the ice sheets began melting from enced more than 100 m of uplift. Isostatic
the area, approximately 15,000 years ago, rebound can also occur around large lakes, as
14.18.t1
unloading caused the land, especially in Can- they fill or empty over time, loading or unload-
ada, to begin to isostatically rebound upward. ing the land.
The amount of rebound has been measured
both directly and indirectly. We can measure
uplift directly by making repeated elevation sur-
veys across the land and then calculating the Before You Leave This Page
amount of uplift (rebound) between surveys.
Rates of rebound are typically millimeters per
year, which is enough to detect with surveying Summarize how continental glaciation,
rates of seafloor spreading, ocean
methods. Satellite measurements (GPS) are also
temperatures, and position of the
sensitive enough to measure such changes. The
continents affect sea level.
amount and rate of rebound can also be inferred
14.18
more indirectly by documenting how shorelines Explain how loading and unloading
and other features have been warped and affect land elevations using the
uplifted. Contours on this map to the left indi- example of Canada.
cate the amount of rebound interpreted to have
CONNECTIONS
14.19 What Would Happen to Sea Level
if the Ice in West Antarctica Melted?
WEST ANTARCTICA HAS THE POTENTIAL TO CAUSE a dramatic rise in sea level if its ice sheet melts. It con-
tains a huge volume of ice that is especially vulnerable because it is in direct contact with the sea. If the area’s ice
sheets melted, rising sea level would pose a great hazard for the world’s coastlines.
What Is the Setting of Glaciers, Ice Sheets, and Ice Shelves in West Antarctica?
The continent of Antarctica, sitting over the South Pole, is a frozen world mostly covered by snow and thick sheets of ice. It
contains 90% of the world’s ice and 75% of the world’s fresh water.
1. West Antarctica, like 2. The Transantarctic Mountains (⊲), a major
the rest of the c ontinent, mountain range more than 4,500 m tall,
is mostly covered by divide West Antarctica from East Antarc-
snow and ice, with tica. West Antarctica is much smaller
bedrock in the mountains than East Antarctica and consists of a
and along the coast. central landmass that leads to a
There are many glaciers peninsula extending toward South

and ice shelves, both of America. West Antarctica contains

which contribute large 11% of the ice in Antarctica.
icebergs, such as the
tilted one in the fore- 3. The land is flanked by three
ground (⊳). This iceberg large ice shelves (⊲), where glacial
is larger than a medium- ice from the land has pushed out
sized building, but some into, and is now floating on, the
are the size of cities. ocean. These three shelves are the
Ross, Ronne-Filchner, and Larsen
ice shelves.
14.19.a1 West Antarctica
14.19.a2
14.19.a3
4. The central part of West Antarctica contains an ice 6. Each ice shelf loses large vol-
sheet as thick as 3,500 m (about 11,500 ft). The ice umes of ice every year by calving
sheet accumulates from snowfall on land and feeds rap- of icebergs and by melting of the
idly moving glaciers that carry massive amounts of ice underside, which is in c ontact with
toward the sea and the ice shelves (⊲). seawater. One part of the coast
that has been studied in detail
5. The base of the ice sheet is below sea level. The loses an average of 250 km3 of
central part of the ice sheet is resting on solid bedrock, ice each year.
but outer parts are floating on the sea.
What Could Happen to West Antarctica if Global Sea Levels Rise?

Ice shelves can be reshaped suddenly. In early 2002, much of the Larsen Ice Shelf collapsed, breaking into millions of
icebergs that floated out to sea and melted. It is possible, but unlikely, that larger, more disastrous melting events could
occur, including loss of large parts of the West Antarctic ice sheet, but this is not occurring now.
These satellite images, taken a month apart, show the collapse of part of One possible scenario, much debated at this time, is that rising
the Larsen Ice Shelf. The left image shows the ice shelf before the ice- global sea level could float more of the West Antarctica ice
loss event. An area of sheet, detaching it from
14.19.b2
14.19.b1
3,250 km2 was lost, the underlying bedrock.

which is much larger If this occurs, the
than the entire state collapsed parts would
of Rhode Island. melt, raising global sea
Other events have level by some amount.
sprung single ice- But by how much? We
bergs that were 70 might want to know this.
km by 25 km
(1,750 km2).
14.19.b3
How Do We Calculate the Rise in Sea Level if West Antarctica’s Ice Melts?
To evaluate how melting of ice sheets would affect our coasts, we can make some simple calculations to determine how
much sea level would rise in an unlikely scenario — melting of all the ice from West Antarctica.
1. Examine the situation below. A rectangular tub of water has one 5. To get the surface area of a rectangle of water, we multiply the
block of ice floating in it and two blocks on land that will add water dimensions of its two sides. The tub is 100 cm long by 40 cm wide,
to the tub as the blocks melt. The ice blocks and the grids on the yielding a surface area of 4,000 cm2. To calculate how much the
side of the tub are 10 cm on a side for easy measuring. melting blocks will
14.19.c2 raise water level in
2. The block the tub, we spread
floating in our volume of water
the water is over this surface
10 cm on all area. The calculation
sides, or is as follows:
10 cm by 10
cm by 10
2,000 cm3 × 0.90 ÷ 4,000 cm2 = 0.45 cm
cm. We (volume of (to convert the (surface area (rise in
14.19.c1 simply the ice blocks ice to water) of the water) level of
multiply these three dimensions to get the volume of the block, on table) water)
which is 1,000 cm3 (10 cm × 10 cm × 10 cm = 1,000 cm3). The two
blocks on the table total 20 cm (two blocks wide) by 10 cm (one
block deep) by 10 cm (one block) high. If we multiply 20 cm × 10 6. So melting an ice block floating in the water (representing sea ice)
cm × 10 cm, we get 2,000 cm3. does not appreciably change sea level, but melting ice on land does.
The larger the amount of ice on land that is melted, the larger the rise.
3. The Floating Block — Most of the floating block is below the But the larger the surface area of the tub, the smaller the rise. For West
surface. As ice melts, it yields a volume of water that is slightly less Antarctica and our modern seas the calculation is:
than the volume of ice, because water is more dense than ice. In
other words, the floating ice displaces a mass that is very similar to
the amount of volume that it would add if melted. As a result, 3,000,000 km3 × 0.90 ÷ 361,000,000 km2 = 0.0075 km
(volume of (ice to (surface area of (rise in
melting of ice that is floating in fresh water does not appreciably
all the ice) water) the world’s oceans) sea level)
raise the level of the water. It does cause a slight rise in a body of
saltwater because melting ice yields fresh water, which is less To get meters, we multiply 0.0075 km × 1,000 m/km = 7.5 m (25 ft)
dense, but we’ll ignore this factor to simplify things.
4. Blocks on the Table — If the blocks on the table melt, all of the 7. This calculation does not take into account that as we add water
water helps raise the level in the tub. To see how much, we need and raise sea level, the ocean spreads out over the land and so
only worry about the surface area of the water, not how much water the surface area increases. The number calculated when consider-
is already there at depth within the tub. Also, a volume of ice ing this factor is more like 6 m (20 ft). Recall that this is a worst-
produces about nine-tenths that volume of water, or a ratio case scenario that would occur only under a huge change
of 0.9 (volume water produced/volume ice melted). in climate.
What Impact Would Raised Sea Levels Have on the East Coast?
Think about some photographs of coasts
you have seen, or visits to the coast you
14.19.d1
may have taken, and imagine those areas
if sea level were 6 m (about 20 ft) higher.
To plan for such contingencies, the USGS
conducted a detailed assessment of the Before You Leave This Page
relative risk of sea-level rise for each part
of the East Coast of the U.S. For each
segment of coast on the map shown Briefly summarize the settings where
here, coastal geoscientists investigated ice occurs in West Antarctica.
various factors, including elevation, slope
Calculate how much melting a block
of the land, etc. From this analysis, each
of ice will raise water levels in a tub,
area was assigned a risk, from low to
if you know the dimensions of the
very high. The most vulnerable settings
include the eastern coast of Florida, the block and tub.
barrier islands of Virginia and North Discuss why calculations about West
Carolina, especially Cape Hatteras, and
14.19
Antarctica are important to people

coastlines around Maryland, Delaware, living along coastlines, including the
and New Jersey. How vulnerable is your East Coast of the U.S.
favorite part of the East Coast?
14.20 What Is Happening Along the Coast
of This Island?
THIS PREVIOUSLY UNKNOWN ISLAND is being considered as a possible site for a small settlement and seaport to
resupply ocean travelers with water and other supplies as they pass by. To avoid any missteps in this process, you are
asked to observe the coastline, identify the various coastal features, infer what processes are occurring, and identify
possible sites for the port and nearby settlement. Your considerations should include any issues that could affect the
operation of the port, such as avoiding natural hazards and keeping shipping channels from becoming blocked with sand.
The area does experience hurricanes.
14.20.a2
1. Along the western side of the island are
Goals of This Exercise: cliffs and steep slopes that rise out of the
sea, with only a narrow beach along the
• Observe the three-dimensional shoreline (⊳). The beach is composed of
perspective of the newly discovered sand, but it also contains many rounded
pebbles and larger stones plus some large
island in order to identify the coastal angular rocks that match the types of rocks
features and processes. in the cliff. There are also
• Fully consider any factors that would shells and fossils
of other marine
impact the location of a port and small creatures.
settlement for people operating
the port.
14.20.a3
• Propose an acceptable location for the
port and settlement and be prepared
to defend your choices.
Geographic Setting
Listed below is some geographic information
about the island.
• The island, surrounded by the ocean, is in the
Northern Hemisphere, located at approximately
30° N latitude, at about the latitude of Florida. 2. Above the cliffs is a relatively flat
• The island is somewhat elongated and nearly area, like a shelf in the landscape (▲).
10 km in its longest direction. It reaches an This type of feature is only observed
on this western side of the island.
elevation of 1,000 m above sea level in
Scattered about on this flat surface
two mountains. are rounded pebbles and larger
• The climate of the island is warm during the stones, along with abundant loose
summer, when it sometimes rains. It is wetter sand. On some parts of the surface
during the winter, when it receives enough rainfall there is a layer that contains fossil
shells (▼) and fossils of other marine
to provide ships with water, as long as the water
organisms identical to those that
resources are managed intelligently. The ocean occur on the beach.
moderates the climate, keeping it a little cooler
14.20.a4
during the day and warmer at night relative to a
place that is not next to the sea. The air is fairly
humid, so the mountains sometimes cause and
receive short summer rains.
• There is a moderate amount of vegetation on
14.20.a1
the island, except on the rocky mountains. The
most dense vegetation is near a delta on the
north side of the island and on a raised flat area
on the western (left) side. Both sites are suitable
for growing crops.
444
Procedures
Follow the steps below, entering your answers for each step in the appropriate place on the worksheet or online.
A. Observe the overall character of the island, noting what is along each part of the coast and the locations of streams (a source of
fresh water). Read the information about the geographic setting of the island (on the previous page).
B. Observe the photographs and read the accompanying text describing different parts of the island. Use what you know about coasts
to interpret what type of feature is present, what processes are typical for this type of feature, and what the significance of each
feature is for a port and small settlement.
C. Synthesize all the information and decide on the best locations for the settlement and port, which should be fairly close to one
another (no more than 1 km apart). Be able to logically support your choices. There is not a single correct answer or best site.
D. OPTIONAL: Your instructor may have you write a short report or prepare a presentation describing all the factors you considered
and why you chose the sites you did. You may also be asked to interpret the natural history of the island.
6. Along the north shore of the island is a delta
14.20.a6
where the largest streams in the area reach the
sea. This area has abundant wetlands (⊲) and
is easily accessed from the east by
walking along the beach.
14.20.a5
5. The north shore of the island has gentle relief along
the shore and has a well-developed beach that is
mostly sand (▲). The beach slopes gently into the water,
allowing people to wade quite a distance out into the
sea. The sand is constantly in motion, moving up and
back on the beach and also moving laterally along the
coast. Lying on some parts of the beach are pieces of
wood, similar in size to the trees observed near the
delta to the west.
4. Cut into the eastern end of the island are a series of
embayments, or bays, that branch farther inland. In the
largest bay, the land slopes into the bay at a moderate
angle, gentle enough to walk up. The bay projects
toward two mountains that have some well-developed
vegetation on their flanks. The mountains are not too
steep to walk up. Small streams flow on every side of
the mountains but have more water in the summer. The
mountains are not volcanoes.
14.20.a7
14.20
3. Extending off the land from the southern side of the island is a
low ridge of relatively loose sand (⊲). Some of the high parts of the
ridge are clearly sand dunes. Some lack any vegetation, but others
are anchored in place by grasses and other plants. To the east is a
similar long island, again composed of sand, including dunes.
CHAPTER
15 Weathering, Soil, and

Unstable Slopes
SLOPES CAN BE UNSTABLE, leading to slope failures that can produce catastrophic landslides or mudslides involv-
ing thick slurries of mud and debris. Such events have killed tens of thousands of people at once and destroyed houses,
bridges, and large parts of cities. Where does this dangerous, loose material come from, what factors determine if a
slope is stable, and how do slopes fail? In this chapter, we explore slope stability and the origin of soil, one of our
most important resources.
The Cordillera de la Costa is a steep 2 km-high mountain In December 1999, torrential rains in the mountains caused landslides and
range that runs along the coast of Venezuela, separating the mobilized soil and other loose material as turbulent, flowing masses of
capital city of Caracas from the sea. This image, looking south, muddy debris (flash floods) that buried parts of the coastal cities. Some
has topography overlain with a satellite image taken in 2000. light-colored landslide scars are visible on the hillsides in this image.
The white areas are clouds and the purple areas are cities. The
Caribbean Sea is in the foreground. The map below shows the How does soil and other loose material form on hillslopes? What factors
location of Venezuela on the northern coast of South America. determine whether a slope is stable or is prone to landslides and other
types of downhill movement?
15.00.a2
15.00.a1
The mountain slopes are too steep for buildings, so people The city of Caraballeda, built on one such alluvial fan, was especially
built the coastal cities on the less steep fan-shaped areas at the hard hit in 1999 by debris flows and flash floods that tore a swath of
foot of each valley. These flatter areas are alluvial fans com- destruction through the town. Landslides, debris flows, and flooding
posed of mountain-derived sediment that has been transported killed more than 19,000 people and caused up to $30 billion in damage
down the canyons and deposited along the mountain front. in the region. The damage is visible as the light-colored strip through
the center of town.
What are some potential hazards of living next to steep moun-
tain slopes, especially in a city built on an active alluvial fan? How can loss of life and destruction of property by debris flows and
landslides be avoided or at least minimized?
446
15.1 What Physical Processes Affect 15.9 Why Is Soil Important to Society? 464
Earth Materials Near the Surface? 448 15.10 What Controls the Stability of Slopes? 466
15.2 How Do Chemical Processes Affect 15.11 How Do Slopes Fail? 468
15.12 How Does Material on Slopes Fall and Slide? 470
15.13 How Does Material Flow Down Slopes? 472
Influence Weathering? 452
15.14 Where Do Slope Failures Occur in the U.S.? 474
15.4 How Do Climate, Slope, Vegetation, and Time
Influence Weathering? 454 15.15 How Do We Study Slope Failures and
Assess the Risk for Future Events? 476
15.16 CONNECTIONS: What Is Happening with
15.6 How Do Caves Form? 458
the Slumgullion Landslide in Colorado? 478
15.7 What Is Karst Topography? 460
15.17 INVESTIGATION: Which Areas Have
15.8 How Does Soil Form? 462 the Highest Risk of Slope Failure? 480
Huge boulders smashed through the lower two floors of this

building in Caraballeda (▼) and ripped away part of the right side.
The mud and water that transported these boulders is no longer
1999 Venezuelan Disaster
A
present, but the boulders remain as a testament to the event.
debris flow is a turbulent slurry of water
and debris, including mud, sand, gravel,
pebbles, boulders, vegetation, and even
cars and small buildings. Debris flows can move at
speeds up to 16 m/s (36 mph). In December 1999,
two storms dumped as much as 1.1 m (42 in.) of
rain on the coastal mountains of Venezuela. The rain
loosened soil on the steep hillsides, causing many
landslides and debris flows that coalesced in the
steep canyons and raced downhill toward the cities
built on the alluvial fans.
In Caraballeda, the debris flows carried boulders
up to 10 m (33 ft) in diameter and weighing 300 to
400 tons each. The debris flows and flash floods
raced across the city, flattening cars and smashing
houses, buildings, and bridges. They left behind a
jumble of boulders and other debris along the path
of destruction through the city.
After the event, USGS geologists went into the
area to investigate what had happened and why.
They documented the types of material that were
carried by the debris flows, mapped the extent of
the flows, and measured boulders (▼) to investigate
processes that occurred during the event. When the
geologists examined what lay beneath the founda-
tions of destroyed houses, they discovered that much
of the city had been built on older debris flows.
These deposits should have provided a warning of
what was to come.
⊳ This aerial photograph of
Caraballeda, looking south
up the canyon, shows the
damage in the center of the
15.0
city caused by the debris

flows and flash floods.

448
15.1 What Physical Processes Affect

Earth Materials Near the Surface?
ROCKS AND OTHER EARTH MATERIALS at and near Earth’s surface are subjected to processes that break them
apart and alter their components. These processes, and the material’s response to them, are called weathering and can
change the color, texture, composition, or strength of the materials. Such processes result from physical and chemical
weathering. Physical weathering breaks rocks into smaller fragments without causing any change in their chemical
makeup. These smaller fragments can then be attacked by chemical reactions, the process of chemical weathering, or
they can be moved from the original site by the process of erosion.
What Is the Role of Joints in Weathering?

Joints are fractures, or very fine cracks, in rocks that show no significant offset. Joints help break rocks into smaller pieces
and permit water and roots to penetrate into the rock, thereby promoting weathering.
15.01.a1 15.01.a2 15.01.a3
Most joints form in rocks at depth and may Some joints form as a result of expansion As Earth is sculpted by erosion, the topogra-
later be uplifted to the surface. The orienta due to cooling or to a release of pressure phy influences stresses that build up when the
tion and spacing of preexisting joints and as rocks are uplifted to the surface. These weight of overlying rocks is unloaded. During
faults help determine the rates of physical expansion joints can be difficult to unloading, expansion joints can form that
and chemical w eathering at the s urface. distinguish from preexisting joints that mimic topography, peeling off thin sheets of
More closely spaced joints promote more formed by other processes. rock, a process called exfoliation.
rapid weathering.
How Are Joints Expressed in the Landscape?

Joints greatly influence how a landscape develops. Joints affect the strength of a rock, help control its resistance to
weathering and erosion, and influence whether pieces of rock are pried loose from the landscape.
15.01.b1 Connecticut Valley, MA 15.01.b2 Black Hills, SD 15.01.b3 Enchanted Rock SNA, TX
Joints are the dominant features of this The spacing and orientation of joints, along Exfoliation joints can be nearly horizontal or
roadcut, but the amount of jointing is not with rock type, determine how fast a rock will can mimic topography, in either case shaving
uniform. The less-jointed areas are more weather and which parts of the landscape off thin, curved slices of rock parallel to the
resistant to weathering than the highly will be most easily eroded. Joints play a surface. They can form natural stair steps,
jointed ones. prominent role in the weathering of the gran- curved rock faces (as shown here), or large,
ite shown in this photograph. dome-shaped landforms.
What Other Physical Processes Loosen Rocks and Other Earth Materials?
Joints, which formed by processes at depth or by expansion of rock near the surface, play a major role
in weathering. Other processes may also help break rock and loose materials into smaller pieces.
1. As rocks are heated and cooled, different minerals expand 4. Burrowing organisms, including
and contract by different amounts. This daily and rodents, earthworms, and ants,
seasonal thermal expansion imposes bring material to the surface where
stresses on the boundaries between it can be further weathered and
minerals and causes microfracturing in eroded. As such, these creatures
and along mineral grains, which physi- are agents of physical weathering.
cally loosens the mineral grains.
15.01.c2 Baja California Sur, Mexico
2. When water in a fracture freezes, it
expands 8% and exerts a strong
outward-directed force on the walls of the
fracture. This process of frost wedging can
widen and lengthen the fracture and pry off
loose pieces of rock.
5. Plant roots
3. Water percolating through fractures and pore can extend into
spaces may precipitate crystals of salt, calcite, and fractures and grow in
other minerals. As they grow, the crystals exert an length and diameter, expand-
outward force that fractures or weakens the rock. ing preexisting fractures (⊲). This
This process is called mineral wedging. process is root wedging, which
15.01.c1 wedges apart rock exposures.
How Does Fracturing a Rock Affect Weathering?

Weathering affects rock surfaces that are exposed to air and water, so rocks weather from the outside in. Physical weathering
breaks rocks into pieces, providing more surface area where chemical weathering processes can operate.
Surface Area of a Cube of Rock 15.01.d1
Fracturing a Cube into Pieces
1. If joints and other fractures in rock 4. What happens to the total surface area if we fracture the
form a three-dimensional network, same cube into eight pieces? First, we calculate the surface
the rock may be broken into box- area for each smaller cube.
shaped pieces bounded by fractures,
maybe like this cube. What is the 1 cm × 1 cm = 1 cm2 for each side
total amount of exposed surface
area on the sides of the cube?
1 cm2 × 6 sides = 6 cm2 for each cube
2. To calculate the surface area of one face (side),
we multiply the height by the width of that face. But there are eight such cubes.
2 cm × 2 cm = 4 cm 2
6 cm2 × 8 cubes = 48 cm2

15.01.d2
3. There are six faces on a cube, so we multiply the 5. Therefore, this fracturing has doubled the exposed sur-
area of one face by 6 to get the total surface area. face area, providing more surfaces where weathering can
operate. The rock will therefore weather faster.
4 cm2 × 6 sides = 24 cm2
15.01.d3 Bluff, UT
6. Physical weathering of steep out-
crops can loosen pieces that fall, Before You Leave This Page
tumble, or slide downhill and accu-
mulate on the slopes below. These Describe several ways that joints form.
piles of angular blocks are talus,
Describe how joints are expressed in
and such slopes are talus slopes.
the landscape.
The largest talus blocks here are 1
15.1
m across. The blocks have much Sketch or describe physical weathering processes.
more surface area than the same
amount of rock in the smooth cliff Sketch or explain why fracturing aids weathering.
from which they were derived.
450
15.2 How Do Chemical Processes Affect

Earth Materials Near the Surface?
CHEMICAL WEATHERING alters and decomposes rocks, soils, and other earth materials, principally through chemical
reactions involving water. When chemical and physical weathering processes combine to break down and alter earth
materials, they produce minerals that are more stable in surface conditions than the original minerals. They transform
rocks into clay, sand, and other materials.
How Does Changing a Rock’s Environment Promote Weathering?

Many rocks and minerals form deep within Earth. When they are brought near the surface by uplift and erosion, they
encounter conditions very different from those in which they formed and so may become unstable.
1. Minerals that crystallize in high-temperature magmas 3. Oxygen (O2 ) is abundant in the atmo-
are generally unstable when subjected to the low- sphere and as a dissolved component in
temperature conditions that characterize Earth’s surface. rain and most surface water. This oxygen
Most magma temperatures are above 700°C, whereas chemically reacts with rocks, causing
surface temperatures range from minus 40°C to plus some minerals to oxidize (rust).
45°C (minus 40°F to plus 122°F).
2. During metamorphism, some m inerals 4. Liquid water is more abun-
crystallize beneath the surface in dry, high- dant on and near Earth’s sur-
pressure and high-temperature environ- face than at depth. Water, espe-
ments. Once such rocks reach Earth’s cially when it is slightly acidic, is
low-pressure and low-temperature surface, a chemically active substance
they can change to different minerals that that can break the bonds in
are stable at the new, wetter, low-pressure 15.02.a1 many minerals. It increases the
and low-temperature conditions. rate of chemical weathering.
What Happens When Rocks Dissolve?

The main agents for chemical weathering are water and weak acids formed in water, such as carbonic acid (H2CO3). These
agents dissolve some rocks, loosen mineral grains, form clay minerals, and widen fractures.
1. Limestone (below) and other rocks rich in calcium carbonate or magnesium carbonate 3. Fractures can widen as water flows through
are soluble in water and in acids. They dissolve and form pits and cavities. them and dissolves material from the walls of
15.02.b1 Capitol Reef NP, UT
the fracture, as in the limestone outcrop
below. Caves can form by dissolution of
2. Over time, the limestone and other soluble rocks at depth.
pits deepen, 15.02.b3 Austrian Alps
widen, and may
interconnect,
forming furrows
(small troughs).
15.02.b2
One Way That Calcite Chemically Dissolves in Water

4. Limestone is a relatively soluble rock because it is composed of calcite, which is soluble
in weak acids. The most common weak acid in surface water is carbonic acid, produced
when rainwater reacts with carbon dioxide (CO2 ) in the atmosphere, soil, and rocks. The
chemical reaction for the dissolution of calcite in carbonic acid is:
CaCO3 + H2CO3 Ca2+ + 2(HCO3 )−

Calcite Carbonic acid Calcium ion Bicarbonate ion in solution
5. Acids in water produce unbonded H+ ions, each of which is a proton without a balancing
electron and is available to make other chemical bonds. H+ ions are small and can easily
enter crystal structures, releasing other ions, like calcium, into the water.
What Happens When Earth Materials Oxidize Near Earth’s Surface?

Oxygen (O2) is common near Earth’s surface and reacts with some minerals to change the oxidation state of an ion.
This is common in iron-bearing minerals because iron (Fe) has several oxidation states.
15.02.c1 Wilson Cliffs, NV
1. Many mafic igneous rocks contain 2. Hematite consists only of iron and oxygen and 3. If iron-bearing rocks
dark, iron-bearing minerals, such as py- is more stable than pyroxene under oxygen-rich become oxidized, they
roxene. Iron in pyroxene can become conditions. It commonly forms during oxidation generally take on a red
oxidized, producing iron oxide minerals. and gives oxidized rocks a reddish color. color from the iron oxide
mineral hematite. Red-
dish rocks can lose their
4FeSiO3 + O2 2Fe2O3 + 4SiO2 reddish color (⊲) if they
Pyroxene Oxygen Hematite Silica (in water) interact with fluids that
have less oxygen.
What Happens When Minerals Chemically React with Water?

When some minerals react with water they undergo a chemical reaction where the mineral combines with water
to form a new mineral. This reaction, called hydrolysis, converts some minerals to clay.
15.02.d1 Crete
1. One kind of feldspar, containing potassium (K), 2. During the reaction, the H+ ion moves 3. If exposed to wet con-
is called K-feldspar. When this mineral reacts into the crystalline structure, expelling the ditions, many rocks con-
with acids (waters that have free H+ ions), it can K+ ion and some silica, which both get vert into clay minerals.
be converted into clay minerals by hydrolysis, as carried away in the water. The gray limestone (⊲)
expressed in the chemical equation below. shown here contained
impurities that weathered
4KAlSi3O8 + 4H+ + 2H2O 4K+ + Al4Si4O10(OH)8 + 8SiO2 into clay minerals and
K-feldspar Hydrogen Water Potassium Kaolinite Silica reddish hematite that
ion (in water) (clay) (in water) accumulated between
the blocks.
How Does Weathering Make the Ocean Salty?

Have you ever wondered why the ocean is salty or where the salt comes from? It turns out that most of the ocean’s salts
are derived from weathering and the dissolution of rocks and other earth materials on the land.
1. Rock, sediment, and soil on 15.02.e1 5. When seawater in the oceans evaporates, the dis-
and near Earth’s surface are solved salts remain in the water, increasing seawater’s
exposed to the water and to ox- salt content (salinity). Such evaporation causes the seas
ygen in the atmosphere. Water to be saltier than the rivers. The seas would be even
that reacts with rocks and min- saltier if salt was not removed from some parts of the
erals can come from several sea by deposition of salt beds. If the salt beds, once
sources, including from formed, are uplifted and exposed on land, they can
rain and other forms also contribute dissolved salt to rivers and ulti-
of precipitation. mately back to the sea.
2. Some water

infiltrates into the
subsurface, where
it may chemically
react with the materials. Describe several reasons why
During weathering, minerals formed at depth may not be
hydrolysis reactions com- 3. The dissolved cations, 4. Modern oceans typically stable at the surface.
monly produce clay minerals along with negative ions like contain about 3.5% dissolved Summarize how limestone dissolves
and also drive out positive chlorine, are carried by mov- salt, and are much saltier than and what features are formed
ions (cations) from the preex- ing water, either in rivers and river water. Rivers contain by dissolution.
isting mineral structure. The streams or in the subsurface some dissolved salts but only
dominant cations in feldspar, by groundwater. Much of this a small amount, so they are Briefly summarize the processes
15.2
a very abundant mineral, are water eventually finds its way considered to be fresh water, of oxidation and hydrolysis.
sodium and potassium, which to the oceans, where it con- not salt water. If oceans get
can form common salts. tributes its salts and other their salt from the rivers, why Explain why oceans are salty.
ions to seawater. are the oceans saltier?
452

Influence Weathering?
A L L MI N E R A L S A N D RO CK S can be thought of as parent material acted upon by physical and chemical
weathering. How parent materials break down depends on a number of factors, including jointing, surface area, and
the kinds of minerals that compose the rock. These differences cause weathered rock outcrops to have a variety of
distinctive appearances. We can often recognize how materials are reacting to weathering just by observing them.
What Controls How Different Minerals Weather?

Many factors determine how minerals weather, including the climate, how much time the mineral has been exposed
to weathering, and the chemical composition and atomic structure of the mineral or rock.
Reactivity Chemical Bonding
15.03.a1 Durango, CO 15.03.a2 Miami, FL 15.03.a3 Miami, FL 15.03.a4 Big Maria Mtns., CA
1. Sandstone is composed 2. Limestone is very soluble and 3. The bonds in some minerals 4. Other minerals have stronger
mainly of sand-sized grains of prone to chemical weathering, allow them to be readily dissolved bonds that make them less soluble
quartz. Most quartz grains especially dissolution, and espe- in water and weak natural acids, in water. Quartz in this quartzite
weather by physical processes, cially in wet climates. It also as in this dissolved limestone. Salt has very strong bonds and is not
rather than chemical processes. weathers by physical processes. and gypsum also are very soluble. very soluble in cold water.
Relative Resistance of Minerals to Weathering

5. The stability of minerals during weathering is 6. As a magma cools, the first minerals to crys-
in a very general way related to the order in tallize do so at the highest temperatures. These
which the minerals commonly crystallize from a minerals are typically least stable when sub-
magma. According to Bowen’s reaction series (⊲), jected to weathering at the low temperatures of
mafic minerals and Ca-rich feldspar crystallize first Earth’s surface. Crystallization order is also
(i.e., while the magma was still hottest), followed accompanied by changes in the percentage of
by Na-rich and K-rich feldspar, muscovite, and SiO4-4 bonds within the mineral.
quartz. In this illustration, minerals are arranged in
their general crystallization order, from top to bot- 7. Quartz crystallizes late according to Bowen’s
tom. Note that olivine and pyroxene, dark-colored reaction series and is the silicate mineral most
minerals, are the first to crystallize, while resistant to weathering. Although Bowen’s reac-
K-feldspar and quartz crystallize last. The top tion series is very idealized, it is one way to think
minerals in the figure would be the least stable about the stabilities of minerals during weather-
during weathering, while the bottom ones, including. Minerals are most stable in the conditions
ing quartz, would be most stable. As different closest to those under which they formed. Thus,
minerals weather at different rates, a rock, such high-temperature minerals are most unstable at
as a granite, can simply disintegrate into a collec- 15.03.a5 Earth’s surface and are the quickest to weather.
tion of discrete mineral
grains (⊳). Quartz is
especially resistant to Before You Leave These Pages
chemical weathering
and so survives as Summarize the factors that control how different minerals weather.
sand grains in beaches,
sand dunes, rivers, and Explain the origin of the three main weathering products (sand, clay minerals,
soils. In contrast, many and dissolved ions).
other minerals weather
Describe how the character of a rock influences how it weathers.
to various clay minerals.
15.03.a6
How Do Different Rocks Respond to Weathering?

Rocks are composed of minerals. Some minerals are hard and so resist physical weathering, whereas others are
weak and easily broken. Some minerals are chemically stable and resist chemical weathering, while others are less
chemically stable. Some rocks are mostly a single mineral, but others contain many minerals. All these variations
cause different granite and mafic rocks, two of our most common classes of rock, to weather in different ways.
15.03.b1 Baja California, Mexico
1. Granite and related igneous rocks contain 4. Granite is at least 25% quartz,
feldspar, quartz, and smaller amounts of mica which is the medium-gray, partially
(biotite and muscovite), iron oxides, or amphi- transparent mineral here. Quartz is
bole. As these rocks weather, the different very resistant to chemical and phys-
minerals respond in different ways. ical weathering. As c hemically reac-
tive minerals break down around it,
2. Feldspar is the most abundant mineral in quartz weathers into intact grains.
granites, forming the cream-colored crystals
shown here. F eldspar chemically weathers
by hydrolysis to form clay minerals. During
this process sodium (Na), potassium (K), and
other ions leach out of the feldspar. Some of
the liberated ions are released and can be 5. Quartz grains eroded from
carried away by water. granite typically become
quartz sand (⊳), which can be
3. Clay minerals weathered from granite transported away by water
and similar rocks can accumulate in soil or and wind. Quartz sand accu-
be eroded and transported away by water mulates along rivers, in
and wind. Some clay particles are washed dunes, and on beaches.
out to sea, and o thers are deposited in Feldspar can also form sand
lakes, floodplains, deltas, and other muddy grains if the granite or other
environments (⊲). source of feldspar is not too
chemically weathered, as can
occur in dry climates or in
areas of rapid erosion.
15.03.b2 Westwater Canyon, UT 15.03.b3 Great Sand Dunes NP, CO
How Does the Character of a Rock Influence Weathering?

Differences in mineral composition, particle size, and other rock properties play an important role in how a rock responds
to weathering. Equally important are joints, bedding planes, and other discontinuities.
15.03.c1 Bluff, UT
1. Composition — Weathering of a 3. Discontinuities — Joints,
rock is influenced by the types of bedding planes, and other
minerals it contains. Most sand- discontinuities provide
stone, such as the one in this cliff, pathways for the entry of
consists largely of quartz, a min- water into a rock body. A
eral that is very stable on Earth’s rock with lots of these fea-
surface; it mostly weathers by tures will weather more
physical processes. In contrast, rapidly than a massive rock
the recesses below the cliff con- containing few such dis-
tain fine-grained sedimentary continuities. For example,
rocks that are more easily chemi- highly jointed parts of a
cally weathered and eroded. cliff weather faster than
less jointed parts. Rocks
2. Variation in Composition — Some with thin layers generally
outcrops have different parts with break apart and weather
large contrasts in susceptibility to more readily than rocks
weathering. The more susceptible with thick layers. As usual,
parts will weather faster than the observing a landscape and
more resistant parts. Such differ- asking why something
ential weathering can form alter- looks the way it does leads
15.3
nating ledges and slopes, as to interesting throughts.

shown here, or rocks with holes Surface Area — Rock that is already broken into pieces provides more sur-
where less resistant material has face area on which chemical weathering can act. Solid, unjointed bedrock
been removed. provides less surface area and weathers more slowly.
454
15.4 How Do Climate, Slope, Vegetation,

and Time Influence Weathering?
S PAT I A L VA R IAT IO N S in climate, slope, vegetation, and time also impact rock weathering, and these factors are
highly interdependent. Climate, for example, will influence the effectiveness of chemical and physical weathering,
which impacts soil formation and the abundance of vegetation, which in turn influences wedging by roots and secretion
of organic acids. Time is a key factor — more time increases the cumulative impact of weathering.
How Does Climate Influence Weathering?

Abundant precipitation and higher temperatures cause chemical reactions to proceed faster. Thus, warm, humid areas
generally have more highly weathered rock because chemical weathering operates faster than in cold or dry climates.
Elevation influences temperature and precipitation patterns and is yet another influence on weathering.
1. This figure plots two climatic factors — pre- 3. The depth of weathering (and thickness
15.04.a1
cipitation (blue bar) and average annual tem- of soil) is greatest in the tropics because
perature (orange bar) — as a function of latitude, this climate has high temperatures, abun-
from the tropics (on the left) to polar regions dant precipitation, and vigorous plant
(on the far right). The values are all relative to growth, which contribute to weathering.
the polar values, so no scale is needed.
4. Weathering depths are shallowest in
2. The horizontal surface represents the subtropics and polar areas, both of which
weathering surface, and the brown line have low amounts of precipitation.
below the surface indicates the depth of Although temperature is high in the
weathering. Observe the various graphs and subtropics (e.g., desert), there is little water
consider why there might be a relationship to facilitate chemical weathering. Instead,
between the climatic factors and the depth physical weathering may dominate,
of weathering. depending on the specifics of the site.
How Does Slope Influence Weathering?

How rocks weather is also controlled by geographic factors not related to the rock itself but to spatial variations in slope,
specifically its aspect (the direction the slope faces) and its steepness.
1. Windward Slopes — Mountains are sites where air 3. Shaded Slopes — Slopes of some orientations are
rises and cools, forming clouds on the mountain top more sheltered (shaded) from sunlight than slopes of
or on the windward side of the mountain. If there other orientations. If a slope is sheltered from the
is enough condensation and deposition, direct rays of the Sun, it is cooler, can better retain its
precipitation will occur near the top or moisture, and may have more plants. Moisture, soil,
on the windward side. and plants promote chemical weathering, so a slope
facing away from the Sun generally has more soil
2. Slope Aspect— The orientation of the than one that faces the Sun.
slope, called the slope aspect, is an
important factor in weathering. In addition 4. Steepness of Slopes — On steep slopes, rainfall
to some slopes receiving more or less runs off faster, and weathering products may
rain, slopes facing the Sun receive more quickly wash away by runoff. Soil and other loose
light and heat than those facing away. materials can also slide down steep slopes.
Thus, sunny surfaces tend to be warmer Weathering is slower in drier climates, on a
and drier, to have more evaporation, and steep slope, or for a more resistant rock, so
to have less chemical weathering, soil, soil may be less developed and hillslopes
and plants than slopes facing away from may be more rocky and more barren.
the Sun. In the Northern Hemisphere,
south-facing slopes will receive more 5. On gentle slopes, weathering products
Sun, except in the tropics. Physical can accumulate, and water may stay in
weathering is more important on Sun- contact with rock for longer periods of
facing slopes. Chemical weathering, time, resulting in higher weathering
however, will likely be dominant on the rates. Once formed, soil and loose
slope facing away from the Sun. pieces remain in place longer.
15.04.b1
How Does Vegetation Influence Weathering?

Weathering can also be caused by biological activity. Roots can pry open joints in rocks, a type of physical weathering.
Animals of various sizes, from termites to mammals, burrow into the ground seeking food and shelter, and, in the process,
loosen and mix sediment. Plants also contribute to chemical weathering through root secretion and through carbon dioxide
(CO2) given off during respiration.
1. Lichens consist of algae and fungi, living sym-
biotically. The alga provides food through photo-
synthesis while the fungus houses the algae,
providing water and protection. Lichen can com-
monly obscure the underlying material (⊳).
2. Lichens secrete oxalic acid, which effectively

dissolves minerals, particularly the carbonates,
like limestone and marble (⊲). This tombstone is
almost entirely covered with lichens, which help
make this monument’s inscription illegible.
15.04.c1 Selway, ID
15.04.c2 Mount Pleasant, MI

3. Plant root respiration produces carbon
dioxide, which diffuses into the pore spaces
between particles within soil (⊳). The carbon
dioxide, when combined with water, forms
carbonic acid, causing a type of chemical
weathering that is very destructive on chem-
ically reactive limestone and marble.
4. The root zone for many trees (⊲) is far

more extensive than most of us realize.
This oak root system, for example, is
double the extent of the crown, providing
enormous opportunity for both physical
15.04.c3
and chemical biotic weathering. Root Zone
15.04.c4
How Does Time Influence Weathering?

Time is a crucial factor in weathering. Physical and especially chemical processes take time, so the more time that is
available, the more weathering will occur. The speed of weathering and the volume of material affected in a given time
will depend on climate, slope aspect, vegetation, composition, and jointing of the rock or sediment. Due to great variability
in these factors, and all the possible combinations, rates of weathering can range from rapid to extremely slow.
15.04.d1 Mount Pleasant, MI 15.04.d2 Mount Pleasant, MI
Both monuments
featured in these
photographs are
composed of marble,
yet the tombstone on
the left, from the Before You Leave This Page
1880s, is highly
weathered while the Sketch and explain how the rate
tombstone on the right, and depth of weathering are
from 1982, exhibits affected by the type of climate.
relatively little
weathering. Since Summarize or sketch and explain
marble is prone to how weathering is affected
chemical weathering, by slope.
15.4
it lost favor as a
monument choice in the 1930s. These monuments provide a vivid Describe ways that weathering is
example of the importance of time in weathering, for either natural impacted by vegetation and time.
or human-constructed objects.
456
15.5 How Is Weathering Expressed?

PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL WEATHERING affect materials below the surface, such as during the formation of
soil, but they also sculpt rocks on the surface. Several guiding principles affect both domains — the subsurface and the
surface. The results of weathering are obvious, once we know what to observe.
Why Does Weathering Produce Rounded Features?

Weathering processes usually work inward from an exposed surface. This commonly results in rounded shapes in weathered
outcrops, and weathering commonly generates loose, partially rounded blocks. This process of producing somewhat spherical
shapes out of solid bedrock is called spherical weathering. The three figures below illustrate what can happen to a rock that
has joints but lacks other types of discontinuities.
Rock that is newly Over time, faster Weathered rocks can become
jointed generally has weathering of moderately rounded, losing
sharp, angular edges. the edges and their sharp edges and angu-
Weathering attacks corners of the lar features. Rocks dislodged
edges from two sides and rock will begin to from the bedrock will get
corners from three sides. smooth away smaller with time as they
These edges and corners these areas and are weathered from all sides.
wear away faster than a 15.05.a1 any other parts of 15.05.a2 Most rounding occurs while 15.05.a3
single smooth surface. the rock that stick out. the rock is being transported.
How Is Spheroidal Weathering Expressed in the Landscapes?

Weathering exerts enormous control over the appearance of landscapes. Weathering helps define differences in appearance
from one region to another, from one side of a hill to the other, or between different rock types.
15.05.b1 Julian, CA 15.05.b2 Boulder, MT 15.05.b3 Baja California Sur, Mexico
1. Weathering mostly affects rocks from the 2. As weathering attacks a jointed rock, 3. Spheroidal weathering also affects rocks on
outside in, so weathered rocks have an outer differential weathering along the fractures the surface, such as the granite shown above.
weathered zone and an inner unweathered can cause the intact but joint-bounded As rocks are weathered and uncovered by
zone. The outer zone is a weathering rind. As blocks to become rounded. The outer erosion, they commonly display rounded
weathering continues, the weathering rind weathered rind of the blocks splits away shapes. Corners of rocks exposed to the ele-
thickens and can in some cases be used to from the stronger, less weathered rock in ments (rain, Sun, wind, etc.) are affected in
infer how long the rock has been on or near the center, forming rounded shapes in a the way described in the section above.
the surface and exposed to weathering. process called spheroidal weathering.
15.05.b4 Montecello, UT 15.05.b5 Bryce NP, UT

4. The rounding processes 5. Not all weathered rocks
of weathering can also sculpt end up as rounded shapes.
larger masses of rock, includ- The spectacular scenery of
ing those still attached to Bryce Canyon National Park in
rocks underneath (⊲). The Utah contains spires, called
feature in this photograph hoodoos, produced by erosion
consists of several spherical of highly jointed rock layers.
shapes, separated by a Two sets of intersecting joints
recessed area along a nonre- formed columns, and weather-
sistant (easily weathered and ing and erosion did the rest.
eroded) sedimentary layer. Up close, the sides of the hoo-
doos are somewhat rounded.
How Is Weathering Expressed in Your Town and Backyard?

You would be mistaken to believe that a trip to a distant national or state park is necessary to view features that result
from weathering. Examples of physical and chemical weathering are numerous — you just have to know where to look. It
is as simple as taking a short walk, starting with the shape of rocks around your home or campus. These photographs
illustrate some of the everyday manifestations of weathering that can be observed in any town.
Oxidation Salt and Carbonate Crystallization Biotic Weathering
15.05.c1 Silverton, CO 15.05.c2 Boulder, CO 15.05.c3 Mount Pleasant, MI
1. Oxidation is expressed almost everywhere. 2. Calcium carbonate is a constituent of 3. The roots of lichen secrete acids and
It causes reddish colors in nearly all natural mortar between bricks, concrete in side- wedge into monuments, especially marble
exposures of rock, although often less dramat- walks, stucco on walls, and some building tombstones. In the monument pictured above,
ically than the brightly colored hillside above. stones. Under wet conditions, the calcium most of the monument is highly weathered, in
Steel, a common material in our tools and carbonate, which is quite soluble (think of part due to the corrosive effects of lichen. The
communities, is nearly all iron. When steel is limestone, composed of calcium carbonate), white streak is less weathered and is thought
exposed to oxygen in the atmosphere and in can go into solution. As the solution is to be due to rainwater interacting with the
water, it can accumulate a reddish-orange drawn to the surface, the carbonate precipi- metal, creating a solution poisonous to the
coating of rust, which is mostly a collection of tates into crystals that weaken the mortar lichen.
iron-oxide minerals, same as in the hillside. holding the bricks together.
Differential Weathering Root Wedging Soil
12.05.c6 Arco, ID
15.05.c4 Mount Pleasant, MI 15.05.c5 Baja California Sur, Mexico
6. Soil is a mixture of variably decomposed
4. Many materials in your hometown or on 5. Roots emanating from trees find their rock, sediment, and organic material, with water
your campus are a composite of different way into joints, whether they are in rocks or and air in the spaces between grains. Soil is
materials, whether natural or made by sidewalks. Most of us have seen a sidewalk most obvious in farms or gardens, but it also
humans. The different components usually tipped up and fractured by an underlying underlies most neighborhoods, although cov-
weather at different rates, like rocks in a cliff root. As the root gets bigger, the distur- ered by streets, sidewalks, and houses. All soil
do. In this boulder on a college campus, bance does, too. is the product of weathering.
light-colored dikes (formed by magma in a
joint) are more resistant to chemical weather-
ing than are the dark rocks cut by the dikes.
Consequently, the dikes weather out in relief,
as if carved by a sculptor. In this case,
though, the sculptor was natural weathering. Sketch and explain the process of spheroidal weathering and how it is expressed
15.5
in landscapes.
Describe some manifestations of weathering that can be observed almost anywhere.
458
15.6 How Do Caves Form?

WAT E R I S A N ACTIVE CHEMICAL AGENT and can dissolve rock and other materials. Weathering near the
surface and groundwater at depth can work together to completely dissolve limestone and other soluble rocks, leaving
openings in places where the rocks have been removed. Such dissolution of limestone forms most caves, but caves
form in many other ways. Once a cave is formed, dripping and flowing water can deposit a variety of beautiful and
fascinating cave formations.
How Do Limestone Caves Form?

Water near the surface or at depth as groundwater can dissolve limestone and other carbonate rocks to form large caves,
especially if the water is acidic. Cave systems generally form in limestone and other carbonate rocks because most other
rock types do not easily dissolve. A few other rocks, such as gypsum or rock salt, dissolve too easily — they completely
disappear and cannot maintain caves. The figure below illustrates how limestone caves form.
1. Limestone is primarily made of calcite 2. Groundwater dissolves limestone and other car-
(calcium carbonate), a relatively soluble bonate rocks, often starting along fractures and
mineral that dissolves in acidic water. boundaries between layers, and then progressively
Rainwater is typically slightly acidic due widening them over time. Open spaces become
to dissolved carbon dioxide (CO2), sul- larger and more continuous, allowing more water to
fur dioxide (SO2), and organic material. flow through and accelerating the dissolution and
Water reacts with calcite in limestone, widening. If the openings become continuous, they
dissolving it. This dissolution can be may accommodate underground pools or under-
aided by acidic water coming from ground streams.
deeper in the Earth, by microbes,
and by acids that microbes produce. 4. If the roof of the cave collapses, the cave can be
exposed to the air. This can further dry out the cave.
Such a roof collapse commonly forms a pit-like
3. Most caves form below the depression, called a sinkhole, on the surface.
water table, but some form from
5. Limestone caves range in size from miniscule to
downward-flowing water above the
huge. The Mammoth Cave system of Kentucky is
water table. In either case, dissolu-
the longest cave in the world, with an explored
tion over millions of years can form
length of over
a network of interconnected caves
640 km (400
and tunnels in the limestone. If the
mi) long and
water table falls, groundwater
some part still
drains out of the tunnels and dries
unexplored.
out part of the cave system. 15.06.a1 Carlsbad Cav-
erns in New
Mexico is also
huge and spa-
cious (⊲).
What Are Some Other Types of Caves? 15.06.a2 Carlsbad Caverns NP, NM
15.06.b1 Hawaii Volcanoes NP, HI 15.06.b2 Hueco Tanks SP, TX

Most but not all caves Almost any
developed in limestone. rock type can
Caves in volcanic regions host a cave,
are commonly lava tubes, as long as it
which were originally sub- is strong
surface channels of flow- enough to
ing lava within a partially support a roof
solidified lava flow. When over the open
the lava drained out of space. Granite
the tube, it left behind a and similar
long and locally branch- igneous
ing cave. Such caves (⊲) rocks, which
tend to have a curved, are not very soluble, can form caves (▲), especially where physical
tube-like appearance with and chemical weathering has enlarged areas along fractures, like in
walls that have been the example shown here. Many non-limestone caves are along a con-
smoothed and grooved tact between a stronger rock above, which holds up the roof, and a
by the flowing lava. weaker rock below, to form the opening.
What Features Are Associated with Caves?

Caves are beautiful and interesting places to explore. Some contain twisty, narrow passages connecting open chambers.
Others are immense tunnels full of cave formations. Caves can be decorated with intricate features formed by dissolution
and precipitation of calcite and several other minerals.
1. Most caves form by dissolution of limestone. Certain features on the land surface can indicate that 6. Dissolution of limestone along
there is a cave at depth. These include the presence of limestone, sinkholes, and other features of fractures and bedding planes,
karst topography. Collapse of part of the roof can open the cave to the surface, forming a skylight along with the formation of sink-
that lets light into the cave. holes and skylights, dis-
rupts streams and
2. Caves contain many
other drainages.
features formed by minerals
Streams may disap-
precipitated from dripping or
pear into the ground,
flowing water. Water flowing
adding more water
down the walls or along the
to the cave system.
floor can precipitate travertine
(a banded form of calcium car-
bonate) in thin layers that
build up to create formations 5. In humid envi-
called flowstone (▼). ronments, weather-
15.06.c2 Carlsbad Caverns NP, NM
ing at the surface
commonly pro-
duces reddish,
clay-rich soil. The
soil, along with
pieces of lime-
stone, can be
washed into crev-
ices and sinkholes,
where it forms a
reddish matrix
around limestone
15.06.c3 Kartchner Caverns SP, AZ fragments.
3. Probably the most recognized 15.06.c1

features of caves are stalactites and
stalagmites, which are formed when 4. As mineral-rich water drips from the
calcium-rich water dripping from the roof and flows from the walls, it
roof evaporates and leaves calcium leaves behind coatings, ribbons (⊲),
carbonate behind. Stalactites hang and straw-like tubes. The water can
tight from the roof. Stalagmites form accumulate in underground pools on
when water drips to the floor, build- the floor of the cave, precipitating
ing mounds upward. The two can rims of cream-colored travertine
join, forming a column. along their edges.
15.06.c4 Kartchner Caverns SP, AZ
Carlsbad Caverns
A
bout 260 million years ago, Carlsbad, dripped and trickled into the partially dry cave,
New Mexico, was an area covered by a where it deposited calcium carbonate to make
shallow inland sea. A huge reef, lush the cave’s famous formations. Before You Leave This Page
with sea life, thrived in this warm-water tropical
environment. Eventually, the sea retreated, leav- Summarize the character and
ing the reef buried under other rock layers. formation of caves and sinkholes.
While buried, the limestone was dissolved by
Briefly summarize how stalactites,
water rich in sulfuric acid generated from hydro-
stalagmites, and flowstone form.
gen sulfide that leaked upward from deeper
accumulations of petroleum. Later, erosion of
15.6
Describe features on the surface that

overlying layers uplifted the once-buried and might indicate an area may contain
groundwater-filled limestone cave and eventu- caves at depth.
ally exposed it at the surface. Groundwater
15.06.t1 Carlsbad Caverns NP, NM
460
15.7 What Is Karst Topography?

L I M E STO N E A N D O T H E R S O LU B L E RO CK S commonly respond to weathering by dissolving away, pro-
ducing distinctive landscapes characterized by a somewhat disorganized appearance. Instead of a typical network of
drainage systems, this type of landscape — karst topography — features sinkholes and other depressions, streams that
disappear into the ground, gray rocks that look like they are dissolving away, and in some places, exotically shaped
pillars. Karst topography is common in many parts of the world, perhaps near where you live.
What Are the Characteristics of Karst Topography?

Karst topography has diverse expressions depending on the topographic setting, climate, and other factors, but it always
indicates the presence of some type of soluble rock, especially limestone and dolomite, and also, in some locations, rock
salt. Karst leaves an imprint on the topography as a whole and in the appearance of individual exposures of rock.
1. Examine the topography 4. Some of the hills in this area do
represented by this three- not have as many pits and instead
dimensional perspective (⊲) of have typical stream valleys. When
the area near Oolitic, Indiana. these streams enter the karst, they
What are the features of cease to have any expression on
this landscape? the surface because their flow
has been captured by the net-
2. One of the main char-
work of pits — such streams
acteristics of this terrain
are called disappearing
is the presence of
streams and are another
numerous pits. These
characteristic of karst
are sinkholes and
topography. They add
shallow depressions
water to the underground
formed by the partial 15.07.a1 drainage system.
collapse of the roofs
of caves. The widespread distribution of the pits 3. Another characteristic is the relative lack of a well-developed drainage system, such as
suggests that most of the area is underlain by smaller streams feeding into larger streams in a typical branching pattern. Instead, if we
caves. Since caves tend to form in limestone, we imagine rain falling in some area, the runoff is likely to flow into one of the pits instead of
can infer that much of the area is underlain by reaching a stream. This illustrates another attribute of karst regions — they commonly have
limestone, as is indeed the case. a network of underground passages, including underground streams and lakes.
15.07.a2 Longhorn Caverns SP, TX 15.07.a4 Pedernales Falls SP, TX

5. Sinkholes can be promi- 7. Areas of karst generally
nent pits (⊲) or they can be display evidence of rocks
small and subtle topographic that have partially dissolved
depressions, perhaps only (⊳) due to their exposure to
marked by the presence of water from precipitation or
a pond. Most sinkholes sug- from water that was in con-
gest collapse or settling of tact with the rocks, such as
the roof of a cave below water in soil, groundwater, or
that spot. The photograph water in a stream, lake, or
shown here was taken from ocean. Such rocks typically
inside a cave, looking up at have steep grooves.
a sinkhole.
15.07.a3 Winter Park, FL 15.07.a5 Philippines
6. Sinkholes are a significant 8. In some settings, espe-
natural hazard. The one shown cially in tropical climates
here (⊲) destroyed cars and where there is abundant rain-
buildings in Winter Park, Flor- fall, karst terrains can feature
ida, where the underlying bed- steep pillars, knobs, and
rock is limestone. The collapse oddly shaped rocks (⊳), all
resulted from the lowering of sculpted by dissolution of
the water table due to pump- limestone. These form spec-
ing from water wells. Under- tacular tourist-destination
ground water helps support landscapes in China, Cambo-
the roof of a cave, so when dia, the Philippines, and other
the water is removed, the roof parts of Southeast Asia and
can no longer support itself adjacent islands. Some of
and so it collapses. Features described as “sinkholes” in news reports these pillars are on land and others are surrounded by the ocean. They
can also form in other ways, including from broken large water pipes. form from rocks that were somewhat more resistant to dissolution.
What Is the Distribution of Karst?

The formation of karst relies on the presence of soluble materials at or near the surface, so a map showing the distribution
of karst essentially shows the distribution of limestone, dolomite, and other soluble rocks. As the two maps below illustrate,
karst is very widespread, as are its associated hazards.
1. This map shows the 2. Karst is especially

distribution of karst ter- widespread in Europe,
rain in the world, such as in areas adja-
excluding Antarctica, cent to the Alps moun-
which is mostly cov- tain range, and in
ered with ice and too southern and central
cold for liquid water. Asia. In this latter area,
Karst is present on all karst is present in the
the other continents cold and relatively dry
and in all types of cli- conditions in the high
mates, from polar cli- elevations of Tibet and
mates of the Arctic to in the hot and humid,
tropical climates of low elevations of
central America, and Southeast Asia. This
all climates in between. illustrates that rock
Most of these areas type, specifically lime-
indicate the presence stone, is the primary
of limestone. control on karst.
15.07.b1
3. This map depicts 4. In the U.S., karst

the distribution of occurs in belts
karst terrain in the within and adjacent
U.S. Purple areas are to the Appalachian
karst formed by lime- 15.07.b2
Mountains, following
stone either at the the tilted and folded
surface (dark purple) layers of limestone
or from limestone at and dolomite.
depth (light purple).
Orange areas indicate
5. Karst is widely distributed
areas underlain by
in Ohio, Indiana, Kentucky,
salt, gypsum, and
Tennessee, Missouri, and
other soluble rocks
other states.
formed by the evapo-
ration of water (and
so are called evapo- 6. The largest area of karst is in
rite rocks). Brown Florida and adjacent parts of Geor-
shows areas with gia, which are underlain by an
other types of caves, extensive sequence of flat-lying
such as lava tubes, in layers of limestone. These areas
volcanic rocks. are dotted with sinkholes and are
most likely to be places described
in sinkhole-related news stories.
15.07.b3 Miami, FL
7. In addition to sinkholes, evidence for the pos-
sible presence of karst includes exposures of
limestone with smaller holes formed by dissolu-
tion (⊳). Weathered limestone commonly contains Before You Leave This Page
fossils and also generally has a rough surface,
with a feel of sandpaper. Such rocks receive col- Describe the characteristics of karst
orful, very descriptive names, like “tear-pants topography and what features might
weathering.” If a prospective home buyer finds indicate that karst is present.
such weathered limestone on real-estate prop-
15.7
erty, the possibility of karst should be investi- Briefly summarize the main locations
gated by consulting a geologic map of the region of karst topography for both the world
(which will show places where limestone is and the U.S.
exposed and therefore may have karst issues).
462
15.8 How Does Soil Form?

SOIL BLANKETS MUCH OF THE LAND SURFACE, providing a place for plants, animals, microbes, and humans to
live. Soil is affected by geologic, biologic, and hydrologic processes, and thus represents the interplay between the
lithosphere, biosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere. The processes and factors that influence weathering also control
how soil forms in different climates. What does soil contain and how does it form?
What Is Soil?
Soil is the unconsolidated material above bedrock and contains both mineral matter and organic matter (typically decaying
vegetation) along with air and water. The incorporation of water and organic material into soil is what makes plant growth
possible. Soil differs from sediment in that sediment is weathered rock that is transported or deposited by water, ice, wind,
or gravity, whereas soil forms more or less in place.
15.08.a1 Montana 4. An O horizon is a surface accumulation of
1. What do you observe in this organic debris, including dead leaves, other
photograph (⊳) of a vertical cut plant material, and animal remains.
through soil layers? Go ahead!
5. An A horizon is topsoil, composed of dark
gray, brown, or black organic material mixed
2. There are different zones or with mineral grains.
layers, called horizons, with rather
gradational boundaries. These 6. An E horizon is a light-colored, leached
different layers are not the same zone, lacking clay and organic matter.
as beds formed by sedimentation;
instead each horizon forms and 7. A B horizon contains little organic material,
grows in place by weathering of but it can have a red color due to the
rock and sediment, and by the accumulation of iron oxide. In dry climates, the B
addition of material from plants, horizon can be whitish or have whitish streaks
animals, and the atmosphere. due to calcium carbonate accumulations. It may
also include gypsum and salt.
3. In this idealized soil profile (⊲),
each soil horizon is assigned 8. A C horizon is composed of either weath-
a letter to denote its position ered bedrock or unconsolidated sediment,
or its character. 15.08.a2
and it grades downward into unweathered
bedrock or sediment.
What Processes Occur During Soil Formation?

What happens to form soil from rock and other materials? Soil forms gradually over thousands of years and involves some
of the same processes as weathering, including dissolution, oxidation, hydrolysis, and root wedging. Soil formation also
involves the vertical transport of dissolved material up and down through the soil profile.
Where Material Comes From How Material Moves
1. Soil material is mostly derived from weathering 4. Soil material moves both down and up as it is
of underlying rock and sediment, but some mate- carried by water, plants, animals, and gravity.
rial is introduced by water and wind. Sediment
5. Zone of Leaching — The upper part of soil loses
washes onto the surface from adjacent hillslopes
easily dissolved material downward. Water soaking
or arrives as windblown dust and salts.
into the soil leaches (dissolves and removes) solu-
2. Soil receives several types of material from ble material liberated by chemical weathering, car-
the land surface. Leaves, pine needles, twigs, rying it deeper. Clay minerals and other fine par-
and other plant parts accumulate on the surface ticles are carried downward by infiltrating water.
and are worked downward into the soil. Roots Plant parts and other organic material are also
emit CO2 gas, other gases come from the atmo- worked downward into the soil.
sphere, and moisture mostly arrives as rainfall
6. Zone of Accumulation — Chemical ions leached
and snowmelt.
from above may accumulate in an underlying zone,
3. Weathering weakens and loosens underlying if the water does not carry them all the way to the
bedrock, providing starting material to make water table, where they would enter the ground-
soil. This material can be worked up into the water system. Clay minerals, iron and aluminum
soil, or the soil can gradually affect deeper and oxides, salt minerals, and calcium carbonate com-
deeper levels of the bedrock. Some residual monly accumulate in layers, depending on how
material remains in place at depth. 15.08.b1 much water and oxygen pass through the soil.
What Soil Profiles Are Typical for Different Climates?

Climate, especially temperature and moisture, strongly affects the type and rate of weathering, the abundance of plants, and
the type of soil that results. Scientists and other people classify soil in many different ways, but here we limit discussion to
three major soil types defined by climate. The top two types of soil (from moister climates) involve thicker sequences of
soil than does the one for arid climates. They also contain more clay, an especially important component of soil. The
accompanying photographs show the upper parts of the soil profiles. Soils can be assigned names, such as pedalfer and
pedocal, suggestive of their main ingredients.
Tropical Climates (Laterite) Temperate Climates (Pedalfer)

1. In humid, tropical climates, there is abundant rainfall and associated 3. Temperate climates are cooler and mostly have less rainfall than
plant growth. Such areas include rain forests and swamps, both of tropical climates. Such areas contain savannas, grasslands, farms, or
which are characterized by dense plant growth. lush forests of leafy, deciduous trees or pine trees.
15.08.c1 Natal, Brazil 15.08.c4 Badlands NP, SD
15.08.c2 15.08.c3
2. In tropical climates, intense weathering and abundant soil moisture 4. In cooler areas with moderate to high rainfall, the A and B horizons
cause severe chemical leaching, leaving behind a soil rich in iron (Fe) contain abundant insoluble minerals, including quartz, as well as iron
and aluminum (Al) oxides, commonly giving the soil a deep red color. oxide minerals. More soluble minerals like calcium carbonate are absent.
This extremely leached type of soil is a laterite, whose name comes Informal names for such soils are grassland soil or forest soil, depending
from the Latin word for brick (clay is used to make brick). on the type of vegetation. A soil with these characteristics is a pedalfer,
named for the abundant aluminum (Al) in clay and oxide minerals and
iron (Fe), mostly in oxide minerals.
Arid Climates (Pedocal)
5. Arid climates are dominated by overall dryness and sparse precipitation. They can be very hot, as in subtropical deserts,
very cold, as in the Dry Valleys of Antarctica, or moderate in temperature, but still dry. Plants and animals are typically sparse.
6. In arid climates, there is limited vegetation, so there is little or no
15.08.c5 Sonora, Mexico
O horizon, and usually only a thin A horizon. Clay, iron oxide, and salts, all
partly derived from windblown material, accumulate at various levels in the
soil. Ca2+ and CO3 2− ions are dissolved from upper soil horizons and chemi-
cally precipitated farther down as calcium carbonate (CaCO3). The amount of
water passing through the
soil is not enough to com-
pletely remove these ions, Before You Leave This Page
and so the amount of cal-
cium carbonate increases
Describe what a soil is and the
with time, first coating
clasts and eventually processes by which it forms.
forming a discrete layer of Sketch and describe the main soil
caliche. Soil formed in arid horizons and the processes and
climates can be called a materials that occur in each horizon.
desert soil or a pedocal
15.8
for the a
bundance of cal- Discuss the different soils formed in
cium carbonate. different climates and the factors
responsible for these differences.
15.08.c6
464
15.9 Why Is Soil Important to Society?

SOIL IS ONE OF OUR MOST IMPORTANT NATURAL RESOURCES because we depend on it for food, energy,
and even shelter. Soil provides a necessary foundation for grasslands, forests, and the crops that feed and clothe our
growing population. The loss of soil can be catastrophic for individual communities and regions, and for the plants
and animals that depend on it.
How Do Soil and Vegetation Interact?

Soil and plants have a mutually beneficial relationship — soil permits most plants to grow, while plants contribute material to
the soil and partly bind it together, helping it develop and protecting it from erosion. Bacteria, fungi, and other microbes
also play an important role in the development and health of soils and plants.
15.09.a1 Clay, TX 15.09.a2 Brownsville, TN
⊳ The relationship between soil and plants is ap-
preciated by farmers, who try to nurture and retain
the soil, while harvesting crops, including grains,
fruits, vegetables, cotton, and grass sod.
The grass cover of hillslopes helps the underlying

soil in many ways. It protects the soil from rain and
wind, captures water that helps the soil develop,
and helps keep the soil from being eroded by run-
off. When the cover of vegetation is gone (⊲), the
soil can be more easily eroded away and lost.
What Activities Threaten Soil?

In most climates it takes 80 to 400 years to form about 1 cm of topsoil. Soil that is eroded due to poor farming practices or
other detrimental activities may be lost quickly and cannot easily be replaced.
15.09.b1 Namibia 15.09.b2 Peru
1. We use much land to raise cattle, sheep, goats (⊳), and other livestock.
Overgrazing by livestock, or by indigenous animals such as deer, removes
vegetation, leaving soil more vulnerable to wind and water erosion. The
erosion then removes the nutritionally rich upper layers of soil. Overgraz-
ing can be especially devastating in times of drought and is an extreme
problem in some parts of the world.
2. Soil and other weathering products can be washed away on steep
slopes but can accumulate on more gentle slopes. Shaping steep terrain
to provide flat areas suitable for farming, a practice called terracing (⊲),
can better protect soil from erosion. Terracing also helps capture and
retain rainfall, promotes soil formation, and provides a more level place on
which to farm.
15.09.b3 Western Alabama 15.09.b4 Cibola, AZ

⊳ 3. Cutting down forests and removing vegetation to provide lumber,
grazing, or farmland can result in massive soil erosion. Severed roots
rapidly decay and can no longer hold the soil in place. Eventually, the
soil is unable to regenerate vegetation, which will ultimately lead to an
increase in runoff, accelerated soil erosion, and possibly disasters due to
floods and debris flows. The loss of soil can stop the activity (e.g., farming)
for which the land was originally cleared.
4. Soil can become polluted near farms that use pesticides, herbicides,
and fuel oils. Soil can also become contaminated by salt (⊲) from irrigation
water that has acquired a high salinity due to evaporation as it passes
over croplands. Some industries use pollutants that find their way into the
soil, and some mining operations contaminate soil with chemicals and with
elements, such as arsenic, that occur naturally in many ores.
What Are Some Problems Related to Soil?

In addition to being a valuable resource, soil can cause problems for people because of its low strength and how it behaves
when shaken, wetted, dried, or compacted. Problematic soil can be recognized by geologists, builders, and homebuyers so
that building on, or buying, such risky sites can be avoided.
15.09.c1–2 15.09.c7-8
15.09.c4-5
Liquefaction occurs when loose sediment In some soil, clay minerals start out arranged
becomes oversaturated with water and Soil that contains a high proportion of c ertain randomly, with much pore space between
individual grains lose grain-to-grain contact clay minerals, called swelling clays, increases individual grains. As water infiltrates the pore
as water squeezes between them. Quicksand in volume when it becomes wet, expanding spaces, the clay minerals begin to lie flat,
is an example of liquefaction. Liquefaction upward or sideways. When these clays dry reducing open spaces and thereby compact-
is especially common when loose, water- out, they decrease in volume, causing the soil ing the soil. Such soil compaction typically
saturated sediment is shaken during an earth- to shrink or compact. Repeated expansion does not occur uniformly, because some
quake. The houses below (▼), destroyed dur- and compaction during wet-dry cycles can parts of the soil have more clay than others.
ing the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake, sank crack foundations, make buildings unsafe, and Differential compaction can crack walls (▼),
into artificial fill that liquefied during shaking. damage roads, like the one below (▼). foundations, and roads.
15.09.c3 California 15.09.c6 St. Johns, AZ 15.09.c9
Mineral Deposits Formed by Weathering
W
eathering processes move chemical atures and abundant water produce soil rich upper reddish part in this photograph),
elements, leaching them from some in aluminum. The bauxite results from the reprecipitating copper- and sulfur-rich miner-
sites and concentrating them in oth- breakdown by chemical weathering of clay als farther down. In many cases, such enrich-
ers. During chemical weathering, for example, minerals, which originally were also largely ment by weathering makes the deposit rich
a body of soluble rock can be greatly reduced formed by weathering. enough in copper to mine. The upper parts are
in volume by dissolution and leaching. Ele- Weathering also plays a role in concentrat- reddish due to abundant iron oxide minerals.
ments that are not leached from the rock can ing metals in near-surface mineral deposits. In
become concentrated enough to become valu- many large copper mines, including the one
able. The most important ore of aluminum, shown below, weathering and downflowing Before You Leave This Page
the rock bauxite being mined below, forms in groundwater leached copper and sulfur from
wet, tropical climates where high air temper- the top 100 m or so of the copper deposit (the Summarize activities that can
threaten soil and its protective cover
15.09.t1 15.09.t2 Bisbee, AZ of vegetation.
Describe some problems associated
with certain soil types.
15.9
Describe two ways that weathering

can enrich a mineral deposit enough
so the deposit can be mined.
466
15.10 What Controls the Stability of Slopes?

GRAVITY PULLS MATERIAL DOWNHILL, and some rocks, soil, and other loose material are not strong enough to
resist this persistent force. Downward movement of material on slopes under the force of gravity is called mass wasting,
and it occurs to some degree on all slopes. Mass wasting can proceed very slowly or very quickly, sometimes with
disastrous results. Mass wasting is an important part of the erosional process, moving material downslope from higher
to lower elevations, and feeding sediment from hillslopes to streams, rivers, beaches, and glaciers.
How Does Gravity Affect Slope Stability?

The main force responsible for mass wasting is gravity. The force of gravity acts everywhere within and on the surface of
Earth, tending to pull everything toward Earth’s center.
1. On a flat surface, the 3. The part of the force pushing the block against the slope
force of gravity acts on is the normal component.
a block by pushing it
vertically down against 4. The other component acts parallel to the slope, trying
the base of the block. to shear the block down the slope. It is the shear
The block will not component.
move under this force. 15.10.a1
5. As the angle of slope becomes steeper, the shear com-
ponent becomes larger while the normal component
2. On a slope, gravity acts at an angle to the base of the block. Part of the force becomes smaller. If the slope angle is too steep, the shear
pushes the block against the slope and another part pushes the block down the component becomes enough to overcome friction, and it
slope. These two parts of the force are referred to as components. causes the block to slide.
How Steep Can a Slope Be and Still Remain Stable?

The steepest angle at which a pile of unconsolidated grains remains stable is called the angle of repose. This angle is
controlled by frictional contact between grains. In general, loose, dry material has an angle of repose between 30° and 37°.
This angle is somewhat higher for coarser material, for more angular grains, for material that is slightly wet, and for material
that is partly consolidated. It is lower for material with flakes or rounded grains and for material that contains so much
water that adjacent grains lose contact.
15.10.b2 Salmon, ID
1. Dry, unconsolidated sand grains form a pile (⊳), and the angle of the
resulting slope is at the angle of repose. If more sand is added, the pile
becomes wider and higher, but the angle of repose remains the same. If
part of the pile is undercut and removed, the grains slide downhill until the
pile returns to a stable slope at the angle of repose. If sand is slightly wet,
surface tension between the grains and a thin coating of water enables the
sand to be stable on steeper slopes.
2. Loose rocks and other loose material (talus) accumulate on some
slopes (⊲) and at the bases of cliffs. Such talus material commonly forms a
slope that is at the angle of repose for the particular sediment. The smooth
15.10.b1 talus slope shown here is at its stable angle. If part of the slope became
steeper, material would slide down until the slope regained stability.
15.10.b3 Morocco 15.10.b4 Northern AZ

3. Most slopes of sand dunes (⊳) reflect the angle of repose
for dry sand. Slopes can be more gentle than the angle of
repose, but if they begin to exceed the angle of repose then
the slope fails, slumping downhill. Walking up a sand dune
causes the barely stable sand to slide beneath your feet.
4. The slopes of a scoria (cinder) cone (⊲) reflect the angle
of repose because they are typically composed of loose,
volcanic scoria. The angle of repose will be steeper for
coarser scoria and for material that partially fused together
during the eruption.
What Factors Control Slope Stability?

The main control on slope stability is the The addition of minor amounts of water in- Fractures, cleavage, and bedding reduce the
angle of repose for the material. Intact rock creases the strength of soil, but too much overall mechanical strength of a rock, and
can form cliffs or steep slopes, but soil, sedi- water pushes grains apart and weakens the may allow rocks to slip downhill. In this illustra-
ment, and strongly fractured rock form slopes soil. Materials with high clay-mineral content tion, rock layers oriented parallel to the slope
reflecting their angle of repose. can flow downhill when they become wet. allow material to slide.
15.10.c1
15.10.c3
15.10.c2
What Triggers Slope Failure?

Slope failure occurs when a slope is too steep for its material to resist the pull of gravity. Some slopes slide or creep
downhill continuously, but others fail because some event caused a previously stable slope to fail.
1. Precipitation can saturate sedi- 4. Volcanic eruptions can shake, frac-
ment, weakening an unconsolidated ture, and tilt the ground, unleashing
material by reducing grain-to-grain landslides from oversteepened slopes.
contact. A slope that was stable Eruptions can cover an area with hot
under dry conditions may fail when ash and other loose material, causing
wet. Slopes can also fail after wild- melting of ice and snow. Melting can
fires, which destroy plants that help rapidly release large amounts of
bind and stabilize the soil. water and mobilize volcanic material
in destructive debris flows.
2. Hillslopes can fail when the load on
the surface exceeds a slope’s ability to 5. A sudden shaking, such as
resist movement. Humans sometimes build tremors caused by an earth-
heavy structures on slopes, overloading the quake along this fault scarp,
slope and causing it to fail. Areas with gentle may trigger slope instability.
slopes, such as near this town, are less prone Minor shocks from heavy trucks
to slope failures. or human-caused explosions can
also start a slope failure.
15.10.d1
3. Modification of a slope by humans or natural causes can
increase a slope’s steepness so that it becomes unstable. 6. Oversteepening of cliffs or hillslopes during
Erosion along river banks, as shown here, or wave action along road construction can cause them to fail,
coasts can undercut a slope, making it unsafe. especially if fractures or layers are inclined
toward the road.
Slope Stability in Cold Climates
I
n cold climates, water is frozen much of the months, the water-saturated soil may move
year, and ice, although solid, can flow. downslope more easily. Frost heaving can form Before You Leave This Page
Freeze-thaw cycles, where ice freezes and polygon-shaped outlines in the soil, called
then thaws repeatedly, cause ice to flow and can patterned ground (▼). Describe or sketch the role that
contribute to slope failure. gravity plays in slope stability.
15.10.t1 Kongakut, AK
When water-saturated soil freezes, it expands,
pushing rocks and boulders on the surface Describe the concept of the angle
upward. When the soil thaws, the boulders move of repose and its landscape
expressions.
15.10
down again. This process, called frost heaving, is

a large contributor to the downslope movement Describe some factors that control
of material in cold climates. In addition, when slope stability and events that trigger
the upper layers of soil thaw during the warmer slope failure.
468
15.11 How Do Slopes Fail?

THE RAPID DOWNSLOPE MOVEMENT of material, whether bedrock, soil, or a mixture of both, is commonly
referred to with the general term landslide. Movement during slope failure can occur by falling, sliding, rolling, slump-
ing, or flow. We classify slope failures by how the material moves and the type of material involved.
What Are Some Ways That Slopes Fail?

Most people have seen evidence of slope failure when hiking, driving past a roadcut, or watching television news, nature
shows, or movies. Slope failure can be as subtle as a small pile of rocks at the base of a hill or as dramatic as a
mudflow that has destroyed a neighborhood or hillside in China or California. The photographs below show images of
various types and sizes of slope failures.
15.11.a1 Yampa River, UT 15.11.a2 Denali region, AK
2. During an earthquake,
brown masses of rock and
soil (⊳) slid down these
steep slopes in Alaska,
smashed apart, and flowed
as avalanches of rock, soil,
and ice across a white gla-
cier in the valley below.
Parts of the avalanche
flowed across the valley
and partway up hillsides on
the other side of the v alley.
15.11.a3 Book Cliffs, UT

3. On this hillside (⊲), millions of
rock pieces fell from an upper cliff
and slid downhill, accumulating
below as a talus slope that par-
tially covers an underlying dark
shale. The pieces came to rest at
the angle of repose, the specific
angle at which those materials are
stable. If the slope is steepened,
such as by erosion of the base or
by addition of new material on top,
1. This rocky cliff (▲) failed after being undercut by a the talus will slide and adjust until
river. Large sandstone blocks, one the size of a building, it again attains its stable angle.
collapsed downward. The falling block detached along a Talus slopes generally accumulate
prominent joint surface, which has since accumulated a little at a time, from the gradual addition of one rock fragment after another, but some
a coating of brown rock varnish. are produced or enlarged more rapidly, from rock falls and other types of slope failure.
15.11.a5 Big Sur, CA

15.11.a4 El Salvador, Central America
5. Undercutting of hillsides
by coastal erosion and
highway construction has
4. This landslide (⊳) in made many slopes steep
El Salvador flowed down a and unstable. In 2017,
steep, unstable slope and rocks and soil flowed and
cut a swath of destruction slumped downward, cover-
across a neighborhood. ing and blocking the
Adjacent slopes on this hill Pacific Coast Highway near
appear to be just as steep Big Sur (⊲), as shown in
as the part that failed, and this computer-generated
they pose a hazard to the image. Such slope failures
remaining homes. commonly occur during or
after intense rainstorms.
How Are Slope Failures Classified?

Classification of slope failure is imprecise because the processes commonly grade into one another, and more than one
mechanism of movement can occur during a single slope-failure event. All classifications consider how the material moves,
what types of material move, and the rate of movement of the material.
15.11.b1 Colorado National Monument, CO 15.11.b2 Fort Funston, CA
Mechanism of Movement
⊳ Geologists classify slope failures primarily by how the
material moved. Rocks and other material can fall off
cliffs, can slip along fractures, cleavage, or bedding
planes, can topple over, or can do all three.
⊲ Other slope failures involve the slow creep of the

uppermost soil cover or the flow of material, as during
turbulent flows of mud, rocks, and other debris. This
brown mud flowed during an earthquake.
15.11.b3 Monument Valley, UT 15.11.b4 Grand Canyon, AZ

Type of Material
⊳ Some slope failures involve slabs of solid rock or
large pieces of broken rock derived from cliffs and
rocky hillslopes. Such rocks can further break apart
after they begin to move.
⊲ Many slope failures mobilize unconsolidated material

that is stripped from hillsides. Material can include soil,
loose sediment, pieces of wood and other plant parts,
boulders, and other types of loose debris.
15.11.b5 Venezuela 15.11.b6 Slumgullion, CO

Rate of Movement
⊳ Fast rates — Another important factor is the rate of
movement of the material. Some slope failures start in
an instant and send material downhill at hundreds of
kilometers per hour, or at least too fast for people to
outrun.
⊲ Slow rates — Other mass movements are more grad-
ual and move downhill at rates that are imperceptible
to an observer. This slow-moving mudflow carries trees,
some tilted, along for the ride.
Submarine Slope Failures
S
lope failure is not restricted to the land; it
can also occur on steep or even gentle
slopes on the seafloor. Such
submarine slope failures can be Before You Leave This Page
caused by overloading of sedi-
ment on a slope or in a submarine Describe slope failures and some
canyon. They can also be trig- ways they are expressed in
gered by shaking during an earth- the landscape.
quake, volcanic eruption, or storm.
Various types of slope failure occurred Summarize the classification of
slope failures, and describe the
15.11
off the southwestern coast of the Big Island

of Hawaii, forming the large mass of debris different types of movement, types
shown here in green. of material, and rates of movement.
15.11.t1
470
15.12 How Does Material on Slopes Fall and Slide?

SOME SLOPE FAILURES involve materials falling off a cliff or sliding down a slope. These mechanisms commonly
involve rock and pieces of rock, but they can also involve materials that are less consolidated. Rocky cliffs
and slopes might appear to be immune to slope failure because they consist of hard bedrock, but they can fail spec-
tacularly and catastrophically.
What Happens When Rocks Fall or Slide?

Rocks and other material can fall from cliffs or can slide on fractures or other weak planes. Falling and sliding rock masses
may begin as relatively intact blocks, but they commonly break apart as they begin moving or when they hit the bottom of a
cliff. Some slides rotate as they move. Others simply slide down the hill. One type of rock failure can lead to another
because a rock fall may remove some support, causing higher parts of a cliff to slide.
15.12.a2 Canyon Lake, AZ
Rock Falls and Debris Falls

In a rock fall (⊳), large blocks or smaller pieces of bedrock detach
from a cliff face and fall until they smash into the ground. Rock
falls can be triggered by rain, frost wedging, thawing of ice that
had held rocks to the cliff, an earthquake, river erosion, or
human construction that undercuts a cliff. Less consolidated
debris, including loose sand, can also fall off a cliff. Part
of the cliff in this photograph (⊲) has collapsed, producing
a rock fall composed of large, angular blocks. As the
rocks fell, and during impact with the ground, they
fractured and broke apart, most remaining as a large
15.12.a1
mass of shattered rocks, while some loose blocks fell,
rolled, and slid downhill.
Rock Slides
15.12.a4 Naxos, Greece
In a rock slide (⊳), a slab of relatively intact rock detaches from
bedrock along a bedding surface, preexisting fault, joint, or
other discontinuity that is inclined downslope. As it slides,
parts of the slab typically shatter into angular fragments
of all sizes, but large blocks can remain relatively
intact. In the rock slide shown to the right (⊲), road
construction undercut these sedimentary rocks,
15.12.a3
which had layers and fractures that were inclined
downslope, toward the road. At some point after
construction, the rocks slid along the layers and
into the road.
Rotational Slides 15.12.a6 Capitol Reef, UT

In some slides, rock layers and other material rotate back-
ward as they slide (⊳). Such rotational slides move along
one or more curved slip surfaces. This type of slide,
also called a slump, can occur in bedrock or less
consolidated material. Individual slices can remain
relatively intact or can break and spread apart.
The rocks in the middle of this photograph (⊲)
detached from the top cliff and slumped halfway
down the slope. As the block moved downhill, it
15.12.a5 rotated, causing the layers to tilt to the left. Frac-
tures within the block allowed parts of the block
to shift up or down relative to one another.
What Is the Geometry of a Rock Slide?

A combination of geological circumstances is required to detach a slab of rock and create a rock slide. It requires
sufficiently steep slopes along with bedding planes, fractures, or other flaws that are inclined downslope.
1. Many rock slides occur in bedrock with discrete layers that differ in rock type and 6. Most slides leave a linear or curved scar, or
therefore in strength. Such rock layers are most common in sedimentary rocks, but scarp, on the hillslope, marking where the slide
they are also present in many volcanic and metamorphic sequences. pulled away from the rest of the hill. This upper
In this figure, a sequence of different sedimentary layers has beds end is also called the head of the slide.
inclined downhill, toward a small stream valley.
7. The leading edge of a slide, the
2. At their upper end, most rock slides detach toe, can overrun the land surface in
along a series of preexisting joint or fault front of the slide.
surfaces. In other cases, as in this example, the
stresses that build up in the rock before it
slides are enough to form new fractures, allow-
ing the rock slide to detach from bedrock.
3. Detachment of the base of the rock slide

from underlying bedrock commonly occurs
along a layer of weak rock, such as shale,
mudstone, or salt. This weak layer may allow
the overlying slab to slide fairly easily and
remain partially intact as it moves downhill.
4. To be able to slide down the dip of the layers,

the upper layer must have space downhill in which to
slide. That is, the layers will probably not slide if they are
supported by more rocks in a down-dip direction. In this example, a
stream has eroded a low area, giving the sliding rock slab somewhere to go.
5. Although not shown here, rock slides can slip along joints, fault surfaces, c leavage, or some
other discontinuity, rather than bedding surfaces. Preexisting faults of the proper orientation are very
susceptible to rock slides because they are planar, fairly continuous, and structurally weak. 15.12.b1
The Vaiont Disaster, Italy
I
n 1960 a dam was built across the Vaiont groundwater dissolved the rock. Fractures in side of the valley. Waves within the reservoir
Valley in northeastern Italy. This valley the rocks run both parallel and perpendicular killed 1,000 people. Waves 100 m high swept
runs along the bottom of a syncline, where to the bedding planes. over the dam. Although the dam did not fail, the
the rocks have been folded downward and dip During August and September 1963, three water that overtopped the dam killed 2,000
into the valley from both sides. The rocks are years after the dam was completed, heavy rain people living in villages below the dam.
mainly limestone but with interlayered thin fell in the area. One day in October, the south
beds of shale and sandstone. Some of the lime- wall of the valley failed and slid into the reser-
stone beds contain caverns formed when voir behind the dam. The slide was 1.8 km high
and 16 km wide with a
volume of 240 million
cubic meters. The slide
moved along shale layers Before You Leave This Page
that parallel the bedding
planes in the limestone. Sketch and describe a rock or debris
As the slide moved fall, a slide, and a rotational slide.
into the reservoir it dis- Sketch how the geometry of layers,
placed an equal volume faults, and other features could allow
of water, forcing a surge a rock slide to begin.
15.12
of water 240 m above

lake level onto the village Describe the Vaiont landslide disaster
of Casso on the northern and factors that caused it to happen.
15.12.t1
472
15.13 How Does Material Flow Down Slopes?

SLOPE FAILURE CAN MOBILIZE WEAK MATERIAL, including soil, sediment, broken rock, and loose debris.
Material flows downhill if it is poorly attached to a hillside, is internally too weak to resist the downward pull of grav-
ity, and the slope is steep enough to allow flow. If the material incorporates some water, it becomes weaker and better
able to flow. Such material can move rapidly, as in a debris flow, or can creep down the hill at a nearly imperceptible
rate. All these types of slope failure involve the flow of material.
15.13.a2 Colorado Springs, CO
Creep and Solifluction

Creep and solifluction are very slow, continuous move-
ment of soil or weathered rock down a slope. Both pro-
cesses occur on almost all slopes. At the surface, evi-
dence for creep is expressed in bent or leaning
trees (⊳), warps in roads and fences, and leaning
utility poles. At roadcuts, creep commonly
causes bedding and other layers in the subsur-
face to bend downhill (⊲). A type of creep at
high latitudes or elevations is called solifluction.
Here, poorly drained ground freezes for most
15.13.a3 Norway
of the year (permafrost) but near-surface ground
15.13.a1
thaws during the summer. This layer of satu-
rated ground can move downslope in irregular,
often overlapping lobes as pictured here (⊲).
This photograph of solifluction lobes nicely
illustrates why the front of a slope failure com-
monly is called the toe, or in this case “toes.”
Debris Slides
Soil, weathered sediment, or other unconsolidated
material can move downslope as a debris slide (⊳).
Debris slides are usually less than 10 m thick and
leave behind a low scarp. A debris slide 15.13.a5 Southern Montana
moves downhill partly as a sliding, coherent
mass and partly by internal shearing and
flow. A debris slide can lose coherency as it
moves, thereby evolving into an earth flow or
a debris flow. The debris slide in this photo-
graph (⊲) has a clearly expressed scarp part-
15.13.a4
way up the hill. At the base of the hill, the
slide has wrinkled the ground as it moved
downhill, forming a slightly steeper toe.
Earth Flows
15.13.a7 Thunder Mtn., ID
Earth flows (⊳) are flowing masses of weak, mostly fine-
grained material, especially mud and soil. The material
moves like thick, wet concrete, generally slowly enough
to outrun, but it contains enough water to be slightly
fluid. Earth flows contain more mud and other
fine-grained material than they do rocks,
and they can also be called mudflows. The
earth flow in this photograph (⊲) mobilized
clay-rich altered volcanic and sedimentary
rocks, as well as a surface veneer of angu-
lar rocks. The earth flow moved downhill
15.13.a6 until it reached and dammed a larger valley
and completely flooded a small village.
Debris Flows 15.13.a9 Venezuela
Debris flows (⊳) are wet, downhill-flowing slurries of loose mud,

soil, volcanic ash, rocks, and other objects picked up along the
way. Some contain only a little water, whereas others are
water rich and flow like a thick soup. Debris flows, espe-
cially their mud-dominated varieties, are called
mudflows by the media, and can move rapidly. They
often result from heavy rains that saturate the soil and
other loose materials. Debris flows are thick and more
dense than water and so can support and carry large
boulders or even houses. In this photograph (⊲),
15.13.a8
debris-flow deposits from the 1999 Venezuelan disas-
ter, discussed in the opening pages of this chapter,
consist of angular blocks, some several meters across.
During transport, the rocks were enclosed in a matrix
of wet mud and other debris.
15.13.a11 Huascaran, Peru

Rock and Debris Avalanches
Debris avalanches (⊳) are high-velocity flows of soil, sediment,
and rock that result from the collapse of steep mountain slopes.
A debris avalanche moves down the slope, in many cases
traveling considerable distances down valleys and across
relatively gentle slopes. A rock avalanche occurs
when a rock mass falls off a cliff face and shatters on
contact, sending a turbulent jumble of rock fragments,
some bigger than cars, flowing downhill. They can flow
at over a hundred kilometers per hour, way too fast to
outrun and fast enough to continue flowing uphill
15.13.a10 when they encounter a topographic obstacle. Both
types of avalanches are often triggered by earth-
quakes and volcanic e ruptions, and they can kill thousands of people at a time. In 1970, an
earthquake shook loose a large chunk of an Andean mountain (▲), causing a rock and debris
avalanche that buried a town (not visible in this photograph) and 18,000 of its inhabitants.
Classification of Slope Failures

This diagram (⊳) summarizes the classification
15.13.a12 of slope failures based on the type of material
involved and the mechanism of movement,
but viewed in the context of the rates of
movement and whether movement occurred
under dry or wet conditions. In this table, fast
means you cannot outrun it, moderate means
you have a chance to escape, and slow
means you might have to stay for a while to
see anything happen. For the slowest rates,
you would not be able to see the movement
in real time, only the results of months, years,
or decades of accumulated movement.

Sketch and describe what happens
during the following: creep, debris
slide, earth flow, debris flow, and
debris avalanche. Compare how
each of these features flows.
15.13
Draw and explain a table summarizing

different types of slope failures.
474
15.14 Where Do Slope Failures Occur in the U.S.?

LANDSLIDES AND OTHER SLOPE FAILURES have destroyed large parts of cities in some countries and have
killed more than 30,000 people in a single event. Each year in the United States, landslides cause an average of 25 to
50 deaths and result in more than $3 billion in damage. What slope-failure events have affected the United States?
What is the likelihood they will occur again? Which areas are most at risk in the future? Is your area safe?
Where and How Have Large Slope Failures Affected the United States?
There have been countless landslides, debris flows, and other slope failures. The landslide that accompanied the 1980
eruption of Mount St. Helens was the largest landslide in U.S. history. It generated enough debris to fill 250 million
dump trucks. Other slope failures are described below.
15.14.a1 Denali Region, AK
1. A large (7.9 magnitude) earthquake
struck the Denali (Mount McKinley) region
of south-central Alaska in 2002. Ground
shaking associated with the earthquake
caused huge slope failures off the region’s
steep mountains. Spectacular rock falls,
rock slides, and debris avalanches slid
down the steep slopes and flowed across
and buried the Black Rapid Glacier. The
region is prone to slope failures partly
because tectonics has rapidly uplifted the
mountains and formed an array of joints,
faults, and tilted rock layers.
15.14.a2 Pacific Palisades, CA 15.14.a4 Tully Valley, NY

2. Landslides and 4. The largest landslide
debris flows are to affect New York in
common in south- 75 years moved through
ern California (⊳), the Tully Valley, near
where some houses Syracuse, in 1993. The
have been built on earth flow mobilized over
risky sites that have a million cubic meters
been undercut by of weak clays that had
waves, streams, and been deposited in a
roads, causing glacial lake. Similar glacial
unstable slopes to lakebeds occur in many
collapse downhill. parts of the region.
15.14.a3 Gros Ventre, WY 15.14.a5 Thistle, UT

3. The Gros Ventre 5. The most costly landslide in
slide (⊳) is one of U.S. history devastated the
North America’s larg- small Utah town of Thistle in
est historic landslides. Spanish Fork Canyon in 1983.
During this 1925 rock The landslide moved slowly
slide, a slab of lime- downhill, reaching a maximum
stone more than rate of only 1 m (3 ft) per hour.
1.5 km (1 mi) long It severed railroad service
broke loose along between Denver and Salt Lake
weak bedding planes City, buried or flooded two
that dipped toward, major highways, and formed a
and were undercut new lake where the town had
by, the Gros Ventre been. A railroad tunnel now
River of Wyoming. cuts through the light-colored
landslide material.
What Is the Potential for Landslides and Debris Flows in the United States?
All states receive some damage from landslides and debris flows, but not all areas have the same potential hazard. The
potential for landslides is highest near steep mountains, such as in Colorado, the Appalachians, and other mountain areas
that have weak, heavily weathered materials. It is also high in areas of recent tectonic activity.
Potential for Landslides and Debris Flows in the United States

1. This USGS map portrays the landslide hazards of the lower 48 states. Red areas represent the greatest hazards, followed by yellow and then
green. Other areas have less potential for landslides or are unstudied. What landslide potential exists where you live?
2. Many parts in the Pacific Northwest experience 4. A high potential for landslides and debris 5. Landslide hazards in the c entral
landslides because of the many steep mountains, flows occurs in the Rocky Mountains and United States are mostly along
heavy rainfall, and rainfall that melts snow cover. along the Wasatch Front, the steep moun- steep bluffs that flank the rivers, or
The region also contains areas with high potential tain front that flanks Salt Lake City, Utah. in areas, such as the northern Great
for debris flows, especially Plains, underlain by
along slopes and valleys weak materials.
connected to the active
Cascade volcanoes. An
eruption on a snow-capped 6. In the east, landslides
peak can unleash large are common in the Appa-
debris flows. lachian Mountains, where
3. The coastal parts of cen- landslides mobilize soil or
tral and southern Califor- occur along weaknesses in
nia have high landslide folded, faulted, and weath-
potential because of steep ered rock layers. Shales,
mountains, high potential because of their inherently
for ground shaking during weak character, are espe-
earthquakes, and coastal cially prone to landslides.
erosion that undercuts weak
material along hillslopes over- 7. Florida and the coastal
looking the shoreline. Debris flows 15.14.b1 plain of the southeast
are also common, especially in the Atlantic seaboard have
high mountains flanking Los Angeles, some of the lowest
California. These recently uplifted potential for landslides
mountains have very steep slopes because the region lacks
and receive locally intense rainfall. steep slopes, except
Wildfires worsen the situation. near sinkholes.
Landslides and La Conchita
T
15.14.t1
he coastal community of La Conchita in
southern California was partially overrun
by a landslide in 2005, which was a Before You Leave This Page
repeat of one in 1995 (right). The landslide
mobilized poorly consolidated sediment along Briefly describe factors involved in
the steep bluffs overlooking the town. The mate- landslides in the United States.
rial flowed down into the community, burying Summarize some factors that make
and destroying a number of houses. Although some areas of the United States
the 1995 landslide had previously destroyed part have high risks for landslides or
of the town, houses were rebuilt in the area after debris flows.
1995, only to be destroyed by the 2005 landslide.
The 2005 landslide remobilized parts of the Identify whether you live in an area
1995 landslide and also incorporated new mate- with a high potential for landslides,
and list some possible factors why
rial farther back into the cliff. Would this be a
your area has this potential.
good place to rebuild again? How much should
15.14
hazard insurance cost people who live here? Describe what happened at La
Conchita. Was it a good idea to build,
or rebuild there?
476
15.15 How Do We Study Slope Failures and Assess

the Risk for Future Events?
HOW CAN WE LIMIT DAMAGE CAUSED BY SLOPE FAILURES? Geologists observe and monitor active slope
failures to better understand how such systems operate. They then use this information to recognize areas that either
have experienced past slope failure or are susceptible to future slope failures. The most hazardous sites have dangerous
combinations of geologic factors, such as steep slopes and weak materials.
How Do We Recognize and Monitor Active or Recent Slope Failures?

To limit property damage and the potential for loss of life, geologists study and monitor active and recently active slope
failures. The resulting observations and measurements provide a solid basis for investigating the processes, causes, and
hazard assessment of destructive slope failures.
15.15.a1 Venezuela 15.15.a2 Mount Rainier, WA
After a slope-failure Geologists use surveying
event, geologists equipment to document
conduct field studies to topography, especially
document the changes in slope, of
distribution, size, and hazardous areas. From
other characteristics of such measurements, they
the event, largely to construct maps and
understand what hap- cross sections showing
pened and to assess where slope failures are
the potential for future most likely. Finally, geolo-
events. This area (⊳) gists help devise plans to
was destroyed by minimize losses from
debris flows. slope failure.
How Do We Recognize Prehistoric Slope Failures?

Geologists identify prehistoric slope failures by observing the topography, surface and subsurface distribution
of rock types, the condition of the rocks, and the geometry of layers and other geologic structures.
15.15.b1 Hat Creek, British Columbia, Canada 15.15.b3 Venezuela
1. Landslides and other 3. Each slope failure leaves
slope failures can overrun behind characteristic deposits.
or otherwise disrupt exist- Geologists observe modern
ing topography, replacing deposits and then use these
it with a random-looking characteristics to recognize
assemblage of humps deposits of past events that
and pits. We call this type were similar to the modern
of landscape hummocky one. These deposits (⊳) were
topography (⊳), which is left by debris flows.
an ominous sign of slope
failure.
15.15.b2 Mount Hood, OR 15.15.b4 Mount St. Helens, WA

2. This flank of Mt. Hood, 4. Debris flows, debris
a Cascade volcano, con- avalanches, and landslides
tains large deposits com- are sometimes recognized
posed of broken, angular because they carried
fragments of rock. These distinctive rock types into
deposits formed when areas where such rocks
parts of the summit col- do not otherwise occur.
lapsed, slid, and tumbled Rocks in this debris pile (⊳)
downward at some time were derived from the dis-
in the recent past. tant Mount St. Helens,
Washington.
How Do We Assess an Area’s Potential for Slope Failure?

Geologists try to assess the likelihood that a location will suffer the disastrous consequences of slope failure by examining
evidence of past slope failures in the area or in adjacent areas that have a similar setting. They also evaluate the steepness
of slopes, including any recent changes, and any other factors leading to slope failure.
15.15.c1 Nepal
Evidence of Past Slope Failures
One of the best indications for potential slope failure is evidence 15.15.c2 Durango, CO
of past failures. The more recent the failure, the more likely such
an event will recur in the near future. This part of the Himalaya (⊳),
with steep hillslopes scarred with slope failures, looks risky.
Situated in Area with Known Problems

The slope angle of h illsides and mountains is clearly a key factor in
the potential for slope failure but must be evaluated in the context
of the steepness of slopes, types of earth materials, and the geom-
etry of layers, fractures, and other geologic structures (⊲).
15.15.c3 Fort Funston, CA
Steepness of Slopes
15.15.c4 Zermatt, Switzerland
A site may be at risk if its geologic setting is s imilar to other slopes
that have failed. Part of this cliff (⊳) collapsed during an earthquake,
and nearby parts have the same steep slopes, weak rocks, and posi-
tion that can be undercut by the ocean waves. They might be next.
Recent Changes in Slope

Natural processes, over time, act to adjust slopes to the appropri-
ate stable angle, but this equilibrium can be upset if the slope is
steepened or undercut by natural or human activities. This rock
slide (⊲) occurred in 1991, burying 31 houses.
15.15.c5 Capitol Reef NP, UT

Conditions of Material
Another factor is the nature of material on a slope: whether m aterial is 15.15.c6 Augustine volcano, AK
loose sediment or solid bedrock (⊳), and is resistant to erosion or rela-
tively weak. The presence, spacing, and orientation of geologic struc-
tures can weaken rocks and facilitate downslope slippage of materials.
Potential Triggers
If other factors are equal, an area is at higher risk for slope fail-
ure if there are frequent events, such as volcanic eruptions or
earthquakes, that could trigger slope failure. Steep slopes with
loose material on an active, shaky volcano are big trouble (⊲).
The Blackhawk Landslide
A
huge lobe of shattered rock lies in a
valley north of the San Bernardino Before You Leave This Page
Mountains, northeast of Los Angeles,
California. This mass has hummocky topog Describe some ways that geologists
raphy and large, shattered pieces of rock that are investigate slope failures.
different than rocks in adjacent areas. This fea- Summarize characteristics used to
ture, known as the Blackhawk Landslide, formed identify prehistoric slope failures.
in prehistoric times when a large segment of the
15.15
mountains collapsed, shattered, and flowed as Summarize some aspects that might
debris avalanches more than 10 km (6 mi) out indicate that an area has a high
potential for slope failure.
into the valley.
15.15.t1
CONNECTIONS
15.16 What Is Happening with the Slumgullion
Landslide in Colorado?
THE SCENIC SAN JUAN MOUNTAINS OF COLORADO contain the Slumgullion landslide, one of the best-studied
landslides in the world. The landslide has been moving for more than 1,000 years, and part of it is still moving, allow-
ing geologists to examine up close the processes of a relatively slow slope failure.
What Is the Setting and Morphology of the Slumgullion Landslide?

1. The Slumgullion landslide is 2. The head (top) of the landslide is a steep landslide
a conspicuous feature (⊳) in the scarp within volcanic rocks. Interactions with water
landscape of the San Juan altered the volcanic rocks into a weak, clay-rich material.
Mountains of southwestern This material is too weak to support the steep slope, and
Colorado. It begins among so it collapsed downward, starting the landslide.
high peaks of altered volcanic
rocks, snakes downhill, and
spreads out when it reaches
the valley bottom. The land-
slide shows as a tan-
fringed mass in
this photograph.
15.16.a2 Slumgullion, CO
3. The flowing material in the

landslide is mostly derived from the
clay-rich, altered volcanic rocks and
so is weak and fine grained; it could
be called an earth flow. The
abundant water in the landslide
reduces its strength, allowing it to
flow down relatively gentle slopes.
Steeper slopes at the scarp,
combined with weak materials and
abundant water, produced a setting 4. When the
favorable for starting the landslide. landslide reached
the valley, it blocked the
Lake Fork of the Gunnison River,
forming Lake San Cristobal, Colorado’s
second-largest natural lake. The river flows
from right to left in this view.
15.16.a1
Parts of the Landslide 15.16.a3 15.16.a4 Slumgullion, CO

107°15" W 5. When USGS geologists investigated
Youngest Unit the landslide, they discovered that it
Middle Unit actually consisted of three different ages
L
Fo ake Oldest Unit of material (⊳): a young, central part that
rk 38° N
Radiocarbon was still active, and two older parts. In the
1 Sample Locality active, center part, continued movement
2 149
has made trees lean in different directions
(⊲). Most trees in the central area of the
3
flow have bent shapes as the tip of a
leaning tree attempts to keep growing
149
vertically. Movement also periodically
causes damage to a road that by
necessity crosses the flow.
1 km N
Lake San Cristobal
478
W e a t h e r i n g , S o i l , a n d U n s t a b l e S l o p e s 479
What Structures and Other Features Are Associated with the Landslide?
1. To study the landslide, USGS scientists
did surveying and used aerial photos to
construct a very detailed topographic map.
From various types of data, the geologists
calculated that the weak materials in the
landslide are moving down a slope of 7° to
10°, much less than a typical angle of 2. The upper
repose for normal, dry materials. The part of the land-
geologists also documented that the slide contains fissures
landslide is moving quite fast, in geologic formed by internal stretch-
terms. From the time the topographic map ing of the flowing mass.
was made to when USGS geologists
began to map the features within the
3. The sides and middle of the landslide con-
landslide, some landmarks had already
tain zones of shearing, where the fastest-flow-
moved 18 m down the slope! The geolo-
ing parts of the landslide move horizontally
gists used the detailed topographic map
past slower moving or stationary material.
as a base to construct this map of
structural features, including scarps, ridges,
and other features that formed as the 4. The toe of the landslide has folds, faults, and other compres-
landslide flowed downhill (⊲). sional features where the landslide has been thrust over trees
15.16.b1
and underlying material.
What Other Studies Did Geologists Do to Understand the Landslide? 15.16.c1
1. Geologists investigated the Slumgullion landslide not only to understand this particular landslide but 3400
to learn how landslides in general operate. They examined temperature and precipitation records to see if the
landslide behaved differently during warm or wet times than during cold or dry periods. Velocity of
the landslide decreased in the winter, when the formation of ice reduced the amount of water available 3350
to the landslide. The landslide also moved more slowly when climate conditions were drier.
3300
2. Geologists used GPS and other 3. The fastest rates of movement (the longest
surveying methods to measure how lines on this map) are in the middle segment
fast different parts of the landslide 3250
of the landslide, where the landslide is
were moving. On this map, longer moving as fast as 7.8 m per year.
red lines indicate faster rates of 3200
4. The upper part of
downhill flow. the landslide is moving
more slowly, locally less
3100
3150 than 1 meter per year.
3050
3000
5. In the laboratory, geologists also tested
physical properties, including strength and
Elevation moisture content, of the landslide material.
Contours (m) They then used these data and comput-
ers to model how the landslide is moving.
500 m N

Describe the setting and morphology
15.16.c2 of the Slumgullion landslide.
6. To constrain the three ages of landslide material that were identified and mapped, geolo- Summarize the types of studies
gists compared the soil development (▲) in the three parts. The oldest part had well- geologists conducted on the landslide
15.16
developed A and B horizons, whereas the youngest part was too young to have developed and what each type of study revealed
either an A or B horizon. Carbon-14 ages obtained from samples of charcoal and wood with- about what was happening with
in different parts of the landslide indicate that the landslide first formed about 1,000 years the landslide.
ago, yet it is still very active today.
15.17 Which Areas Have the Highest
Risk of Slope Failure?
THIS GEOLOGICALLY DIVERSE PLACE has features that appear to be related to slope failure. Large, angular blocks
occur in several different settings, and some of the hills may not be stable or safe. You will use descriptions and images
of these features to determine what hillslope processes are occurring in different areas and how they affect where people
may live safely. The landscape is stylized and exaggerated to highlight potentially hazardous areas.
Goals of This Exercise: 1. A series of small hills, 2. A flat-topped hill, called Flattop Hill, is
referred to by local people surrounded by a steep cliff formed by a
• Observe the landscape to investigate the as the Bent Fence Hills, con- resistant layer of basalt. The basalt is
geologic setting of different areas, and tains trees that are tipped jointed and underlain by a weak
interpret the geologic setting from descrip- over at odd angles. Local layer of clay. Below the cliff are a
tions of each location. farmers complain that they series of large, angular blocks of
have to keep straightening basalt. A large, spoon-shaped
• Assess the hazards in different areas. their crooked fences on scar scoops into part of
• Construct a map that shows areas that these hillslopes. For some the cliff.
reason, no one has ever
have a high risk for different types of built a house here.
slope failure.
• Identify locations that you think are
most safe and moderately safe on which
to build.
Procedures
Use the available information to complete the
following steps, entering your answers in the
appropriate places on the worksheet or online.
A. Observe the features shown on this landscape.
Read the text boxes associated with each feature
and decide what that statement implies about the
15.17.a1
geologic setting of the area and how the landscape
reflects the underlying geology.
B. Think about the description of each area and
consider possible types of slope failure that could
occur there. Provide a reasonable interpretation of
what types of slope processes are occurring and
what key observations led you to that conclusion.
C. On the figure in the worksheet, draw approximate
boundaries around areas that you interpret as hav- 9. The Hazel River,
ing the highest risk for each type of slope failure. named for the greenish-
brown, volcanic-derived
Label each area with a few words to identify the
mud along its banks, cuts
main hazard you interpret to be present. through the landscape, flowing
D. Draw the letters S and M on the map for sites from right to left. Paralleling the
where you think it probably would be safe to live. river on both sides are low terraces
Write an (S) for one or more relatively safe places, that are only a few meters higher than
an (M) for a moderately safe place to live. There is river level. On these low terraces are
not a single best choice for any of these sites, so large volcanic blocks of andesite, some as
big as a house. They are not present on high-
be prepared to describe your reasoning and to
er areas away from the river. No one has ever
discuss your choice. seen the river with enough water to move
such large blocks.
480
W e a t h e r i n g , S o i l , a n d U n s t a b l e S l o p e s 481
3. The highest mountain, called Snow Mountain, is a small but steep
ice-capped volcano. The volcano has not erupted since people settled
here, but steam occasionally rises from the central crater. Next to the
volcano are huge blocks of andesite, some of which have a
partially preserved coating of mud.
4. On the lower flanks of the volcano

is a place named Rock Valley, which
contains a mass of large rocks and
other debris with hummocky
topography. This mass
can be followed back
upslope to a huge,
bare scar on the side
of the volcano. This
debris cuts across the
paths of smaller
streams that originated
in adjacent hills. The
area has no soil or trees.
5. Gray Mountain, in the cor-

ner of the area, contains a gray
granite cut by widely spaced frac-
tures that dip back into the mountain.
6. In Wild Ride Valley,

a layer of volcanic ash has
been altered and weathered into
sticky clays. Roads crossing this
area are very bumpy, have visible
cracks, and are in constant need of
repair, especially when the weather
changes back and forth between the
rainy season and the dry season.
7. A mountain is called Tilted Mountain

by the local people b ecause of the way
the tilted limestone layers are expressed on
the mountain’s sides. Cutting across the center
of the mountain are some open fissures, which
some people claim have become wider over
the past several years. Sometimes, the mountain
makes cracking and grinding noises.
8. The base of Tilted Mountain is a cliff

exposing a shale layer beneath the lime-
stone layers. Downhill from the cliff are huge
blocks of limestone identical to the limestone that
makes up the main part of the mountain. These
blocks are chaotically scattered and are not part of the
underlying bedrock. Near an adjacent creek, the blocks
15.17
are smooth and partially worn away.

CHAPTER
16 Streams and Flooding

EROSION AND DEPOSITION BY STREAMS are the principal sculptors of Earth’s landscapes. Flowing water in
streams picks up sediment, transports it to lower elevations, and deposits it in various settings. Flooding rivers and
smaller streams deposit sediment and nutrients critical to agriculture, but they can also inundate cities and destroy
structures built too close to the riverbank. How do streams operate, and can we predict how often a flood-prone area
will be flooded?
The Yukon Delta, shown in this satellite image, is a huge, fan-shaped Where the river meets the sea, the flowing water spreads out, slows
landform where the Yukon River ends its 3,185 km-long journey by down, and deposits its load of sediment in a delta. Sediment carried
emptying into the Bering Sea along the west coast of Alaska. This and deposited offshore (lighter blue) causes the delta to grow seaward
longest of Alaskan rivers transports vast quantities of sediment eroded with time, adding new land to the coast. Not all rivers have deltas.
from the highlands of Alaska and northwestern Canada.
What factors determine where a river deposits sediment?
How do streams form, and how do they carry sediment?
16.00.a1
482
Streams and Flooding 483
16.1 What Is a Drainage Network? 484 16.9 What Happens When a Stream Reaches
16.2 How Do Streams Transport Sediment Its Base Level? 500
and Erode Their Channels? 486 16.10 How Do Streams Change Over Time? 502
16.3 How Do Stream Systems Change Downstream 16.11 What Happens During Stream Incision? 504
or Over Short Time Frames? 488 16.12 What Is and What Is Not a Flood? 506
16.4 What Factors Influence Profiles of Streams? 490 16.13 What Were Some Devastating Floods? 508
16.5 Why Do Streams Have Curves? 492 16.14 How Do We Measure Floods? 510
16.6 What Happens in the Headwaters of Streams? 494 16.15 CONNECTIONS: How Does the Colorado River
16.7 What Features Characterize Braided Streams? 496 Change as It Flows Across the Landscape? 512
16.8 What Features Characterize 16.16 INVESTIGATION: How Would Flooding
Low-Gradient Streams? 498 Affect This Place? 514
16.00.a2 The Yukon River collects water

from a large region (⊳) of Alaska
and Canada’s Yukon Territory. It
A Variety of Streams
A
drains an area of 840,000 km2 stream is a body of water that has a current and
(324,000 mi2). Periodically, water
flows downhill within a channel, driven by the
volume in the river exceeds the
confines of its channel, causing influence of gravity. A river is a large stream of
flooding. When winter ice on the considerable volume and with permanent or seasonal flow.
river begins to melt and break up, Each stream, like the Yukon River, has its own characteris-
it piles up in ice jams that cause tics and history, which are specific to its geographic and
additional flooding. geologic setting. Some streams are steep and turbulent,
moving large boulders, whereas others are slow and tran-
How is the size of a river related quil, transporting only silt and clay. Some streams meander
to the size of the area it drains, in huge, looping turns, while others distribute their flow in
what causes a flood, and what a network of channels that split off and rejoin in a braided
information do we need to predict pattern. Certain factors govern the behavior of all streams,
flooding events? including the steepness of the channel, the supply of sedi-
ment, the climate, and tectonic history. Most stream systems
16.00.a3 Denali NP, AK change downstream and over time, producing a character-
Many Alaskan rivers are relatively istic suite of landforms that dominate most landscapes.
steep and full of sediment derived
Streams can flood huge tracts of land and transport enor-
from weathering and erosion of the
mous volumes of sediment. The Amazon River in South
mountains and lowlands. This river
(⊳) in Denali National Park is choked America (shown below) dumps millions of cubic meters of
with coarse gravel, sand, and fine sediment-laden water into the ocean every minute.
sediment. 16.00.a5
What types of sediment do

different kinds of rivers carry?
16.00.a4 Yukon Delta, AK

During the summer, lush vegeta-
tion grows on the strips of land
between the delta waterways (⊳).
Wetlands on the sediment-rich
delta are important breeding sites
for migratory birds.
16.0
What effect does vegetation have

on streams, and what effect do
streams have on vegetation?
484
16.1 What Is A Drainage Network?

STREAMS ARE CONDUITS of moving water driven by gravity, flowing from higher to lower elevations. The water
in streams comes from precipitation, snowmelt, and springs. A stream drains a specific area and joins other streams
draining other areas, forming a drainage network.
What Is a Stream?
A stream carries flowing water through a single channel or through a number of interconnected channels. Such channels
vary in size from small streams several meters wide to major rivers that are kilometers across.
1. The Potomac River (▼) winds its way along the border between Maryland and 3. We calculate discharge (represented by the letter Q)
West Virginia, on its way to Washington, D.C. A number of smaller streams join the by multiplying the cross-sectional area of the channel by
river from both sides, forming a drainage network. Water flowing in streams can the velocity of the flow:
move rock fragments and dissolved minerals from high elevations to low elevations.
Q = stream depth × stream width × stream velocity
2. The amount of water that flows through
a stream channel varies with time, mostly
reflecting the influence of changes Time of Peak Discharge
in the seasons (e.g., from winter Storm (Peak Flow)
Event
to spring) and changes in
DISCHARGE
the weather. At some Low Flow
times of the year and
during rainy periods,
the flow increases. It
decreases at especially
dry times of the year or during
16.01.a2 TIME
times of few storms. The amount of 4. A graph showing the change in the amount of dis-
water flowing in a given amount of time is charge over time is a hydrograph (▲). This hydrograph
16.01.a1 the discharge, which represents the volume of shows that discharge increased and then decreased over
water that flows by in some amount of time. It time in response to a storm. The shape of the graph
has units of cubic meters per second or m3/s. reflects how a stream responds to precipitation, telling us
useful information about a stream and the area it drains.
Where Does a Stream Get Its Water?

Each stream drains a naturally defined area, called a drainage basin. A basin slopes from higher areas, where the stream
begins, to lower areas, toward which the stream flows. Runoff from rainfall, snowmelt, springs, or the water leaving a lake,
will flow downstream and out of the drainage basin at its low point.
1. Drainage Basin — In this figure, each of 2. Basin Slope — Overall slope of a drain- 5. Basin Size and Shape — A drainage basin’s
two adjacent streams has a drainage basin age basin helps us determine how fast size and shape influence its flow response to
(▼), shaded in different colors. Runoff from water in the basin empties after a heavy rainfall. The plot below (▼) shows a hydrograph
the red area drains into the stream on the rain or after snowmelt, as shown by the for a single storm event, along with a simplified
left; runoff from the blue area drains into graph below. map of the basin’s shape.
the stream on the right. The ridge between
the two drainage basins is the boundary Runoff for Basin 6. Following a
between water flowing into different drain- with Steep Slopes Drainage storm event, a
Basin with Basin hydrograph
age basins, and is a drainage divide.
Gentle 16.01.b3 for a simple
Slopes
DISCHARGE
basin shows a
single-peak
increase in dis-
16.01.b2
charge with a
gradual
TIME decrease, like
the graph in
3. Runoff from a steep 4. Runoff from a part A (above).
drainage basin is fast, more gently In contrast, a complex, three-part drainage basin,
and much water sloped basin is depicted here, may show a three-peak response
arrives downstream at spread out over to a single event. Total discharge in a larger or
16.01.b1 about the same time, time, leading to more complex basin will be higher and more
yielding higher dis- lower peak spread out because some water travels short dis-
charge values. discharge values. tances, while other water travels longer distances.
What Are Tributaries and Drainage Networks?

Streams have a main channel fed by smaller subsidiary channels called tributaries. Each tributary drains part of the larger
drainage basin, and the combination of tributaries and the main stream forms a drainage network. The response of a stream
to precipitation is influenced by the number and size of its tributaries, as well as slope, soil conditions, amount of
vegetation, and other factors.
16.01.c2
16.01.c1 1. In this drainage network (⊳), smaller tributaries join to form 3. A drainage network
larger drainages, which join to form even larger drainage with fewer tributaries
basins. The drainage network has a branched appearance, (stream orders)
similar to a tree, with numbers indicating the stream responds more
order. A first-order stream (1 on the figure) has no trib- quickly to
utaries, but two such streams can join to produce a an identical
second-order stream (2), and so on. storm event
(⊳). The result-
2. Runoff in this type of drainage network, with many ing increased dis-
branches (stream orders), is carried by many channels. As charge causes more ero-
a result, the system responds more slowly and with a smaller sion of sediment along the stream,
discharge peak to a p recipitation event than a drainage system with more transport of sediment out of the
fewer stream orders. area, and potentially more flooding.
How Does Geology Influence Drainage Patterns?

The patterns that streams carve across the land surface are strongly influenced by the geology. Channels form preferentially
in weaker material and so reflect differences in rock type and the geometry of folds, faults, joints, and other structural
features. There are a number of drainage types, including the three shown below.
16.01.d1 16.01.d2 16.01.d3

16.01.c2
1. Dendritic Drainage Pattern — Where rocks 2. Radial Drainage Pattern — On a fairly 3. Structurally Controlled Pattern — Erosion
have about the same resistance to erosion, symmetrical mountain, such as a volcano or along faults, joints, or tilted and folded layers
or if a drainage network has operated for a resistant pluton, drainages flow downhill and can produce a drainage that follows a layer or
long time, streams can form a treelike, or outward in all directions (i.e., radially) away structure, and then cuts across a ridge to fol-
dendritic, drainage pattern. from the highest area. low a different feature. The map pattern of the
drainages can look like a trellis.
North American Drainages

4. Colors on this map
show areas of the land Before You Leave This Page
that drain into different
parts of the sea. Bound-
Sketch and describe the variables
aries between colors are
plotted on a hydrograph and what
drainage divides, the best
this type of graph indicates.
known of which is the conti-
nental divide, separating drain- Describe how the shape and slope of
ages that flow westward into the a drainage basin affect discharge.
Pacific Ocean from those that flow
east and south into the Gulf of Sketch or describe how the
Mexico. Other drainages flow into distribution of tributaries influences
the Arctic Ocean, and some drain- a stream’s response to precipitation.
ages in the western United States
16.1
Sketch three kinds of drainage

have interior drainage (they flow
16.01.d4 into low continental areas and do patterns, and discuss what controls
not reach the sea). each type.
486
16.2 How Do Streams Transport Sediment

and Erode Their Channels?
STREAMS ERODE BEDROCK and loose material, transporting the liberated material as sediment and as chemical
components dissolved in the water. The sediment is deposited when the stream can no longer carry the load, such as
when the current slows or the sediment supply exceeds the stream’s capacity to carry the sediment.
How Is Material Transported and Deposited in Streambeds?

Moving water applies force to a channel’s bottom and sides and can pick up and transport particles of various sizes: clay,
silt, sand, cobbles, and boulders. The amount of sediment carried by the stream, including material chemically dissolved in
solution, is the sediment load.
1. Fine particles (silt and clay, collectively referred to as mud) can be 5. Some chemically soluble ions, such as calcium, sodium, and chlo-
carried suspended in the moving water, even in a relatively slow rine, are dissolved in and transported by the moving water. They
current. This material is the suspended load. constitute the dissolved load.
2. Sand grains can roll along the bottom or be picked
up and carried down-current by bouncing along the
streambed — the process of saltation.
3. Larger cobbles and boulders generally move by roll-
ing and sliding, a process called traction, but they only
move during times of high flow. The largest of these
clasts (pieces of rock broken off from larger rocks) can
be briefly picked up, but only by extremely high flows.
The size of the largest particles that can be transported
is called the stream’s competence.
4. Material that is pushed, bounced, rolled, and slid along the
streambed is the bed load. If the amount of sediment exceeds the
stream’s capacity to carry it, as when velocity drops, the sediment is deposited.
The balance between transport and deposition shifts as conditions change, and grains
are repeatedly picked up and deposited.
16.02.a1
What Processes Erode Material in Streams?

Moving water and the sediment it carries can erode bedrock, sediment, or other material that it flows past. Erosion occurs
along the base and sides of the channel and can fragment and remove sediment within the channel. The silt, sand, and larger
clasts carried by the water enhance its ability to erode.
1. Sand and larger clasts are lifted by 4. Soluble material
low pressure created by water flowing in the streambed,
over the clast tops. They can also be such as salt, can
pushed up by turbulence. Once picked be removed by
up, the grains move downstream and dissolution. Most
collide with obstacles, where they chip, dissolved material
scrape, and sandblast pieces off the in streams, how-
streambed — the process of abrasion. ever, comes from
Abrasion is concentrated on the subsurface water
upstream side of obstructions, such as that has flowed
larger clasts or protruding bedrock. into the stream.
Other dissolved
16.02.b2 McKinney Falls SP, TX material mostly
comes from solu-
2. Concentrated abrasion
ble rock layers
can also occur when water
along the stream,
and sediment swirl in small 3. Turbulent flow
but some also
depressions, carving bowl- releases and lifts material 16.02.b1
comes from farms
shaped pits called from the streambed, particularly
and other sources.
potholes (⊳). These are pieces loosened by fracturing, boundaries
tens of centimeters across. between rock layers, and other discontinuities.
How Does Turbulence in Flowing Water Affect Erosion and Deposition?

Water, like all fluids, has viscosity — resistance to flow. Viscosity and surface tension are responsible for the smooth-looking
surface of slow-moving streams. As the water’s velocity increases, the flow becomes more chaotic or turbulent, and the
water can pick up and move material within the channel.
3. As water velocity increases, viscosity is less able to
1. All streams have parts that are dampen chaotic flow, and the water flow becomes
more turbulent and parts that are less more complex, or turbulent. As turbulence increases,
turbulent. Water moving smoothly in swirls in the current, called eddies, form in both
parallel layers is called laminar flow. horizontal and vertical directions.
In such smooth-appearing water, vis-
cosity limits chaotic flow (turbulence). 4. Fast-moving water has numerous
Fast flow and rough, obstruction- eddies where flow strays from the
filled stream bottoms promote downstream direction.
turbulent flow.
5. Near the bottom of the stream,
2. Moving water has momentum, so up-current eddies can overwhelm
it tends to keep moving in the same gravitational force and lift grains
direction unless its motion is perturbed, from the channel. Turbulence, in
such as where the water encounters a bend in general, increases the chance for
the stream. In many cases, water can flow smoothly over grains to be picked up and car-
somewhat uneven surfaces. ried in the flow.
16.02.c1
How Do Erosion and Deposition Occur in Streams Confined Within Bedrock?

Many streams, especially those in mountainous areas, are carved into bedrock and are referred to as bedrock streams. If the
bedrock is relatively hard, the shape of the stream channel is controlled by the geology. If bedrock consists of softer material,
such as easily eroded shale, then the material will have less control over the shape and character of the stream channel.
Erosion Deposition
16.02.d1 Nepal 16.02.d3 Marble Canyon, AZ
1. The steep gradients and 3. Deposition in
strong, turbulent flow typical bedrock channels
of mountain streams (⊲) erode occurs where the
down into the channel faster water velocity
than the stream can erode decreases, for
down into its sides. The bed example along the
load of sand, cobbles, and streambanks dur-
boulders helps break up and ing flooding or in
erode the bedrock channel. pools behind
Rapid changes in gradient, rocks or other
as occur along waterfalls obstacles. Rocks
and rapids, increase water and sediment con-
velocity, turbulence, and the strict this river (⊳),
ability of the moving water to forming a pool of
erode the channel. less turbulent
water upstream. During floods, sediment is deposited in slow-moving
eddies on the flanks of this pool, but such sediment is vulnerable to
later erosion and is therefore very transient.
2. As a result, steep bedrock
streams commonly incise deep
channels (⊲). They can have Before You Leave This Page
relatively straight sections,
initially controlled by the Sketch and describe how a stream transports solid
location of softer rock types, and dissolved material.
faults, or other zones that are
more easily eroded than Sketch and explain the processes by which a stream
surrounding rocks. Once erodes into its channel, and explain how a pothole forms.
formed, such hard-walled
Sketch and describe turbulent flow.
16.2
canyons, like the aptly named

Black Canyon of the Gunnison, Describe some aspects of erosion and deposition
make it difficult for the stream in bedrock channels.
to shift its position.
16.02.d2 Black Canyon of the Gunnison, CO
488
16.3 How Do Stream Systems Change Downstream

or Over Short Time Frames?
STREAM SYSTEMS BECOME LARGER as more tributaries join the drainage network. As a stream flows down
stream, it generally increases in size, discharge, and the amount of sediment it carries. A stream changes over short
time spans, for example after a storm, from winter to summer, from year to year, and from century to century.
How Do Stream Systems Change Downstream?

The character of a stream changes as the stream flows downhill from its headwaters, where it starts, to its mouth, where it
ends. The flow direction of a stream from high elevations to lower ones is referred to as being downstream.
Gradient 2. This change in gradient downstream is

represented by the blue triangles, which show
1. The profile of most how much the stream drops for a given
stream systems is length of stream (in this case, 1 km). A
steep in the head steeper gradient means the stream
waters, gradually drops more over the same
becoming less steep horizontal distance. We express
downstream toward gradient as meters per kilometer,
the mouth. The steep- feet per mile, degrees, or as a
ness is also called the percentage (e.g., 4%). Here,
gradient, which is de- gradient is calculated for three
fined as the change in segments. It varies from 15 m/km
elevation for a given to 4 m/km and decreases
horizontal distance. downstream. The vertical scale of
the triangles is exaggerated
compared to the horizontal scale.
16.03.a1
Channel Size, Water Velocity, Discharge, and Sediment Load

3. Streams erode bedrock and other materials and then transport the
sediment downstream. Sediment can be deposited anywhere along 5. Downstream, the channel increases in over-
the way or can be carried all the way to the mouth of the stream. all size (⊳), where size indicates a combination
The system shown here has a main stream fed by three main of the width and depth across the channel.
tributaries, labeled T1, T2, and T3. Small graphs around the map plot Specifically, size means the cross-sectional
how parameters change down the area of the channel, obtained by multiplying
stream, from the headwaters (H), the channel’s width times its average depth.
past each tributary (T1, T2, and
T3), to the start of a delta 6. The velocity of water flow increases down-
(D), and the stream’s stream (⊳), as a higher volume of water allows
mouth (M). the water to flow more easily and faster
through the channel. Velocity looks higher in
steep streams, but turbulence and friction in
such streams reduce the velocity.
7. Since the cross-sectional area of the chan-

nel and the velocity of the water both
increase, so does the total volume of water
flowing through the stream (⊳). The volume of
water flowing through any part of the stream
per unit of time is the discharge and is calcu-
lated by multiplying the water velocity times
16.03.a2 the cross-sectional area.
16.03.a3
8. The total amount of sediment that the
4. As the gradient of the stream decreases stream is carrying, the stream load, increases
from the headwaters to the mouth, the maximum size of sediment downstream (⊳), until large amounts of sedi-
(▲) that the stream carries decreases. Also, abrasion during transport ment begin to be deposited within the delta
reduces the size of clasts. For both reasons, coarse material is more and near the mouth.
common in the headwaters than it is near the mouth. 16.03.a4-7
What Is the Relationship Between Water Flow and Transported Sediment?

A stream can carry sediment only up to a certain size for any particular velocity. Also, at a given flow rate, a stream is
capable of transporting only a certain amount of sediment, which is called its capacity. Normally, a stream is carrying far less
sediment than its capacity. As velocity decreases, so does capacity — a stream is able to carry less sediment as it slows down.
2. At high velocities (above 100 cm/s), clay, silt, and

1. This graph (⊲) shows the 1000 sand can be carried suspended (floating and drift-
relationship between stream ing) in the water. For high velocities on this plot,
velocity and the size of the those grain sizes extend above the red line.
Suspended Sediment
particles that can be carried by
Transport 3. At moderate velocities (100 cm/s), silt, clay, and
different modes of transport. The
fine sand remain suspended, but coarse sand and
VELOCITY (cm/s)
vertical bands of color indicate 100
different grain sizes, and the gravel slide, roll, or bounce along the streambed,
inclined lines separate areas of port as part of the bed load.
rans
the graph where sediment of lo ad T
that size is being carried in Bed 4. At low velocities (below 10 cm/s), gravel and
10 sand remain at rest on the streambed or are
suspension, is being transported
on the bottom of the streambed, deposited if a sediment-carrying stream slows down
or is being deposited. to these velocities. These grain sizes plot below
Deposition
the blue line. At these low velocities, only silt, clay,
and fine sand are transported, with silt and clay in
0 suspension and fine sand in the bed load.
SILT & CLAY SAND GRAVEL
16.03.b1
How Does Stream Behavior Vary Over Time?

The amount of precipitation, snowmelt, and influx from groundwater varies, both during a single year and over longer
timescales of decades to centuries. Here, we examine the flow of a stream during a single year. This flow is highly
idealized, and not every stream will have peaks at the time of year shown here.
1. Examine the hydrograph to the Peak Discharge 3. After the most intense period of snowmelt, dis-
right (⊲), which plots discharge for charge in the stream decreases throughout the
different seasons. What are some rest of the spring and into the early summer. An
possible explanations for this pat- increase in rainfall due to a summer-thunderstorm
DISCHARGE
tern? For the year shown, why season causes a short-lived increase in discharge
might the highest discharge occur in the middle of the summer. For this stream’s
during springtime? Other streams drainage area, the fall season typically has less
have other patterns than shown precipitation than other times of the year. For the
here, but this one is typical for year shown, however, moisture from the tropics
streams in some parts of the U.S. WINTER SPRING SUMMER FALL moved far enough north to cause a period of on-
16.03.c1 and-off rain showers in the middle of the fall.
2. In the graph above, the lowest discharge is in the winter, when some streams and
lakes are frozen and precipitation occurs as snow and as gentle winter rains. Discharge is 4. This scenario is one possible explanation for a
highest during spring, when the snow and ice melt, adding meltwater to the stream. The hydrograph with this shape. Try to find a hydro
highest value on the plot (during the spring) is the peak discharge, an important aspect to graph for a river or smaller stream in your area,
consider when planning for floods or for the filling of reservoirs. observe the pattern, and try to explain the
increases and decreases in discharge over a year.
5. A stream that flows all year, such as the

Mississippi River or the stream represented
by the graph above, is a perennial stream.
No place has rain all of the time to keep a
stream flowing, so some water in a peren-
nial stream must be supplied by subsurface Describe and sketch how to calculate a
flows, by a melting snowpack, by a lake, or gradient for a stream.
by some combination of these. Some
Describe how gradient and other
streams flow every year but not the entire
year, typically flowing only during rainstorms parameters change downstream.
and spring snowmelt; such a stream is an Explain how velocity relates to sediment
intermittent stream. Ephemeral streams, size and capacity.
16.3
including the normally dry desert stream

here (⊳), only flow after a storm event but Explain why discharge might change from
not on an annual basis. season to season.
16.03.c2 Cottonwood Wash, Westwater Canyon, UT
490
16.4 What Factors Influence Profiles of Streams?

STREAMS HAVE DIFFERENT GEOMETRIES, both in map view and when viewed in profile (from the side). They
have diverse settings, origins, and ages, and they respond to perturbations in their environment by eroding their channels
and banks, by depositing sediment, and by changing their gradient.
What Is the Shape of a Stream’s Profile?

Streams are dynamic systems driven by precipitation and gravitational forces. They respond to many factors that influence
how the stream operates and how it interacts with its channel and the adjacent landscape. Over time, most streams attain a
profile that is steeper near the headwaters and is progressively less steep downstream.
1. The idealized 3. When a stream first forms, such as during initial uplift 4. This profile is vertically exagger-
profile of a stream of the land, the profile may be very irregular, especially ated to highlight subtle changes. The
is represented if the stream crosses different rock types and 1400 river is not this steep.
by the side geologic structures. Even after millions 1200
of this block. of years, many rivers along the
The profile is East Coast of the U.S. 1000
Profile of the James River, Virginia
ELEVATION (m)
steeper (has a retain some irregulari- 800
higher gradient) ties in their concave- Appalachian
near the headwaters upward profile (⊲), 600
Mountains
of the stream. such as between hard 400
rocks of the Piedmont
2. In a downstream direction, the stream’s and soft sediments of 200 Coastal
Piedmont
profile becomes less steep (has a lower gradient). Coastal Plain, a subtle, low Plain
0
16.04.a1
Overall, the stream has a concave-up profile. step called the Fall Line. 0 100 200 300 400 500 600
16.04.a2
DISTANCE FROM SOURCE (km)
What Controls the Profiles of Streams?

Streams and other agents of transport erode mountains and carry the sediment downhill, eventually depositing it in a basin
or along the sea. The lowest level to which a stream can erode is its base level. The base level controls the topography
along a stream, how a stream develops over time, and how it responds to change.
1. This terrain shows a typical drainage 2. High above base level, steep gradients in the mountains cause streams to
network consisting of mountainous erode sharply into the bedrock. The terrain appears rough and may include
headwaters, mid-elevation foothills, and deep canyons cut into bedrock.
a broad, low-elevation plain,
ending at a shallow 3. Foothills in front of the mountains also experience erosion but
inland sea. have intermediate gradients and generally appear less rough.
4. Closer to base level, streams on the broad plain have a

much lower gradient, and the surrounding landscape has
less relief and appears relatively smooth. This plain
has low relief because either it has been
eroded down or its low parts have
filled with sediment. In this case,
it is some of both.
6. As shown by the

side of the block, vari 5. A stream cannot
ations in roughness of the erode below sea level.
landscape reflect the decrease In this terrain, sea level
in gradient from the mountains to the represents the base level. In
broad plains. A profile down the channel general, base level for a stream is
of any stream in this area is less irregular than the ocean, a lake, or the bottom of a
the rough topography defined by the ridges and closed land basin (where the area has an
canyons. Most rivers and large streams have a fairly internal drainage). For most river systems, the
smooth, concave-up profile. ultimate base level is sea level (the ocean).
16.04.b1
What Factors Influence or Change Stream Profiles?

Streams generally do not achieve equilibrium because some rocks are more difficult to erode than others and because Earth
is a dynamic planet, with frequent changes in tectonics, sea level, and climate.
Rock Type
1. As a stream flows over different kinds of earth materials, its ability to erode a deeper channel is
influenced by the type of material over which it flows. Soft rocks erode more easily than hard rocks.
2. In unconsolidated sediment and easily eroded rocks, such as shale (⊳), the
stream can create a smooth profile that more or less represents the most effi-
cient mechanism of draining the basin (called equilibrium), because there are no
major obstructions. The profile attains a smooth, concave-upward shape.
16.04.c1 3. Rocks that are more resistant to erosion will tend to form steeper slopes, with
cliffs, waterfalls, steep rapids, and narrow canyons. Alternating strong and weak rocks
yield a stair-stepped topography (⊲), but through time a stream can smooth out its profile. 16.04.c2
Tectonics
4. Tectonic forces can cause uplift or subsidence of an entire region or can cause one part of the
region to uplift or subside more than other parts.
5. Differential subsidence can flatten or steepen gradients, depending on
where it occurs. In this example (⊳), subsidence occurred beneath the
mountains, flattening the gradient and causing widespread deposition as
stream velocity decreased and the stream lost capacity.
1604.c3
6. Tectonic uplift generally causes streams to erode down into the
landscape, cutting canyons and steepening the topographic relief. Here,
tectonic uplift of the mountains steepened the gradient (⊲), causing incision
of the landscape by erosion, forming a narrow canyon.
16.04.c4
Sea Level
7. Sea level is the ultimate base level for streams that empty into the ocean. Changes in sea level
will change the location of the shoreline and the elevation of base level.
8. If base level is lowered, such as by a drop in sea level, the stream will
downcut to try to match the new base level. In this example (⊳), erosional
incision begins at the coast and works its way upstream. A drop in sea level
causes most streams to downcut.
16.04.c5
9. If the base level rises, such as during a rise in sea level, the stream will
erode inland but will deposit sediment along the coastline’s new position (⊲).
In this manner, the stream tries to achieve a new equilibrium profile.
16.04.c6
Climate Stability of Conditions

10. Streams respond to 11. If conditions such as climate remain stable,
changes in climate, especially a stream may approach an equilibrium profile.
an increase or decrease in When a stream is in steady state, there is a
rainfall. Under wet balance between the supply of sediment and
conditions, slopes the amount the stream can carry. The channel
will have more becomes stable, or nearly attains a type of
vegetation so dynamic equilibrium, neither eroding nor Sketch and describe the typical
they can hold depositing material. We profile of a stream.
soil in place, but call such a stream a
Describe the concept of base level
increased dis- graded stream.
charge could and how it is expressed in a
16.04.c7
allow more sedi- typical mountain-to-sea landscape.
16.4
ment to be carried Summarize factors that influence

away, beveling the hills more a stream’s profile and behavior.
than during dry periods. 16.04.c8
492
16.5 Why Do Streams Have Curves?

ALL STREAMS HAVE CURVES OR BENDS, ranging from gentle deflections to tightly curved but graceful meanders.
Why are streams curved? What is inherent in the operation of a stream that causes it to curve? Curves and bends are
a natural consequence of processes that accompany the movement of water in a stream.
What Is the Shape of Stream Channels in Map View?

All streams have bends, but not all bends are the same. Some are gentle, open crescent shapes, where the stream veers
slightly to one side and then the other, whereas others are tight loops. The shape of a stream in map view can be thought of
as having two main variables: whether there are single or multiple channels and how curved the channels are. The amount
that a channel curves for a given length is its sinuosity.
16.05.a1 16.05.a5
16.05.a2 16.05.a3 16.05.a4
▲ Braided streams ▲ Many streams ▲ Meandering streams

are characterized by consist of a single have channels that are
a network of inter- channel that is gen- very curved, commonly
weaving, sinuous tly curved. This forming tight loops. Such
channels, but the type of stream is streams have high sinu-
overall channel can referred to as hav- osity, and this type of
be fairly straight. ing low sinuosity. bend is a meander.
What Processes Operate When a Stream Meanders?

Channels in soft materials, especially for streams with low gradients, generally do not have long, straight segments. Instead
they flow along sinuous paths. Curves or meanders cause differences in water velocity in the channel and reflect a balance
between deposition and erosion, as illustrated below for a meandering stream.
1. Small graphs show profiles across the channel in different 3. The channel is deeper and
locations. Arrows in the channel show relative velocity water flows faster on the outside
(longer arrows are faster). In fairly straight segments, the of the bend. Also, inertia causes
channel is nearly symmetric (not deeper on one the force of the water to be
side than the other). The current is fastest directed toward the
in the center of the channel and slowest outside of a bend.
along the banks. In such straight These factors cause
segments, sediment can be deposited the outside bend to be
along the channel margins where velocity eroded into a steep
is lowest, and erosion can occur in the streambank called a
middle of the channel where velocity is highest. cutbank (▼). Erosion of
the cutbank can balance
2. Where the stream is curved, the channel becomes deposition on the point bar,
asymmetric (is shallower on one side than the other). keeping the channel width
The channel is shallower and the water velocity is lower fairly constant.
on the inside of a bend. This
causes sediment to be deposited 16.05.b1
on the inside of the bend in a
cresecent-shaped deposit of loose
sediment called a point bar (⊳).
16.05.b2 Animas River, Durango, CO 16.05.b3 Animas River, Hermosa, CO
How Do Meanders Form and Migrate?

Meanders are landforms produced by migrating streams and are extremely common in streams that have low gradients.
Meanders have been extensively studied in the field and simulated in large, sand-filled tanks. In the laboratory, water is
initially directed down a straight channel in fine sand. Almost immediately, the water begins to transform the straight
channel into a sinuous one, similar to the sequence shown below.
1. A curve starts to form when 3. The overall discharge in the stream is constant, so the deeper channel on
a slight difference in roughness the outside of a bend takes more water, leaving less water for the other
on the channel bottom causes side. The water on the inside of the bend becomes shallower and slower.
water to flow faster on one side
of the channel than on the other. 4. The sediment carried by the slower water on the inside
of the bend is dropped and deposited on a point bar,
2. The side of the channel that depicted here as sand-colored material.
receives faster flow erodes faster, cre-
ating a slight curve. The faster moving 5. Erosion scours the opposite (outside) bank of the
current slightly excavates the channel channel, forming a cutbank.
bottom, deepening the outside of the
bend, forming deeper areas called pools. 6. Through this process, each meander
begins to preferentially erode its banks
toward the outside. This causes the stream to
7. Once formed, a curve continues to migrate toward the sides and downstream,
affect the flow by causing faster flow and as shown by the small orange arrows.
increased erosion on the outside of the
bend. Some secondary currents develop in
8. As meanders migrate back and forth across the
the bend area and further e xcavate the
lowlands, they continuously erode and deposit
pools, speeding flow and enhancing the
the loosely bound sediment in the floodplain
cutbank. This type of system, where a feature or
and channel. This is the main way in which a
process, once started, affects the system in such
floodplain forms, and the old meanders
a way that it results in even more of the same (in
remain as scars on the floodplain or on
this case erosion), is called a positive feedback.
the point bar.
10. Meanders sometimes join as they migrate 9. Meanders migrate until they encoun-
toward each other, in the direction of the yellow ter a resistant riverbank, until the vol-
arrows. This cuts off the meander. ume and velocity of flow drop too low
for erosion to continue, or until two
parts of a meander intersect.
11. The narrow neck of a looping meander can
also get cut off during a flood event, when the
stream rises above the channel and across the 12. Cutoff meanders formed
floodplain, connecting two segments of the in either way (10 or 11) are ini-
stream. In either case, the part of the meander that tially filled with water, forming
is abandoned is a cutoff meander. isolated, curved lakes, called
oxbow lakes.
16.05.c1–6
Interfering with Sinuosity
S
treams attain, through natural processes, of riverbank property. In the photograph below, Before You Leave This Page
their characteristic sinuosity, which rep- find a point bar and a cutbank, and note which
resents the interplay between variations part of the bend (outside or inside) is being Sketch and describe the difference
in channel depth, water velocity, erosion, depo- “protected.” The view is downstream, where between braided, low-sinuosity, and
sition, and transport of sediment. Humans can more erosion will occur on the cutbank. high-sinuosity (meandering) streams.
upset this balance by straightening rivers and
eliminating their natural variability. These engi- Sketch or describe how velocity and
neering solutions (⊲) often cause trouble down- channel profile vary in a meandering
stream, and what features form along
stream because they upset the dynamics and
different parts of bends.
equilibrium of the system. Streams that have
been channelized may exit the channelized seg- Sketch or describe the evolution of a
16.5
ment with a higher velocity, lower sinuosity, meander, including how a cutoff
and less sediment than is natural. Areas down- meander forms and how it can lead
stream of the channelized segment, therefore, to an oxbow lake.
can experience extreme erosion and destruction
16.05.t1 Animas River, Hermosa, CO
494
16.6 What Happens in the Headwaters of Streams?

ST RE AMS CA N B E G IN in almost any setting, from a small hill in a pasture to a large, snowy mountain. In either
case, the place where a stream starts is its headwaters. In its headwaters, a stream is fed by rain, snowmelt, ground-
water, or some combination of these. The headwaters of many large rivers are in mountains, where streams are steep
and actively erode the land with turbulent, fast-moving water, producing distinctive landforms.
How Do Streams Start?

A stream does not start with a fully formed channel full of water, but instead it grows incrementally as surface runoff
becomes concentrated into channels. Smaller channels join others until a stream forms.
Channel Formation 3. The increased flow causes further erosion and channel deep-
1. Rainwater causes splash erosion as it ening. Any drainage basin, including these small ones, can
hits the ground (⊳), and water erode upward, expanding the area of the basin, a pro-
flowing over the surface as cess called through headward erosion. Head-
overland flow causes sub- ward erosion can also cut into the area
tle sheet erosion. Water between the channels and can lead to
tends to accumulate in stream capture, the natural diversion
natural cracks and low of water from one stream into another.
spots, such as these small
channels, rather than spread- 4. Channels occur at all scales. Micro-
16.06.a1
ing uniformly across the land. scopic channels feed into small channels
that feed into larger ones, ultimately forming a
2. Concentrated flow erodes or dissolves materials, stream. The spacing and geometry of the channels
especially those that are weak or loose, eventually are influenced by the steepness of the slope, type of
carving a small channel or gully. Once formed, a channel material in the slope, type and density of vegetation, and
accommodates runoff within its small drainage basin. 16.06.a2
other factors. The drainage pattern shown here is dendritic.
What Landforms Characterize the Headwaters of Mountain Streams?

Mountain streams begin in bedrock-dominated areas with relatively high relief and, in many cases, high elevation. The
energetically moving water wears rock down and sculpts the bedrock into steep landforms with moderate to high relief.
1. The headwaters of many streams
16.06.b6 Ice Lake, Silverton, CO

are in high mountainous areas,
where they derive their water from Headwaters 16.06.b1
rainfall, melting ice and snow, or

mountain springs. Other streams
originate in lower, flatter areas
and are supplied by precip-
itation, lakes, springs, or
the joining of small,
local channels.
6. Lakes are common in mountains

2. The area where water is impounded by some
below (▼) is the obstruction, such as a landslide, or
headwaters of sev- where water fills a natural low spot (▲).
eral streams. It is near If a lake is created by a human-
the top of a mountain, constructed dam, it is a reservoir.
receives abundant snow 3. Streams in mountains typi-
and rain, and has sev- cally have steep gradients that 4. Steep and energetic 5. With time, mountain streams begin
eral lakes left behind result in fast-moving, turbulent streams can carry large materials. to widen their valleys and deposit a
when glaciers melted flow (▼). Many have eroded At times, this stream (▼) has a thin, winding ribbon of stream gravels
away fairly recently. down, or incised, into bedrock. competence to carry large boulders. along which they flow (▼).
16.06.b2 Cody, WY
16.06.b3 Boulder Canyon, MT
16.06.b5 ANWR, AK
16.06.b4 Central CO
How Do Rapids and Waterfalls Form?

Streams that flow in an area of mountains and hills commonly have rapids, a segment of rough, turbulent water along
a stream. Some segments can be so steep that water cascades through the air, forming a waterfall.
16.06.c1 Grand Canyon, AZ
16.06.c2 Grand Canyon, AZ
16.06.c3 Gullfoss, Iceland

Most rapids (▲) develop when the gradient of The obstruction forming a rapid generally Most waterfalls are awe-inspiring, as water
a stream steepens or the channel is con- causes water upstream to slow down and cascades over a ledge or cliff (▲). Where a
stricted by narrow bedrock walls, large rocks, “pile up,” producing a relatively smooth and stream has an abrupt change in gradient,
or other debris that partially blocks the chan- slow-moving stream segment called a pool. such as at a waterfall, it is called a nickpoint.
nel. Many rapids form where tributaries have The photograph above, looking downstream, A nickpoint can be distinct or more subtle,
deposited fans of debris that crowd or clog shows a pool upstream of a rapid marked by and generally indicates some difference in
the main channel. These obstructions cause whitewater. Many streams have this character- erosion above and below the nickpoint. With
water to flow chaotically over and around istic alternation of rapids and pools, and so continued erosion, the nickpoint, and in this
obstacles, creating extreme turbulence. are called pool-and-riffle streams. case a waterfall, migrates upstream over time.
What Features Develop When a Stream Exits from the Mountains?

As mountain streams flow toward lower elevations, they interact with tributaries and commonly decrease in gradient
as they pass through foothills or mountain fronts. In response, they form other types of landforms.
Where a steep, narrow When a mountain stream
drainage enters a broader, reaches less confined
more gentle valley, coarse spaces, it commonly
sediment carried by run- spreads out in a network
ning water or by muddy of sediment-filled braided
debris flows piles up just channels (⊳). These chan-
below the edge of the nels are not strongly
slope at the decrease in incised, so the stream
gradient, forming a fan- spreads out. As it does, the
shaped feature called an stream deposits sediment
alluvial fan (⊲). along its channel and over
16.06.d1 Death Valley NP, CA 16.06.d2 Waiapu River, New Zealand
a broad floodplain.
How Do Mountain Streams Get Sediment?
M
16.06.t1 Tibet-Nepal Border Region
ountain streams are energetic primarily because
their channels have steep gradients. Erosion
dominates over deposition, forming deep Before You Leave This Page
V-shaped valleys with waterfalls and rapids. Steep val-
ley walls promote landslides and other types of slope Describe how stream channels form.
failure that widen the canyon and deliver abundant
material to the stream for removal (⊲). Erosion of mate- Describe some of the landforms
rials to the side of a stream is lateral erosion. Soil and associated with the headwaters of
other loose materials on hillslopes can slide downhill mountain streams, including rapids
toward the drainage. Tributaries carry debris flows and and waterfalls.
floods that scour their channels, providing even more
Describe why sediment is deposited
sediment. Sediment in mountain streams ranges from
along mountain fronts in
bus-sized or car-sized boulders down to silt and clay.
alluvial fans.
16.6
Larger clasts start out angular but begin to round as they

are transported, or as they are struck by stones and other Describe how mountain streams get
sediment within the turbulent waters. their sediment.
496
16.7 What Features Characterize Braided Streams?

MANY RIVERS AND SMALLER STREAMS ARE BRAIDED SYSTEMS, with a network of channels that split and
rejoin, giving an intertwined appearance. Braided streams generally have a plentiful supply of sediment and a steep to
moderate gradient, and they typically carry and deposit coarse sediment. Braided streams can migrate across broad
plains, coating them with a veneer of sediment.
What Conditions Lead to Braided Streams?

Braided streams are most common in flat-bottomed valleys nestled within mountains and on broad, sloping plains that flank
such mountain ranges. They can also form farther from the mountains, in areas where an abundant sediment supply nearly
overwhelms the stream’s capacity to carry it.
16.07.a2
1. Many braided streams 2. The Southern Alps of New Zealand are
drain from high mountains, an actively uplifting and steep range. Gla-
such as these, modeled ciers, steep slopes, and locally heavy
after the South Island of precipitation in the headwaters of
New Zealand. the streams contribute abundant
sediment to the streams (⊲).
4. Braided
streams form
in places where
there are steep
3. Braided gradients, a plentiful
streams deposit supply of coarse sedi-
sediment within and ment, and conditions
beside their shallow that produce variable
channels and can escape flows. In this close-up view
their channels, especially during (▼), individual channels are
floods. Sediment in the streambank is braided at various scales, but the
not cemented or otherwise tightly held overall path of the main river channel
together, so the material is easy to erode and is fairly straight (i.e., has low sinuosity).
redistribute, and the stream can change position rela-
tively easily. As the channels migrate back and forth across
the broad plain, they cover the broad, low-relief area with a layer 16.07.a4
of coarse, stream-deposited sediment (▼).
16.07.a1
16.07.a3 Denali NP, AK
What Type of Sediment Does a Braided Stream Deposit?

Braided streams are characterized by a wider range of sediments than is deposited in meandering streams. Braided streams
are energetic and can carry and deposit coarse gravels and sands in addition to finer materials.
16.07.b1 New Zealand 16.07.b2 Savage River, AK 16.07.b3 Athabasca Parkway, Alberta, Canada
Braided streams have numerous braided Braided streams form when the stream has a These braided-stream deposits contain
channels. They are clogged with sediment, relatively high sediment load dominated by partially rounded cobbles and pebbles in a
which is constantly picked up in one place sand and larger sediment. Sand and gravels sand-dominated matrix. The stream can trans-
and deposited in another. As sediment is are the dominant clasts in this braided stream, port these large clast sizes because it has a
picked up, transported, and deposited, the but some braided streams also carry finer steep gradient and carries large amounts of
braided channels continuously change posi- materials, such as mud and silt derived from turbulent water during the spring snowmelt.
tion, width, and overall shape. They can glaciers and other sources. Overall, braided These deposits also contain silt-size particles,
change rapidly during floods and other high streams are relatively mud-poor when com- especially if derived from glaciers, but most
flows but more slowly during low flows. pared with streams that have meanders. silt is carried farther downstream.
Making and Investigating Braided Streams in the Laboratory
G
eologists, geomorpholo- The sequence of images here shows successive
gists (who study evolu- stages during an experiment in a 2 × 15 m tank. In
tion of landscapes), this experiment, a braided stream developed early
hydrologists (who study water), (top image), but became progressively less braided
and engineers investigate streams as alfalfa seeds embedded in the sediment sprouted
by making small-scale versions and grew more dense. Eventually, the experimental
or models in large water tanks in streams develop meanders, cutbanks, and point bars.
a laboratory. These tanks, called These experiments indicate that riverside vegetation
stream tables or flumes, can be plays a key role in stabilizing streambanks and can
meters wide and tens of meters actually influence whether a stream remains braided.
long, and they are sloped so that This relationship was first recognized more than
the water flows downhill. The 60 years ago by geomorphologists working along
tanks are loaded with sediment, streams of the U.S.
usually sand, silt, and mud. Valves Recent research indicates that deposits character-
are opened to allow water to istic of meandering rivers appeared in the geologic
enter the elevated end of the tank record at the same time as land plants (in the Paleo-
and flow toward the low end. The zoic Era), implying that such streams require vegeta-
scientists then observe the small- tion to stabilize their banks, the same conclusion
scale stream that develops, inves- reached from using stream tables. Prior to this time,
tigating the processes that occur more streams would have been braided.
and the features that form. Differ-
ent variables, including slope,
sediment supply, and consistency
of flow, can be specifically var-
Describe the characteristics and settings
ied or controlled to isolate how
of braided streams.
each factor affects the dynamics
of the stream system. Describe the types of sediment that
braided streams carry and deposit.
16.7
Describe how and why stream processes

are investigated in laboratory tanks.
13.07.t1-6
498
16.8 What Features Characterize

Low-Gradient Streams?
IF A STREAM CROSSES areas of low relief, the gradient of its channel decreases and the stream may spread out
once it is no longer confined by a narrow canyon or valley. Sediment transported and deposited on low-relief plains is
mostly clay to sand size, because insufficient energy exists to transport larger clasts, but it can include fine gravels. The
stream reworks (picks up and transports) this previously deposited sediment. The resulting landforms indicate the inter-
action of stream velocity and sediment size, all in the context of a more gentle landscape.
What Landforms Typify Streams with Low Gradients?

Many streams flow across plains that have gentle overall slopes. Such streams reflect their environs, being dominated by the
erosion, transport, and deposition of relatively fine-grained sediment. The features characteristic of these streams, which
mostly have a single, main channel occur at all scales, from those along small creeks to those along the Mississippi River.
Features include meanders, floodplains, and low stream terraces. On these two pages, we explore two meandering rivers: the
Animas River of southwestern Colorado and the Mississippi River of the central U.S. 16.08.a4 Pecatonica, IL
One Main Channel Floodplain

1. Streams on gentle plains usually 4. All streams on gentle plains have floodplains (⊲) beside the chan-
occupy a single channel rather than nel. Floodplains are areas adjacent to a stream channel regularly inun-
being braided. This single-channel dated by floodwaters, which deposit sand, silt, and clay particles. The
characteristic is linked to the gentle channel is not necessarily in the middle of the floodplain.
downstream gradient of the stream
and its floodplain. Notice that the
low-gradient Animas River here
occurs on a gentle plain within a
mountainous region, so it is important
to focus on the characteristics of a
stream rather than its surrounding envi- Oxbow Lakes
ronment. Farther upstream, this river is
5. Meandering rivers leave behind
steep and confined to a narrow and
c-shaped depressions, called
deep bedrock canyon.
meander scars, which were once
part of the main channel but
were abandoned when that
meander segment became cut
Meanders off from the main channel.
2. Rivers on gentle plains typi- When such depressions con-
cally flow in noticeably curved tain water, they are oxbow
paths, or meanders (▼). lakes. The photograph
Meanders can be gentle above shows an oxbow
curves or can sharply lake on the floodplain.
loop back on them- How many meander
selves, with the two scars and oxbow lakes
meander segments are in the lower left
separated only by a photograph?
narrow strip of land. 16.08.a1 Animas River, Hermosa, CO
16.08.a2 Ikpikpuk River, AK 16.08.a3 Brazos River, TX

Point Bars
3. Most meandering rivers have
crescent-shaped deposits of sand
and gravel that parallel the inside
bend of a meander (⊲). Such
point bars are typically visible as
patches of bare, recently depos-
ited sediment. How many point
bars can you identify in the more
complicated stream pattern in the
photograph to the left (⊳)?
16.08.a6
Meander Scars
16.08.a5 Pecatonica, IL
6. Meander scars are exposed
as low, curved ridges, lines of
vegetation, or curved dry or
water-filled depressions (▲).
7. On this computer-generated perspective (▲), the very broad floodplain of the Mississippi 8. The dark, c-shaped areas are cutoff meanders
River has countless crescent-shaped scars of ancient meanders, abandoned by the shifting (meander scars) that are filled with water — oxbow
of the river. Note also the sand-colored point bars next to the active channel. lakes. Many of these lakes are kilometers long.
Stream Terraces Scale of Floodplain, Channel, Meanders, and Other Features

10. Stream channels, meanders,
floodplains, and other features
can occur at very different
scales. Compare the two images
to the right. The first is an aerial
image of the same Animas River
segment shown on the left-hand
15 km
page. The second is a few
meander loops on the M ississippi
River. The images are at the
same scale. The much smaller-
16.08.a7 Thompson River, British Columbia, Canada scale Animas River has 15 times
9. Many streams have high, relatively flat surfaces more meanders than the Missis-
called terraces, perched above and outside the cur- sippi for the same downstream
rent floodplain. It is common to find matching terrace distance. The scale of the mean-
levels on either side of the stream. The steep slope ders is so different because of
separating adjacent terraces or a terrace from the the huge differences in size and
floodplain is called a bluff or riser. discharge of the rivers.
16.08.a8-9
Formation of a Levee
11. Along the edges of many channels is a raised embankment, or levee. Natural levees are created by the Before You Leave
river, and humans construct artificial levees to try to keep floodwaters from spilling onto the floodplain. This This Page
strategy commonly works, at least for a while, but levees sometimes fail, unleashing waters onto the floodplain.
Sketch or describe the
13. When the flood features that accompany
recedes, sediment low-gradient rivers,
that was piled up
explaining how
next to the channel
each forms.
remains as an ele-
vated rise or levee. Describe the character
16.08.a10
16.08.a11
Levees are barriers of meander scars and

to water flow from oxbow lakes on the
the channel to the floodplains of
12. During flooding, sediment-carrying flood- floodplain, and from the floodplain back into the channel meandering rivers.
16.8
water rises above the channel and begins to after a flood. In addition to natural levees, thousands of kilo-
spread out. As it does, the current slows and meters of human-constructed levees try to keep seasonal Sketch and describe the
so deposits sediment in long mounds next to runoff from inundating cities and farmlands. Such levees are formation of a levee.
and paralleling the channel. constructed of rocks, dirt, and cement, but they can fail.
500
16.9 What Happens When a Stream

Reaches Its Base Level?
FOR ALMOST ALL STREAMS, base level is ultimately the ocean, where a stream slows down and drops its bed load
and suspended load. Temporary base levels are established when a stream is dammed by a landslide or other natural
causes, or by human engineering, such as construction of a dam. The new base level causes changes in the stream
system both above and below the obstruction. Such changes, however, are temporary — streams win in the end.
What Happens as a Stream Approaches Base Level?

Several landscape-building processes occur when a stream enters the ocean, lake, or a temporary base level. Large rivers,
like the Mississippi River, pump fresh water far into the ocean and carry fine sediment out to sea. They deposit coarser
sediment as soon as the current slows, forming a delta along the shoreline. Deltas can be relatively small or huge.
16.09.a1 16.09.a2
1. What is a delta? This satellite view (▲)

shows the green, triangular-shaped delta
formed where sediment from the Nile River
is deposited out into the Mediterranean Sea.
2. A delta also forms where the Mississippi

River meets the Gulf of Mexico near New
Orleans. In this satellite image, the river
changes from a meandering river within a broad
floodplain to a series of smaller c hannels that
branch and spread out in v arious directions.
This branching drainage pattern is a distributary
system and is a characteristic of deltas.
3. Dark blue colors on this image indicate

clear, deeper waters of the Gulf, whereas
5. As a delta builds out into water, it lighter blue areas contain suspended sediment
forms new land and a characteristic and mostly have shallower water. S ediment
sequence of sedimentary beds (⊲). from the river accumulates and builds up the
As the river’s current slows, sand delta, which is eroded by waves and by
and larger particles become underwater slumps of the steep, unstable
too heavy to be carried and delta front.
are deposited in three types
of beds. A set of horizon- 4. Over the last 7,000 years, the Mississippi
tal beds forms on top has created and then abandoned at least six
of the delta. huge mounds of sediment, each of which
16.09.a3 marks a former location of the river mouth
and its associated delta; some of these aban-
6. A set of dipping beds 7. Silt and clay are carried farther out into the ocean (or lake) doned deltas are labeled on the figure. A new
forms when sediment is and are deposited as nearly flat beds in front of the delta. delta, the active delta, is forming where the
deposited over the front Note the sequence of layers produced as a delta builds out Mississippi River currently enters the Gulf of
edge of the delta, moving into the ocean: marine clays overlain by cross-bedded sedi- Mexico. Eventually, the river will shift and
the delta seaward. ment and then by horizontal beds deposited partly on land. abandon this bird-foot-shaped delta, too.
What Controls the Deposition of Sediment in a Delta?

Deposition in a delta occurs where a stream slows, losing capacity and dropping its sediment load. The delta’s shape and the
type of sediment deposited are influenced by the sediment load and discharge of the stream, and other factors, like wave
activity and the amount of vegetation or ice. Some large rivers, such as the Amazon, do not have well-developed deltas.
1. The Lena Delta of Siberia provides 4. Discharge — High-discharge flows tend
one of the most beautiful satellite to extend farther out into the ocean. The
images of Earth. This image, taken deposited sediment can then be affected
in the summer, shows a thawed East by waves and by ocean currents.
Siberian Sea and a bundant vegeta-
tion on the delta. Vegetation 5. Wave Erosion — Waves in an ocean or
appears as a variety of colors as a lake greatly affect the shoreline of the
this is a false-color composite using delta. Waves that are strong or continuous
various infrared wavelengths. This can erode and redistribute sediment along
delta nicely displays the factors that the coast or move it out to sea. Wave
control deposition of sediment in a action is strongest and most effective
delta, including the distributary pat- during storms.
tern of drainages. 6. Ice in Streams and the Sea — Seasonal
2. Vegetation — The amount of veg- changes in the amount of ice in the stream
etation and seasonal changes in veg- and along the coast affect discharge and
etation affect the number and loca- deposition patterns. Ice in the stream
tion of delta channels. Generally, makes flow more sluggish, and sea ice
deltas that have dense vegetation tends to trap s ediment closer to shore.
have fewer channels, whereas deltas Since Siberia is a very cold place, the sea
with sparse vegetation have more around the Lena Delta freezes during the
channels. Part of the e
xplanation is winter. The sea ice stops the action of
that vegetation binds the soil and ocean waves and causes a slowing of the
stabilizes channel positions, as has river current near the mouth. As a result,
been observed in experiments. the river deposits sediment along the
16.09.b1 river — ice interface (during the winter).
3. Sediment Load — Coarser sediment, such as sand, is carried in the bed load and deposited 7. Water Chemistry — As fresh water mixes
first as the velocity drops. Finer material, carried in suspension, can be carried farther. If the with salt water, clay particles clump
stream carries abundant sediment and is closer to its capacity, it will deposit more sediment together, making it easier for them to be
and drop it sooner as it slows down. deposited as mud.
What Are the Depositional and Erosional Consequences of Dams?

16.09.c2 Glen Canyon Dam, AZ
Human-constructed dams provide hydroelectric power generation, water storage, or flood control,
but they stop a stream’s normal flow and transport of sediment. The reservoir behind the dam
represents a temporary base level and affects the stream above and below the dam.
1. When built, 3. Most dams release relatively clear water (⊲) that contains little sedi-
a dam forms a ment and that has a renewed capacity to erode. As a result, erosion
temporary base occurs below many dams, whose clear-water releases contrast with
level. The typically muddy or sandy flows of the stream before construc-
stream tries to tion of the dam. For some dams, scientists and engi-
achieve a new neers are investigating
equilibrium, ways to have the sedi-
both upstream ment in the reser- Before You Leave This Page
and downstream voir bypass the
of the dam. dam, restoring Describe what happens when
the river to a stream enters an ocean or lake,
2. The change in base more natural and what factors control
level causes the stream to state. The clear deposition of sediment in a delta.
deposit sediment behind the water also
dam in an attempt to retain its starves any down- Sketch and describe the types of
equilibrium profile. The pile of sediment 16.09.c1 stream delta from sediments deposited by a delta
builds out into the reservoir in the same its pre-dam supply of and the setting in which each type
way that a natural delta builds out into the sea. sediment and can of sediment formed.
16.9
This sediment can eventually fill up the reservoir, starve freshwater ecosystems of critical
shortening its life span, and making it no longer able nutrients. The clear water cannot Describe how construction of a
to fulfill the original function(s) for which it was built replenish downstream floodplains with dam affects a stream.
(flood control, water storage, etc.). a new influx of mud.
502
16.10 How Do Streams Change Over Time?

IN GEOLOGIC TERMS, rivers and smaller streams come and go. Some streams are old and others are surprisingly
young. The age and history of a stream are important considerations when evaluating how the stream might respond
to tectonic, climatic, and sea-level changes. Human activities can also evoke dramatic responses in streams.
How Old Are Streams?

Streams flow from their source to base level as long as enough water and slope are available to maintain downstream flow.
A stream’s life can begin or end due to changes in (1) water and sediment supply at the source, (2) slopes across which the
stream flows, or (3) elevation of its base level. One stream can capture the drainage basin of another. Streams can exist for
millions of years, although their characteristics may change due to climatic, glacial, and tectonic events.
16.10.a1
Lower Mississippi River

1. This geologic map shows the Mississippi River and its tributaries in gray, representing
recent (Neogene) sediments. The oldest preserved river sediments indicate that the
lower Mississippi began draining the continent during Mesozoic time.
2. The river and its 4. The river flows along a continent-scale low, the Mississippi
tributaries eroded Embayment, shown in this geologic cross section through
across a series of Memphis, Tennessee. The embayment originated from Pre-
Cenozoic sedimentary cambrian continental rifting, which thinned the crust and set
layers (shown in yellow the stage for the river’s formation hundreds of millions of
and orange), with the years later. The region has subsided well into the Neogene.
river incising a valley
when sea level (base
level) was low.
3. Subsequent sea-
level rise decreased
the river’s gradient,
and the river deposited
sediment, filling the
excavated valley to its
present level. Some of
these adjustments occurred during the last Ice Age (2
million to 12,000 years ago), giving new life to an old river. 16.10.a2
Upper Mississippi River The Fall Line

5. The upper Mississippi 7. A major boundary, called the Fall Line, traces its way between the Appalachian
River is young. It formed Mountains and the east coast of the U.S. The Fall Line, shown here as a dashed red
since the retreat of the last line, is marked by waterfalls formed along the contact between soft sediment of the
ice sheets, some 10,000 coastal plain and harder bedrock
years ago. During the last Ice in the foothills of the mountains
Age (⊳), ice sheets and gla- (the Piedmont). The Great Falls of
ciers covered the northern the Potomac River, upstream from
half of North America, so Washington, D.C., illustrate how
northern rivers like the upper the Fall Line developed. Before
Mississippi did not exist. The the Ice Age, the Potomac River
16.10.a3 weight of the ice sheets occupied a broad valley. A drop
depressed the crust, causing in sea level during the Ice Age
large regions to slope north- caused the river to incise deeper.
ward (opposite of today). Headward erosion proceeded
upstream, stripping away the soft
⊳ 6. Melting of the ice sediment until it encountered the
released huge discharges of harder rocks at the Great Falls,
water and sediment that producing a nick point and the
carved completely new river falls. Note the concentration of
channels, including the upper cities along the Fall Line, including
part of the Mississippi. Washington, D.C.
16.10.a5
16.10.a4
How Do Stream Systems Respond to Changing Conditions?

Streams are sensitive to their environment, including local effects, like rainfall, and more distant effects, including changes in
sea level. Streams respond to changes in climate, tectonics, base level, human intervention, and the type of geology they
encounter as they deposit sediment or cut deeper into the landscape.
Runoff 16.10.b1 Tucson, AZ

Glacial and Sea-Level Effects
2. Global cooling and the growth of ice sheets and glaciers lower 3. Melting of the ice
sea level. It can load and depress the crust, causing drainages to releases huge amounts of
flow toward the ice sheets, where they fill large lakes. meltwater and sediment,
creating new or
larger channels.
Isostatic rebound
due to ice
removal can tilt
the land and
reverse regional
16.10.b2–3 drainage patterns.
1. The amount of flow is the most important

factor in how a stream develops, and this Tectonism 5. Conversely, mountain
depends mostly on the amount and timing of 4. Tectonism can uplift moun- uplift can cause less
precipitation. Direct runoff during rainfall and tains, increasing slope, precipita- precipitation on the
delayed runoff from snowmelt supply most of tion, and the supply of coarse opposite side (a rain
the water to streams. The amount of runoff sediment. The slope of a stream, shadow), reducing
varies widely, at times being too much for the the supply of sediment, and the the amount of run-
channel to hold, causing waters to spill out abundance of vegetation largely off on this side.
onto the floodplain or erode the outside determine whether a stream is
banks (▲), in either case resulting in a flood. braided or meandering. 16.10.b4
16.10.b5 Niagara Falls, NY

Geology Human Engineering
6. Streams can erode unconsolidated sedi- 7. Dams and other flood-
ment and soft rock types more easily than control structures change
hard ones. Streams that are eroding down- base level, the amount of
ward may encounter rocks that have differ- discharge, and the supply of
ent characteristics, causing a change in the sediment, all of which affect
geometry of the stream. The impressive the stream system both
Niagara Falls (⊳) along the Canadian – U.S. upstream and downstream.
border formed when the post-glacial Niagara For example, dams (⊲) trap
River encountered a more resistant rock sediment in the reservoir
layer underlain by less resistant shale. and release cold water.
16.10.b6 Flaming Gorge Dam, UT
Climate and Vegetation

8. When pioneers settled in the American Southwest in the Before You Leave
mid-1800s, many streams were flowing on broad valleys. These
settlers built farms on the m
oisture-rich floodplains.
This Page
16.10.b7
9. Increases in precipitation around 1880 caused streams to Describe how rivers can be old
incise (erode down) several meters into their floodplains. Para- or young, using the Mississippi
doxically, this incision dried up the previous floodplain and many River as an example.
of the farms. Around 1940, represented by the lower diagram,
climate and other effects caused the channels to deposit Describe the Fall Line and how
sediment and begin to build up again. Changes in vegetation, it influenced locations of cities.
16.10.b8
whether due to climate, humans, or some other factor, also im-

pact the stream Sketch and describe some
system in many effects that glaciers have on
ways, such as sta- river systems.
bilizing the banks Describe how river systems
16.10
of the stream respond to changes imposed
from erosion (⊲).
16.10.b9
by climate, tectonism, geology,

and human engineering.
16.10.b10 Chinle Wash, UT
504
16.11 What Happens During Stream Incision?

STREAMS CAN ERODE DOWNWARD INTO LANDSCAPES, as when the land is uplifted, base level drops, or the
climate changes (especially an increase in precipitation). Such downward erosion, or incision, by streams forms a vari-
ety of features, including multiple levels of terraces. Streams also carve some unusual canyons, such as those that take
odd routes across the landscape, cutting right across mountains that would seem to be insurmountable obstacles. What
sequence of events led to the development of these features?
How Are Stream Terraces Formed?

Stream terraces are relatively flat benches that are perched above a stream and that stair-step up and outward from the active
channel. Most terraces are composed of stream-derived sediment and are essentially abandoned floodplains and alluvial plains.
Other terraces are cut directly into bedrock and form by erosion. Terraces record different stages in the stream’s history and
indicate that the stream has incised into the land.
16.11.a1 Moose, WY 2. This series of terraces (▼) are numbered from highest (1)
1. Terraces form a series to lowest (3). The modern floodplain is labeled (F). After
of flat to gently sloping examining the sequence of figures at the bottom of the
benches or steps, page, revisit this image and determine which of these ter-
flanked by steeper races formed first and which one formed last.
slopes (risers). Terraces
successively step up and
away from the channel.
The highest terrace may
be tens of meters or
more above the active
channel. A low terrace
may be only a meter or
so above the channel
and therefore often
flooded, perhaps every
couple of years.
16.11.a2 Snake River, Jackson Hole, WY
First Stage (oldest) Second Stage Last Stage (youngest)
16.11.a3 16.11.a4
16.11.a5
3. The 4. A change

first stage in in conditions, 5. With further
terrace formation such as a drop in downcutting,
is deposition of sedi- base level, causes the river abandons
ment, such as on the the river to downcut the second floodplain
floodplain (1) shown above. At this stage through its floodplain deposits, forming a sec- (2), creating a third, even lower one (3). The
in its history, the river is nearly at the same ond, lower floodplain (2). Remnants of the first oldest floodplain (1) is now high and dry. The
level as the floodplain (i.e., is not incised). floodplain are stranded on both sides of the series of downcutting events creates a stair-
The flat surface of the floodplain will later river (1) and are now a terrace. If high enough, step appearance to the land, like those shown
become the flat part of a terrace. the terrance is unlikely to be flooded again. in the first two figures on this page.
How Are Entrenched Meanders Formed?

The landforms we know as meanders form only in loose sediments, like those on floodplains. However, in the Four Corners
region of the American Southwest and areas west of the Appalachian Mountains, meanders with typical sweeping bends are
deeply incised in hard bedrock, forming some puzzling canyons. What do these deeply incised, winding canyons, called
entrenched meanders, tell us about the history of rivers and streams in these areas?
First Stage (oldest) Second Stage Last Stage (youngest)
16.11.b1 16.11.b2 16.11.b3
16.11.b4 Goosenecks SP, UT
In the first stage Tectonic Over time

of formation of uplift raises the canyon
entrenched meanders, a the land, or the incises deeper,
meandering stream winds its way base level drops, causing further entrenching the
through a floodplain of soft river the river to erode downward. The mean- meanders. The photograph to the right shows a single
sediments. Before incision, the river dering path of the river, inherited from the incised meander. All traces of the o
riginal floodplain
flowed at nearly the same level as floodplain, is carved into hard rock, impris- may be eroded away, leaving only the canyon’s shape
the floodplain. oning the river in its winding canyon. as a record of the river’s previous low-gradient history.
Streams That Cross Geologic Structures
S
16.11.t2 Green River at Split Mountain, UT
ometimes streams appear to perform and deformed, but the stream was able to erode
impossible tasks — cutting a deep canyon through the structures as fast as they were
directly across a mountain. The Green formed. Such a stream is called antecedent,
River (below) flows across a mountain, appro- meaning it predated formation of the structure.
priately called Split Mountain, as shown in the Alternatively, a stream may establish its route
photograph to the right. This mountain ridge is when it is flowing on soft, easily eroded rocks,
an anticline of hardened sandstone in Dinosaur uninfluenced by what rocks lie at depth. As the
National Monument of northern Utah. stream begins to incise, it becomes trapped in
These odd canyons can be interpreted in at its own canyon, unable to avoid any geologic
least two ways. A stream may have been flowing structures and hard rocks it encounters as it
over a region that was being actively uplifted erodes downward. Such streams are superposed,
meaning they were superimposed
on already existing fea tures. The
Green River is best interpreted as
a superposed stream that estab-
lished a meandering course on
soft sediment and soft rocks,
and then downcut through
the sediments and soft
rocks into harder rocks.
Sketch and explain a series of steps
showing how river terraces form.
Describe one way in which
entrenched meanders form.
16.11
16.11.t1 Explain how antecedent and

superposed rivers are different.
506
16.12 What Is and What Is Not a Flood?

THROUGHOUT HISTORY, PEOPLE HAVE LIVED along rivers and smaller streams. Streams are sources of water
for consumption, agriculture, and industry, and provide transportation routes and energy. Stream valleys offer a relatively
flat area for construction and farming, but people who live along streams are subject to an ever changing flow of water.
High amounts of water flowing in streams often lead to flooding. In most parts of the world, flooding is a common
and costly type of natural, and perhaps, human-caused disaster.
What Is the Difference Between a Flood and a Normal Flow Event?

Streams are dynamic systems, and they respond to changes in the amount of water entering the system. When more water
enters the system than can be held within the natural confines of the channel, the result is a flood.
1. A flood occurs when there is too 3. Human-constructed levees can sometimes
much water for the channel to hold. protect property from flooding d uring large
As a result, water spills out onto the flood events. The levees, whether human
adjacent land, usually inundating constructed or natural, can also trap water
parts or all of the floodplain. on the floodplain after the peak flooding
ends. The solution to this is to sometimes
2. Flow in a channel, even when breach the levee after the flood, allow-
there is not a flood, may cause ing the trapped water on the flood-
riverbank erosion. Such erosion plain to flow back into the channel.
can destroy structures built
close to the stream and make 4. Large floods can expand the
the stream change position width of the floodplain by burying
over time, turning what was preexisting rocks and material
floodplain into channel, and with sediment deposited by the
what was channel into stream. Sediment beneath the
floodplain. Many people floodplain includes old channel
will call such a destructive deposits in addition to flood-
event a flood. 16.12.a1 Hermann, MO
plain silt and clay.
Normal, Bank-Full Flows

16.12.a2 16.12.a3
5. Normal (i.e., non-flooding) 6. This hydrograph
flows in streams can range shows a typical non-
Flood Stage
from nearly dry to bank-full. flood flow. The line
Although there may be labeled Flood Stage
DISCHARGE
abundant water flowing shows the amount of

down the channel, it is discharge required for
generally not considered the stream to overtop its
a flood unless the water banks and spill out onto
overflows the banks. A Stream Flow the floodplain (i.e., a
stream’s natural floodplain TIME flood). During extended
is an excellent place to times of dry conditions,
contain excess floodwaters — as long as it remains undeveloped or at least weather that is normal for the region, hydrographs may
by humans. Low-intensity development, such as a park, is often show little change in stream flow over time, as shown here.
an appropriate use of a floodplain.
Flows During a Flood

16.12.a4 16.12.a5
7. When the amount of water 8. Intense rainfall can
in a stream exceeds the chan- Rapid unleash a brief flash flood,
Slow Flood Flood Flood
nel capacity, a flood occurs, Stage with a rapid rise in water
Flood
inundating the floodplain. This Stage levels and an increase in
hydrograph shows prolonged discharge that lasts only a
DISCHARGE
DISCHARGE
precipitation or snowmelt short time. Similarly, rapid

upstream that causes a flood onsets of flooding result
event downstream, as repre- from failure of a natural or
sented by discharge greater constructed dam, but high
than flood stage. TIME TIME flows last longer.
What Are the Causes of Flooding?

What causes discharge to exceed the channel’s capacity? A simple answer is that there is more water in the channel than
can be accommodated. This can be the result of natural processes or human-caused events.
Snowmelt Local Heavy Precipitation Regional Precipitation

1. Flooding occurs when warming tempera- 3. Some floods are caused by heavy rainfall 5. Regional floods occur when abnormally
tures or rainfall melt snow and ice somewhere over a short period of time, causing a brief, high precipitation falls over a large area over
in the drainage basin. but dangerous, flash flood. days, weeks, or months.
16.12.b1 Norway 16.12.b2 White Canyon, UT 16.12.b3 Tucson, AZ
2. In the Northern Hemisphere, flooding from 4. A thunderstorm upstream of this site sent a 6. Heavy regional rains caused by moisture
melting ice and snow occurs in the spring, fast-rising, muddy flash flood down this desert from a former hurricane caused this n
ormally
from March to May. Heavy rain that c oincides drainage. Vehicles attempting to cross such dry river to destroy townhouses built in a
with melting can cause even worse flooding. floods can be washed downstream. Such a risky place — on loose sediment of the flood-
flash flood may only last minutes. plain and on an outside bend.
Effects of an Ice Dam Volcanic Eruption Dam Failure

7. During the winter, streams in cold climates 9. If volcanic peaks are covered with snow 11. Dams occur as both natural and human-
can freeze, forming large volumes of ice. When when the volcano erupts, the snow will melt constructed features. Poorly engineered dams
warmer temperatures cause melting, the ice and cause flooding or catastrophic mudflows. have failed, releasing floodwaters into down-
can block stream flow, causing a flood. stream channels.
16.12.b4 Grand Forks, ND 16.12.b5 Muddy River, WA 16.12.b6 Eastern ID
8. Spring snowmelt and effects of ice dams 10. A volcanic eruption on snowy Mount 12. Catastrophic release of water during failure
often cause flooding along the Red River of St. Helens caused flooding and mudflows down- of the earthen Teton Dam, Idaho, in 1976
the North, here still frozen before a flood. stream, destroying this bridge. flooded towns downstream.
Urbanization
13.12.b8
Flood After Before You Leave This Page

13.12.b7 Dalian, China
Flood Urbanization
Stage
Sketch and describe a flood that
overflows the channel versus a flow
that stays within the channel. Include
DISCHARGE
hydrographs in your sketches.
No Flood Sketch the difference between a

hydrograph showing a regional flood
and a local one of brief duration.
13.12.b8
TIME Summarize the main causes
16.12
13. When urban growth replaces natural lands, 14. This hydrograph shows that stream flow, of flooding, explaining with a
the area responds differently to precipitation and for the same amount of water, became more hydrograph the effects of
snowmelt. Urbanization increases runoff by abrupt and extreme after urbanization, caus- urbanization.
increasing the amount of impermeable surfaces. ing a stream to rise above flood stage.
508
16.13 What Were Some Devastating Floods?

FLOODS CAN BE DISASTERS that affect millions of people and cause millions or billions of dollars in property
damage. Floods occur for different reasons and over very different scales of time and area. Here we explore two kinds
of floods: a regional flood on a large river and a local flash flood.
What Happened During the 1993 Upper Mississippi River Flood?

The 1993 flood on the upper Mississippi River and other Midwestern rivers arose from heavy precipitation over several
weeks. It killed 47 people and resulted in extensive property damage and economic loss. Floodwaters inundated large areas
of the floodplain, including areas that were considered “safe” behind levees.
16.13.a2
1. During June and July, the jet stream (a high-altitude, fast-mov- 2. Contours on this map
ing air current) dipped south (▼), creating a convergence zone (⊲) of the region show total
between warm, moist air coming from the Gulf of Mexico and rainfall (in inches) from
colder Arctic air coming from the northeast. This resulted in per- June 1 to August 31, 1993.
sistent thunderstorms in the Upper Mississippi region. Some areas of Iowa
received 36 inches of rain
(nearly a meter).
16.13.a1
3. High rainfall over such a

large area resulted in
flooding along major rivers
and their tributaries. Heavy
spring rains had already
saturated the ground, pre-
venting infiltration of addi-
tional rainfall during the
summer storms. A similar
setup caused severe
flooding in Memphis, Ten-
nessee, and other parts of
the Mississippi in May 2011.
Satellite Images of Three Rivers Discharge over Time

4. The satellite images below both show an area at the confluence of the Mississippi, 7. As shown by this hydrograph (▼), the Mississippi
Missouri, and Illinois rivers near St. Louis, Missouri. Many homes and businesses on River at St. Louis, Missouri, reached a level of 30 ft
the modern floodplain were flooded and took months to dry out because levees, (9 m), or flood stage, on June 26 and peaked at
built to keep water out, trapped some water behind the levees after peak discharge. 50 ft (15 m), 20 ft above flood stage, on August 1.
5. Before the flood (▼), rivers are 6. During the flooding of 1993 (▼), the rivers 16.13.a5
within their channels, and floodplains inundated the broad floodplains, flooding
next to the channel are dry. places far from the river channel.
16.13.a3 16.13.a4
8. Sudden drops in discharge in mid-July corre-

spond to breaks in the levee system upstream from
St. Louis. These breaks let floodwater escape from
the channel, lowering the discharge for areas
downstream, like St. Louis.
What Conditions Caused the Big Thompson River Flood in 1976?

The Big Thompson River near Rocky Mountain National Park and Estes Park, Colorado, flash flooded when as much as 12
inches of rain fell in a few hours in a small drainage basin. The flood killed 139 people and caused an estimated $16.5
million in damage. Similarly damaging floods struck the same area in September of 2013, causing widespread damage.
1. This flood resulted from an 2. The image below shows the

unusual weather pattern. Cold extent and intensity of rainfall
polar winds converged with in the Big Thompson
moist winds and pushed Canyon area.
moist air upslope along the Darkest blue
Colorado Front Range, shows the highest
forming a stationary concentration of
thunderstorm. rainfall, locally
This image is exceeding 12 inches.
an artist’s The Big Thompson
depiction of River, in the middle of
the storm. the dark blue area,
drains Rocky Mountain
National Park and runs
through an area of narrow
canyons and steep slopes.
Thin soil on steep, rocky
16.13.b1
slopes limited the amount of
infiltration, allowing the storm
runoff to quickly accumulate in
16.13.b2
the tributaries and main canyon of
the Big Thompson River.
16.13.b3
3. The banks of the 16.13.b4

river were heavily 4. Many houses along
developed with the Big Thompson River
businesses, motels, were totally destroyed by
campgrounds, and water and debris, which
houses. The flood included mud, sand, and
occurred in the eve- large boulders. Some
ning, resulting in a houses, like this one,
number of deaths in were ripped from their
a campground next foundations and carried
to the river. downstream.
What Were Some Other Notable Floods?
Flood/River Cause of Flooding and Effect on Society
Johnstown, Failure of an earth-filled dam during heavy rains. Deadliest flood event in early-
Pennsylvania (1889) American history. Flooding destroyed the town and caused over 2,200 deaths.
Yangtze River, China Prolonged drought followed by intense rainfall and then famine. 3.7 million Before You Leave This Page
(1931) people died from drowning, disease, and famine.
Describe the cause of flooding
Fargo, North Dakota Floods occurred along the Red River of the North in the spring of 1997. Rainfall
(1997) coincided with snowmelt and a subsequent ice dam in the river. This caused the along the Mississippi River in 1993,
river to overflow its banks and flood a large area. and how this event affected
the floodplains.
Central America Hurricane Mitch stalled over Central America, dumping 75 inches of rain
(1998) over several days. The death toll was estimated to be 11,000. Discuss the cause and consequences
of the Big Thompson Flood of 1976.
16.13
Bangladesh Flooding occurs regularly in Bangladesh. In 2002, a combination of

(2002) melting ice and snow in the Himalaya and exceptionally high precipitation filled Briefly describe other circumstances
to capacity the Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers, causing extensive flooding. that caused notable floods.
510
16.14 How Do We Measure Floods?

MOST FLOODS ARE A NATURAL CONSEQUENCE of fluctuating stream flow. Streams receive most of their water
from precipitation and snowmelt, and the amount of precipitation falling in any given drainage basin varies from day
to day, from year to year, and decade to decade. Stream flow, in response to rainfall and snowmelt, can vary from a
trickle to a raging flood. How do we determine how big a flood was, or will be?
How Is Stream Flow Measured?

Stream flow is measured by calculating discharge — the volume of water flowing through some stretch of a stream during a
specified period of time. Discharge calculations help us quantify how big a flood was, determine how much water a stream
channel can hold, and predict the size of future floods.
Measuring and Calculating Flow

1. The first step in calculating discharge is collecting measurements from the
stream at a particular site, called a gauging station. To collect the data, hydrol-
ogists (scientists who study water) measure cross sections of the stream at the
site. The stream shown here (⊲) has an overly simple stream bottom compared
to natural streams. Hydrologists then measure how deep the water is and the
average velocity of the water as it flows past. Many of the measurements are
automated, with data being relayed by radio and computer.
16.14.a1
2. To calculate discharge (represented in equations by the letter Q), we need the
cross-sectional area of a stream (average width × average depth) and average velocity
of the current:
Q = stream depth × stream width × stream velocity (or Q = DWV)

16.14.a2 3. If the velocity of the stream shown on the left is 1.1 meters per second, the
calculation would be:
Q = 1 m deep × 10 m wide × 1.1 m/s = 11 m3/s
4. Calculate how much discharge would be needed to fill the channel to a bank-full
condition. When the stream is this high, it normally flows 1.5 m/s,
Q = 2 m deep × 10.5 m wide × 1.5 m/s = 31.5 m3/s

or nearly three times the flow in the half-full example. The width at bank-full levels is
16.14.a3
10.5 m wide because the bank widens a little upward.
Plotting Discharge During a Flood Using a Hydrograph

5. Before the actual 6. At some time, more water is added upstream to the stream by a precipitation event (thunderstorms).
flooding, this stream
flows at a bank-full 7. As the additional water reaches the station,
condition. The flowing the hydrograph shows a gradual increase. At
water is contained some point in time, the channel can no longer
within the channel (is contain the water, and the stream floods out
below flood stage), so over its floodplain.
there is no flood. The
hydrograph for a sta- 8. After the pulse of higher flow moves past
tion on such a stream the station, the hydrograph shows a return to
shows a fairly constant the bank-full condition. The flood has passed.
discharge, represented Most streams will further decrease in flow,
by the horizontal part dropping well below a bank-full condition.
of the plot. If the stream dries up completely, the dis-
charge is zero.
16.14.a4
What Is the Probability That a Flood Will Occur?

Probability is the statistical description of the likelihood that an event will happen. Suppose you and a hundred other
students enter a contest to win a car and each of you buys one ticket. Your probability of winning is 1 in 100 or 1%.
Compare that with the probability that the Sun will rise tomorrow, which is essentially 100%. For many years, geologists
and hydrologists have been collecting stream-flow data, which allows them to calculate the probability that a certain stream
flow will occur in any year.
Frequency of Flows Flow Probability

1. Data used to estimate how often a stream may flood come from 5. Raw flow data are used to estimate probability. Hydrologists draw a
observations of discharge. The graph below plots peak daily average rating line or curve for a stream, giving the probability that a particular
flows for the Yellowstone River for several decades. flow will be exceeded in any given year. This curve is for a smaller
stream than the Yellowstone River, with flows less than 2,000 m3/s. To
2. We plot discharge on the vertical 3. High flows above use this graph, start on either axis and follow any value horizontally or
axis and time on the horizontal axis. 7,000 to 8,000 m3/s vertically to the line, and then read off the corresponding value on the
From this plot, it is common for this occur every so often, other axis.
river to have peak flows around but not in any regular
4,000 to 7,000 m3/s. pattern. 6. For example, the probabil- 7. The probability that a flow
ity that a 120 m3/s flow will event will exceed ~2,000 m3/s in
16.14.b1 occur or be exceeded in any any given year is low at about
year is about 99%. 0.5%.
16.14.b2
We calculate the size of
a 100-year flood by reading
the discharge for a probability
of 1%, which in this plot is
4. Note that the highest flow event (flood) occurred in the second part less than 2,000 m3/s.
of the record. To understand the stream’s behavior over time, and how
large of floods to expect, we need data collected over a sufficiently
long time period. A shorter data record means more uncertainty.
What Probability Does and Does Not Tell Us
T
he probability that any particular flow A term commonly used in public discus- dred-year floodplain has a significant risk of
from 0 m3/s to more than 10,000 m3/s sions, but less commonly by geoscientists who being flooded. A property that is classified as
could happen along a stream in any year actually study streams, is the concept of a being in a floodway, an area along a stream
is estimated using graphs like the ones above. hundred-year flood. This term signifies the that is frequently flooded, may be prohibited
The probability for any stream is based on a size of a flood that is predicted — from the from construction of any sort.
short record, relative to the history of the river. existing data — to have a 1 in 100 probability
For some streams, we may only have decades (1%) of occurring in any given year. The term Before You Leave This Page
of data. The reliability of the mathematical esti- does not imply that such a flood will only hap-
mations improves with more data. On the pen every hundred years, because “100-year Describe what stream discharge is and
Yellowstone River, there is a very slight but real floods” can, and have, happened two or three how it is measured and calculated.
chance that floods exceeding 10,000 m3/s could years in a row along some streams. In fact,
happen three years in a row or twice in one such floods are more likely to occur in Sketch and describe how a
year. The probability estimate doesn’t guarantee bunches, being caused by multi-year periods precipitation event might appear on a
future performance, but rather reflects what the of abnormal amounts of precipitation and downstream station’s hydrograph.
collected data tell us about the river’s past snowmelt. In other words, weather patterns Explain how the probability of flooding
16.14
behavior. Planning for a certain size flood can cause higher-than-normal precipitation is influenced by the length of time
involves assessing how much data we have, in several years in a row, so larger-than-normal during which we have stream-gauge
addition to what the existing data predict about floods can also occur in successive years. A measurements.
whether such a flood is likely to occur or not. real-estate property that is located in a hun-
CONNECTIONS
16.15 How Does the Colorado River Change
as It Flows Across the Landscape?
THE COLORADO RIVER SYSTEM drains a large region of the American West. The river cuts across a geologic
terrain that varies from high bedrock headwaters to low, sandy valleys, to a delta where it reaches the Gulf of California.
It has a rich set of features, many of which are typical of most rivers, but some of which are unique to this river.
The large map spreading across both pages shows the drainage Reservoirs
basin of the Colorado River. The edge of the map is a drainage
divide between the Colorado and other river systems. Surrounding 8. Dams constructed across the
the map are vignettes about different features, each of which is Colorado River (⊳), mostly within or
keyed to a number on the large map. Start with number 1 in the bordering Arizona, form large
headwaters (the top of the right page) and proceed down the reservoirs, including Lake Powell and
river. The smaller map below covers the same area as the Lake Mead. The dams provide
large map and shows the Colorado River’s largest tributaries. hydroelectric power, flood control,
recreation, and water, but block
sediment transport.
13.16.a7
Cutting Across Structures 16.15.a8

9. The Colorado River cuts
across some geologic struc-
tures, such as the Kaibab
Uplift (⊲) in the Grand Canyon
(a superposed river). The
river may have started to
cut through the uplift when
a large, natural lake over-
topped its rim, flooding
westward across a low
divide in the uplift.
Lakes 16.15.a9
10. Older lakes were

formed by geologic
events, such as lava
flows (⊲) into the Grand
Canyon, temporarily
damming the river. On
geologic timescales,
such dams were
rapidly eroded
16.15.a2
away.
Salton Sea
12. This large lake (▼) is located west of this area and is
shown on the above map. It filled in 1905 when a flood of Colorado Delta
the Colorado River overwhelmed canals and other
structures built to divert water for irrigation in California. 11. As the Colorado River nears its mouth
For two years, the river flowed into the basin, flooding in the Gulf of California, much of its water
350,000 acres of land and filling a lake that had formed has been withdrawn for drinking and irri-
naturally many times in the past. These earlier lakes gation and its sediment load has been
formed when high water volumes and high sediment load blocked by dams. The delta, which has
forced the river to leave been building for hundreds of thousands
its channel and flood of years, continues to grow but at a much
westward into the slower rate because of the decrease in the vol-
lowlands of the Imperial ume of water and sediment needed to nurture the
Valley and ancestral delta’s growth. The loss of water and sediment
Salton Sea. has harmed the delta’s fragile ecology (⊲).
16.15.a10
16.15.a11
S t r e a m s a n d F l o o d i n g 513
Headwaters Before You Leave This Page

16.15.a1
1. The Green River is a tributary of the
16.15.a3
Colorado. Its headwaters are in the Describe where the Colorado River
snow-capped mountains of Wyoming, is located, from its headwaters to
where high-energy waters cascade its mouth.
down steep canyons. The Green
River, like most tributaries of the Describe the features that occur
Colorado River, starts in steep along the river and how each formed.
mountainous areas (⊲).
Describe the record of flooding for
the Colorado River at Lee’s Ferry.
Explain why stream-flow data
collected over the last 100 years may
not accurately indicate the maximum
2. The headwaters of the Colorado flood possible on a river.
River (not shown by a detailed view)
are in the high Rocky Mountains. Here
steep mountain streams and braided
rivers erode the mountains, transporting 16.15.a4
the debris to lower elevations.
Changing Conditions
3. Where the Colorado River leaves its steep
bedrock canyon (⊲), it changes from a steep,
bedrock-confined channel into a meandering
river that flows through a broad valley at Grand
Junction, Colorado. Adjacent to the river is a
well-developed floodplain covered with fertile
farms that benefit from the Colorado’s silt.
16.15.a5
Entrenched Meanders
4. Winding bedrock channels at the confluence of the
Green and Colorado Rivers (⊲) inherited their classic
meander shapes when the river system was much
younger and was flowing through softer materials.
They are classic examples of entrenched meanders.
The faults and fissures are the result of the walls of
the canyon slowly sliding toward the river.
Records of Flooding
on the Colorado River
5. The Colorado River drains a large area
and has experienced large floods. The
graph below shows stream-flow data from 6. Geomorphologists investigating ancient river-flood
Lee’s Ferry, a historic river crossing deposits infer that a very large flood with a discharge
upstream of the Grand Canyon. estimated at 8,500 m3/s occurred before humans were in
the area. For comparison, modern, dam-controlled flows
through the canyon rarely exceed 570 m3/s.
7. Even the pre-dam measured flows (represented by the

dots) were generally less than 3,700 m3/s. During the
largest flood recorded at Lee’s Ferry, in 1884, the river’s
discharge was 6,200 m3/s. Regional drought and other
changes in climate greatly affect the flow of the river, and
16.15
how much water is available for the rapidly growing cities

of Nevada, Arizona, and California, all of which count on a
16.15.a6
steady supply of Colorado River water. What happens if
flows decrease? Continue reading on the left-hand page.
16.16 How Would Flooding Affect This Place?
STREAMS PRESENT BENEFITS AND RISKS to people living along their banks. Meandering streams provide
floodplains with fertile soil and a relatively flat place to farm and perhaps build. Living on a floodplain is a hazardous
proposition because it has flooded in the past, may be flooded in the near future, and owes its very existence to flooding.
In this exercise, you will calculate the likelihood of flooding on two levels of the landscape near a meandering stream
and decide if potential economic and societal benefits are worth the risk of living there.

• Observe and interpret features associated with a short stretch of a meandering river.
• Evaluate different locations for building a house and siting a farm, comparing and summarizing
the advantages and disadvantages of each site.
• Calculate the risk of flooding for each location and discuss the risk versus the benefit.
Procedures
Use the available information to complete the following steps, entering your answers in appropriate places on the
worksheet or answering questions online.
A. Observe the terrain below in order to interpret the various parts of E. Evaluate the benefits of building a new house at each of the
the landscape. Assign each landform feature or topographic level of different levels of the landscape and at various locations on each
the landscape its appropriate stream term (for example, channel). level, for both sides of the river. Identify five homesites that are rela-
tively safe and otherwise favorable, considering each site’s proximity
B. Apply your knowledge of the processes, features, and sediment
to croplands, to drinking water from the river, and any aesthetic con-
associated with meandering streams to predict what processes
siderations (e.g., just a nice place to live). Rank the five sites on the
characterize each landform and how the landform might be affected
basis of your evaluation of their suitability.
by flow along the stream.
F. Use the supplied dimensions on the profile on the next page and
C. Use relative elevations and other attributes to infer the order in which
stream-flow data to calculate the river discharge required to flood two
the features formed and the steps involved in the geological forma-
levels of the landscape.
tion of each feature.
G. Use the discharges you calculated and an exceedance probability
D. Determine which sites would be the best places to put croplands,
plot for this river (provided) to estimate the probability of flooding for
considering all relevant factors, such as the flatness of the area, prox-
two different levels of the landscape.
imity to water, nature of the soil, what is growing there now, and pos-
sible added costs of growing crops in a specific site. You should also H. Evaluate the flood-risk probabilities against the other considerations
consider each site’s vulnerability to bank erosion. (in steps E and D), and describe how including the risk of flooding
has changed or not changed your ranking.
Step 1: Consider the Following Observations About Different Levels Near the River
1. This highest flat area is a 3. A green, plant-covered, lower flat area, locally
high terrace that locals call called the B ottomland, flanks the river channel. It
the Upper Bench. It is fairly has some soil composed of silt and decayed
dry and dusty, it does not plants, but in many areas the soil is overlain by
contain many plants, thin layers of loose silt. Close to the channel,
and the soil is sandy. many bushes and trees on the Bottomland
lean over a little in a downstream direction
but were not uprooted by whatever made
2. The Middle
them lean over.
Bench is a lower
terrace. It has
some plants and 4. The lowest part of the valley, which
is below the local people call The Notch, contains
dusty plain. It the river, whose water flows toward
has a moder- you in this view. When exposed
ately good soil during the dry season, sediment on
16.16.a1
that could grow some crops the river bottom within The Notch is
if provided with water. loose and displays no soil development.
514
S t r e a m s a n d F l o o d i n g 515
Step 2: Calculate Discharge for a Profile Across the River

The diagram below on the left is a profile across the river, showing the widths of The Notch and the Bottomland. You will calculate discharges
along this main profile, which crosses the river near the front of the model on the right. Your instructor may provide you with a second profile
(farther back in the model), because the river has different dimensions at different places. This means that the same amount of discharge may reach
different heights along different segments of the river. For your profile(s), complete the following steps:
1. To calculate the discharge needed to fill The Notch, first calculate the 3. Repeat the calculations, but this time determine the additional dis-
cross-sectional area of the notch in the profile. In all these calculations, charge needed to flood the Bottomland to a height where floodwater
we are using averages for width, depth, and velocity. would begin to spill onto the Middle Bench. The river flows faster when
there is more water, so use an average water velocity of 2.0 m/s. Enter
Cross-sectional Area = Width × Depth your calculated discharges in the table on the worksheet or on a sheet
of paper. You should have two discharge calculations, one to fill and
overtop The Notch, and another that fills up The Notch and Bottomland
2. Next, calculate how much discharge is needed to fill The Notch and
and then begins to spill out onto the Middle Bench.
begin to spill water out onto the Bottomland. To calculate discharge,
multiply the cross-sectional area of The Notch by the average velocity
of the river, which is 0.7 m/s when The Notch is filled:
Discharge = Cross-sectional Area × Stream Velocity This is the location of the second
(optional) profile.
This is the
51 m main profile.
9m
Upper
Bench Middle
Bench Bottomland
16.16.a2
The steep slope between the Bottomland The Notch is 5 m high

and the Middle Bench is 3 m high. from its base.
16.16.a3
Step 3: Evaluate Flooding Risk Using Exceedance Probability

To determine the probability that each area will be flooded, compare both of your calculated discharges using the following graph, which is
an exceedance probability plot. Follow the steps below and list in the worksheet or answer online the estimated probabilities for overfilling
The Notch and for overfilling the Bottomland on the profile.
1. For each discharge calculation, find the position of

1,000
that discharge value on the vertical axis of the plot.
800
2. Draw a horizontal line from that value to the right 600
until you intersect the probability line (which slopes
400
from lower left to upper right).
ANNUAL PEAK DISCHARGE (m /s)
3
3. From the point of intersection, draw a vertical line 200

down to the horizontal axis of the plot and read off
the corresponding chance of exceedance (probability
of flooding) on the horizontal axis. The probability of 100
exceedance indicates the probability of the calculated 80
amount of discharge being exceeded in any given 60
year. A probability of 1 is equivalent to a 100-year-flood.
40
4. Repeat this procedure for both of your discharge 30
calculations.
20
5. Consider the implications of each of these probabili-
16.16
ties for your choice of a site for croplands and a

homesite. Use this information to choose final sites for 10
99.5 98 95 90 80 70 50 30 20 10 5 2 1 0.2
croplands and a homesite. Explain your reasons on the 16.16.a4
worksheet or in the version online. ANNUAL EXCEEDANCE PROBABILITY (%)
CHAPTER
17 Water Resources
WATER IS THE MOST IMPORTANT RESOURCE provided by Earth — nearly all life on Earth needs water to live
and thrive. We are most familiar with surface water, water that occurs in streams, lakes, and oceans. Yet, the amount
of fresh water in these settings is much less than the amount of fresh water that is frozen in ice and snow or the amount
of water that occurs in the subsurface as groundwater. This chapter is about surface water and groundwater and the
important ways in which they interact.
17.00.a2 Shoshone, ID
The Snake River Plain, shown in this The Big Lost River, Little Lost River,
large satellite-based image, is a curved and adjacent streams that enter the
swath of low, basalt-covered land that plain from the north never reach the
cuts through the mountains of southern Snake River. Instead, the water from
Idaho. It contains a mixture of dry, sage- the rivers and streams seeps into the
covered plains, water-filled reservoirs, ground between the grains in the sedi-
green agricultural fields, and recent lava ment and through narrow fractures in
flows of dark-colored basalt, such as the basalt. For this reason the rivers
those at Craters of the Moon National are called “lost.”
Monument. Most of Idaho’s population
lives on the Snake River Plain near the Where does water that seeps into the
rivers and reservoirs. subsurface go?
Within the Snake River Plain, the Snake River

has eroded a canyon (▲) down into layers of
ledge-forming basalt and slope-forming
sediment. The farmlands of the canyon
bottom are on fertile sediment depos-
ited by the river, and they receive
water from rivers, springs, and wells
drilled to extract groundwater.
At Thousand Springs, huge springs gush from the steep volcanic walls of the Snake River
Canyon (⊳). The canyon includes 15 of the 65 largest springs in the United States, including
those at Thousand Springs. The largest commercial trout farms in the United States use
ponds fed by these springs.
What causes water from beneath the ground to flow to the surface as a spring,
and where does the water in a spring come from?
17.00.a3 Thousand Springs, ID
17.1 Where Does Water Occur on Our Planet? 518 17.8 How Can Water Become Contaminated? 532
17.2 How Do We Use Fresh Water? 520 17.9 How Does Groundwater Contamination
17.3 Where Is Groundwater Found? 522 Move and How Do We Clean It Up? 534
17.4 How and Where Does Groundwater Flow? 524 17.10 CONNECTIONS: What Is Going On
with the Ogallala Aquifer? 536
17.5 What Is the Relationship Between Surface
Water and Groundwater? 526 17.11 INVESTIGATION: Who Polluted Surface Water
and Groundwater in This Place? 538
17.6 How Do We Explore for Groundwater? 528
17.7 What Problems Are Associated
with Groundwater Pumping? 530
17.00.a4 Jackson Hole, WY

The Snake River winds through mountains
and then flows southwest and west across Disappearing Waters of the
the Snake River Plain.
Where does this river, flowing across such

Northern Snake River Plain
G
a dry plain, receive its water?
roundwater beneath the Snake River
17.00.a1 Plain is an essential resource for the
region, providing most of the drinking
water for cities and irrigation water for farms
and ranches away from the actual river. Geolo-
gists and other scientists study where this water
comes from, how it moves through the subsur-
The river begins its journey in J ackson Hole, face, and potential limits on using this resource.
Wyoming (▲), from streams that drain the
Some water enters the subsurface from the
Tetons and nearby Gros Ventre mountain
Big and Little Lost rivers, which flow into the
range. The relatively higher rainfall and
snowmelt in these highlands sustain the basin from the north and then abruptly or grad-
river as it flows westward across the dry ually disappear as their water sinks into the
plains. Downstream from Jackson porous ground. Other groundwater comes
Hole, streams enter the plain from directly from the main Snake River and from
the east and south flow directly tributaries that enter the basin from the south
into the Snake River, increas- and east. Perhaps surprisingly, the largest influx
ing its flow. of water to the subsurface is seepage from irri-
gated fields and associated canals.
Where does the water in
rivers come from, and The surface of the Snake River Plain slopes
do most rivers gain from northeast to southwest. The flow of
or lose water from groundwater follows this same pattern, flowing
groundwater? southwest and west through sediment and rocks
in the subsurface. Groundwater derived from
the disappearing rivers flows southwest, along
the northern side and center of the basin. The
groundwater does not flow like an underground
river but as water between the sediment grains
and within fractures in the rocks. Where the
Snake River Canyon intersects the flow of
groundwater, water reemerges on the surface,
pouring out at Thousand Springs. This region
illustrates a main theme of this chapter — sur-
Many lakes and farms are situated next to the Snake River. Farmers irrigate millions face water and groundwater are a related and
of acres of agriculture with surface water derived from reservoirs, lakes, and rivers, interconnected resource.
and with groundwater pumped to the surface. Chemicals used by some farms cause
17.0
contamination of groundwater and surface water.
What happens if groundwater is pumped from the subsurface faster than it is replaced
by precipitation and other sources? What do we do if water supplies are contaminated?
518
17.1 Where Does Water Occur on Our Planet?

WATER IS ABUNDANT ON EARTH, occurring in many settings. Most water is in the oceans but is salty. Most fresh
water is in ice and snow or in groundwater below the surface, with a smaller amount in lakes, wetlands, and rivers.
Water also exists in plants, animals, and soils and as water vapor in the atmosphere.
Where Did Earth’s Water Come from and Where Does It Occur Today?
Most water on Earth probably originated during the formation of the planet or from comets and other icy celestial objects
that collided with the surface. Over time, much of this water moves to the surface, for example when magma releases water
vapor during eruptions.
1. Oceans — Of Earth’s total inventory of 5. Atmosphere — A small, but very important, 6. Glaciers — Nearly 69% of Earth’s fresh
surface and near-surface water, an esti- amount of Earth’s water is contained in the water is tied up in ice and snow in ice
mated 96.5% occurs in the oceans and seas atmosphere (0.001%). It occurs as invisible water caps, glaciers, and permanent snow. A
as saline (salty) water. The remaining 3.5% is vapor, as water droplets in clouds, and as rain, small amount also exists in permafrost
fresh water held in ice sheets and glaciers, snow, and other types of precipitation. and ground ice.
groundwater, and lakes, swamps, and other
features on the surface.
7. Soil Moisture — Earth’s soils contain
about as much water as the
2. Rivers — Rivers and smaller streams
atmosphere (not much), but like water
are extremely important to us and are the
in the atmosphere, soil moisture is
main source of drinking water for many
crucial to our existence.
areas. They contain, however, only a very
small amount of Earth’s fresh water.
8. Biological Water — Water is tied up
3. Lakes — Water occurs on the sur- within the cells and structures of plants and
face in lakes of various sizes. Most are animals. It is clearly important to us but
freshwater lakes, but those in dry cli- represents an exceptionally small percent-
mates are saline or brackish age of Earth’s total water (0.0001%).
(between fresh and saline). Lakes
contain a majority of the liquid
fresh water at Earth’s surface. 9. Groundwater — About 30% of Earth’s
total fresh water occurs as groundwater.
Groundwater is mostly in the open pores
4. Swamps and Other between sediment grains or within fractures
Wetlands — These wet places that cut rocks. Most groundwater is fresh, but
contain water lying on the some is brackish or saline.
surface and water within
the plants and shallow soil.
They constitute about 11% 10. Deep-Interior Waters — An unknown, but
of the liquid fresh water on perhaps very large amount of water is
the surface. chemically bound in minerals of the crust and
17.01.a1 mantle. Some scientists think Earth’s interior
may contain more water than the oceans.
11. These bar graphs (⊲) 12. The middle bar (⊳) shows that most of
show USGS estimates of 17.01.a2 Earth’s fresh water occurs in ice caps and
the distribution of water glaciers. Almost all the rest is groundwater.
on Earth’s s urface and Less than 1% occurs as liquid surface water
the uppermost levels of in lakes and rivers.
the crust. The left bar
shows that the oceans 13. The right bar (⊳) shows where Earth’s
contain 96.5% of Earth’s small percentage of fresh, liquid, surface
total free water (water water resides. Most is in lakes, followed by
that is not bound up in swamps and rivers. Note that for each of two
minerals), but this water bars on the right, the percentages in that bar
is saline. Only 3.5% of reflect the fraction of water in only the top
Earth’s water is fresh. part of the bar directly to its left (percentages
These graphs do not of percentages of percentages for the right-
include water in Earth’s most bar, so not very much of the overall
deep interior. amount of water on Earth).
How Does Water Move from One Setting to Another?

Water is in constant circulation on Earth’s surface, moving from ocean to atmosphere, from atmosphere back to the surface,
and in and out of the subsurface. The circulation of water from one part of this water system to another is called the
hydrologic cycle. From the perspective of living things, the hydrologic cycle is the critical system on Earth. It involves a
number of important and mostly familiar processes. It is driven by energy from the Sun.
1. Evaporation — As liquid water is heated by 2. Condensation — As water vapor cools, like 3. Precipitation — When clouds cool, per-
the Sun, some of its molecules become ener- when it rises, water molecules join together. haps when they rise over a mountain
gized enough to break free of the attractive Through this process, water vapor becomes a range, the water molecules become less
forces binding them together. Once free, they liquid or turns directly into a solid (ice, hail, or energetic and bond together, commonly
rise into the atmosphere as water vapor. Most snow). These water drops and ice crystals falling as rain, snow, or hail, depending
evaporation occurs from the oceans, which then collect and form clouds. on the temperature of the air. The result-
cover three-fourths of Earth’s surface. ing precipitation may reach the ground,
evaporate as it falls, or be captured by
leaves and other vegetation before
reaching the ground.
4. Sublimation — Water molecules

can go directly from a solid (ice)
Sunlight Condensation to vapor, a process called
Precipitation sublimation (not shown here).
as Snow Sublimation is most common in
Precipitation
as Rain cold, dry, and windy climates,
Movement of
like some polar regions.
Water Vapor
Evaporation 5. Infiltration — Some precipitation

seeps into the ground, infiltrating
through fractures and pores in
off
ce Run soil, sediment, and rocks. Some
Surfa n
Evaporation tratio of this water becomes ground-
Infil water, some remains within the
soil, and some rises back up to
Transpiration the surface. Water can also infil-
trate into the ground from lakes,
streams, canals, irrigated fields,
ow
ter Fl or any body of water.
un dwa
Precipitation Gro
into Ocean 6. Groundwater Flow — Water that perco-
lates or infiltrates far enough into the
ground becomes groundwater. Ground-
7. Transpiration — Some precipitation water can flow from one place to
and soil moisture is taken up by root another in the subsurface, or it can flow
systems and other water-collecting back to the surface, where it emerges in
mechanisms of plants. Through their springs, lakes, and other features. Such
leaves, plants emit water vapor into the flow of groundwater may sustain these
17.01.b1 atmosphere by the p rocess of water bodies during dry times.
8. Surface Runoff — Rainfall transpiration. The combined loss of
or snowmelt can produce water via transpiration and evaporation
9. Ocean Gains and water that flows across the from soil, leaves, and other parts of the
Losses — Most pre- surface as runoff. Runoff land is called evapotranspiration.
cipitation falls from direct precipitation can
directly into the be joined by runoff from
ocean, but the melting snow and ice, from
ocean loses much lakes, and by the flow of Before You Leave This Page
more water to evap- groundwater onto the sur-
face. The various types of Summarize where most of Earth’s total water resides.
oration than it gains
from precipitation. runoff collect in streams and Describe the different settings where fresh water occurs, identifying which
The difference is lakes. Most is eventually settings contain the most water.
17.1
made up by runoff carried to the ocean by

from land. streams, where it can be Describe or sketch the hydrologic cycle, summarizing the processes that shift
evaporated, completing the water from one part to another.
hydrologic cycle.
520
17.2 How Do We Use Fresh Water?

WE USE LARGE QUANTITIES OF WATER each day. We use water for a variety of purposes, especially power
generation and irrigation of farms. How much water does each of our activities consume, and where does the water
come from?
What Are the Main Ways in Which We Use Fresh Water?

The U.S. Geological Survey conducts a detailed study of water use in the United States. The most recent USGS compilations
show that we use fresh water in six or seven main ways, depending on how we classify the useage. Water use in the United
States is hundreds of billions of gallons per day, most of which is from surface waters. Examine the graph below and think
about the ways in which you use water.
17.02.a2 Huntington, UT 17.02.a3 Pasco, WA
1. Thermoelectric Power — Electrical power gen- 2. Irrigation — Farms and ranches
eration plants (⊳) are the largest users of fresh are the other large users of fresh
water in the United States, using slightly more water, using 37% of fresh water.
than 40%, but much of this water is returned to Farms (⊲) use water from ground-
the environment, not actually lost. Some of this water, rivers, streams, lakes, and
water is from recycled sources. Power plants are reservoirs to irrigate grain, fruit,
also the largest users of saline (salty) water. Such vegetables, cotton, animal feed,
plants drive their turbines by converting water and other crops. Much of this
into steam, and they also use large amounts of water is lost through evaporation
water to cool hot components. The visible emis- to the atmosphere before it can
sions from such plants is mostly steam. be used by plants.
17.02.a5 West Driefontane, South Africa

3. Public and Domestic Water Uses — The third-
largest use of fresh water is by public water sup-
pliers and other domestic uses (▼). We consume
water by drinking, bathing, watering lawns, filling
artificial lakes, and washing clothes, dishes, and
cars. Much water from public water suppliers also
goes to businesses. Most water for public and
domestic use comes from rivers and groundwater.
4. Industrial and Mining Uses—Fresh water

and saline water are extensively used by
industries, including factories, mills, and refin-
eries. Water is integral to many manufactur-
ing operations, including making paper,
steel, plastics, and concrete. Mining (▲) and
related activities also use water in the
17.02.a6 Tonto Creek, AZ extraction of metals and minerals from
5. Aquaculture — crushed rock.
According to the USGS
17.02.a1
study, we use approxi- 17.02.a7 Delta, UT
mately 2.5% of fresh
water to raise fish (⊳) and
aquatic plants. Most of
6. Livestock — Watering of cows, sheep,
this use is in Idaho, near
horses (⊲), and other livestock accounts for
the Thousand Springs
only 0.6% of fresh water use, but much
area. Such water is not
water is used for irrigation to raise hay, al-
totally consumed — much
falfa, and other animal feed. Many ranches
is released back into
use small constructed reservoirs and ponds
the Snake River.
as the main water source for animals.
How Do We Use and Store Surface Water?

17.02.b1 Grand Coulee Dam, WA 17.02.b2 Mississippi River 17.02.b3 Black Hills, SD
1. Electrical Generation — The movement of 2. Transportation — We use many large water- 3. Recreation — People use surface water in
surface water can generate e lectricity. To do ways, such as the Mississippi River, as energy- lakes and rivers for many types of recreation,
this, we build dams that channel water through efficient transportation systems to transport including swimming, tubing, rafting, b
oating,
turbines in a hydroelectric power plant. agricultural products, chemicals, and other and fishing. We also use fresh water to fill
industrial products. ponds, fountains, and swimming pools.
17.02.b4 Towson, MD 17.02.b5 Tempe, AZ
4. Surface waters are c ommonly stored in n

atural lakes and in
constructed reservoirs behind concrete (⊳) and earthen dams.
Water for drinking and other municipal uses can be stored in
underground or above-ground storage tanks.
5. We construct canals (⊲), raised aqueducts, and large and small
pipelines to move fresh water from one place to another, espe-
cially to irrigate farms or to bring water to large cities. Canals
also carry groundwater that has been pumped to the surface.
How Do We Refer to Volumes of Water?

Water-resource studies typically report volumes of water in one of three units: gallons, liters, or acre-feet.
Gallons and liters are familiar terms, but the concept of an acre-foot of water requires some explanation.
How big is an acre? An acre covers An acre-foot of water is the volume of water
an area of 4,047 m2 (43,560 ft2). If a required to cover an acre of land to a height
perfect square, an acre would be 64 of one foot. Imagine covering 91% of a foot-
m (210 ft) on a side. An acre is equiva- ball field (one acre) with a foot of water. An
lent to 91 yards of an American foot- acre-foot is equivalent to about 326,000 gal-
ball field. There are 640 acres in a lons, or more than 1.2 million liters of water.
square mile.
17.02.c1
Drinking-Water Standards in the United States
T
he U.S. Environmental Protection Many people prefer the taste and conve- Before You Leave This Page
Agency (EPA) sets standards for safe nience of bottled water to public tap water, but
drinking water. Nearly all public water there are generally no health reasons to buy Describe ways we use fresh water, and
supplies in the United States meet these stan- bottled water so long as the public water pro- which four uses consume the most.
dards, which can be found at www.epa vider meets all the federal, state, and local
Describe how we use and store
.gov. These standards set a limit on the con- drinking water regulations. Commercially bot-
fresh water.
centrations of selected contaminants in water. tled water is monitored by the Food and Drug
Small municipalities commonly have more Administration (FDA) but is not as closely Describe in familiar terms how much
trouble meeting these standards than large cit- monitored as public water systems. The FDA water is in an acre-foot.
ies because of limited budgets for water analy- requires a bottler to test its water source only Describe what a drinking water
17.2
sis, and for building and running facilities to once a year. Also, bottled water can cost as standard is, who sets the limits, and
remove contaminants. The EPA standards do much as 1,000 times more than municipal to whom they do and do not apply.
not apply to private wells. drinking water.
522
17.3 Where Is Groundwater Found?

A HUGE SUPPLY OF GROUNDWATER lies beneath Earth’s surface. Groundwater occurs beneath all areas of the
world but is far below the surface in some areas and very near the surface in others. Where does this water come from,
and how does it find room to accumulate in the solid Earth beneath us?
What Is Groundwater?
Groundwater is free water (exists as a liquid rather than being chemically bonded in minerals) that is beneath Earth’s
surface. Surface and near-surface rocks and soil can be relatively dry, but deeper parts are generally saturated with water.
Groundwater is present in three different settings that reflect the types of rocks, sediment, and geologic features that host
the water.
3. Most groundwater occurs in pore spaces and
1. In sediment or sedimentary rocks, adjacent fractures, but some resides in subterranean open-
grains do not fit together, so there is some space ings and caves. Caves can be filled or partially filled
between the grains. These spaces, called pore with water, or they can be completely dry. The rock
spaces, hold groundwater. Here, the tan objects shown here is a soluble limestone with wide frac-
are grains, the tures, bedding planes, and small cavities. Water
brown repre- passing through the rock dissolved soluble materi-
sents pore als, widening fractures and
spaces, and bedding planes,
the blue ultimately forming
indicates pore open cavities (⊲).
spaces that
are saturated 17.03.a2
(filled) with 2. All types of rocks have some fractures
groundwater (⊲). that provide openings in which groundwater
can accumulate (▲). If fractures a
re intercon-
17.03.a1 nected, the groundwater can flow. Here,
a gray rock is cut by fractures that are filled
with water (blue) or unsaturated (brown).
17.03.a3
How Does Groundwater Accumulate?

Groundwater originates from precipitation and snowmelt that seeps from the surface down into the subsurface. The water
accumulates in pores, fractures, and cavities within soil, loose sediment, and rock.
1. When rain falls on 5. The water table can be deep below
the surface or snow the surface, or it can intersect the surface
melts, the water can in lakes, streams, or swamps.
either evaporate, be
absorbed by plant
roots, flow downhill as
runoff, or seep
into the subsurface.
2. Water that soaks

into the soil first
passes through a part
of the subsurface
where most of the pore
spaces are filled with air
rather than water. This
upper part, called the
unsaturated zone, can be 17.03.b1
centimeters thick or can 3. As water penetrates deeper into the

continue to depths of subsurface, it eventually enters a zone 4. The top of the saturated zone is the water table, shown as a
hundreds of meters. It where water fills nearly all the pore spaces dashed red line. Below the water table, water fills and can flow
can become completely and fractures. This zone is the saturated through the interconnected pore spaces. Above the water table,
dry during long periods zone and is where most water occurs in some air remains in the pore spaces, and water within the pores
without rain. the subsurface. can seep downward but is not connected enough to flow laterally.
What Controls How Water Flows Through Rocks?

Water flows downhill, so the rate of groundwater flow is controlled by the steepness of the water table and two important
properties of the material — porosity and permeability. These two properties are related to one another, but they are not the
same thing. Porosity is a measure of how much water a rock can hold, but permeability indicates whether or how easily
groundwater can flow through the rock.
Porosity Permeability
1. Porosity is the proportion of the volume of rock that is open space 6. Permeability is a measure of the ability of a material to transmit a
(pore space). It ranges from less than 1% to more than 50% and fluid. It is related to the size and interconnectedness of the pore
determines how much water a material can contain. spaces. Materials with low porosity usually have low permeability.
2. Well-rounded and well-sorted sediment u sually has 7. Loosely cemented gravel and sand com-
higher porosity than angular or poorly sorted sediment monly contain interconnected pore spaces
because round grains do not fit together as tightly. This (⊳) that allow relatively easy groundwater
jar of marbles (⊳), analogous to well-rounded cobbles or flow. Such materials have high permeability
sand grains, shows that a lot of pore space exists in and host groundwater in many areas.
such materials, provided the space is not filled with a
natural cement.
17.03.c5
17.03.c1
8. Fractures cut most rocks (⊲), opening spaces
3. Sediment that is poorly sorted (⊲) tends to that typically represent a small volume of the
have less porosity because smaller grains fill the rock and only slightly increase porosity. Well-
spaces between larger grains. Lower porosity connected fractures, however, allow water to
also typifies sediment that has (1) angular grains, flow and provide higher permeability. Fractures
whose corners help fill open spaces, or (2) sedi- are the only significant permeability in granite
mentary grains that are held together by a and most other igneous rocks.
17.03.c6
natural cement, which fills in pore spaces.
17.03.c2 17.03.c7
9. When clay particles compact, they tend
4. Clay-rich sediments and sedimentary rocks, like shale, to become aligned parallel to one another (⊳).
consist of small particles shaped like plates or sheets (⊳) This decreases the porosity and causes the
that do not fit tightly together. There is abundant open pore spaces to be very small. Shales and
space (porosity) between them, but such pores, like the similar rocks will have very low permeability,
clay particles, are very small, making movement of water or perhaps no permeability.
difficult. Clay particles can become c ompacted or can
swell when wet, reducing porosity.
17.03.c8
17.03.c3
10. It is possible to have a highly porous rock
5. In igneous and metamorphic rocks, poros- with little or no permeability. A good example
ity is usually low because the minerals are is a vesicular volcanic rock (⊲). The bubbles
tightly intergrown (⊲), leaving little free space. that once contained gas give the rock a high
Some igneous rocks have less than 1% porosity, but most vesicles are not connected,
porosity. Fractures cutting any rock, however, so the rock has low permeability.
open up narrow spaces and increase the
porosity by some amount.
17.03.c4
11. Below are examples of high-permeability rocks. The conglomerate on the left has abundant
sandy matrix between the pebbles and cobbles, and the rock on the right is permeable sand-
stone cut by fractures that are interconnected. Both examples allow water to accumulate in large Before You Leave This Page
quantities and move easily through the material. Permeability can be measured in the laboratory
or tested in drill holes, and it is expressed mathematically using an equation called Darcy’s law.
Geologists and hydrologists use this equation to model the flow of groundwater. Sketch how groundwater accumulates
17.03.c9 Goldfield Mtns., AZ 17.03.c10 Sedona, AZ and occurs in rock and sediment.
Sketch and describe what the water
table represents.
17.3
Distinguish porosity from permeability,

providing examples of materials with
high and low values of each.
524
17.4 How and Where Does Groundwater Flow?

GROUNDWATER FLOWS BENEATH THE SURFACE in ways that are controlled by several key principles. The
direction and rate of groundwater flow are largely controlled by the slope of the water table, the permeability of the
materials, and the geometry and nature of the subsurface rock. Some rock types allow easy groundwater flow, whereas
others essentially preclude any significant movement. In the figure below, examine how the geometry of the water table
compares to the overlying surface topography.
What Is the Geometry of the Water Table?

The water table is usually not a horizontal surface but instead has a three-dimensional shape that mimics the shape of the
overlying land surface. The shape of the water table commonly has the equivalents of slopes, ridges, hills, and valleys. The
shape of the water table controls which way the upper levels of groundwater flow.
1. In most environments, the water table typically has 6. Where the water table intersects the land sur-
the same shape as the overlying land surface but is face, there may be lakes, wetlands, or a flowing
more subdued. Where the land surface is high, the stream. The stream in this figure occurs where
water table is also high, but not quite as high. the water table is at the surface. However,
The similarity in shape between topography streams do not all necessarily coincide
and the water table is less straightforward in with the water table, because some
some arid environments and in places flowing streams are underlain
where humans have pumped out by unsaturated materials.
groundwater faster than it can be
replenished by precipitation.
2. The water table generally slopes

from higher to lower areas. It generally
is deeper below the s urface under
mountains than under lowlands, so its
slope is less steep than that of the land
surface. The shape of the water table
is largely independent of the geometry
of rock units through which the water
table passes.
3. Groundwater just below the water table 17.04.a1

flows down the slope of the water table.
Beneath the main hill in this example, it flows
from left to right, from areas with a higher 4. Where the water table is horizontal, 5. The terminology used to describe features of a
water table to areas with a lower water table. for example near this lake, groundwater water table is derived from terms we use for topog-
The blue arrows show flow directions of water may flow very slowly or not at all. raphy. A high part of the water table s eparating parts
right below the water table. Groundwater can Deeper water may flow in directions sloping in opposite directions is called a ground
also flow up or down in response to gravity different from near-surface water, but water divide. Groundwater flows in opposite
and water pressures imposed from nearby. this is not shown. directions on either side of a groundwater divide.
What Controls the Rate of Groundwater Flow?

1. The rate of groundwater flow is typically measured in 2. The rate of groundwater
meters per day, but it can be much slower or faster. Rate is flow is strongly controlled by the
primarily controlled by permeability, which can vary by 12 permeability of the rock type.
orders of magnitude. The rate is controlled to a lesser extent In this diagram, flow is fastest
by the steepness of the water table because groundwater in highly permeable
flow is driven by the force cavernous limestone.
of gravity. Other factors
being equal, groundwater 3. Flow is moderately fast in
flows faster down a steep a porous conglomerate or
water-table slope and well-sorted sandstone.
slower down a more gen-
tle one. The slope of the 4. Flow is slower in shale, which
water table is also called 17.04.b2 has small pores, and in a granite
17.04.b1 the h ydraulic gradient. with poorly connected fractures.
What Is an Aquifer?
An aquifer is a large body of permeable, saturated material through which groundwater can flow well enough to yield
significant volumes of water to wells and springs. To be a good aquifer, a material must have high permeability, as occurs
in poorly cemented sand and gravel, most sandstone, cavernous limestone, or highly fractured rocks of nearly any type. A
material with low permeability does not make a good aquifer.
1. The most common type of aquifer is an unconfined 3. A low-permeability

aquifer where the water-bearing unit is open (not unit, such as this layer
restricted by impermeable rocks) to Earth’s surface of shale, can restrict
and atmosphere. Rainwater or s urface water can flow and is referred to
seep unimpeded through the unsaturated zone as an aquitard. An im-
and into an unconfined aquifer. permeable unit blocks
flow completely. Such
2. A confined aquifer is separated from Earth’s sur- units are the opposite
face by rocks with low permeability. Here, a perme- of an aquifer.
able sandstone aquifer is bounded above and
below by layers of low-permeability, gray shale.
17.04.c1
How Are Wells Related to the Water Table?

A well is a hole dug or drilled deep enough to intersect the water table. If the well is within an aquifer, water will fill the
open space to the level of the water table. This freestanding water can be drawn out by buckets or pumps.
17.04.d3
17.04.d1 17.04.d2
This well has been drilled from the land sur- In dry seasons, or during periods of high
face downward past the water table. The groundwater use, some wells run dry. This
aquifer is unconfined and has filled the well occurs when the water table drops and the Perched water sits above the main water table
with water to the height of the water table. well is no longer deep enough into the aquifer. and generally forms where a d iscontinuous
layer or lens of impermeable rock, in this case
gray shale, blocks water infiltrating into the
Artesian Wells and Water ground and causes groundwater to collect
above the lens.
W
e often hear the word artesian, com- that the groundwater is confined and under
monly in the context of bottled water pressure, and as a result rises some amount in
or certain beverages. What does this the well.
term imply? Does it mean that the water is bet- In studying artesian wells, springs, and other
ter tasting, more natural, or more healthy? The aspects of groundwater, geologists use the con-
short answer to these three questions is no, or at cept of a potentiometric surface, an imaginary Before You Leave This Page
least not necessarily. surface to which water would rise if allowed. If
The term artesian means that groundwater the potentiometric surface is above the ground,
Sketch and describe the typical
is in a confined aquifer and is under enough water in an artesian well will flow out onto the
geometry of the water table beneath
pressure that the water rises some amount surface on its own, without pumping.
a hill and a valley, showing the
within a well. The water does not have to reach
direction of groundwater flow.
the surface for the well to be called artesian,
but many artesian systems have enough pres- Summarize two factors that control
sure to force the water all the way to the sur- the rate of groundwater flow.
face, creating a well or spring. Although it is a Sketch and describe the origins of
catchy advertising term, the term artesian is perched water.
not indicative of how the water tastes, whether
17.4
it is more natural than other types of ground- Sketch and describe an unconfined,
water, or whether it is healthy. It only means confined, and artesian aquifer.
17.04.t1
526
17.5 What Is the Relationship Between

Surface Water and Groundwater?
SURFACE WATER AND GROUNDWATER ARE NOT ISOLATED SYSTEMS. Rather, they are highly interconnected
with water flowing from the surface to the subsurface and back again. Most groundwater forms from surface water that
seeps into the ground, and some streams and lakes are fed by groundwater.
How Does Water Move Between the Surface and Subsurface?

1. Surface water can 2. As long as topography does not intersect the water table, the ground-
soak into the subsur- water will remain at depth, generally flowing toward low elevations.
face and become
groundwater if the sur- 3. Where the water table intersects the surface,
face material is perme- groundwater can flow out onto the land. Such flow
able and the water forms many springs and can add water to lakes and
table is deep enough streams, keeping them from drying up. Seen in this
so there is an unsatu- context, a spring represents the interaction between
rated zone into which surface topography and the water table, and whether
water can seep. Perco- groundwater forms a spring depends on the
lation of water into the geometry of both. The water table is the
groundwater system more subdued of the two, so a
helps replenish or spring is usually along a topo-
recharge water lost by graphic low spot or a
wells, springs, or other locally steeper part of a
parts of the system. slope — the spring shown in
Such replenishment is this figure is at both a low
referred to as ground- spot and on a steeper part
water recharge. of the slope.
08.07.a1
What Causes Groundwater to Emerge as a Spring?

A spring represents a place where groundwater flows out of the ground onto the surface. At most springs, the water table
intersects the surface. This can occur in a variety of geologic settings, some of which are summarized below. Some
groundwater is heated by hot rocks before coming to the surface in warm springs, in hot springs, and in a geyser, a kind of
hot spring that intermittently erupts fountains or sprays of hot water and steam.
Springs Related to Rock Units
1. Many springs are related to limestone 2. Many springs are related to contacts between units, like
aquifers. In such rocks, water can flow unconformities. In this example, a sedimen-
easily along dissolved bedding planes tary unit that is a good aquifer lies above
or through caves or fractures wid- an unconformity, separating it from a less
ened by dissolution. Where permeable crystalline rock (granite).
the saturated zone in the Groundwater flows to the surface
aquifer intersects the in springs along the boundary.
surface, water can flow Such springs can form along any
out in a spring. type of geologic contact.
17.05.b1
17.05.b2
Springs Related to Geologic Structures

3. Faults can serve as conduits for ground 4. Some springs form where groundwater in perme-
water that feeds springs. Most faults are able rock encounters a less permeable obstacle.
zones of intense fracturing and are Here, groundwater flowing down the hydrau-
therefore permeable. Faults can lic gradient rises to the surface under
lead to springs if they pressure upon encountering a less
juxtapose permeable against permeable rock along a fault. Aqui-
less permeable rocks, as in fers with such springs can be uncon-
the example to the left. fined, as shown here, or confined.
17.05.b3 17.05.b4
How Are Lakes Related to Groundwater?

Lakes can have various relationships to groundwater. Most lakes occur where the water table intersects the ground surface,
but some have a different setting. Most wetlands represent the interaction between rainfall, surface water, and groundwater
and may be nourished by groundwater flow.
1. Some lakes are 2. Most lakes mark where 3. Many lakes are along 4. Wetlands can form peripheral
perched above the the water table intersects the bottoms of valleys to lakes, commonly at the same
water table. These and rises above the land where groundwater is level as the water table. Other
lakes can be tran- surface. A lake can be fed commonly close to or at lakes and wetlands are perched
sient, lasting only entirely or partially by the surface. Such lakes on uplands that contain clay or
a short time after inflow of groundwater. may be nearly in equilib- other less permeable material
precipitation. A rium with the adjacent close to the surface. The low
perched lake can groundwater, neither gain- permeability can trap precipita-
be permanent if the ing nor losing water. tion and runoff, slowing the
inflow of water into infiltration of water into the
the lake is at least ground, forming a wet-
equal to the amount land from the
lost by outflow to ponded water.
the ground, by
evaporation to the
air, or by other
means.
17.05.c1
How Do Streams Interact with the Water Table?

Water in many large and small streams decreases to a trickle and disappears entirely
farther down the drainage. In other cases, a stream flows even when there has not been
rain or snowmelt in a long time — what is the source of this water?
These situations are a result of interactions of the stream with groundwater.
17.05.d3
17.05.d1
3. Some losing streams disappear when they cross
1. Some streams are lower in elevation than the water table next to the stream, from hard, less permeable rocks onto softer, more
so groundwater flows into the stream as shown here by blue arrows, which permeable materials. The water seeps into the
show the direction of groundwater flow below the water table. A part of a ground, where it may continue to flow at a shallow
stream that receives water from the inflow of groundwater into the channel is depth in the loose sand and gravel in the basin.
said to be gaining or to be a gaining stream.
Sketch and describe how the interaction of the

water table with topography causes water to
flow between the surface and subsurface.
Sketch or describe what is required to form a
spring and possible settings where this occurs.
17.05.d2 Sketch and describe ways that lakes and
wetlands relate to groundwater.
17.5
2. Other stream channels flow across an area where the water table is at some
depth below the surface. The part of the stream that loses water from outflow to Describe gaining and losing streams and how a
groundwater is said to be losing or to be a losing stream. The blue arrows show stream can lose its water entirely.
that groundwater below the water table flows down and away from the channel.
528
17.6 How Do We Explore for Groundwater?

GROUNDWATER IS AN IMPORTANT RESOURCE, and much time and effort go into exploring for new sources of
groundwater and gaining a better understanding of existing groundwater supplies. Large numbers of geologists and
hydrogeologists explore for groundwater by collecting surface and subsurface data to investigate the depth, amount,
and setting of groundwater, the direction in which groundwater flows, and the quality of the water.
What Kinds of Information Are Used to Investigate Groundwater?

Hydrogeologists are geoscientists who specialize in groundwater investigations and interactions between surface water and
groundwater. They study geology on the surface and in the subsurface, and they use a variety of direct and indirect methods
to interpret the subsurface geometry of rock units, sediment, and the water table.
17.06.a2 Vietnam
1. Hydrogeologists usually begin a ground 2. Because surface water and groundwater
water study by collecting known information, are interrelated, hydrogeologists may collect
including topographic and geologic maps, data about the flow of surface water, including
reports about the geology and water the volume of water (the discharge) flowing in
resources, and information about depth to different stretches of streams. Such observa-
the water table, especially records of past tions can indicate whether streams are gaining
drilling. They may also need to or losing water to the groundwater system.
do new g eologic Additionally, sampling the chemistry of surface
field studies. waters (⊲) may help us understand water
quality and potential threats to
groundwater.
3. Hydrogeologists and geologic techni-

cians measure the depth to the water
table in existing wells by lowering an
electronic device, called a water-level
indicator, into the well (▼). Some water-
level instruments use sound and others
use electrical currents. The data are
recorded for later analysis.
17.06.a1
4. Geophysical surveys,

such as measurements of
variations in gravity, m
agnetism, and
electrical conductivity, provide key infor-
mation on the subsurface geometry of 5. Information about the subsurface is critical
17.06.a6
rock units and the water table. The for understanding the setting and controls of
graph below shows measurements of groundwater flow. Hydrogeologists choose
gravity over the edge of the basin drill-hole sites that will maximize the amount
shown above; the strength of gravity of information gained. Drill holes provide
decreases slightly as the thickness of direct measurements of the depth of the
low-density s ediments increases away water table, water samples for quality analysis,
from the mountain front and out into the samples of subsurface material, and a chance 17.06.a3
basin. We can use the gravity to esti- to observe the subsurface material with down-
6. Geologists and hydrogeologists
mate the thickness of the sediments. hole video cameras and geophysical instru-
graphically portray the results of
ments. The photo below shows a core of
drilling on a drill log (⊳), which is
A sediment retrieved by drilling.
similar to a s tratigraphic section
(plotting types of rocks or sedi-

STRENGTH OF
B
ments versus depth). A drill log
GRAVITY
C D
commonly also includes other
types of information, especially
0 100 200 300 400 500 geophysical measurements that
DISTANCE FROM MOUNTAIN FRONT (m) correlate with the type of material,
17.06.a4 the permeability, and with the
presence or absence of water.
How Do Hydrogeologists Depict the Water Table?

Once hydrogeologists collect the appropriate field, drilling, and geophysical data, they produce various types
of maps and diagrams, especially maps showing the elevation of the water table. From such maps we can determine the
general direction of groundwater flow.
17.06.b1 17.06.b2
1. The most important piece of 2. Hydrogeologists then draw
information about groundwater
N 140 Acequia Rd 140
contours to show the elevation
is a map showing variations in N 150 of the top of the water table.
the elevation of the water 150 The contours shown here indi-
table. The first step in con- 130 132 130 132
Rural Rd
Farms 140 cate the elevation of the water
structing such a map is to col- 130 table in meters. Each contour
129 130 129
lect and plot elevations of the 130 follows a specific elevation on
Aberdeen
water table in all available Village the water table across the area.
wells. Each number on this
119 Rupert Rd 119 120
map is the elevation (in meters 3. Arrows drawn perpendicular
above sea level) of the water 115
115 to the contours show the direc-
table at a well in that location. 120 120
tion of groundwater flow, which
High numbers mean the water Albion Ln 110 is down the slope of the water
table is higher than in sites 110 1 km
109 1 km 109 table, from higher contours to
with lower numbers. lower ones.
Other Depictions 17.06.b4
4. Hydrogeologists compare c ontour maps of

water-table elevations to other features,
including the locations
of wells, rivers, farms, and
other sites, that may
affect the groundwa-
ter, such as by tak-
ing water out of the
ground. They exten-
sively use computer-
ized geographic infor-
mation systems (GIS)
to overlay and com- 5. A cross section or block diagram, usually drawn
pare one data set to with some vertical exaggeration, helps us explore
another (⊲) and to iden- how the water table relates to subsurface geology.
tify patterns and rela- Key considerations include the geometry and dis-
tions between different tribution of different geologic materials, especially
types of information. those of different permeability, and how much of
17.06.b3
each unit is below the water table (in the saturated
zone where it could yield water).
6. Hydrogeologists incorporate the geologic information and well data into c omputer pro-
grams to produce a three-dimensional depiction (▼) of the water table. They then model the
directions and rates of groundwater flow and calculate the volumes of fresh water that will
be available for drinking and other uses. The goal of the various depictions is to understand Before You Leave This Page
the three-dimensional geometry of the basin, rock units, water table, and topography. These
factors control where and how much water accumulates, where and how it flows, and how it
interacts with features we see on the surface. This computerized model shows, from top to Summarize the types of information
bottom, the land surface, the base of two different that hydrogeologists collect and what
sedimentary sequences in the each indicates about the subsurface.
subsurface (colored yellow and
Describe how a contour map of
brown), and the top of hard
water-table elevations is constructed
bedrock (gray). The vertical
lines are wells, color coded to and how it would be used to predict
show the presence of sediment the direction of groundwater flow.
saturated by groundwater (yel-
17.6
17.06.b5 Describe factors to show in a cross 

low) at depth versus unsatu- section or block diagram if ground-
rated (red) closer to the surface. water is the focus of the study.
This is an unconfined aquifer.
530
17.7 What Problems Are Associated

with Groundwater Pumping?
THE SUPPLY OF GROUNDWATER IS FINITE, so pumping too much groundwater, a practice called overpumping,
can result in serious problems. Overpumping can cause neighboring wells to dry up, land to s ubside, and gaping fissures
to open across the land surface. It can draw salt water into wells that started with fresh water.
What Happens to the Water Table if Groundwater Is Overpumped?

Demands on water resources increase if an area’s population grows, the amount of land being cultivated increases, or open
space is replaced by industry. Groundwater is viewed as a way to acquire additional supplies of fresh water, so new wells
are drilled or larger wells replace smaller ones when more water is needed.
Minor Groundwater Withdrawal

1. A simple case illustrates the problems with overpumping. The two fig- 3. Across the entire area, groundwater flows from
ures below show what happens when an unconfined aquifer is pumped, right to left, down the gentle slope of the water table.
first by a small-volume pump and later by a larger pump. The topography The blue arrow shows the direction of flow for ground-
of this area is fairly flat, there are no bodies of surface water in the satu-
water, and a single type of porous and permeable rated part of the
sediment composes the s ubsurface. aquifer, right below
the water table.
2. As people move into a nearby town, This arrow is drawn
they drill a small well down to the water above the water
table to provide fresh water. The small table so the arrow
well pulls out so little groundwater that the is visible, but water
water table remains as it has for probably above the water
thousands of years — nearly flat and fea table is not con-
tureless. The well remains a dependable nected enough to
source of water because its bottom is well flow in this way.
below the water table.
17.07.a1
4. As more people move into the surrounding area, the town drills a larger well to
Increased Groundwater Withdrawal extract larger volumes of water to satisfy the growing demand. The new, larger
well pumps water so rapidly that groundwater around the well cannot flow in fast
enough to replenish what is lost. This causes the local water table to
drop, forming a funnel-shaped cone of depression around the well.
5. The direction of groundwater flow changes dramatically across the

entire area. Instead of flowing in one direction, groundwater now flows
toward the larger well and into the cone of depression from all direc-
tions. The change in flow direction has unintended consequences. It
may cause serious safety issues, since waste-disposal sites, like land-
fills, are generally planned with the original groundwater-flow direction
in mind. The change in flow direction can bring contaminated water
into previously fresh wells.
17.07.a2
6. The original small well dries up because it no longer reaches
the water table, which has been lowered by the larger well’s cone
of depression. A cone of depression is common around nearly all Sketch a cone of depression in cross section, describing
wells, but overpumping of the aquifer can accentuate the situation, how it forms and which way groundwater flows.
causing a large cone of depression that can have drastic conse-
Describe how a cone of depression can cause a well to
quences. It can dry up existing wells, change the direction of
groundwater flow, and contaminate wells. In addition, overpumping become polluted.
can dry up streams and lakes if they are fed by groundwater, or it Sketch or describe some other problems associated with
can cause the roofs of caves to collapse. Overpumping can affect overpumping, including subsidence, fissures, and
any type of aquifer, including a shallow unconfined aquifer (shown saltwater incursion.
here); a deep, confined aquifer; or a perched aquifer.
What Problems Are Caused by Excessive Groundwater Withdrawal?

In addition to changing the configuration of the water table, overpumping can cause the ground surface to subside if
sediment within the underlying aquifer is dewatered and compacted. In certain settings, subsidence causes fissures to open
on the surface.
Before Groundwater Pumping 2. Bedrock has interconnected frac-

tures that give it some permeability,
1. Many areas have settings but it has a much lower overall
similar to this one: mountains porosity and water than sediment in
composed of bedrock flank a the basin.
valley or basin underlain by
3. The water table slopes from the
a thick sequence of sediment.
mountains toward the basin, across
Most water is pumped from
the boundary between bedrock
the sediment-filled basin and
in the mountains and sediment
used by people in the valleys. 17.07.b1 beneath the valley.
4. If wells overpump groundwater, the water table will

After Groundwater Pumping drop over much of the area. In some cases it has 17.07.b3 Chandler Heights, AZ
dropped more than 100 m (~330 ft).
5. As the water table drops,
the thickness of the unsatu-
rated zone increases as the
upper part of the aquifer is
dewatered. Sediment within
and below the dewatered
zone compacts because
water pressure no longer
holds open the pore spaces. 17.07.b2
6. Compaction of the sediment causes the overlying land surface to subside
by several meters. Once the sediment compacts, the subsidence and loss of 7. The granite cannot c ompact, so
porosity are p ermanent and will not be undone if pumping stops and water open fissures develop across the
levels rise again. In many places, like the San Joaquin Valley of California land surface along the boundary
and the valleys near Phoenix, Arizona, the land surface has dropped as between land that subsided and
much as ten meters due to subsidence related to groundwater withdrawal. land that did not (in the mountains).
Along the coast, such subsidence could lower an area below sea level, as The earth fissure pictured here (⊲)
has occurred in New Orleans. formed by this type of subsidence.
How Can Groundwater Pumping Cause Saltwater Incursion into Coastal Wells?
Some wells are by necessity near the coasts of oceans and seas. These wells have a special threat — overpumping can draw
salt water into the well, a process referred to as saltwater incursion or saltwater intrusion.
Along coasts, When wells on land

fresh water commonly 17.07.c1 are overpumped, the inter- 17.07.c2
17.7
underlies the land, while ground- face between fresh water and salt
water beneath the seafloor is salty. Fresh water moves up and inland (saltwater incursion).
water is less dense than salt water and forms a lens Wells closest to the coast will begin to pump salt water
floating on top of salt water. and will have to be shut down due to overpumping.
532
17.8 How Can Water Become Contaminated?

CONTAMINATION OF SURFACE AND SUBSURFACE WATER SUPPLIES is a major problem facing many com-
munities. Some contaminants are natural products of the environment, whereas others have human sources, the direct
result of our modern lifestyle. What are some main sources of water contamination?
1. Examine this figure, 2. Water contamination can have natural causes. Weathering 3. We use large amounts of petroleum and
trying to recognize every of rocks releases chemical elements into surface water and coal, which have to be discovered, extracted,
potential source that could groundwater — some of these elements are beneficial and oth- transported, and processed. Any of these
contaminate surface water ers are not. Rocks, especially those that have been mineralized activities potentially cause pollution. Some
and groundwater. Then by hot fluids, may contain lead, sulfur, arsenic, or other poten- of the worst disasters are leaks from pipelines
read the accompanying tially hazardous elements. Mining activities and natural erosion and supertankers, fires at refineries and stor-
text blocks. Go ahead, it’s move mineralized rocks away from where they formed, further age tanks, and leaks from wells.
a great figure. spreading these contaminants.
4. Old landfills are the repositories for countless discarded items,
many of which contain hazardous substances. Such items include
diapers, toxic liquids from household or commercial use, compact
fluorescent bulbs (which contain toxic mercury), old tires, some
types of batteries, and other garbage. If not properly sited and
sealed from the environment, landfills can be major sources of
pollution. Landfills along streams, such as this one, can be
breached by lateral erosion of channels.
Supposedly impermeable linings
beneath the landfill can crack
during settling and from
daily landfill operations,
allowing a toxic stew to
seep into the underly-
ing groundwater.
17.08.a1
5. One of the most basic types of

contamination is human waste,
which can end up in surface water
and groundwater supplies if proper 6. Farms, ranches, and commercial orchards are
sanitary procedures are not fol- contributors of chemical and organic contamina-
lowed. Contamination of this sort tion. Chemical contaminants include fertilizers that
comes from septic tanks, accidental contain nitrates, insecticides to control pests, her- 7. Gas stations contaminate water because of
spills from wastewater treatment fa- bicides to combat invasive weeds, and defoliants leaks from underground storage tanks and
cilities, or, in less affluent parts of to remove leaves before harvesting crops like cot- spills that occur while filling vehicles. Gas sta-
the world, from waste d isposal in ton. Irrigated fields build up salts as water evapo- tions frequently go out of business if they
open sewers and trenches. It also rates, and much of this gets carried into ditches have to dig up leaking underground storage
includes medicines, detergents, and by excess irrigation water. Animal waste, which tanks. Spills from tanker trucks, railroad cars,
other household chemicals we use. contains harmful bacteria, hormones, and feed ad- and trucks delivering fuel from distribution
ditives, is also a potential problem. hubs may cause water contamination if there
is an accident.
17.08.a2 Russia
8. To manufacture the items we use in our
daily lives, factories use many different raw
materials and chemicals. Plastic products, for Water, Arsenic,
example, are everywhere around us: contain-
ers for soda and bottled water, plastic bags for
and Bangladesh
B
groceries and other purchases, and many angladesh, in south Asia, is a geologi-
parts of our cars. These plastics are mostly cally challenged country. Much of it
produced from petroleum, which must be
consists of lowlands that are flooded by
refined and processed in refineries and plas-
tic factories. Petroleum and various chemicals,
storm surges in the sea and by the Ganges, one
along with the waste produced during the of the world’s largest rivers.
manufacturing process, can accidentally One of Bangladesh’s worst problems, how-
escape, causing an industrial site to become ever, is water contamination. For centuries, poor
heavily contaminated, as shown in the photograph here. In the past, liquid contamination was sanitation in this impoverished nation polluted
pumped down “disposal wells,” often ending up in the groundwater. Ponds intended for tem- the rivers and other surface-water sources with
porary storage can leak, contaminating surface water and groundwater. Fumes and particles cholera, dysentery, and other diseases. To pro-
emitted from smokestacks settle back to the ground or are washed down by rain and snow- vide a new source of water, people sank more
fall, possibly contaminating air, plants, buildings, soils, surface water, or groundwater. than 10 million tube wells (created by pounding
tubes into the soft sediment). Unfortunately, the
sediment and groundwater have a high content
of naturally derived arsenic, many times the rec-
9. Even if a community is care- ommended limit, causing arsenic poisoning on
ful with wastes, contamination a scale never before seen. To help solve the
can be c arried into the area by problem, geologists from the U.S. Geological
rivers that drain polluted areas Survey and the Geologi-
upstream. Polluted surface
cal Survey of Bangla-
water can seep into ground-
water, and groundwater desh conducted a large
inflow can flow into project, sampling the
and pollute streams. well waters (⊲), studying
Soils can the surface and subsur-
contaminate water, face geology, drilling
which pollutes a wells into a deeper aqui-
stream, which then fer (▼), and evaluating
pollutes the next whether bacteria can
town downstream. be used to reduce the
arsenic concentrations.
10. In the past, dry
cleaners were sources of 17.08.t1
groundwater pollution
because of the chemical
solvents used to clean
clothes without water. Such
solvents have names from or-
ganic chemistry and c ommonly
are referred to by their abbrevia-
tions, such as PCE for per
chloroethylene (“perc” for short).
17.08.t2
11. Houses cause water p ollution
during the production of the materi-
als used to build the house, from
actual construction, and from day-to-
day activities that include the use of
fertilizer, termite treatment, and
12. We may be unaware of
water contamination that is beneath us. household pesticides. Oil and gas
Subsurface rock and s ediment can contain hazard- spilled from cars and other Describe the many ways that surface
17.8
ous natural substances, including metallic elements machines, along with oil improperly water and groundwater can become
and radon. We may discover the contamination disposed of during do-it-yourself oil contaminated.
only if we drill into it, often because an unusual changes, can contaminate large
health issue appears in a local population. volumes of fresh water.
534
17.9 How Does Groundwater Contamination Move and

How Do We Clean It Up?
WATER CONTAMINATION CAN BE OBVIOUS OR SUBTLE. Some rivers and lakes have oily films and give off
noxious fumes, but some contamination occurs in water that looks normal and tastes normal but contains hazardous
amounts of a natural or human-related chemical component. How does contamination in groundwater move, how do
we investigate its causes and consequences, and what are possible remedies?
How Does Contamination Move in Groundwater?

As contamination enters groundwater, it typically moves along with the flowing groundwater. Contamination
can remain concentrated, can spread out, or can be filtered by passage through sediment and rocks.
1. Groundwater contamination typically 3. Contamination is drawn out parallel to 5. Some contamination can be naturally
moves with the groundwater down the slope the direction of groundwater flow. filtered by materials through which the
of the water table. contaminated groundwater flows.
17.09.a3
17.09.a1
17.09.a2
6. Contamination from the septic tank on

2. Contamination from this septic tank will 4. Diffusion and mixing spread the contami- the left will be filtered by slow movement
move to the right away from the water well. nated zone as it migrates away from the through sandstone, whereas contamination
The direction of groundwater flow is clearly source. Consequently, the shape of most from the septic tank on the right will flow
important in deciding where to put the s eptic contamination spreads out like smoke from rapidly away, unfiltered, through perme-
tank relative to the well. a chimney and is called a plume. able, cavernous limestone.
How Do We Investigate Groundwater Contamination?

Hydrogeologists investigate groundwater and surface water contamination using the same approaches
they use for other types of water-related geologic problems, plus a few extra strategies.
17.09.b1 Newcastle, England
Substance Limits Health Issues 2. Water contamination is fundamen-

tally about chemicals and hazardous
Arsenic 0.01 mg/L Cancer, numbness microbes, so hydrogeologists collect
geochemical samples that are ana-
Cadmium 0.005 mg/L Kidneys, liver, lungs
lyzed either in the field or later by
Chromium 0.1 mg/L Cancer, nasal issues chemists in a laboratory. Some vola-
tile organic compounds are detected
Lead 0.015 mg/L Kidneys, blood pressure using sensors that analyze soil
gases given off by groundwater and
Trichloroethylene 0.005 mg/L Cancer, kidneys soil.
(TCE)
17.09.b2 Phoenix, AZ
1. Most surface-water and groundwater contamination is recognized 3. Hydrogeologists conduct tests
by chemical analyses done by community water providers. In the of an aquifer by pumping a well
United States, water standards are set by the Environmental Protec- continuously at a specific rate and
tion Agency (EPA). This table lists the EPA drinking water standards observing how that well and wells
for a few of the better known or more hazardous water contaminants. around it react during the pumping
Values are in milligrams per liter (mg/L), which is equivalent to parts and after the pumps are turned off.
per million (ppm). A standard of 0.1 mg/L for chromium means that This provides information about
drinking water is above the limit if it contains more than about 1 atom how fast groundwater and contami-
of chromium for every ten million molecules of water. nation might move.
How Is Groundwater Contamination Tracked and Remediated?

Once groundwater contamination is identified, what do we do next? Hydrogeologists compile available information to
compare the distribution of contamination with all relevant geologic factors. One commonly used option to clean up, or
remediate, a site of contamination is called “pump-and-treat.” Some contamination can be mostly remediated, but
remediation is much more expensive than not causing the problem to begin with.
1. The first step to reme- 2. In this area, contamination consists of chromium released by a chrome-
diation is to properly plating shop. The water table slopes to the southeast, so this is the direction
understand the situation — in which the upper levels of groundwater will flow. We predict that
what is the nature of the contamination will move in this same direction.
contamination, where is
the contamination now, 3. Chromium ions are carried away by groundwater
where did it come from, flow and also chemically diffuse through the water,
where is it going, and what albeit at a slower rate. The combination of flow and dif-
are the geologic controls? fusion causes the contamination to spread out like
smoke from a chimney, forming a plume of contamina-
tion. There is no contamination upflow (northwest) of the
shop, but the plume of contamination will spread to the
17.09.c1 southeast.
4. To investigate the situation, we contour elevations of the water table to more p
recisely
determine which way groundwater is flowing. In this case, the contours decrease in elevation
to the southeast. Groundwater flows to the southeast, perpendicular to the contours (and
toward lower elevation contours).
5. We draw a second set of contours based on chemical analyses of the concentration of
contamination, in this case chromium. For example, areas within the 5 mg/L contour have
at least 5 mg/L chromium, and those within the 10 mg/L contour have at least 10 mg/L.
The EPA limit for chromium is 0.1 mg/L, so these values are well above EPA standards.
17.09.c2
6. From these maps, we can now 7. Finally, we try to clean up the contamina-
determine where the contamination tion. One strategy is to drill wells in front of
is, which way it is moving, and where the projected path of the contamination to
it will go in the future (down the contain, capture, and extract the contami-
slope of the water table). If from nated water. Pumping brings contaminated
interviews or historical records we water to the surface, where it is processed
can determine how long ago the with carbon filters or other appropriate tech-
contamination occurred, we can use nology to separate the contaminant from the
simple calculations (distance/time) to water. The cleaned water is typically rein-
get the rate of flow. We also can use jected into the ground, evaporates in evapo-
computer simulations to model past ration ponds, or is channeled to flow down
and future movement. streams.
17.09.c3
A Civil Action Before You Leave This Page
W
oburn, Massachusetts, a small town and had a chemical odor. Over the next 20  years,
10 miles north of Boston, was the residents began to show a high incidence of leu- Sketch a plume of contamination,
site of a classic legal case involving kemia and other serious health problems. showing how it relates to the source
groundwater contamination. The case was made Chemical analyses showed that the groundwater of contamination and the direction of
famous in the book A Civil Action by Jonathan was contaminated with trichloroethylene (TCE) groundwater flow.
Harr and in a movie of the same name starring and other volatile organic compounds. Local
Describe some ways in which
John Travolta. families filed a lawsuit against several chemical
hydrogeologists investigate
The trouble began in the 1960s when the city companies that were potentially responsible.
groundwater contamination.
drilled two new groundwater wells for munici- The verdict remains complex, but the site is a
pal water supplies. The wells were drilled into classic example of the interaction of geology,
17.9
Sketch how chemical analyses define

glacial and river sediments that had filled an old water, health, and environmental law. a plume of contamination and one
valley. After the wells were installed, some way a plume could be remediated.
residents complained that the water tasted odd
CONNECTIONS
17.10 What Is Going On with the Ogallala Aquifer?
THE MOST IMPORTANT AQUIFER IN THE UNITED STATES lies beneath the High Plains, stretching from South
Dakota to Texas. It provides groundwater for about 20% of all cropland in the country, but it is severely threatened by
overpumping. The setting, characteristics, groundwater flow, and water-use patterns of this aquifer connect many differ-
ent aspects of water resources and illustrate their relationship to geology.
What Is the Setting of the Ogallala Aquifer?

1. The Ogallala aquifer, also called 3. The aquifer is named for
the High Plains aquifer, covers much the Ogallala Group, the main
of the High Plains area in the center geologic formation in the
of the United States. The blue-out- aquifer. The formation was
lined area on this map shows the named by a geologist in the
extent of the main part of the aquifer. early 1900s after the small
The aquifer forms an irregularly Nebraskan town of Ogallala.
shaped north-south belt from South
Dakota and Wyoming through
Nebraska, Colorado, Kansas, the pan-
handles of Oklahoma and Texas, and
eastern New Mexico. 4. Much of the Ogallala
Group consists of sediment
deposited by streams and
wind during the last half of
the Cenozoic, mostly between
19 and 5 million years ago.
2. The Ogallala aquifer covers about Braided streams carried abun-
450,000 km2 (174,000 mi2) and is cur- dant sediment eastward from
rently the largest source of ground the Rocky Mountains, spread-
water in the country. It provides 30% ing over the landscape and
of all groundwater used for irrigation depositing a relatively contin-
in the U.S. In 1980, near the height of uous layer of sediment. Depo-
the aquifer’s use, 17.6 million acre-feet sition stopped when regional
of water were withdrawn to irrigate 13 uplift and tilting caused the
million acres of land. The water is streams to downcut and
used mostly for agriculture and range- erode rather than continuing
land. The main agricultural products to deposit sediment. Present-
include corn, wheat, soybeans, and day streams continue to
feed for livestock. erode into the aquifer and
drain eastward and south-
ward, eventually flowing into
the Gulf of Mexico.
17.10.a1
The Aquifer in Cross Section 7. The upper part of the aquifer (shaded yellow) is above the water
table and in the unsaturated zone.
5. This vertically exag- 1.5 17.10.a2
NM TX
gerated cross section 8. Blue colors show levels
shows the thickness of of the water table for 1950
ELEVATION (km)
Ground Surface
the aquifer from west to 1.2 TX OK
and 2000, and purple
east. It shows the aqui- shows the predicted levels
fer in various colors; 2000 1950 for 2050. Note that water
Water Table
rocks below the aquifer 0.9 levels in the aquifer have
are shaded bluish gray. Base of Ogallala fallen due to overpumping.
Note that the aquifer is The western part is pre-
at the surface and is an 80 km dicted to be totally depleted
0.6 2050 EAST
unconfined aquifer. WEST (HORIZONTAL DISTANCE) by 2050 (no purple).
6. The irregular base of the aquifer is an unconformity that reflects erosion of the land before deposition of the aquifer.
536
W a t e r R e s o u r c e s 537
Where Does Groundwater in the Aquifer Come from and How Is It Used?
3. This graph shows the water balance for the Ogallala aquifer.
1. Most of the water going Water going into the aquifer (▼) is shown above the axis,
into the aquifer is from whereas water being lost by the aquifer is below the axis. Some
local precipitation. This map groundwater recharge occurs where water from precipitation
shows the amount of pre- seeps into the aquifer, especially in areas that receive higher
cipitation received across amounts of precipitation, as either rain or snow.
the area, with darker shades
indicating more precipitation.
The western part of the
GAINS
500
VOLUMETIC RATE (1000 m3 /yr)

aquifer receives much less Pumping Springs Rivers Storage
precipitation (rain, snow, and 0
Recharge
LOSSES
hail) than the eastern part.
-500
-1000
Predevelopment
-1500
2. Areas of the aquifer that 2000
receive the least amounts -2000 17.10.b2 2050
of precipitation — the south-
western parts — are also
4. The amount taken out of 5. As the aquifer dewaters
those predicted to go dry
the aquifer by pumping, it compacts, which causes
by 2050.
springs, and inflow into rivers a decrease in porosity
greatly exceeds the recharge, and a loss of pore space
so most parts of the aquifer (in which to store water).
17.10.b1 are being dewatered. This cannot be undone.
How Has Overpumping Affected Water Levels in the Ogallala Aquifer?

The USGS estimates that the aquifer contains 2.9 billion acre-feet of water. That is enough to cover the entire lower 48
states with 1.5 feet of water. How much has overpumping affected the aquifer’s water levels, and what will happen to the
region and to the country if large parts of the aquifer dry up?
1. This map shows the thickness (in meters) 2. This map shows how many feet the water 3. Future Predictions — It is uncertain what will
of the saturated zone within the aquifer. In table dropped in elevation between 1980 and happen, but hydrogeologists are conducting
some of its northern parts, more than 300 1995 as a consequence of overpumping. The detailed studies of key areas to try to predict
m (1,000 ft) of the aquifer is saturated with largest drops, exceeding 10 m, occurred in south- what will happen in the next decades. Projec-
water, whereas less than 60 m (180 ft) western Kansas and the northern part of Texas. tions of current water use, combined with
remain saturated in the southern parts. Compare this map to the one for precipitation. numerical models of the water balance, pre-
dict that some parts of the aquifer will go dry
by 2050. This will have catastrophic conse-
quences for the local farmers, ranchers, and
businesses, and for people across the country
who depend on the aquifer for much of their
food. Subsidence related to groundwater with-
drawal and compaction of the aquifer will be
an increasing concern. What do you think
would happen to the region if this aquifer
were partly pumped dry?
Summarize the location, charac

teristics, and importance of the
Ogallala aquifer.
17.10
Summarize the water balance

for the aquifer and how water
levels have changed in the last
several decades.
17.10.c1 17.10.c2
17.11 Who Polluted Surface Water and
Groundwater in This Place?
SURFACE WATER AND GROUNDWATER IN THIS AREA are contaminated. You will use the geology of the area,
along with elevations of the water table and chemical analyses of the contaminated water, to determine where the
contamination is, where it came from, and where it is going. From your conclusions, you will decide where to drill
new wells for uncontaminated groundwater.
1. The region contains a series of ridges to
Goals of This Exercise: the east and a broad, gentle valley to the
west. Small towns are scattered across the
• Observe the landscape to interpret the area’s geologic setting. ridges and valleys. There are also several
farms, a dairy, and a number of industrial sites,
• Read descriptions of various natural and constructed features. each of which is labeled with a unique name.
Hydrogeologists studied one of these towns,
• Use well data and water chemistry to draw a map showing where
Springtown, and concluded that it is not the
contamination is and which way groundwater is flowing. source of any contamination.
• Use the map and other information to interpret where contamination
originated, which facilities might be responsible, and where the 2. A main river, called the Black River for its
contamination is headed. unusual dark, cloudy color, flows westward
(right to left) through the center of the valley.
• Determine a well location unlikely to be contaminated in the future. The river contains water all year, even
when it has not rained in quite a
while. Both sides of the valley
slope inward, north and
Procedures south, toward
the river.
Use the available information to complete the following steps, en-
tering your answers on the worksheet or online. 17.11.a1
A. This figure shows geologic features, rivers, springs, and human-

constructed features, including a series of wells (lettered A through P).
Observe the distribution of rock units, sediment, rivers, springs, and
other features on the landscape. Compare these observations with the
cross sections on the sides of the terrain to interpret how the geology
is expressed in different areas.
B. Read the descriptions of key features and consider how this informa-
tion relates to the geologic setting, to the flow of surface water and
groundwater, and to the contamination.
C. The data table on the next page shows elevation of the water table in
each lettered well. Use these data and the base map on the worksheet
to construct a groundwater map with contours of the water table at the
following elevations: 100, 110, 120, 130, 140, and 150 meters. On the con-
toured map, draw arrows pointing down the slope of the
water table to show the direction of groundwater flow.
D. Use the data table showing concentrations of a contaminant, purposely
unnamed here, in groundwater to shade in areas where there is contam-
ination. Use darker shades for higher levels of contamination.
E. Use the groundwater map to interpret where the contamination most
3. Drilling
likely originated and which facilities were probably responsible. Mark a and gravity
large X over these facilities on the map, and explain your reasons in surveys show
the worksheet or online. that the valley is
F. Determine which of the lettered well sites will most likely remain free underlain by a thick
of contamination, and draw a circle around one such well. sequence of relatively
unconsolidated and weakly cemented sand
G. Devise a plan to remediate the groundwater contamination by drilling and gravel. The deepest part of the basin has
wells in front of the plume of contamination; mark these on the map been downdropped by n ormal faults, one of
with the letter R. which is buried beneath the gravel.
538
W a t e r R e s o u r c e s 539
6. Bedrock units cross the land- 7. A north-south ridge is

scape in a series of north-south composed of sandstone, Gravel – Unconsolidated sand and gravel in the lower
stripes, parallel to the strike of the called the lower sand- parts of the valley
rock layers. One of the north-south stone. Slidetown, a new
Upper Sandstone – Well-sorted, permeable sandstone
valleys contains several large coal town on this ridge, is
mines and a coal-burning, electrical- not a possible source of Upper Shale – Impermeable, with coal
generating plant. An unsubstantiated the contamination
rumor says that one of the mines because it was built too Sinkerton Limestone – Porous, cavernous limestone
had some sort of chemical spill that recently. A few nice- Middle Shale – Impermeable shale
was never reported. Activity at the tasting, freshwater springs
mines and power plant has caused issue from the sandstone Lower Sandstone – Permeable sandstone
fine coal dust to be blown around where it is cut by small Lower Shale – Impermeable shale
by the wind and washed into stream valleys.
the smaller rivers that flow Basal Conglomerate – Poorly sorted with salty water
along the valley.
Granite – Sparsely fractured; oldest rock in area
17.11.a2
8. The highest part of the region is a ridge of granite and s edimentary
rocks along the east edge of the area. This ridge receives quite a bit of
rain during the summer and snow in the winter. Several clear streams
begin in the ridge and flow westward toward the lowlands.
9. A company built a coal-burning power plant over tilted beds of

a unit named the Sinkerton Limestone, so called because it is
associated with many sinkholes, caves, and karst topography.
The limestone is so permeable that the power plant has had
difficulty keeping water in ponds built to dispose of waste
waters, which are rich in the chemical substances (including
the contaminant) that are naturally present in coal.
10. The tables below list water-table elevations in meters and

concentrations of contamination in milligrams per liter (mg/L) for
each of the lettered wells (A–P). This table also lists the concentra-
tion of contamination in samples from four springs (S1–S4) and eight
river segments (R1–R8). The location of each sample site is
marked on the figure. Wells M, N, and P are deep wells, drilled
into the Sinkerton Limestone aquifer at depth, although they first
encountered water at a shallow depth. The chemical samples from
these wells were collected from deep waters.
Well Elev. WT mg/L Well Elev. WT mg/L

A 110 0 I 130 30
B 100 0 J 130 0
5. From mapping and C 105 0 K 120 0

other studies on the surface,
D 110 20 L 130 0
hydrogeologists have deter-
mined the sequence of rock E 120 10 M 150 50
4. Based on units, as summarized in the
shallow drilling, stratigraphic section in the F 115 0 N 150 0
the water table (the top upper right corner of this
of the blue shading) mim- page. These studies also G 120 0 O 140 0
ics the topography, being document a broad anticline
H 120 50 P 150 0
higher beneath the and a syncline beneath the
ridges than beneath the eastern part of the region.
valleys. Overall, the water Note that contamination can Spring mg/L River mg/L River mg/L
table slopes from east to flow through the subsurface, S1 50 R1 0 R5 0
west (right to left), parallel following limestone and
to the regional slope of other permeable units, S2 0 R2 20 R6 0
17.11
the land. All rocks below instead of passing horizon-

the water table are satu- tally through impermeable S3 0 R3 0 R7 5
rated with groundwater. ones, like shale. S4 0 R4 0 R8 5
CHAPTER
18 Energy and Mineral Resources

NATURAL RESOURCES ARE THE FOUNDATIONS OF MODERN SOCIETY. They provide us with the materials
that sustain our way of life, including energy resources for electricity, transportation, and industry, and mineral resources,
the starting materials for metals, concrete, bricks, and many other things. This chapter is about energy and mineral
resources, whose study involves nearly every other aspect of geology, including plate tectonics, mineralogy, sedimentary
environments, deformation, and movement of groundwater.
The Arabian Peninsula, most of which is part of Saudi The Persian Gulf region produces much of the world’s oil — many millions of barrels a
Arabia, is a dry, desert land bounded on the west by day. The established oil reserves (the amount documented to be present) are
the Red Sea and on the east by the Persian Gulf. The hundreds of billions of barrels of oil, representing a large fraction of the world’s
peninsula is asymmetrical: Its western edge along the reserves of crude oil. The region also has much of the world’s known gas reserves,
Red Sea is a series of steep escarpments. On the east, and the region continues to have some of the greatest potential for undiscovered
it gradually decreases in elevation until it slips beneath oil of any part of the world.
the shallow waters of the Persian Gulf.
Where do oil and gas come from, and why does this region have such a large share
How did the peninsula form, why is it asymmetric, of these critical resources?
and why is the Red Sea much deeper than
the Persian Gulf?
The Zagros Mountains, which run parallel

to the Persian Gulf, are also rich in oil.
These mountains in western Iran
contain large folds that formed as
the Arabian plate pushed beneath
the southwestern edge of the
Eurasian plate.
How are oil and gas

related to folded
mountain belts?
18.00.a1
18.00.a2
This tectonic map (⊲)

shows the main tectonic features
of the Arabian Peninsula and adjacent regions. It
shows tectonic boundaries, oil and gas fields, exposures
of Precambrian rocks, and large geologic structures.
The Arabian Peninsula is on the Arabian plate, which is bounded by all

three types of plate boundaries (divergent, convergent, and transform). On
its southwestern side, Arabia is pulling away from Africa along a divergent
boundary in the Red Sea. The northwestern and southeastern boundaries of
the Arabian plate are transform faults, where the Arabian plate slips past
plates in the Indian Ocean and Mediterranean Sea. The northeastern
boundary of the plate is a convergent boundary, where the Arabian plate
pushes beneath Asia. Compression along this collisional boundary produces
folds and faults, forming structures that trapped the world’s largest oil and
gas resources in the Zagros Mountains and the Arabian Peninsula.
540
Energy and Mineral Resources 541
18.1 How Do Oil and Natural Gas Form? 542 18.11 How Do Precious Metal Deposits Form? 562
18.2 In What Settings Are Oil and Gas Trapped? 544 18.12 How Do Base Metal Deposits Form? 564
18.3 What Are Shale Gas and Shale Oil? 546 18.13 How Do We Explore for Mineral Deposits? 566
18.4 How Do Coal and Coal-Bed Methane Form? 548 18.14 Why Are Industrial Rocks and Minerals
18.5 What Are Other Types of Hydrocarbons? 550 So Important to Society? 568
18.6 How Do We Explore for Fossil Fuels? 552 18.15 CONNECTIONS: Why Is Wyoming So Rich
in Energy Resources? 570
18.7 How Is Nuclear Energy Produced? 554
18.16 INVESTIGATION: Where Would You Explore
18.8 How Is Water Used to Generate Electricity? 556
for Fossil Fuels in This Place? 572
18.9 What Are Alternative Energy Sources? 558
18.10 What Are Mineral Deposits and How
Do They Form? 560
In cross section, the

Arabian Peninsula is
tilted — the western part
rifted and uplifted, while the
eastern part subsided
beneath the weight of
18.00.a3
thrust sheets in the Zagros
Mountains. Upper sedimen-
tary layers thicken toward
the Persian Gulf and contain folds, Rifting uplifted the land that flanks Paleozoic and Mesozoic sedimentary layers near the Persian Gulf
salt domes, and oil fields, including the Red Sea, exposing deeper were buried and slightly heated, which converted organic material in
the largest oil field in the world in Precambrian basement rocks in the layers into oil and gas. Oil and gas migrated through the layers,
eastern Saudi Arabia. the western Arabian Peninsula. becoming trapped in anticlines, salt domes, and other structures.
Natural Resources and Our Modern Society
W
e use many different natural Our society, and we as individuals, use and mineral resources, mostly nonrenewable,
resources. Some resources, like oil large quantities of energy, mineral, and water consumed in the United States per person.
and natural gas, are obvious, but oth- resources. Some resources, such as solar These amounts include materials used to con-
ers may not be noticed by most people. It is power, are renewable, meaning that they are struct roads, gypsum in wallboard, and copper
said — and it is true — that if something we use somehow replenished by natural processes. in wiring. As summarized in the table included
is not grown, it probably has a geologic origin Other resources, like oil, are nonrenewable, here, the National Mining Association esti-
and was found by a geologist. This is especially meaning there is a finite supply, which we mates that average consumption in the United
true of energy and mineral resources. diminish as we consume that resource. Most States in 2013 was 37,700 pounds of minerals
Energy resources include oil and gas, as people are unaware of the amounts of energy per person! Nearly 40% of this amount was
well as coal, nuclear fuels, and energy derived sand, gravel, and stone. We also consume large
from dams, wind, and the Sun. These resources Per Capita amounts of coal, natural gas, and petroleum
Material Consumption
are not equally distributed in every part of the used for fuels and to make plastics and many
(pounds)
world. Some areas, like Saudi Arabia, are rich other items.
in energy resources. Others, like South Africa, Sand, Gravel, Stone 15,093 Finding mineral resources is essential to
are rich in mineral resources. Some areas have support our modern society, so geologists
Petroleum Products 6,542
neither. What factors cause some areas to be study many aspects of resources, from their
rich in resources and others to have so few? Coal 5,842 general characteristics to the processes by
The answer, of course, is geology. Each which they form. Certain geologic processes
region has its own unique geologic history, Natural Gas 8,643 form oil, and others form copper deposits. For
which means that some areas have thick Cement 573 many important resources, we are at the mercy
sequences of sedimentary rocks, and others have of geologic events, most of which happened
granite and metamorphic rocks. Some areas have Salt 349 millions of years ago. The political and eco-
18.0
folds and faults; others have horizontal layers. nomic systems of the world must function
Iron Ore 314
These variations in geology lead to differences around this geologic reality.
in the abundance and kinds of energy and min- Phosphate Rock 220
eral resources found in different places.
Clays 154
542
18.1 How Do Oil and Natural Gas Form?

OIL AND NATURAL GAS SEEM LIKE ODD SUBSTANCES to find in solid rock. Where do they come from? Oil
and natural gas, together called petroleum, form naturally when sediment rich in organic material is deposited, buried,
and heated to slightly elevated temperatures. Once formed, petroleum can escape to the surface or be trapped at depth,
where it can be discovered by geologists and extracted through drilling.
What Is Petroleum and Where Does It Come From?

Naturally occurring petroleum is an organic substance, largely composed of carbon chemically bonded with hydrogen
and smaller amounts of other elements. The dominance of hydrogen and carbon atoms is the reason we use the term
hydrocarbons to refer to oil and natural gas, as well as to their refinery-produced derivative products, including gasoline
and diesel fuel. The organic material that turns into hydrocarbons comes from several sources.
18.01.a1 Raja Ampat, Indonesia 18.01.a2 Everglades, FL 18.01.a3 Verde Valley, AZ
Reefs teem with life, including fish and other Plants, whether they are terrestrial (grow on Most petroleum comes from microorganisms
marine organisms, some of which are micro- land) or aquatic (grow in water), contribute that occur in great variety and abundance in
scopic but build coral and other structures. organic material to sediment. When buried, seas and lakes. These organisms include
Other creatures live in deeper and colder land plants can change to make coal and algae, bacteria, and other tiny organisms that
water and contribute organic material to methane gas, but generally they do not live in shallow or deep water and settle to the
deep-ocean sediment. decompose to oil. bottom when they die.
What Processes Turn Organic Material into Oil and Gas?

Natural organic matter comes in many forms, ranging from highly complex organisms to simple waxes or fats. When heated,
these organic materials convert to a succession of other hydrocarbons, including oil. The conversion of organic material to
oil is called maturation and, like most geologic processes, generally takes millions of years.
18.01.b1 18.01.b2 18.01.b3
The first stage in the formation of oil and

gas is accumulation of organic material,
perhaps in a layer of dark, organic-rich
mud. A rock that contains enough organic To end up as oil, the organic material must
material to produce petroleum is referred be preserved before it can decompose. This Over time, source rocks can be buried by
to as a source rock. At low temperatures usually involves being deposited in oxygen- more sedimentary layers, becoming heated by
on or near Earth’s surface, the organic poor conditions and buried under other the temperature increase with depth. When
material is relatively unordered or still layers of sediment. When buried to shallow heated to 60°C to 120°C, long hydrocarbon
retains some of the structure of the ani- depths and heated to less than about 60°C, chains in kerogen break down into heavy and
mals or plants from which the material the organic starting material is converted light oils. At these and greater temperatures
was derived. into kerogen, a thick substance composed (up to about 200°C), the oily hydrocarbons
of long chains of hydrocarbons. convert into natural gas.
Where Do Oil and Gas Go?

Once oil and gas form, what happens? Both are mobile, fluid materials, and can travel along fractures and through pore
spaces between grains. In many situations and in some rock types, such as shale, oil and gas remain within, or fairly close
to, the source rock where they originated. In other cases, they migrate far from where they formed.
18.01.c2 Southwestern UT
1. As you can observe for yourself by placing 6. If oil flows into sandy sediments, it can
several drops of any kind of oil in a bowl of form oil sands or tar sands. Large deposits
water, oil is lighter (less dense) than water. It in Alberta, Canada, are mined in large pits
floats on the surface of water and so will to extract the hydrocarbons from the
buoyantly rise through groundwater toward sandy host. Oil can migrate upward until it
the surface. Water under pressure can force reaches the surface, where it flows out
oil and gas upward or laterally (sideways) onto the surface as an oil seep (⊲).
through the rock. Gas is even lighter than oil.
2. Oil and gas, like groundwater, can flow

through rocks that are permeable.
Some rocks, like many sand-
stones, have open spac-
5. To trap oil and gas at depth, a rock unit
es between the grains
must have no through-going pores or frac-
and along fractures, and
tures to provide an easy pathway to the sur-
so are relatively perme-
face. Severely deformed and fractured rocks,
able. Oil and gas may
therefore, generally are less able to trap hy-
move up through a per-
drocarbons than undeformed rocks. Some
meable layer, such as the
faults, however, effectively block the flow of
inclined sandstone layer
fluids because the faulting has produced
shown here.
finely crushed rock fragments that filled
18.01.c1 open pore spaces.
3. Other rocks are less

permeable and block the 4. Oil and gas
flow of oil, gas, and ground- will be prevented
water. A rock unit can be rela- from reaching the surface if
tively impermeable if it lacks in- they become trapped at
terconnected pore spaces and depth by impermeable rocks, like this
through-going fractures. Rocks that gray shale. Oil and gas rise as far as
are typically impermeable include (1) shale, which has very they can, floating on top of water
small pore spaces, (2) unfractured granite, which within the rock (⊲). Gas is lighter than
has crystals that generally fit tightly together, and (3) oil, so it floats on top of the oil, which
salt, which flows easily to close up any open spaces. floats on top of the water.
18.01.c3
The La Brea Tar Pits
L
os Angeles, California, contains one of wolves, saber-tooth cats, ground sloths, and
the world’s best known fossil sites, at the many smaller mammals, all of which roamed the
Rancho La Brea Tar Pits. The tar area in the last 30,000 years. Before You Leave This Page
formed — and is still forming — as oil seeps
onto the surface, where it loses its lighter, more Summarize where the organic material
easily evaporated components and leaves behind in petroleum comes from.
a sticky, dense material called tar. The oil was
formed at depth by the same processes that Summarize how oil and gas naturally
form by burial and heating.
formed the many oil fields near Los Angeles,
but in the case of the tar pits, the subsurface Sketch or describe how oil and gas
geology did not trap the oil at depth. move through rocks and how they
We have recovered from the tar pits more can be trapped at depth or end up
18.1
than one million bones of modern and ice-age on the surface.

animals unlucky enough to have been stuck in
Briefly describe the La Brea Tar Pits.
the tar. Among the animals are now-extinct
18.01.t1
544
18.2 In What Settings Are Oil and Gas Trapped?

OIL AND NATURAL GAS CAN BE TRAPPED in the subsurface by various combinations of rock types and geologic
structures. To trap oil or gas, there must be a rock in which the hydrocarbons can accumulate. Such a rock unit is known
as a reservoir, and the area of the reservoir rock at depth that actually contains hydrocarbons is called an oil field, gas
field, or oil and gas field. In addition to the rock that forms the reservoir, the oil or gas must be overlain by one or more
impermeable rock units that form a seal, preventing the oil and gas from rising all the way to the surface.
How Do Folded Layers Trap Oil and Gas?

The classic view of an oil and gas field is of an arch-shaped fold (anticline) that traps petroleum near its crest. Many of the
world’s oil and gas fields, including some of the largest, are in anticlines.
1. When rock layers are folded, 3. An impermeable layer that traps
they may form anticlines that arc oil is called a seal. If a reservoir rock
upward (shown here) or synclines is capped by a seal, then oil and gas
that are U-shaped (not shown). (shown in black) can accumulate in
In an anticline, the layers on the the crest of the fold. In this case, a
flanks of the fold dip down and permeable gray limestone is the res-
away from the crest (central ervoir and an overlying greenish
high point) of the fold. shale is the impermeable seal.
2. Oil and gas migrate (as 4. Petroleum does not form an
shown by the arrows) up the “open pool” of hydrocarbons;
flanks of the folds until they instead it fills the pore spaces
reach the crest. If there is no between grains and the n arrow
impermeable seal on top, the open spaces along fractures and
petroleum can escape to the beds. So, the amount of porosity
surface, as in this brown, (open spaces) in a reservoir rock is
unconfined sandstone layer. 18.02.a1
of great importance.
How Do Salt Domes Help Trap Oil and Gas?

Salt is a low-density, geologically weak material that flows relatively easily when subjected to forces. Salt masses buried at
depth are squeezed by the weight of overlying rocks. The salt flows to try to escape the pressure and, because salt is less
dense than surrounding rocks, can rise toward the surface and create a domelike structure called a salt dome. Arching of
rocks over and adjacent to a salt dome can trap petroleum, as along the Gulf Coast of the southern U.S. and Mexico and in
the Persian Gulf region.
18.02.b1
1. The weight of a sequence of 3. Rocks over the salt dome bend upward
sedimentary rocks presses and can be eroded into circular or oval
downward on the layer of features on the surface. In a region where oil
salt at the base of the dia- is known to be present, such features are tar-
gram. The salt responds gets for oil and gas exploration.
by flowing as a weak,
but solid, mass. It 4. Petroleum can accumulate in the crest of
rises upward, piercing folded layers directly above the salt dome,
through the overlying such as in this dome-shaped fold of a lime-
rocks and creating a stone reservoir rock.
salt dome.
5. Petroleum is also commonly trapped on
the flanks of a salt dome, where the petro-
2. At depth, salt flows leum migrated upward along an uptilted
laterally along the layer until it encountered the central mass of
layer to replenish and impermeable salt. Many oil wells are drilled
perpetuate the rising to explore the uptilted rocks that encircle a
salt mass. salt dome.
What Are Other Ways That Petroleum Can Be Trapped?

Faults can trap oil and gas by juxtaposing permeable rock against impermeable rock, or by causing folding as rock layers
move over bends in the fault. Other common traps are an unconformity and a trap formed by a sedimentary layer thinning
or changing in character, including from one rock type to another.
18.02.c1 18.02.c2
1. In this diagram (⊳), a nor- 2. These rock layers
mal fault displaced sedimen- moved up and over a bend
tary layers downward against or step in a thrust fault. As
a granite. Petroleum (in this the layers above the fault
case oil) migrated up the tilt- move over the bend, they
ed layers until it encountered fold upward into an anti-
the fault and granite, which cline. Petroleum migrates
stop further upward flow of up the layers until it is
the petroleum. trapped in the anticline.
3. An unconformity is an 18.02.c3 4. All sedimentary rock units 18.02.c4

old erosion surface sep- eventually end when traced
arating two sequences laterally, either because they
of rocks. This figure rep- decrease in thickness or
resents a case (⊲) where because they change charac-
rocks below an angular ter into another type of rock
unconformity were tilted in a facies change. Here, a
and eroded before the permeable sandstone bed is
layers above the encased within thick, imper-
unconformity were meable shale. Petroleum mi-
deposited. Petroleum grating up the sandstone
can migrate up the tilted layer was trapped where the
layers below the unconformity and be trapped by impermeable sedi- sandstone thinned and ended. Ancient reefs can form lenses and trap
mentary layers along or above the unconformity. Petroleum accumulates oil in similar ways.
along the unconformity and in underlying rocks.
Petroleum Basins of the 18.02.c5

United States
5. This map shows the distribution of
the main sedimentary basins that
contain petroleum in the lower 48
states. Note which parts of the coun-
try have petroleum, and which do
not. A huge oil field in Alaska, the
Prudhoe Bay field, is not shown. The
amount of production of oil and gas
is not proportional to the size of the
basin. Some small basins produce
more oil and gas than larger basins.
6. Are there any petroleum basins where

you live? If so, what aspects of your local
geology are favorable for petroleum? If
not, why do you think there are none?

Describe the role of a reservoir rock and impermeable seal.
Sketch and describe how petroleum is trapped by an anticline, salt
18.2
dome, fault, thrust-related fold, unconformity, and facies change.

Briefly summarize where petroleum basins are located in the U.S.
546
18.3 What Are Shale Gas and Shale Oil?

NATURAL GAS AND OIL can remain trapped in shale and other source rocks, rather than migrating upward into
anticlines and other geologic structures. Petroleum in such rocks was not economical to extract until recent advances
in drilling and in methods of opening up fractures with high fluid pressures — hydraulic fracturing or simply fracking.
Exploration for and recovery of shale gas and shale oil produced an energy boom in the U.S. and some other countries
in the last several decades, but there are some potential environmental concerns.
Where Do Oil and Gas Reside in Conventional and Unconventional Resources?

Oil and gas that occur in typical geologic traps, such as anticlines, and that can be explored by traditional methods are called
conventional oil and gas. Most such deposits form when organic material in source rocks is buried and heated, generating oil
and gas that are mobile and migrate from the source rock toward the surface, commonly ending up in an anticline or some
other trap. Oil and gas that are less mobile and that have to be explored and extracted by newer techniques are referred to as
being unconventional. Shale gas and shale oil are two important types of unconventional resources.
Setting of Conventional Oil and Gas Setting of Shale Gas and Shale Oil
1. In conventional oil and gas, 3. In shale gas and shale oil, a shale source rock
rocks have enough porosity and contains sufficient organic material to generate oil and
permeability to allow oil or gas to gas, but its very low permeability does not allow the
accumulate and flow through the natural gas and oil to flow out of the shale. As a
pore spaces, fractures, and other result, any gas and oil generated within the shale
openings in the rocks. Oil and gas, remain trapped in a number of small-scale sites.
being lighter than water, rise
upward, either becoming trapped 4. Some gas and oil remain attached with the origi-
below the surface or reaching the nal organic material or occupy other sites that allow
surface in seeps. 18.03.a1 the gas and oil to form small, isolated masses. 18.03.a2
2. In the example here, a conglomerate has well-rounded peb- 5. Somewhat larger, but still small, accumulations of natural gas and oil form in
bles and cobbles in a matrix of mostly sand. Such a rock has openings along bedding surfaces and in small cross-cutting fractures. In either
abundant porosity (open space) and permeability (ability to trans- case, the openings are not interconnected, so the gas and oil remain trapped
mit fluid), allowing oil and gas to accumulate and flow upward. within the shale in which they formed.
How Are Shale Gas and Shale Oil Extracted by Hydraulic Fracturing?
Production of natural gas and oil from shale began in earnest in the 1990s and has since become more widespread. It
required two innovative techniques: hydraulic fracturing, which has been in practice since the 1920s and has been used on
over a million wells, and directional drilling, which only became technologically feasible in the 1980s.
1. In exploring for conventional oil 3. The upper part of the drill hole is fitted with a steel casing, with an aim of isolat-
and gas resources, most drill holes ing the drill hole from any permeable layers near the surface and from any ground-
are near-vertical, reaching the tar- water with those layers. This casing is designed to allow fluids within the drill hole
get depth with the shortest possi- to be pressurized without flowing away and to prevent chemicals within the drilling
ble drill hole. When exploring for fluids from contaminating shallow groundwater.
shale gas and shale oil, the upper
parts of drill holes are also steep. 4. Once the drill hole reaches the favorable shale layer and after the hole is prop-
erly cased, as much as several millions of gallons of water and sand, with some
chemicals, are pumped down into the hole and then pressurized and allowed to
2. As the drilling approaches the flow out into the shale along the horizontal segment of the hole.
depth of the targeted shale forma-
tion, the drillers skillfully force the 5. The high fluid pressures cause bedding planes and exist-
drill to carve a curved path, becoming fractures to open up slightly and cause new fractures to
ing more and more horizontal, or form, the process of hydraulic fracturing (fracking). The pro-
parallel to the layers. When the drill- cess is closely monitored with sophisticated equipment and
ing reaches the organic-rich shale, computers so that only a specific volume of rock is affected.
the drill hole continues for hundreds A goal is to form an interconnected network of opened frac-
or even thousands of meters, care- tures and bedding planes that will allow gas and oil trapped
fully staying within the confines of 18.03.b2 in the shale to escape. Well-rounded sand grains in the pres-
the shale. This allows the maximum surized fluid are included to keep the fluid pathways propped open after the fluid pres-
amount of shale to be encountered sures are reduced. Once the pressurized fluids are removed, gas and oil, if present, can
in the drill hole. flow out through the pore spaces between the sand grains and into the well.
18.03.b1
What Are the Geologic Settings of Shale Gas and Shale Oil?
Organic-rich shale, the source of shale gas and shale oil, mostly forms in seas and lakes. In the U.S., most shales formed
from muds that accumulated on the floors of seas that covered parts of the continent. Some of these seas were relatively
shallow (less than a hundred meters deep), while others were deeper basins related to tectonic events. Once an organic-rich
shale accumulates, it may then be buried deeply enough that it is heated to sufficient temperatures to convert the complex
organic matter into oil (at lower temperatures) and gas (at slightly higher temperatures).
1. Unlike conventional oil and gas resources, shale gas 18.03.c1 3. Shale gas and shale oil can be
and shale oil do not need a specific type of geologic extracted from shale layers that are
structure as a trap, because they remain trapped within essentially horizontal and in settings
the source rock by the shale’s inherent low permeabil- that we would not call a basin. For
ity. The main factors leading to a significant resource example, some shales were depos-
are a sufficiently high organic content (~0.5%) in the ited on parts of a continent that
original shale, a favorable burial and temperature his- were simply low enough to be cov-
tory, and preservation by overlying rocks. ered by rising seas.
2. A common setting for petroleum-bearing shales is in a basin, which is typically formed as a 4. In any setting, multiple horizontal segments
down-folded or down-faulted sequence of rocks. Drilling can be directed toward the deepest part of can be angled from the main vertical drill hole,
the basin or along the flanks. Conventional oil and gas generally would not be trapped in either set- radiating out in various directions. This allows a
ting, but shale gas and shale oil can be. Multiple intervals of shale may be encountered and tested larger volume of shale to be developed with
for their natural gas and oil potential, and they may each produce gas or oil. less disturbance of the surface.
Shale Gas Regions of 7. There are several

the United States shale-containing basins
18.03.c2
in the Midwest, includ-
ing the Michigan Basin
5. This map shows the main near the Great Lakes.
regions of the conterminous U.S.
that have produced shale gas or 8. A large and important
that may contain significant basin is the Appalachian
resources of shale gas and Basin, which hosts several
shale oil. We typically refer to shales, the most famous of
individual areas using the name which is the Marcellus Shale.
of the basin or the name of the 18.03.c5
favorable shale formation. 9. Gas-producing and oil-
producing shales underlie parts
6. One important region is the Williston Basin, of central and southern Texas,
which straddles the boundaries of the Dakotas and they are common else-
and Montana. It is also referred to by its main where in the country. Are there
shale unit, the Bakken Shale. any near where you live?
Environmental Concerns about Hydraulic Fracturing Before You Leave

This Page
A
s with any energy source, hydraulic fractur- gas, into the atmosphere. Pumping pressurized flu-
ing or fracking presents trade-offs between ids down wells is known to cause small earthquakes, Sketch and describe how
economic benefits and various societal some large enough magnitudes to be felt. The pres- shale gas and shale oil
concerns. Hydraulic fracturing and directional surized fluids used in hydraulic fracturing are gen- differ from conventional
drilling have opened up vast new reserves of shale- erally about 99.5% water and sand, but they include gas and oil and how we
hosted natural gas, and to a lesser extent shale oil. a variety of chemicals that act as lubricants. Some extract them.
Natural gas is a relatively plentiful and low-cost of these chemical components, such as salt, are Summarize the geologic
source of energy, and its use has reduced the relatively benign in low concentrations, but others settings of shale gas
amount of CO2 released into the atmosphere in the are potentially more dangerous. The main concern and shale oil and some
U.S., as some electricity generation shifted from is that these chemicals will escape the well or shale places where they occur
coal to natural gas. formation and contaminate shallow-level groundwa- in the U.S.
18.3
Environmental groups have expressed concerns ter. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Summarize some benefits
about the production methods and use of shale gas reports little evidence of significant groundwater
and possible detriments of
and shale oil. One concern is that using fossil fuels, contamination, but the issue will be investigated fur-
hydraulic fracturing.
including natural gas, introduces CO2, a greenhouse ther as new data and methods become available.
548
18.4 How Do Coal and Coal-Bed Methane Form?

COAL IS ANOTHER CARBON-BASED RESOURCE that provides energy and the raw materials to make other prod-
ucts. Coal forms from buried and compacted plants. There are different types of coal and different ways in which we
mine, transport, and process coal, generally with the aim of producing electricity. Coal is a plentiful and inexpensive
fuel that is available in many parts of the world, but the use of coal has environmental consequences.
How Does Coal Form?

The development of coal begins with the accumulation of plant matter and other organic materials on the surface.
Progressive burial, compaction, and heating change the coal from one type to another, improving its quality.
The Origin of Coal

2. The organic material in coal starts as
1. Formation of coal requires that compressed and partially decomposed
plants accumulate on the surface in plant matter, including peat (⊲), a water-
sufficient amounts so that the plant soaked mass of relatively unconsolidated
matter is much greater than the input plant remains found in bogs. Once dried,
of sand, clay, or other sediment. The peat can be burned. It was an important
most common setting for this is fuel resource in the past and is still used
swamps and other wetlands. 18.04.a2
in many regions.
18.04.a1
Lignite Anthracite
3. The plant matter must then be rapidly buried 6. As burial and maturation continue, the coal
so that it is not oxidized or otherwise totally becomes even more compacted and, therefore,
destroyed. Burial can occur because of rising sea thinner and more dense. The further increase in
level that covers land with water and sediment, temperature drives off even more impurities, result-
or in other ways. The pressure that accompanies ing in coal with a high concentration of carbon
burial squeezes water and other impurities (92% to 98%). Such coal, called anthracite, is the
out, converting the decomposing plant most highly prized variety because it burns cleaner
material to a low-quality variety of coal and has a higher energy content for a given vol-
called lignite. Lignite has less carbon ume of coal. We describe the energy content of
than other coals, and it may be more coal in terms of calories: the amount of heat
than 50% water by weight. Lignite (⊲) produced by combustion. Anthracite can have
is a brown, not-very-dense coal. 18.04.a4
more than twice the calorie content of lignite.
18.04.a3
Anthracite (⊲) is black,
dense, and shiny,
and is the high-
Bituminous Coals est quality coal.
4. With further burial, the increasing weight of 18.04.a8

the overlying rock layers compresses the lig-
nite, making it more dense and compact. The
thickness of the coal layer will decrease as
the material is compressed into less and less Coal-Bed Methane
space. As the coal is buried, it is also heated.
The higher temperature begins to cook the 7. During the progression from
coal, driving off sulfur and other chemical plant matter to high-quality coal,
components that are relatively volatile (that hydrocarbons released from the
readily evaporate or turn to vapor). Compac- coal can include methane (CH4),
tion and increased temperature convert lignite a colorless and odorless gas.
into subbituminous coal and then into bitumi- Methane generated during the
nous coal, both of which contain relatively maturation of coal is coal-bed
more carbon and less water than methane. Coal that is subbitumi-
lignite. Bituminous coal is a black, nous and bituminous is most
fairly dense coal (⊲). likely to contain coal-bed meth-
ane. Lignite generally has not
5. The process by which matured enough, and anthracite
coal changes as it is buried 18.04.a5
is too mature (has been heated
and heated is maturation. 18.04.a7 too much).
18.04.a6
How Is Coal Mined, Transported, and Used?

To provide us with energy, coal is usually dug from the ground, transported to a power plant or other location, and then
burned to convert water into steam to drive electrical generators.
18.04.b1 Kirtland, NM
1. Most coal is mined in large open 4. Whether it is mined from a strip mine or
pits, where coal layers lie close to the an underground mine, the coal is crushed,
surface. Miners remove one long strip stockpiled, and then transported to a power
of coal at a time, producing a strip plant (⊳), steel mill, or wherever it is needed.
mine (⊲). The entire operation moves It can be transported by train, truck, cargo
across the coal-bearing area (▼), and ship, conveyor belt, or in a pipeline that car-
it may affect very large areas. ries a slurry of water and finely ground coal.
A power plant burns the coal to generate
enough heat to convert water to steam,
which then turns the turbines inside electrical
generators. The electricity is immediately sent
on its way since it cannot easily be stored.
One advantage of coal-fired power plants is
that they can change how much power they
generate by burning more or less coal. Also,
coal is America’s most plentiful energy
resource (the U.S. is commonly described as
the “Saudi Arabia of coal”). Burning coal,
however, has disadvantages, as described at
the bottom of this page.
18.04.b2 Witbank, South Africa
18.04.b4
2. Huge shovels strip overly-

ing material, called overbur- 3. We mine much coal, especially
18.04.b3 Witbank, South Africa
den or waste, off the top to the better varieties (bituminous and
expose the coal (⊲). These anthracite), from underground
waste materials are stored or mines. These are the typical mines
immediately used to fill parts we think of — small, dark, wet pas-
of the pit where the coal has sageways (⊲) blasted into the side
already been removed. The of a mountain or sunk thousands of
refilled areas are smoothed feet into Earth. Underground mines
and replanted with grass, are common in the Appalachian
trees, and other local vegeta- Mountains and other places. In
tion. The aim is to make the underground mines, miners remove relatively thin layers called
reclaimed land look as coal seams, and then haul the coal to the surface, either through
undisturbed and natural vertical mine shafts or up gently sloping roadways. Underground
as possible. mining is more labor intensive, more dangerous, and therefore
more expensive than strip mining.
The Environmental Consequences of Using Coal
C oal has some advantages, such as cost,

over other forms of energy used for
generating electricity, but the mining
and burning of coal comes at a cost to people
and the environment.
entire hillside and leaving piles of mining
waste that can contaminate water supplies.
When coal is burned in power plants, in indus-
trial furnaces, and for home heating and cook-
ing, the incombustible material in the coal,
Summarize how coal forms.
Coal is plentiful, widely distributed (in both called ash, rises into the air, polluting the air Describe the different types of coal,
the eastern and western parts of the United and settling onto the surrounding landscape. ranking them from lowest quality to
States), and can be fairly easily moved from Most coal also contains sulfur, which burns to highest quality.
mine to generator by nonpolluting conveyor form sulfur dioxide (SO2), a leading cause of
Summarize or sketch how coal is
belts or electric trains. acid rain. Some coal, called high-sulfur coal,
mined from strip mines and
Coal also has its downside. Mining coal in contains a relatively high content of sulfur and
underground mines.
underground mines is difficult and dangerous, is worse for the environment than cleaner-
18.4
with the potential for methane-caused explo- burning, low-sulfur coal. Burning coal also Summarize how coal is used and
sions, cave-ins, and asphyxiation from noxious releases carbon dioxide and other greenhouse some of the environmental
gases. Coal mining, especially as done in the gases, which affect our global climate, includ- downsides.
past, can devastate landscapes by leveling an ing contributing to global warming.
550
18.5 What Are Other Types of Hydrocarbons?

NATURE STORES LARGE AMOUNTS OF HYDROCARBONS in shale and sand, in an ice-like solid beneath the
ocean floor, and in other unconventional places. These unconventional resources are enormous, in several cases larger
than all conventional oil and gas reserves in the world. These newly developed or potentially important sources of
hydrocarbons include coal-bed methane, gas hydrate, oil shale, and tar sands.
Where Do Coal and Coal-Bed Methane Occur, and How Is Methane Extracted?
Coal beds release coal-bed methane. Methane is the simplest form of natural gas (CH4) and is a relatively
clean-burning fuel that provides about 7% to 8% of natural gas used in the United States.
3. Methane sticks to
1. This map shows the general
surfaces within the
distribution of coal in the lower 48
coal or dissolves in
states. Where there is coal, there
groundwater flowing
is also some coal-bed methane,
18.05.a1 in pores and fractures
even if it is not extracted.
in coal. Holes are
drilled into the coal
2. The plant matter that turned
seam to release the
into coal accumulated at differ-
pressure, allowing the
ent times in different places.
gas to rise toward the
Some has been buried to sig-
surface. Collection tanks
nificant depths, and some has
(▼) feed into local and
not, because of regional differ-
then regional pipelines.
ences in geologic history. Paleo-
zoic coal of the Appalachians was
buried enough so it is mostly bitu-
minous coal and anthracite. Younger
(Mesozoic and Cenozoic) coal of the west-
ern states and Gulf Coast was buried less and is
lignite and bituminous coal. The largest production of
coal-bed methane comes from the Colorado Plateau
and southern Appalachians.
18.05.a2 Farmington, NM
What Is Gas Hydrate and Where Does It Occur?

Gas hydrate is an ice-like solid mixture of water and a natural gas, usually methane. The methane is derived from decaying
organic material that is buried. It is estimated that the world’s gas hydrate reserves are huge, potentially containing more
carbon than in all conventional fossil fuels. Due to technical challenges, gas hydrate is not currently used for energy, but it
could represent an important future resource as oil reserves become depleted. However, methane is a greenhouse gas that, if
it escapes into the atmosphere, is worse for the environment than carbon dioxide.
18.05.b1
In gas hydrate, the cage-like structure of fro-

zen water traps molecules of methane gas.
Gas hydrate is called the “ice that burns.”
Here (▼), the methane being released from
the ice is burning, not the water ice, which is
incombustible. As this map shows (⊲), gas hy-
drate occurs within ocean-floor sediments,
especially in parts of the
ocean that are cold and
deeper than 500 m
(1,600 ft). Common set-
tings are along passive
margins and trenches.
Gas hydrates also occur
on land, beneath the fro-
zen arctic tundra.
18.05.b2
What Is Oil Shale and Where Is It Found?

Oil shale is another potentially important resource. Large reserves occur in the western United States and in Australia and
Canada. Oil shale (mostly distinct from shale oil) accumulated as clay-rich sediment that trapped abundant organic material
within small pore spaces. Most formed from algal matter in lakes, lagoons, and estuaries.
18.05.c1 Green River Formation, UT
Northeastern Utah and adja- ⊲ The United
cent states have large depos- States has 60 % to
its of oil shale in Cenozoic lake 70% of the world’s 18.05.c2
beds called the Green River oil shale reserves.
Formation (⊲). The most oil-rich The largest
shale is dark colored because deposits are in
of organic matter trapped large sedimentary
between the compacted clay basins in Colo-
particles. Oil shale can be rado, Utah, and
mined like coal, by open-pit or Wyoming, where
underground methods. It is several large lakes
then heated to 450 – 500°C in formed in early Cenozoic
the presence of steam to liberate the oil. Companies have done feasi- time. Paleozoic shale with less
bility studies of extracting the oil in place (in situ) by heating the rocks organic material is present in the central
while still underground. Processing oil shale currently requires too and eastern U.S. and has been drilled mostly
much energy to make it an economically viable energy source. for shale oil and shale gas.
What Is Oil Sand and Where Are the Largest Deposits?

Oil sand (also called tar sand), another source of hydrocarbons, consists of thick, heavy oil intermixed with sand, clay, and
other sediment. It forms when oil generated through normal processes is degraded by bacteria, which preferentially consume
the lighter components of the oil, leaving a thick sludge in the sedimentary layers.
18.05.d1 Utah
⊳ This oil sand has thick oil in
the pore spaces. Oil sand is
generally mined from open
pits, but energy companies are
investigating new technologies
that would allow them to Athabasca Basin
extract the oil by injecting
steam into the deposits.
⊲ The world’s largest reserves of oil sand are in the Orinoco Basin Orinoco Basin
of Venezuela and the Athabasca Basin in northeastern Alberta,
Canada. Each place has approximately one-third of the world’s oil
sands. Oil sand may represent more than half of the world’s oil.
Most of the petroleum that the United States imports from Canada 1000 km
comes from oil sands in Alberta. These oil sands in Canada are the
Large Resource (over 15 million barrels) Small Resource (under one million barrels)
source of oil for the politically controversial Keystone XL Pipeline, Moderate-Sized Resource Occurrence of Uncertain Size
designed to carry the oil to refineries in the southern U.S. 18.05.d2
Real and Potential Hazards of Gas Hydrates
G as hydrates are potentially very hazard-

ous, for both technical and environ-
mental reasons. They are hazards to oil
drillers because drilling into unexpected hydrate
can cause a rapid buildup of gas and even an
hydrates, are associated with submarine land-
slides. The released gas hydrate percolates
through the sediment, causing it to lose strength
and slide downslope.
Gas hydrates, if melted en masse due to

For coal-bed methane, oil shale,
and tar sand, summarize what the
substance is, how it forms, where
explosion that could blow steel drill pipe out of warming of the oceans, could release large
it is most abundant, and how it is,
the drill hole. amounts of methane, which is a very potent
or could be, extracted.
18.5
Gas hydrates also appear to be responsible greenhouse gas, perhaps causing even more
for large underwater landslides. Geologists warming. Analyses of methane in Greenland Describe gas hydrate, where it occurs,
think that some unusual pits and depressions on ice cores may have detected such events in and its known or potential hazards.
the seafloor, caused by gas escaping from the the past.
552
18.6 How Do We Explore for Fossil Fuels?

OIL, NATURAL GAS, AND COAL ARE KEY RESOURCES used to power our lights, computers, industries, and
automobiles. We call these three resources fossil fuels because they formed in the past, there is a finite supply, and
they can be depleted — they are nonrenewable. In essence, the energy contained in fossil fuels is solar energy initially
trapped during photosynthesis millions of years ago. Geologists and other geoscientists use various strategies to discover
new deposits of fossil fuels.
How Do We Identify Regions That Are Favorable for Fossil Fuels?

The search for fossil fuels (oil, gas, coal, and coal-bed methane) begins by considering how each type of resource forms
and then investigating whether the geologic history of a region could have permitted this resource to form and be preserved.
Many regions have low potential because they do not contain the right types of rock or an appropriate geologic history.
1. Nearly all fossil fuels form in sedimentary environments, so a 3. Economics and advances in technology can change our
fundamental requirement is the presence of sedimentary assessment of what areas are favorable. The recently
rocks. Next, geologists examine the improved technique of directional drilling allows
sequence of sedimentary rocks to see us to explore areas and geologic units
if they represent the right environ- in new ways, such as by drill-
ments for the resource that is being ing down and then
evaluated — oil mostly forms in sideways.
marine conditions, whereas coal
forms from land plants and is pre-
served in rocks deposited on land.
2. An area more likely contains oil and gas if it has

folds, faults, salt domes, or facies changes that could
trap pockets of oil and gas. If it does not have preserved sedi- 18.06.a1
mentary layers, there will be no coal to mine. If an area contains only
granite or other igneous rock, it does not contain fossil fuels. Metamorphic
rocks, too, are unlikely to contain hydrocarbons because they generally reached
temperatures that drove off or destroyed any hydrocarbon-producing organic materials.
What Studies Do Geoscientists Conduct When Exploring for Fossil Fuels?

Once a region is deemed favorable, or at least not prohibitive, for fossil fuels, geoscientists conduct detailed field
investigations of key areas and outcrops, followed by scientific surveys to determine what is at depth. Depending on which
resource is sought, geoscientists will tailor their investigation to observe and map the appropriate information.
18.06.b1 Capitol Reef, UT 18.06.b2 Hunters Point, AZ 18.06.b3 National Pike, PA
One of the most important aspects to investi- Another critical piece of the puzzle is identify- A widely used approach for investigating the
gate is the sequence and thickness of rock ing any geologic structures. Geologists docu- geometry of buried rock layers is the seismic-
layers in the area. Geologists describe the ment the distribution of rock units by con- reflection method, where large trucks shake
rock types and use these characteristics to structing a geologic map. They measure the the ground, generating seismic vibrations that
interpret the environment in which the rocks strike and dip of sedimentary beds within the travel into the subsurface. The seismic waves
most likely formed. We call such geologists rock layers, as well as the orientations of reflect off boundaries between layers and
soft-rock geologists, because their focus is on faults, folds, and other geologic features. From return to the surface, where they can be
sedimentary rocks and deposits, rather than these data, geologists commonly construct a recorded. Geoscientists computer process the
harder igneous and metamorphic rocks (the geologic cross section to determine how data to model the subsurface structures, using
focus of hard-rock geologists). deep the resource-bearing beds will be. the field observations as constraints.
How Do We Determine What Is in the Subsurface?

It is one thing to document the characteristics, distribution, and attitudes of units on the surface, but exploring for geologic
resources also generally requires understanding what is going on in the subsurface.
1. An excellent way to start understanding what rock 3. Exploration for fossil fuels is challenging because of
units lie at depth is to find places where nature has uncertainties in how the geology may change with depth
exposed the sequence, such as in deep canyons and because there may be geologic structures
or on the sides of mountains. that are not expressed on the surface.
To limit the number of possibili-
2. Observations made at the surface ties, exploration companies
are then extrapolated to the sub- invest large sums in geophysi-
surface. Layers can be projected cal investigations, including
downward using the thicknesses gravity and seismic-reflection
and structural attitudes measured surveys. The ultimate test of a
on the surface. Confidence in geologist’s interpretation of the
such extrapolations, however, subsurface is to drill an exploration
decreases with increasing depth, as hole. The drill core, cuttings, and various
the interpretation gets farther from the physical measurements obtained from a drill
actual data. In this example, layers are hor- hole provide a clear test of the subsurface inter-
izontal at the surface and should continue 18.06.c1 pretation. Such data may support the interpretation
that way for some distance downward. or require going back, literally, to the drawing board.
What Tools Do Geoscientists Use to Visualize Subsurface Geology?

18.06.d2
The main tool

used to interpret Projection of Faults into Air
and visualize the 18.06.d1
subsurface geom- 0
etry of rock units Syncline
and geologic Late Mesozoic Anticline
structures Rocks
is a geologic Thrust Faults
-5
cross section.
Seismic-reflection
Late Paleozoic Rocks
data and various
techniques help -10 Precambrian and Early Paleozoic Rocks
geoscientists infer km 5 km Computer-based visualization programs and
the geometry of expensive visualization rooms (▲) are key com
folds and faults ponents of modern e xploration efforts. They
at depth, based on the faults and orientation of layers exposed at the surface. This cross section help geoscientists integrate information from
shows an interpretation of part of the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR), an oil-bearing surface studies, drill holes, and geophysical
area in Alaska that has not been developed due to ecological and political considerations. The surveys, especially seismic-reflection profiles.
area has rocks and structures that are favorable for oil.
The Costs of Exploration Before You Leave This Page
T
he stakes in exploring for fossil fuels One of the most expensive aspects involves Describe aspects to consider
are high, both because of the nearly conducting geophysical surveys, which may use regarding an area’s potential for
prohibitive cost and the possibility, dozens of large trucks and expensive sensors fossil fuels.
however remote, of lucrative return on invest- and computer gear. Drilling exploration holes
ment. Some companies employ hundreds of is incredibly expensive, requiring large Summarize the types of field studies
geologists, along with all the necessary sup- machines, sophisticated equipment, thousands geologists conduct in exploring
port staff, including business people hired to of meters of steel drill pipe, and costly drill bits for fossil fuels.
obtain exploration leases from federal, state, that wear out over time. Drill holes can reach Summarize or sketch how geologists
tribal, and private landowners. Doing field depths of 20,000 feet or more. Many drill infer what is in the subsurface, and
work is commonly one of the least expensive holes cost tens of millions of dollars. A single describe the tools they use to
18.6
parts of the operation, mostly requiring money drill hole in deep water can cost more than visualize these data.
for four-wheel-drive vehicles, fuel, accommo- $100 million. Exploring for petroleum is a
Describe why exploration is so costly.
dations, and a team of well-paid geologists. costly and risky venture.
554
18.7 How Is Nuclear Energy Produced?

NUCLEAR REACTIONS PRODUCE ENORMOUS ENERGY that can be harnessed to power electrical generators.
Currently, nuclear power is the second largest source of electricity in the United States (after coal-fired plants), sup-
plying less than 20% of the nation’s electricity. Nuclear power provides nearly 75% of France’s electricity and 35% of
Switzerland’s. How do nuclear reactions supply so much electricity, and in what geologic settings do we find deposits
of uranium, the key component in the process?
How Does Nuclear Fission Produce Energy?

Present-day nuclear power plants are based on the process of nuclear fission, during which an unstable isotope of a
radioactive element splits into two parts. There is a significant amount of research being done to develop a reactor based
on a sustained fusion reaction, involving atoms that collide to produce a larger and heavier element. Earth’s radioactive
heat arises from fission, whereas the Sun’s energy comes from fusion. Here, we discuss fission, which is used in power
plants today.
1. Uranium is a large and heavy element, with an average 3. Nuclear reactors are
atomic mass of 238. The main isotopes of uranium, 238U and designed to keep the
235
U, both decay by fission. 235U decays more rapidly than uranium and its decay
238
U, and so produces more energy, but it is much less products isolated from
abundant (more than 99% of uranium is 238U). the water that is con-
verted to steam. Only
2. When a uranium atom splits apart by fission, it heat is exchanged
releases relatively large amounts of energy, between the two parts
partly in the form of heat. In a reactor, 235U of the system, and so
atoms are bombarded by neutrons, and this the steam being released
induces fission. The heat produced by fission does not contain
converts water to steam, which is then used to turn radioactive materials.
the turbines in electrical generators.
18.07.a1
In What Settings Do Uranium Deposits Form?

Uranium atoms are large compared to other elements and so have difficulty fitting into the structure of common minerals.
Partly for this reason, uranium is mobile and is easily transported by groundwater and other fluids.
1. Some deposits form 3. Some uranium
where uranium, carried occurs in pipe- or
by groundwater, encoun- cone-shaped struc-
ters water with a different tures filled with angu-
chemistry. Uranium accu- lar fragments (breccia).
mulates along the bound- Such breccia pipes
ary between the two form when limestone
waters, forming an caves collapse and
arcuate deposit called uranium is introduced
a roll-front. later by groundwater.
18.07.b1 18.07.b3
18.07.b4 Olympic Dam, Australia

4. Uranium is mined using under-
2. Some large deposits ground or open-pit mining methods
of uranium ore were and then is processed in a mill that
deposited by ground- physically or chemically concentrates
water along the uranium minerals. The relatively
unconformities during high price for uranium ore, typically
Precambrian time. Large tens of dollars per pound, makes it
deposits of this type possible to use underground mines,
are present in Canada which are expensive to operate. If
and Australia. uranium ore is close to the surface, it
generally is more economical to mine
18.07.b2 the deposit via an open pit.
How Is Uranium Used to Generate Electricity?

A number of steps, some of them technically difficult, are required to obtain material that is rich enough in uranium,
specifically in 235U, to sustain a controlled fission reaction.
18.07.c2
The most technically challenging part The rods of enriched uranium are
of the operation is using devices used in one of several different types
called gas centrifuges (⊳) to preferen- of nuclear reactors. In each type,
tially enrich the uranium in 235U, the some type of material, called the
more energetic isotope. Since 235U moderator, is placed between the
and 238U have nearly identical proper- rods to slow the neutrons so that they
ties, uranium enrichment is the major cause fission upon colliding with
obstacle for countries trying to pro- atoms of 235U. Most c ommercial
duce nuclear materials for power gen- reactors in the United States use
eration — or for nuclear weapons. The water as a moderator and are called
enriched uranium, now with enough light-water reactors. The Chernobyl disaster in the Soviet Union involved a
18.07.c1 Piketon, OH 235
U to s ustain a fission reaction, is totally different design that used graphite as the moderator. In most
processed into pellets or rods for the reactor. Nuclear power gen- reactors, boron-containing fluid is mixed into the water around the rods to
eration requires much lower concentrations of 235U than are needed control the rate of the reaction. Heat from nuclear fission converts water
for nuclear weapons, and producing weapons-grade material into steam to drive electrical generators. The only planned emissions from
requires much more sophisticated technology. nuclear power plants are heat and water vapor.
What Are Some Environmental Issues Associated with Nuclear Energy?

Nuclear power holds the promise of generating large amounts of electrical energy without adding more carbon dioxide or
methane, both greenhouse gases, but costs, environmental concerns, and political considerations have limited its wider
use in the United States. Globally, hundreds of reactors are operating and dozens of new ones are being constructed.
18.07.d1 Moab, UT 18.07.d2 18.07.d3 Chernobyl, Ukraine
1. Uranium min-
ing and milling in-
volve materials
that are relatively
rich in uranium,
which can con-
taminate the
water, land, and
air around facili-
ties if materials
are handled im- 2. After fission has depleted some percent- 3. A steam explosion, followed by a number
properly. Also, some miners and mill operators age of their uranium, the fuel rods are of tragic mistakes, led to other explosions and
have become gravely ill from overexposure to removed from the reactor and mostly stored a reactor meltdown at the Chernobyl nuclear
radioactive materials. These uranium-contami- on-site. Such spent fuel rods contain high con- reactor in the Ukraine in 1986. The disaster
nated materials (▲) in Moab, Utah, lie right next centrations of uranium, as well as other radio- killed at least 56 people and contaminated a
to the Colorado River, a major source of water active elements, so they pose a large risk of very large area, requiring resettlement of more
for the West. radioactive contamination. than 200,000 people. Another major disaster
occurred at the Fukushima reactor following a
large 2011 earthquake in Japan.
Yucca Mountain
Y
ucca Mountain is a mesa capped by years. After decades of geologic study and
volcanic rocks in an isolated part of intense scrutiny by various interest groups
the Mojave Desert west of Las and government agencies, most work was Before You Leave This Page
Vegas, Nevada. It was designated as the stopped on the project, but future politics
future repository for spent fuel rods and other will decide the site’s fate. Yucca Mountain, Summarize how nuclear fission
releases energy and is used to
high-level (uranium-rich) radioactive waste if used, cannot solve all the nation’s nuclear-
generate electricity.
from commercial reactors. We have spent waste problems in part because of large
more than $6 billion at the site on scientific amounts of nuclear waste currently stored in Summarize or sketch some settings in
studies, initial construction, and related sites across the country. which uranium deposits form.
activities. The scientific studies have focused
Describe positive and negative
on the surface and subsurface geology of the aspects of the use of nuclear energy.
18.7
site, especially whether the region is stable

and whether the deep water table will keep Briefly describe what material may
radioactive materials out of the environment be stored at Yucca Mountain.
for thousands to hundreds of thousands of
18.07.t1 Yucca Mountain, NV
556
18.8 How Is Water Used to Generate Electricity?

WATER IS PLENTIFUL ON OUR PLANET, and so we have found ways to use this abundant resource to generate
energy. Using the movement of water to generate electrical energy produces hydroelectric power, which commonly
employs some type of dam across a river valley but can also involve tapping the energy of moving water in ocean tides
and currents. Hydroelectric power is a clean, renewable energy source, but it requires some environmental trade-offs.
How Is Electricity Generated by Hydroelectric Dams?

Hydroelectric power, almost all from dams, provides about 6% of electrical energy for the United States and about 16%
of the world’s electricity. It is the main source of electricity for some topographically rugged western states, like Idaho,
Washington, and Oregon, as well as nations including Norway and Iceland.
How Hydroelectric Dams Generate Electricity

1. To generate hydroelectric 2. When we need electrical power, operators of
power, dams capture water the dam allow water to flow through the pipes and
from rivers or streams, stor- tubes within the dam and then down into a power-
ing it in a reservoir behind house, where the moving water turns turbines or
the dam. The dam is con- blades in electrical generators. The amount of
structed out of concrete or energy produced is related to the velocity and vol-
compacted clay, rock, and ume of the water passing through the turbines. An
other material. Large steel ideal dam, from an energy perspective, is high and
pipes or concrete tubes has a high-volume reservoir. An advantage of
within the dam guide water hydroelectric energy is that the potential energy of
to flow from higher eleva- the water can be stored until we need the electric-
tions to lower ones, under ity (which cannot easily be stored). If the demand
the constant — and free — for electricity goes up, like during the day, opera-
force of gravity. tors of the dam let out more water and generate
more electricity. At night, when there is less
18.08.a1
demand, operators let out less water.
Geologic Factors Important to Hydroelectric Dams

3. Geologic factors control the suitability of a site 11. The canyon shape determines the
for a dam, in many cases making a site unsuitable width and depth of the reservoir. Deep,
for a dam of any type. This figure summarizes narrow lakes lose less water to
these factors. evaporation than shallow, wide ones
and have greater energy potential.
4. A main geologic factor is whether there
is a deep-enough canyon or valley in which 10. Engineers anchor a concrete dam
to build a dam. Depth of a canyon or to the rocks on either side, the abut-
valley is in turn controlled by the types ments of the dam. Rocks in the abut-
and sequence of rocks and by the ments need to be relatively strong and
area’s history of uplift, erosion, unfractured, and be composed of insol-
and deposition. uble rock types.
5. Engineers build most dams 9. Dams cannot be safely built in sites
where the two walls of the canyon where the adjacent and underlying rock
or valley are relatively close types, like this layer of shale, are too weak
together. This keeps the width of to anchor or support the dam.
the dam to a minimum, improving
structural stability and keeping con- 8. Faults, fractures, and other zones of weakness
struction costs down. and high permeability can be a fatal flaw, both in
terms of site suitability and for public safety
6. Rocks beside and beneath the dam
18.08.a2 downstream of a dam.
should be relatively impermeable to limit
seepage of water around and under the 7. Rocks below and adjacent to the dam should also be chemically nonreactive. Most limestone
dam. In addition to the loss of valuable is unsuitable because it is soluble. Volcanic tuff can convert to clays and other weak materials if
water, such seepage can dissolve or loosen exposed to water over sufficient time. Some dams built on such altered rocks have been aban-
material in the rocks and weaken the foun- doned or else required a total redesign of the dam structure because the foundation was sim-
dation of the dam over time. ply too weak to support a dam.
How Is Electricity Generated from Ocean Tides and Currents?

Hydroelectric power can be generated using the changes in local sea level that accompany rising and falling tides.
Power can also be generated by submerging propellers or turbines in the shallow ocean to be spun by the moving
water in ocean currents.
18.08.b3
1. One way to generate electricity from tidal changes is to construct a dam-like structure across a nar-
row, shallow inlet, like an estuary. The barrier impedes the flow of water, causing water to pile up on one
side of the barrier during high tide and on the other side during low tide. An ideal location is one with a
large difference between high and low tide levels. One favorable site for tidal power is the Bay
of Fundy in Nova Scotia, which can have a tidal range of 16 m (52 ft).
2. When the tide rises, tidal forces pull ocean water toward
the land and pile it up on the seaward side of the
barrier. When the water level on the
seaward side is sufficiently higher than
the water level on the landward side,
the gate is opened and the inward-
rushing water turns the electricity- 18.08.b1
generating turbines.
3. During a falling tide, water is trapped on

the landward side of the barrier, while the 4. Alternatively, we can anchor
water level on the seaward side drops. The large turbines or propellers to the
trapped water flows through the gates toward shallow seafloor (▲) in an area
the sea, turning the turbines. Electricity cannot where water flows past because
be generated at all times, only when of tides or prevailing ocean cur-
the water levels on the two sides of rents. The moving water spins a
the barrier are sufficiently different. turbine or propeller blade, which
18.08.b2
Tidal power generation occurs only turns the shaft of an electrical
during tidal changes, and only along generator. With this technique,
coastlines with significant tides. ocean currents can generate
electricity most of the time.
Environmental Issues Associated with Dams
D ams hold the promise of a nearly flowing into the reservoir, and the reservoir
constant supply of electrical power will eventually fill up with sediment (called
with no associated emissions of silting up). This blockage deprives the down-
greenhouse gases or toxic contaminants. stream river of sediment and associated nutri-
They have some advantages compared to ents. This can cause erosion and drastically
other ways of generating electricity — the change the downstream habitat, as clear, cold
amount of electricity being generated can be water from the depths of the reservoir replaces
changed rapidly just by increasing or decreas- the warmer, muddy water that flowed down the
ing the amount of water released through river before construction of the dam. Non-
the turbines. This is important because the native fish may outcompete indigenous species
demand for electricity varies greatly between 18.08.t1 Glen Canyon Dam, AZ under the new water conditions. What do you
daytime and nighttime, and from summer to think about these various trade-offs?
winter, and large quantities of electricity are lands, houses, or even cities that are located
not easily stored. With other systems, if the where the reservoir will be. Flooding will Before You Leave This Page
amount of electricity being generated is destroy all the existing vegetation and animal
greater than the amount being used, the habitat, as well as any special natural places Sketch or describe how electricity is
excess is simply lost. and archeological sites. Glen Canyon Dam generated by hydroelectric dams and
Unfortunately, dams, like Glen Canyon flooded a beautiful canyon (Glen Canyon) with from tides and ocean currents.
Dam in northern Arizona (shown here), and stairstepped walls of red and white sandstone.
those along rivers of the Tennessee Valley, Dams also interfere with the natural river Summarize how geology affects the
have some important negative environmental dynamics, changing the natural flow patterns, location of a dam.
18.8
aspects. During filling of the reservoir, ris- such as spreading out large spring floods into Summarize some advantages and
ing water inundates the canyon or valley a more consistent and managed flow. A dam disadvantages of hydroelectric dams.
behind the dam. This will destroy any farm- traps sediment carried by the rivers and streams
558
18.9 What Are Alternative Energy Sources?

FOSSIL FUELS, NUCLEAR ENERGY, AND DAMS have drawbacks, so considerable research and development have
gone into exploring other ways to produce energy. The goal is to find energy sources that are least harmful to the
environment and that are renewable resources, meaning that their supply is essentially limitless and using them doesn’t
remove something irreplaceable from Earth. Such approaches include using heat within Earth, wind, and solar energy.
Even these renewable resources have some environmental downsides.
What Is Geothermal Energy and What Sites Are Most Favorable for Its Use?
Geothermal energy uses Earth’s natural heat as an energy source. Geothermal power plants convert natural hot water to
steam to power electrical generators. Naturally warm water can be piped from the ground to places where it can be used
to heat buildings and greenhouses, or to keep streets and sidewalks free of ice and snow.
18.09.a2
1. In some regions, hot waters form hot 5. To generate electricity, hot water is piped to the sur-
springs, streaming or smoldering pools of face and into power plants. In the plant, the confining
water, or an intermittent rising fountain of pressure on the overheated water is released, and the
hot water and steam called a geyser. This hot water flashes into steam, driving the turbines in the
geyser is at Geysir, Iceland. electrical generators, like these in Iceland (▼).
18.09.a3 Nesjavellir, Iceland
18.09.a1
2. Temperature increases with
depth, so water circulating
through the crust can become
heated at depth and then rise
to the surface. This is how hot
springs form.
3. The ideal combination of high tempera-

tures and relatively shallow depths is most
common in areas of recent volcanic activity, 6. Regions with recent faulting can
commonly within a collapsed caldera also be promising sites for geothermal
formed by eruption of volcanic ash. energy. Faults disrupt the continuity of
aquifers and provide a conduit for
heated water to rise to the surface and
4. Shallow magma chambers or recently solidified issue from hot springs. The Iceland site shown
magma can heat water to high temperatures, exceeding above is within an active rift zone.
200°C to 300°C (~500°F). Although water of these temperatures
would boil on the surface, it generally does not boil at depth because 7. If rocks are hot at a shallow depth but dry, water derived
water pressures work against the great expansion in volume required to from some other source can be pumped down drill holes to be
convert liquid water into gaseous steam. heated by the rocks and then pumped back to the surface and
used for heating or power generation.
How Is Electricity Produced from the Wind?

Wind is another clean and renewable energy source. It currently provides very little of the world’s and North America’s
power requirements, but it is one of the fastest growing sources of energy, both here and abroad.
18.09.b1 Jacumba, CA
1. Large-scale generation of 2. An advantage of wind power is that it is renewable, is
electricity from wind requires a nonpolluting, and can be used in remote locations and in
site that has strong winds much areas that have little other infrastructure.
of the time. Important geologic
factors to consider are how the 3. One disadvantage of wind power is that winds, and the
surface topography interacts resulting power, are variable. If there is no wind, there is no
with or controls wind, and electricity generation. Wind turbines affect the aesthetics of
whether the materials beneath a the site, being large and conspicuous, even if they are
site are suitable for building the painted to help blend in with the environment. They can be
necessary facilities. Each wind noisy, are relatively expensive to maintain, and kill birds,
turbine has its own small including endangered species. The downsides are weighed
electrical generator. against the obvious benefits of clean, renewable power.
How Is Solar Energy Used?

Solar energy involves using the Sun’s free electromagnetic energy to heat buildings and generate electricity. There are many
strategies for using solar energy, including passive solar, active solar, and photovoltaic panels. All solar-energy approaches
work best in sunny climates and in sites with unrestricted views of the Sun.
1. In passive solar, light and infrared energy from 3. Photovoltaic
the Sun enter a space through glass w indows, nat- panels convert
urally heating the inside air (⊲). Passive solar does sunlight directly
not use any moving parts (hence the name pas- into electricity.
sive) and is as easy as designing a house with Such panels,
large windows facing south (in the Northern Hemi- although
sphere) to collect the winter sun. Overhangs shield expensive to
the windows in the summer. produce and
install, provide
2. Active solar implies that there are moving parts nonpolluting
and some use of electrical energy, such as a fan renewable
for moving heated air or an electric pump for energy, even to
circulating heated fluids from the solar panel to remote locations
the interior of the building. and small sites.
18.09.c1 Tucson, AZ 18.09.c2 Phoenix, AZ
What Are Some Other Alternative Sources of Energy?

18.09.d1 Western Colorado 18.09.d2 Eastern Colorado
3. Fuel Cells — This
potentially important
technology uses
electricity to break
water molecules into
hydrogen and oxy-
gen, which then can
be used as fuel.
Some other source
of energy, such as
1. Biomass — Energy can be produced by 2. Ethanol — Ethanol is a type of alcohol that coal, must be used
algae and decaying organic material (▲), by can be used to fuel cars. To produce etha- to generate the elec-
burning scrap wood, by burning methane nol, corn (▲), sugar cane, and other plant tricity, and using
released from landfills, and in other ways. material is soaked in ammonia, fermented, today’s fuel cells
One downside of producing biomass and and distilled. Recent increases in ethanol use does not lead to any
other biofuels is an increase in water usage caused steep rises in the price of corn and net energy gain (⊲).
and potential contamination by fertilizers. other foods, locally causing food riots.
18.09.d3
Trade-Offs Between Different Ways of Producing Energy
I n an ideal world, energy sources would be

renewable, nonpolluting, ubiquitous, porta-
ble, cheap, and easily extracted without
affecting the ecology or aesthetics of the site. All
current energy sources have trade-offs of one
better understand the variables. We then make
predictions or models for several scenarios, and
we test the predictions by observing or numeri-
cally modeling the system. Cost-benefit analyses
are crucial.

Describe or sketch the surface and
subsurface geologic factors favorable
sort or another — cheap and portable but pollut- The final decision, however, also involves for geothermal energy.
ing; renewable and nonpolluting, but expensive values of individuals, companies, and govern- Summarize electricity production using
and requiring huge facilities. No single energy ments. Such values can involve such nonscien- the wind.
source does it all. tific aspects as aesthetics, ethics, emotions, and
Describe how we produce energy
The decision of which type of energy to use politics. An excellent example is the Cape Wind
from solar power, biomass, ethanol,
involves identifying the advantages and disad- Project, where people living around Cape Cod,
and fuel cells.
vantages of each type, and then carefully com- Massachusetts, known for their strong environ-
18.9
paring them against each other to see if the good mental sentiments, have resisted, for aesthetic Discuss some of the trade-offs
outweighs the bad. This decision process is reasons, the installation of offshore wind tur- involved in each of the various
similar to the scientific method — we pose a bines to generate electricity using environment- energy sources.
question, make observations, and collect data to friendly wind energy.
560
18.10 What Are Mineral Deposits

and How Do They Form?
PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROCESSES concentrate and disseminate elements and minerals, causing rocks to have
a higher content of some elements and minerals, and a lower content of others. If a volume of rock is enriched enough
in an element or mineral to be potentially valuable, we call it a mineral deposit. Materials extracted from mineral
deposits provide the very foundation for our modern world. Some mineral deposits are explored for their content of
metallic elements, like copper, and some for their nonmetallic minerals.
What Is a Mineral Deposit and What Is an Ore?

Most rocks are not considered to be mineral deposits, even though they are indeed composed of minerals. Instead, the term
mineral deposit means the rock is especially rich in some commodity that might be valuable, and such rocks are said to be
mineralized. If a mineral deposit contains enough of a commodity to be mined at a profit, it is an ore deposit, and the
valuable rocks or other materials in that deposit are ore.
18.10.a1 Murchison, South Africa 18.10.a3 Hemlo Mine, Ontario, Canada
An outcrop of plain Ore can be conspicu-

white quartz is not a ous, like this rock that
mineral deposit contains shiny, brass-
unless it contains colored sulfide miner-
flecks of gold. If rich als. Some ore is
enough in gold, like much more subtle,
the fist-sized, gold- being enriched in
rich sample in the some element but
inset photograph, otherwise looking like
the piece of quartz a typical igneous,
may also be ore. metamorphic, or
sedimentary rock.
18.10.a2
What Determines Whether a Mineral or Rock Is an Ore?

Many factors, some of them nongeologic, determine whether a rock or other material is considered ore. These include
concentration of the commodity (valuable material) in the rock, how easily the commodity is extracted from the rock, the
proximity to markets, and the economics that control prices, especially supply and demand.
18.10.b1 Kidd Creek, Ontario, Canada 18.10.b2 Morenci, AZ
1. Grade of Ore — The percentage or c oncentration of the valuable
commodity in a rock is called the grade. A rock that is very rich in the
commodity, like this sulfide-rich copper ore (⊳), is high grade; the
opposite is low grade.
2. Type of Ore — A commodity can occur in different types of minerals,

such as copper in these blue-green copper-oxide minerals (⊲). In the
case of copper, it is cheaper to extract copper from oxide minerals than
from the copper sulfide minerals shown in the left photograph.
3. Size and Depth of Mineral Deposit — The size of a deposit determines

if it is worth mining, because of the large cost of setting up a mining
operation. If a deposit is small, the investment in equipment may not be 18.10.b4 Bingham Canyon Mine, UT
18.10.b3 Morenci Mine, AZ
worthwhile unless the ore is very rich. A shallow mineral deposit is
cheaper to mine than a deeper one. A large, open-pit mine (⊳) is more
economical to operate than a small mine or a deep, underground one.
4. Location of Deposit — A deposit that is close to m arkets and to infra-

structure, such as railroads and electrical lines, will be more e conomical
than one that is far from c ivilization or in an environmentally sensitive
place. Economic factors, such as the price for which the c ommodity can
be sold, and political factors, especially whether the area has a stable
government, can d etermine whether a deposit can be mined (⊲).
What Processes Can Form a Mineral Deposit?

Many geologic processes can concentrate minerals or chemical elements, but it takes special circumstances
to form a mineral deposit, especially one rich enough to become ore. Some ore-forming environments involve
hot or deep processes and others involve low-temperature processes typical of near-surface environments.
Hot or Deep Processes Surficial Processes

18.10.c1 Bushveld, South Africa 18.10.c5 North Silverbell, AZ
1. Igneous Crystallization — A 5. Weathering Enrichment —
crystallizing magma can form a As mineralized rocks are ex-
mineral deposit by having one posed at the surface, valuable
or two minerals crystallize at elements can be leached
one time. Dense crystals can from the rocks by weathering,
sink to the bottom of a magma carried by groundwater, and
chamber, forming enriched deposited elsewhere. Leach-
parts, as occurred to crystallize ing removed copper from this
this dark layer of dense, iron rock and enriched rocks tens
oxide minerals. of meters below.
18.10.c2 Oatman, AZ 18.10.c6

2. Hydrothermal Deposi- 6. Formation by Weathering —
tion — Hot, natural water, called a Some ore deposits represent
hydrothermal fluid, can precipi- residual materials left behind as
tate minerals in fractures, on the other chemical components are
surface in hot springs, or from leached away. Deposits en-
hydrothermal vents on the riched in aluminum are called
seafloor. Mineralization within or bauxite, which can have round,
along a fracture generally coin-sized accumulations. Nickel
involves a hydrothermal fluid and deposits also can form as resid-
is called a vein. ual soils from weathering.
18.10.c3 Rooiberg, South Africa 18.10.c7 Kimberly, South Africa

3. Hydrothermal Replacement — 7. Mechanical Concentration —
A hydrothermal fluid can perme- As materials are transported by
ate through a rock, replacing rivers and washed by waves,
the existing materials with new minerals can be sorted and
minerals containing chemical concentrated, usually on the
components that were carried basis of size and density. These
by the fluid. This dark ore river gravels in South Africa
formed when tin-rich waters were mined for diamonds,
replaced a reactive limestone. which are dense and collect in
river bottoms.
18.10.c4 Salome, AZ 18.10.c8 Calrsbad, NM
4. Metamorphism — Metamor- 8. Low-Temperature Precipita-
phism, due to increased tempera- tion — Valuable minerals are
tures and p ressures, can convert deposited by evaporating sea
existing minerals in a rock into or lake water, or are deposited
new minerals that may be valu- by groundwater flowing through
able. This blue kyanite grew dur- permeable rocks. These gyp-
ing metamorphism of an initially sum beds formed by the evapo-
clay-rich rock. ration of seawater, concentrat-
ing chemical constituents in the
water until gypsum precipitated.

Explain the meaning of mineral deposit, mineralization, and ore.
18.10
Summarize geologic and non-geologic factors that determine whether a mineralized body can be mined.
Summarize the processes that can form a mineral deposit.
562
18.11 How Do Precious Metal Deposits Form?

GOLD, SILVER, AND PLATINUM are three members of a family of valuable metallic elements called precious met-
als. These metals are widely used for industrial and monetary purposes in addition to jewelry, but they occur only in
relatively minor concentrations in Earth’s crust and so are high-cost materials. Where do precious metals come from,
and how do we find new deposits?
In What Settings Do Gold- and Silver-Rich Mineral Deposits Form?

Gold and silver occur together in many geologic environments because these two elements behave similarly under many
geologic conditions. Mines that produce gold usually get some silver from the ore as well, and vice versa. Since gold
is much more valuable than silver, the discussion below focuses on gold.
Gold and Silver Veins

⊳ Gold and silver commonly occur in narrow, steep, tabular bodies
called veins. Veins represent fractures through which hydrothermal flu- 18.11.a2
ids passed and deposited minerals. They are typically not extensive,
but ore in veins can be very high grade. Many veins are associated
with volcanic areas or igneous intrusions, which heat up large volumes
of water.
⊲ Veins are common in metamorphic rocks, and they may contain

enough gold to be mined. In some cases, gold was already present in
the rocks before metamorphism but was redistributed and concentrated
in veins by metamorphic processes. In other cases, hydrothermal fluids
18.11.a1 introduce gold and silver during or after metamorphism.
Modern and Ancient Placer Deposits

⊳ Pieces of gold, liberated from bedrock by w eathering and erosion,
can be carried away by mountain streams and rivers. Gold is more
dense than any other grains being carried by the running water, so it
will be deposited at the base of gravels. Such deposits are placer gold
deposits, or simply placers.
⊲ If gold-bearing gravels are buried by later rocks, the unconsolidated

gravels will be compacted and lithified into conglomerate. Most of the
famous gold mines of South Africa are in ancient conglomerate beds.
Miners have followed such gold-bearing conglomerate to depths of
nearly 4,000 m (13,000 ft).
18.11.a3
18.11.a4
Large, Low-Grade Gold Deposits

⊳ If gold prices are high, it becomes profitable to mine rocks that con-
tain low concentrations of gold. These deposits, typically hosted by vol-
canic or sedimentary rocks, are low grade but fairly large, and they are
mined by open-pit methods. The gold typically is not visible, but it can
be extracted by chemical processing. Numerous gold mines in Nevada
are this type of deposit.
By-Product Gold
⊲ A substantial amount of gold is recovered from other types of mineral
18.11.a5 deposits, especially from large, open-pit copper mines. The ore is mined
for the copper content, but the net worth of the gold recovered as a by-
product of the copper mining can make the mine profitable during times
of low copper prices.
18.11.a6
What Parts of the United States Have Large Gold Deposits?

In the United States, most gold has been mined from bedrock and rivers of the mountainous west and Alaska. It also has
been mined in the Black Hills of South Dakota and in smaller mines east of the Appalachian Mountains.
1. This map (⊲) shows larger gold 2. The deep Homestake Mine of the Black Hills, now inactive, is the largest historic producer of gold in the
deposits of the lower 48 states. Western Hemisphere. The gold is in layers and veins within Precam-
Gold rushes in Alaska and along brian metamorphic
the Yukon River of northwestern rocks, and probably
Canada (not shown originated from hy-
on this map) were drothermal vents on
largely in river grav- 18.11.b1
the seafloor and sub-
els and so are mod- sequent redistribution
ern placer deposits. of the gold into veins
The famous Califor- during metamorphism.
nia Gold Rush was
touched off by flakes
of gold found in river 3. The first discovery of
gravels at Sutter’s gold in the United States
Mill, but the gold was in North Carolina,
originated within 4. Today, which was the main source
veins in metamor- most gold in of gold in coins minted during
phic rocks of the the United States is the early 1800s. Gold here and
18.11.b2 Murphys, CA Sierra Nevada foot- mined from large, low- in adjacent South Carolina
hills. This area produced some grade deposits in Nevada and is present as veins in
large (▲) gold specimens. as a by-product of c opper mining in metamorphic rocks and
Arizona, New Mexico, and Utah. as placers.
Where Does Platinum Occur?

Platinum is chemically very different from gold and silver and occurs in very different settings. Most platinum deposits are
associated with mafic or ultramafic igneous rocks, which rose from the mantle into the crust.
18.11.c2 Merensky Reef, South Africa
South Africa is the largest Much of the platinum in
supplier of platinum, typically the Bushveld complex
producing most of the occurs in a specific zone
world’s platinum. Most mines that is less than one
are within a large mafic to meter thick. The layer has
ultramafic intrusion that de- centimeter-sized igneous
veloped layers as different crystals and a high
minerals crystallized. This in- chromium and platinum
trusion, the Bushveld com- content. Note the black
plex, is the largest layered pen cap for scale.
intrusion on Earth.
18.11.c1
Precious Metals and Deep Mines
P
recious metals are so precious that they Such high prices make it worthwhile to Before You Leave This Page
are priced by the ounce, specifically by dig deep mines. The Homestake Gold Mine
the troy ounce, which is about 1.1 nor- in the Black Hills of South Dakota is nearly Describe or sketch the main geologic
mal ounces. What do you think is the going 2.4 km (8,000 ft) deep. Some gold mines in settings for gold and silver deposits.
rate for an ounce of gold, silver, or platinum? South Africa are nearly 4 km (>13,000 ft)
Identify where gold is mined in the
Gold is more precious than silver, typi- deep — to mine a gold-rich pebbly layer (▼)
United States, and describe the type
cally costing 50 times as much per ounce. less than 30 cm thick. of gold deposits in each region.
The price of gold fluctuates greatly. In recent
years gold has been somewhere between Describe the geologic setting of the
world’s largest platinum deposits.
18.11
$1,000 to $1,500 per troy ounce. Silver has

been more than $30 per troy ounce, and Explain why precious metal mines can
platinum has ranged between $800 to $1,500 afford to be so deep.
per troy ounce.
18.11.t1 Ventersdorp, South Africa
564
18.12 How Do Base Metal Deposits Form?

SOME METALS ARE MUCH MORE COMMON than precious metals and, unlike gold, tarnish fairly easily in air. Such
metals are called base metals, and they include iron, nickel, copper, lead, and zinc, which are fundamental to our daily
lives. Base metal deposits form by many of the same mechanisms as precious metals.
How Do Iron Deposits Form?

Iron is arguably our most important metal because it is the main ingredient in steel. Iron deposits that are mined generally
contain two iron oxide minerals: magnetite, which is magnetic, and hematite, which has a characteristic red streak. Iron
carbonate and iron sulfide minerals are also present in some iron deposits.
18.12.a1 18.12.a2
We mine most iron from Other iron mines occur
sedimentary sequences along the flanks of igne-
called banded iron forma- ous intrusions. When
tions, which contain many these intrusions invade
thin layers of iron-rich and the crust, they release
quartz-rich rocks. Nearly metal-rich fluids that per-
all large banded iron for- meate adjacent rocks.
mations are Precambrian Limestone and other rocks
(about 2 billion years old) that are chemically reac-
and are interpreted to tive were partly or com-
mark a time when increas- pletely replaced by iron-
ing oxygen in Earth’s atmosphere caused dissolved iron rich minerals, producing a dark, heavy, magnetic rock. Pieces of
in the ocean to precipitate as iron minerals on the seafloor. iron ore from this type of deposit are often mistaken for meteorites.
How Do Most Copper Deposits Form?

Copper is a relatively mobile element in water and so occurs in a variety of different types of mineral deposits. The three
types discussed here illustrate the wide spectrum of copper deposits that exist around the world.
18.12.b1 18.12.b3 18.12.b5
Most of the world’s copper ore comes from Other copper deposits are higher grade, but A different type of copper deposit forms in
large open pits within or adjacent to interme- smaller. They contain lenses and pods mainly sedimentary rocks. These sedimentary copper
diate to felsic intrusions. Many ore-related of sulfide minerals, and are referred to as mas- deposits are common in central Europe and in
intrusions have a porphyritic texture (larger sive sulfide deposits. The bronze-colored rocks the copper belt of west-central Africa. They
crystals in a finer matrix) and the deposits are below consist almost entirely of sulfide miner- probably formed when copper-rich ground-
called porphyry copper deposits. Most are als. Many massive sulfides formed in associa- water mixed with chemically different ground-
fairly low grade (<1% copper sulfides and tion with volcanic rocks that were erupted in water, depositing copper. The photograph
oxides). The photograph below shows sam- seawater, and they represent submarine hydro- below shows blue-green copper minerals
ples of weathered ore and porphyritic rocks. thermal vents called black smokers. replacing plant fossils in sandstone.
18.12.b2 Boulder Mtns., MT 18.12.b4 Ansil Mine, Quebec, Canada 18.12.b6 Promontory Butte, AZ
What Happens When a Copper Deposit Is Weathered?

Porphyry copper deposits are relatively low grade, and some are barely economical, especially when world markets drive
down the price of copper. Weathering can increase the ore grade, making a deposit profitable.
When a copper deposit is at the surface, the upper
part becomes weathered and oxidized. Weathering
leaches copper from the top of the deposit and leaves
these rocks a reddish color due to the presence of
iron oxide minerals.
Percolating groundwater carries the leached copper
down until it reaches the water table, where it rede-
posits the copper, making this part of the deposit
higher grade (richer in copper). The photograph to the
right shows the reddish weathered top of a copper
18.12.c1 deposit and the underlying gray, enriched part.
18.12.c2 Silverbell, AZ
How Do Some Other Base Metal Deposits Form?

There are many types of base metal deposits, with diverse modes of formation, as illustrated by two very different
examples: one formed in sedimentary layers and another formed at the bottom of a large magma chamber.
18.12.d1 18.12.d2
Famous lead- Near Sudbury, Ontario, Canada,
zinc deposits large nickel-sulfide deposits formed
of the mid- at the base of a mafic to ultramafic
continental magma chamber. Most of the sul-
United States fide ore minerals crystallized from
are hosted by the large magma chamber. Rocks
limestone and around Sudbury
other carbon- contain unusual
ate rocks that features, such as
were depos- these unusual
ited over hills cone-shaped
of an older, joints (⊲). This
eroded granite. Metal-rich groundwater flowing through the type of joint, called a shatter cone, is common around craters
sedimentary layers encountered the buried hills and depos- interpreted to have formed from a meteoroid impact. From this
ited the lead and zinc minerals as replacements. This type and other evidence, many geologists conclude that an ancient
of deposit, called a Mississippi Valley deposit, contains crys- meteoroid-impact event fractured the crust and triggered the
tals of galena (lead sulfide), zinc sulfides, calcite, and green mantle-derived magma that crystallized to form the Sudbury
and purple fluorite (a calcium fluoride mineral). mineral deposits.
18.12.d3 Sudbury, Ontario, Canada
The Geologic Setting of Diamonds
D
iamonds are a classic ore mineral; monds are mined from vertical volcanic
a little bit of diamond can be conduits called diamond pipes, such as Before You Leave This Page
worth a lot, and it is the mine shown here. Diamond
worthwhile to mine a lot of pipes contain unusual igneous Describe or sketch two ways that iron
rock just to get a little bit of rocks, called kimberlites, that deposits form.
diamond. Natural diamonds are ultramafic in composition,
Describe or sketch ways that copper
have an unusual origin. They because they are directly from
deposits form, and what happens
form at depths of more than the mantle, and are composed when a deposit is weathered.
100 km (60 mi) within the of rock fragments and unusual
mantle and then are violently minerals, including diamond, Summarize how the Mississippi Valley
carried toward the surface in in an igneous matrix. Some lead-zinc and Sudbury nickel
pipe-like volcanic conduits. diamonds are mined from deposits formed.
18.12
Southern Africa, a region gravels deposited by streams Describe the setting of diamonds,
that produces many diamonds, that carried diamonds eroded including where they form and in what
has two main types of dia- from diamond pipes. types of units they occur.
mond deposits. Most dia-
18.12.t1 Kimberly, South Africa
566
18.13 How Do We Explore for Mineral Deposits?

MINERAL DEPOSITS ARE ESSENTIAL TO SOCIETY, and much time, effort, and money are spent exploring for
them. If you wanted to find a new mineral deposit, where would you start looking? Geologists explore for new mineral
deposits by first studying ones they know about — to become familiar with any diagnostic a ttributes that would help
the geologist recognize a new deposit. Geologists then use various strategies and tools to find deposits that are partially
exposed on the surface and those that are completely buried.
How Do Field Geologists Explore for Mineral Deposits?

Much of the search for new mineral deposits occurs in the field. Mineral-exploration geologists conduct various
investigations. They hike across the countryside doing geologic mapping, conducting structural studies, and collecting
samples for chemical analyses. Mineral exploration takes geologists to many far-off places, including Peru, Indonesia, and
Mongolia, or can be closer to home.
1. Exploration geologists use existing geologic maps or con- 4. Mineralizing fluids leave chemical traces in rocks through which they
struct new geologic maps to document the geometry and distri- pass. Geologists collect samples of rocks and soils to later analyze the geo-
bution of rock units. The geologists pay special attention to geochemistry of the samples for the commodity of interest and for other ele-
logic structures that provide conduits for hydrothermal fluids, ments (such as arsenic) that are associated with this type of mineralization.
because many m ineral deposits are in mineral-filled veins.
5. From the various types of geologic infor-
2. In addition to mapping the rock units, exploration geologists mation, exploration geologists reconstruct
also map mineral changes caused by the passage of hydro- the geologic history of the region.
thermal fluids through fractures and other pathways. The They determine the sequence of
fluids change the adjacent rocks by altering existing rocks and structures and
minerals and adding new minerals, especially also when the mineral-
quartz and pyrite. These changes, called alteration, ization and alteration
can be recognized in the field and on satellite occurred. Events that
images processed to emphasize alteration. could have destroyed,
preserved, enriched, or
moved a mineral
3. These rocks show deposit are carefully
reddish alteration (⊳) considered. Such events
with iron oxide minerals include weathering and ero-
and a later set of cross-cutting sion that could remove or enrich
fractures that have gray alteration. a deposit, faulting that moves all or
Such alteration effects can extend far parts of a deposit, and sediment deposition,
beyond the limits of the actual ore body and which can bury and hide a deposit. Explor-
thus can help us find a new ore body that is 18.13.a1 ing for mineral deposits involves many dif-
nearby, but perhaps partially hidden. ferent aspects of geology.
18.13.a2 North Silverbell, AZ
How Do Geologists Use Plate Tectonics to Explore for Ore Deposits?

Plate tectonics is a critical consideration in mineral
exploration because many mineral deposits are in
rocks formed in specific plate-tectonic settings.
Convergent
1. In convergent boundaries, slices of oceanic crust are scraped off the
oceanic plate, metal-rich magma invades the overlying plate, and
metal-rich fluids escape from thrust zones (⊲).
18.13.b1
Divergent 18.13.b2
2. Along a divergent oceanic boundary (⊳), plates spread apart, decompres-
sion causes magmatism, and heated seawater forms submarine hot springs
that deposit sulfide minerals in black smokers.
How Do We Find Buried Mineral Deposits?

Many mineral deposits are exposed on the surface, and most of these have already been found. Undiscovered mineral
deposits are most likely partially or completely buried, requiring different exploration strategies.
1. To locate mineral deposits that are 3. This graph shows the strength of Earth’s magnetic
buried beneath younger deposits or field across the area, as determined by a magnetic
obscured by thick soils and vegetation, survey. The survey recorded a strong magnetic sig-
geoscientists conduct surveys across nal, called a magnetic high, over the ore. Exploration
potential exploration targets using sev- geologists, applying the knowledge that deposits of
eral geophysical techniques. replacement ore commonly contain magnetic miner-
als, might hypothesize that such ore lies at depth.
2. This porphyry copper deposit is buried This hypothesis can be tested by drilling an explora-
beneath younger sediment (shown in yel- tion drill hole into the location of the magnetic high.
low), but is flanked by a zone of high-grade Other types of information could be obtained by
replacement ore that contains abundant measuring variations in the strength of gravity or by
magnetic iron minerals (magnetite) in running electrical current through the ground to find
addition to copper minerals. conductive sulfide minerals.
18.13.c1
How Are Mineral Deposits Extracted and Processed?

Once a new mineral deposit has been discovered, it is extensively drilled so samples can be chemically analyzed to
determine the size, shape, depth, and grade of the deposit. If all these factors are favorable for development, mining
geologists work with engineers to design plans to mine and process the ore. 18.13.d2 Winterveld, South Africa
18.13.d1 Copperstone Mine, AZ
1. Open-Pit Mine — If an ore deposit is shallow enough, it is cost effective to
mine the ore in an open pit (⊳). Ore can be blasted loose with explosives and
loaded into huge ore trucks.
2. Underground Mine — Deeper ore deposits must be mined by more expen-

sive underground methods. Ore is blasted loose at depth and hauled to the
surface by train (⊲), ore carts, elevators, in vertical shafts, or large trucks that
drive through even larger tunnels.
3. Mill — From the mine, the ore goes to the mill, where it is crushed and run
through various processes to separate the ore minerals from the rest of the
rock. These large, rotating cylinders (⊳) contain hard metal spheres that crush
the pieces of ore into a powder.
4. Smelter or Leach Pads – Some ore is roasted in furnaces in a smelter. Other

ore is crushed and placed on leach pads (⊲) that are sprinkled with chemical
solutions that dissolve (leach) soluble minerals so they can be recovered.
18.13.d3 West Driefontane, South Africa
18.13.d4 Beatty, NV
Some Environmental Issues Associated with Mining
E xtracting and processing minerals has

environmental consequences. Mines
disrupt the land by leaving pits in the
ground, along with large piles or dumps of
rock and other materials that were moved to
Many mines have sulfide minerals, like pyrite,
and their reddish, oxidized equivalents. Water
interacts with these sulfide minerals in dumps,
tailings, and exposures of mineralized rock,
becoming a form of sulfuric acid contaminated
Describe how field geologists
explore for mineral deposits.
get to the ore. In some cases, ore is crushed with metals and other toxic chemicals. The Describe why we consider plate
and pulverized to extract the precious com- acidic and contaminated water can flow into tectonics in mineral exploration.
modity, and this produces heaps of light-col- streams or into groundwater. Such waters kill Describe one way we find buried
ored powder called mill tailings. Dumps and many types of life and make the water unusable mineral deposits.
tailings are unsightly, cover whatever used to to humans. Finally, some sulfide ores must be
be there, and can collapse roasted in mineral-extraction Briefly summarize how minerals
18.13
downhill, posing a hazard. facilities called smelters, are extracted and processed.
To limit these issues, many which release sulfur dioxide Discuss some environmental issues
companies try to revegetate gas into the atmosphere, a of mining and processing ore.
dumps and tailings. contributor to acid rain.
18.13.t1 Silver City, NM
568
18.14 Why Are Industrial Rocks and Minerals

So Important to Society?
GOLD, PLATINUM, AND DIAMONDS get all the attention, but modern society especially relies on everyday rocks
and minerals, like limestone and gravel. We use these common materials, called industrial rocks and minerals, to build
much of the infrastructure of our civilization, such as highways, bridges, water pipes, and sewer lines. We also use
them to obtain the material used to build houses and other buildings.
How Are Cement and Concrete Produced?

Cement and concrete are everywhere in our cities. They form the sidewalks, curbs, block walls, foundations of our
buildings, and overpasses across our highways. Where does this material come from?
18.14.a2 Crown Lakes, British Columbia, Canada
1. The starting material for Cement Versus Concrete
cement and concrete is limestone,
especially one that is free of 3. Cement is a whitish powder
impurities, like certain detrimental produced at the plant. When the
clay minerals. Limestone is extract- powder is mixed with water
ed (mined) mostly in open pits (and usually other materi-
called quarries (▼). The price of als), complex reactions
limestone rarely justifies expensive take place and the mix-
underground mining. ture sets
to a solid mass.
2. Limestone is crushed and processed in a

cement plant (▲), where the crushed lime- 18.14.a3
stone is mixed with clays and other materials
and then roasted in large kilns. The material 4. Concrete is a mixture (▲) of cement with sand,
is cooled and mixed with gypsum to make gravel, or crushed stone, which together are called
cement. We can also produce a different aggregate. Concrete is a thick, wet slurry when it is
product, lime, by simply roasting limestone. being transported and laid down. It can be mixed at
We use lime to produce paper, help make the plant or on site in small batches. Cement makes
steel, and treat soils. up only 10% to 15% of concrete, but it is what holds
18.14.a1 Marana, AZ
concrete together.
Where Do Sheetrock and Plaster Come From?

Sheetrock, also called wallboard, and plaster are the main materials covering the inside walls of houses and buildings. These
are both produced using gypsum, a calcium sulfate mineral.
1. Most interior walls in buildings constructed in the United States in the last 40 years are made from wallboard containing gypsum. Since gypsum is
not a very expensive m aterial, the distance from mine to market is critical in determining if the mining o
peration is profitable. Most gypsum mines are
shallow open pits, which are cheaper to operate than underground mines. G ypsum is common enough that many c ommunities have fairly local sources.
The states that produce large amounts of gypsum in the United States include Nevada, Iowa, California, Oklahoma, Texas, and New Mexico. The total
amount of gypsum mined in the United States in 2012 was 10 million tons, worth $70 million — a lot of gypsum and a lot of wallboard.
18.14.b1 Gypsum, CO 18.14.b2 Cuba, NM
2. Gypsum is an evaporite mineral, meaning that it can

be precipitated by evaporation of water. Most gypsum
forms when water in a sea or lake evaporates, leaving
behind gypsum, salt, and other substances dissolved in
the water. It generally is cream colored (⊳) or clear.
3. Most gypsum forms in specific sedimentary layers, like

these shown here (⊲). Mining operations strip off any
overlying rocks, mine away the gypsum, and stop at the
base of the gypsum-rich layer.
How Do We Use Sand, Gravel, and Crushed Rock?

The Earth materials we use the most are sand and gravel. Our society uses enormous quantities of sand and gravel, along
with crushed rock, to mix into concrete. We use sand to produce brick, roof tile, and glass, as well as the foundations of
buildings and to build up or fill in spaces beneath highways. An average of nearly 7 metric tons (15,000 pounds) of sand,
gravel, and crushed stone is mined each year for each person in the United States.
The largest source of sand and gravel are deposits along streams.
Some sand and gravel are quarried from within the active river
channel or adjacent low terraces, because these sediments are
unconsolidated and individual clasts are generally not highly
weathered. If a modern-day channel is not available, sand and
gravel can be quarried from older stream and river deposits (⊳).
Various types of hard rocks, such as quartzite, are crushed (⊲) for
use as aggregate, decorative rock, road and railroad beds, and
various other uses.
18.14.c1 18.14.c2 Flagstaff, AZ
What Are Some Other Important Industrial Mineral Deposits?

Many other industrial rocks and minerals are mined and used by society. You will recognize some of these, like salt and
clay, but others will be unfamiliar. We use certain minerals as chemical filters and others for fertilizer. Here, we present a
small selection of these industrial mineral commodities.
18.14.d1 Berkeley Springs, WV 18.14.d3 St. Austell, Cornwall, England
1. Silica sand is like a typical 3. Clay refers to a size of particle
sand, but it consists of nearly all and to a family of platy minerals.
quartz grains with few other Clay minerals are a main ingredi-
impurities (⊲). Quartz sand this ent in tiles and other ceramics,
pure comes from windblown bricks, and expensive paper.
deposits and some beach There are several v arieties of clay,
deposits. We use it to make each with a different use, value,
glass, ceramics, and microchips. and geologic origin. Clay is mined
in pits (⊲).
18.14.d2 Puna de Atacama, Argentina 18.14.d4 Vernal, UT
2. Salt is a necessary commodity 4. Phosphate rock is a general
for nutrition and for many industrial term for rocks that are rich in the
and chemical uses. Salt is an element phosphorus, which is
evaporite and mostly comes from essential for plant growth. It is
salt deposits (⊳) that formed when mined from recent marine depos-
a sea or lake evaporated enough its in Florida and elsewhere and
to precipitate salt. Common salt is from older (Paleozoic) marine
the mineral halite (NaCl). rocks in Idaho and Utah (⊳). We
primarily use it for fertilizer.
Ways to Obtain Salt Before You Leave This Page
R
ock salt can be obtained in several domes, such as those along the Gulf Coast of
ways, depending on the geologic set- the southern United States. Another way to Summarize how limestone is used to
make cement, concrete, and lime.
ting where the salt occurs. Salt can be extract salt is to pour fresh water into under-
harvested by trapping salty water and allow- ground salt bodies, pump the resulting salty Summarize where the gypsum in
ing it to evaporate in water back to the sur- wallboard and plaster comes from.
the sunlight. Salt is face, and then use
Discuss why sand, gravel, and other
harvested this way front-end loaders to
aggregates are our most used
from Great Salt Lake, harvest the salt after mineral resources.
Utah, shown in the the salty water evapo-
18.14
photograph here. We rates and the salt dries. Briefly describe the origins and uses
can also mine salt of silica sand, salt, clay, and
from underground salt phosphate rock.
layers or from salt 18.14.t1 Great Salt Lake, UT
570
CONNECTIONS
18.2
18.15 Why Is Wyoming So Rich in Energy Resources?
WYOMING HAS A WEALTH OF ENERGY RESOURCES. It contains as many large and diverse energy resources
as any region in the world. It has the most prolific coal region in the world, and the three largest coal mines in the
United States. In recent years, it has ranked first in the country in uranium production and second in natural gas, includ-
ing coal-bed methane. It shares with adjacent states the largest resource of oil shale in the world. What happened dur-
ing the geologic history of Wyoming to make the state so energy rich?
What Is the Geology of Wyoming?

Wyoming has a long and interesting geologic history, spanning more than 2.5 billion years. Nearly all of the state’s energy
resources, however, resulted from geologic events during the last 80 million years.
1. The topography of Wyoming reflects its 18.15.a1
geology, as expressed in this geologic map
on a shaded-relief base. Colors reflect types
and ages of the exposed rock units. On this
map, large uplifted mountain ranges are
surrounded by broad valleys (basins).
2. Heavy lines on the map represent faults,

many of which are along the edges of
mountains, including the Grand Tetons.
3. The details of the geologic units on this

map are not critical here, but the colors rep-
resent the following ages of rock, from
youngest to oldest:
Cenozoic sedimentary (yellow) and volcanic
(reddish orange) rocks
Mesozoic sedimentary rocks
(various shades of green)
Paleozoic sedimentary rocks (blue)
Precambrian metamorphic and granitic
rocks (dark brown and purple)
4. The mountain ranges contain old (Pre-

cambrian and Paleozoic) rocks, whereas the
basins are covered by younger Mesozoic
and Cenozoic sedimentary rocks. The line
A – A' on the map shows the location of
the geologic cross section below.
5. On a cross section (A – A') across 6. The cores of the mountain 7. A thin veneer of Paleo- 8. The largest basin is the
the state (▼), the western edge of the ranges expose ancient Precam- zoic and Mesozoic sedimen- Powder River Basin in the east-
state is a fold and thrust belt, the brian rocks (brown), which include tary rocks, such as those in ern part of the state (the yellow
Overthrust Belt, which has shuffled the 2.5 b illion-year-old metamor- the Casper Arch, sit on the area beneath the “N” in Wyo-
the Paleozoic and Mesozoic sedi- phic and granitic rocks that crop Precambrian rocks or are ming on the map). It is a broad
mentary rocks. out in the Wind River Range. beneath reverse faults. downward-bending fold
(syncline) that preserves the
youngest Cenozoic rocks in
the center of the basin. The
rock layers rise up toward both
flanks of the basin, climbing
westward toward the Casper
Arch and eastward toward the
Black Hills uplift of Wyoming
18.15.a2 and South Dakota.
570
571
E n e r g y a n d M i n e r a l R e s o u r c e s 571
What Is the Geologic Setting of Wyoming’s Natural Resources?

The uplifts, basins, and other large-scale geologic features of Wyoming control the distribution of oil and gas fields,
coal, oil shale, uranium deposits, and hot springs (potential for geothermal energy).
Oil and Gas, and Oil Shale 18.15.b1

4. The oil and gas are mostly
1. The oil fields (blue-green) and the gas fields derived from Paleozoic and
(orange) are in the basins, where sedimentary Mesozoic sedimentary layers,
rocks are preserved and relatively thick. There because these rocks are
are almost no oil and gas fields in the uplifted young enough to have been
mountain ranges, where the sedimentary layers are organic-rich and were buried
eroded away, exposing the underlying Precambrian deep enough to turn the
crystalline rocks. organic material into oil and
gas. The reservoir rocks for
2. The southwestern part of the state, including the oil and gas include a
the Overthrust Belt, has mostly gas fields instead Paleozoic limestone and a
of oil because rocks in this area were buried Mesozoic sandstone, both of
and heated more than rocks farther east. which have high permeability.
The main oil and gas traps
3. The world’s largest oil shale deposits (shown are anticlines formed from
as light purple) are in southwestern Wyoming 80 to 40 Ma.
and nearby states, where large lakes formed in
early Cenozoic time within the basins.
Coal and Coal-Bed Methane 18.15.b2
5. Coal fields (dark gray) are also in the basins, 8. The Powder River Basin
especially in those parts of the basins that have produces more coal than
the youngest Mesozoic and Cenozoic sedimen- any place in the world and
tary rocks. Many of the coal-bearing rocks also has the largest remain-
formed in swampy, plant-rich deltas. ing coal reserves. Each year,
it produces hundreds of mil-
6. There are no coal fields in the large lions of tons of coal. Most of
mountain ranges because some coal-bearing the mined coal goes to
layers were eroded off the uplifts and others coal-fired electrical-generat-
were only deposited in the basins. ing plants, some of which
are located close to the
7. Areas of coal-bed methane (light gray) are coal fields to avoid trans-
more widely distributed than the coal mines or porting the coal great dis-
the coal areas shown here, because coal can tances. Large quantities of
be mined only where the coal-bearing units are coal are also shipped to
near the surface, whereas the gas wells can power plants in other parts
tap deeper layers of coal. of the country.
Uranium and 18.15.b3

Geothermal Energy
9. Areas with potential for geothermal
energy commonly have hot springs
(shown in red) and geysers. In Wyo- Before You Leave This Page
ming, most hot springs (>100°F) are
near areas of recent volcanic activity Summarize or sketch in cross
and faulting near Yellowstone section the main types of
National Park. geologic features present
in Wyoming.
10. The largest uranium deposits
(yellow) are in Cenozoic sand- Summarize how large-scale
stone and were deposited by geologic features control the
groundwater. Miners have distribution of oil, gas,
18.15
extracted the uranium by tradi- oil shale, coal, coal-bed

tional methods and also by pump- methane, uranium, and
ing water through subsurface ores geothermal energy.
to dissolve the uranium.
18.16 Where Would You Explore for Fossil
Fuels in This Place?
THIS REGION EXHIBITS CLUES that it contains several types of fossil fuels. There are oil seeps, exposed coal
seams, and other features that may be related to hydrocarbons. You will use the character and distribution of different
rock types on the surface, along with some subsurface information, to identify places to explore for hydrocarbon-based
energy sources. This investigation involves many aspects of geology, including sedimentary environments, structural
geology, groundwater, and energy resources. It’s an opportunity to apply knowledge you learned throughout the course.
Goals of This Exercise: 1. The highest feature in the area is a large ridge, called
Tan Mountain, which is largely composed of tan-colored
• Observe the landscape to understand the geologic setting of sandstone. The sandstone is well sorted and is report-
different areas, and read the descriptions of each location in edly a good source of groundwater (i.e., is an aquifer).
order to interpret the significance for exploring for fossil fuels. The sandstone unit is named after the mountain and is
called the Tan Mountain Sandstone. On both flanks of
• Use a stratigraphic section and descriptions of the rocks to the mountain, the sandstone dips away from the ridge
interpret the environment in which each rock layer formed. crest, defining an anticline that has nearly the same
• Use surface observations of geologic structures, along with the shape as the mountain.
geologic section shown on the side of the diagram, to interpret
the subsurface geology.
• Determine the best locations to explore for hydrocarbon-based
fossil fuels, either on the surface or in the subsurface.
Procedures
Use the information to complete the following steps, entering
your answers in the worksheet or online.
A. Observe the features shown on the landscape to the right. Read the
text box associated with each area and consider what that statement
implies about the rock types and geologic structure in that area.
B. On the stratigraphic section, read the description of each rock unit and
interpret the environment in which each formed. Next, consider what
implications each rock’s character has for that rock’s potential role in
the generation, preservation, or trapping of fossil fuels.
C. Use the various types of structural information to characterize the main
geologic structures that cross the area.
18.16.a1
D. Integrate your understanding of the rock sequence and the structural
geometries to predict what rocks would lie at depth beneath any area,
and whether any particular rock layer will be at a shallow, medium, or
great depth below the surface.
E. Draw the letters OG, C, and S any place on the map that you think
has potential for oil and natural gas (OG) including coal-bed methane,
2. Wrapping around the flanks of the mountain is a sequence of
coal (C), and oil shale (S). Note that not all of these types of
reddish and gray sedimentary rocks, which are shown on the cross
hydrocarbons may be present. You may decide to write a letter (such
section with a pale reddish color. Local people informally call this
as C for coal) in more than one location. If you do, label them C1, C2,
unit the carbon beds because the bottom part of the unit contains a
C3, etc., in order of highest to lowest potential.
layer of coal up to 5 m (16 ft) thick (too thin to show on the cross
F. Be prepared to write or discuss a justification for each of your pro- section). The coal is exposed only here and there, but digging
posed sites, including what you think would be present in the subsur- beneath the surface has shown that the coal layer is fairly continu-
face and how you intend to extract the resource. ous. Miners drilling into the unit while exploring for coal experienced
some minor explosions due to some type of flammable gas.
572
E n e r g y a n d M i n e r a l R e s o u r c e s 573
3. The two valleys in the 4. In one valley, the rock layers do 5. The eastern ridge, like the other two, is an anticline. It is more
center of the area are not quite match up when geologists eroded than the other two anticlines, and so exposes deeper rock lay-
underlain by tan, dark gray, compare the rocks exposed on either ers. The Tan Mountain Sandstone caps the highest peaks and overlies
and brown shale, which side. A zone of crushed rocks marks a thick sequence of yellowish-tan shale. This shale is called the muddy
geologists call the upper a fault zone along one of the moun- shale, because water will not sink into the unit when it rains; instead,
shale. This unit, colored tain fronts. There are some springs the water remains on the surface, making a muddy mess.
brownish tan on the cross and small oil seeps along the fault,
section, is the highest unit but overall the fault does not seem to
exposed in the area, except be very permeable because some 6. Some recently deposited gravels cover the
for some thin gravels along type of natural cement has filled older rocks in a few places. These gravels
the streams and mountain in the pore spaces between are loose and unconsolidated.
fronts. The dark-gray and the broken pieces
brown parts of the shale of rock.
emit an oily smell. Some
long-time residents claim
that the shale actually
burns, but this has not
been verified.
7. Following
up on the pres-
ence of the oil seeps
and an encouraging seismic-
reflection survey, oil companies drilled
an exploration drill hole nearby, outside the
area shown here. The drill hole started in the
upper shale and encountered the sequence shown in the
stratigraphic section below. The drilling discovered units not
exposed at the surface, including a brown, permeable, and oil-
stained sandstone, called the lower sandstone, which underlies
the muddy shale. Farther down is an organic-rich limestone with
favorable traces of oil. The lowest unit encountered in the drilling
is a layer of salt, which has contorted layers formed by flow.
Upper Shale: Tan, dark gray, and dark brown shale with nonmarine fish
8. In the central part of the area fossils; dark layers emit an oily smell.
is an odd circular feature that
seems out of place in the rock
Carbon Beds: Reddish and gray sedimentary beds with coal near the base.
sequence. The feature is com- Tan Mountain Sandstone: Tan, locally cross-bedded sandstone with both
posed of salt and has a rough, marine fossils and land plants.
irregular surface because the salt
is flowing and spreading out in all Muddy Shale: Light-gray marine shale that is impermeable.
directions. Areas of pure salt are
light colored, but the entire fea-
Lower Sandstone: Porous and permeable, well-sorted sandstone with
ture is dark because the salt con-
tains minor amounts of shale and very little natural cement between the grains; locally oil stained.
oil intermixed with the salt. No
Lower Limestone: Dark-gray limestone with abundant marine fossils;
one has been able to extract the
oil from the salt, because the salt
contains many open fractures and bedding planes, some of which
18.16
is too impermeable. are locally oil stained.

Salt: A mostly cream-colored to light gray salt with some thin organic-rich
shales. Tests show that the salt, shale, and overlying limestone have
all been buried and regionally heated to 80°C to 100°C.
18.16.a2
CHAPTER
19 Geology of the Solar System

GEOLOGIC PROCESSES AND FEATURES are not restricted to Earth. Geologic features are exposed on the sur-
faces of our solar system’s four innermost planets, on our own Moon, and on moons of the outer gas planets. The
planets and moons highlighted in this chapter provide a brief portrait of the most important or interesting bodies in
our solar system. Compared to illustrations in this chapter, the p lanets and moons are vastly farther apart and are
more different in size than can be shown.
The four inner planets are called terrestrial planets because they have solid rocky surfaces (terra means earth). These planets also
have similar overall compositions but not similar geologic histories.
Mercury, closest to the Venus has a thick Earth has plate Mars has been Asteroids are rocky frag-
Sun, is a small, h
eavily atmosphere of carbon tectonics and also a explored recently, and ments concentrated in an
cratered planet with dioxide that captures strong magnetic new data show that orbit between Mars and
almost no a tmosphere. much of the solar field caused by its water once flowed on Jupiter. They are similar in
It has a 650°C differ- radiation that reaches rotating, molten iron the Martian surface. composition to certain
ence between night the planet. This extreme outer core. Oceans But Mars lost most of meteorites and are inter-
and day temperatures. greenhouse effect cover 71% of the its atmosphere some- preted to be fragments left
causes surface temper- planet's surface. The time in the past and over from the formation of
Why is the planet so atures to reach 450°C. abundant surface now is so cold that liq- the solar system, probably
heavily cratered? The planet is shown water sustains a uid water cannot exist with some pieces of small
here as if it did not diversity of life. in large quantities on planetary objects that
have its thick atmo- its surface. broke apart. The largest
spheric shroud. Why is Earth so object in the asteroid belt
different from the What is the evidence is Ceres, an icy world clas-
What is the land other inner planets? for past movement of sified as a
surface like beneath water on Mars? dwarf planet,
the clouds? like Pluto.
NASA's Dawn
spacecraft began
orbiting Ceres in
2015, capturing
spectacular images.
The asteroid belt
is a prime region
for future space
19.00.a1 missions.
How the Solar System Formed
T
he Sun formed about 5 billion years ago from wind. The solar wind reached the inner planets, blowing
the remnants of previous stars and cosmic dust, all away hydrogen, helium, and other light elements near the
of which had a beginning in what is called the “big surface, leaving only heavy elements and other materials.
bang.” According to current interpretations of observa- Later, Earth gradually reacquired its supply of hydrogen
tions from telescopes and results from numerical models, and other light elements. The outer planets were less
the entire universe arose from the big bang 13.7 to 13.8 affected by solar wind and had enough gravity to retain
billion years ago. Our solar system formed at 4.55 billion hydrogen and helium, so they remain gaseous.
years ago, approximately 9 billion years after the uni- During the early stages of its formation, Earth is
verse. Current theories for the formation of our solar sys- thought to have collided with another large object that was
tem suggest that the Sun and planets condensed from a not quite yet a planet. This catastrophic collision ripped
nebula, a shapeless cloud of gas and dust. Particles of dust away part of Earth, forming our Moon. It also likely
clung together to form small chunks and then larger pieces, knocked Earth off its original axis of spin, giving the
eventually ending up as planets. The Sun, meantime, contin- planet the present 23.5° tilt of its spin axis. In other
ued to attract more material and became massive enough to words, we probably have a moon and seasons because of
begin atomic fusion and to emit protons and electrons in a solar this immense collision nearly 4.5 billion years ago.
Geology of the Solar System 575
Jupiter, the largest

planet in the solar
system, consists TO PI CS I N TH IS CH AP TER
of hydrogen and
helium with a 19.1 How Do We Explore Other Planets and Moons? 576
small rocky 19.2 Why Is Each Planet and Moon Different? 578
core, making it 19.3 What Is the Geology of the Inner Planets? 580
compositionally
more similar to 19.4 What Is the Geology of Our Moon? 582
the Sun than 19.5 What Is Observed on Jupiter and Its Moons? 584
to Earth. It has 19.6 What Is Observed on Saturn and Its Moons? 586
a banded,
swirling atmo-
19.7 What Is the Geology of the Outer Planets
sphere and Their Moons? 588
and many 19.8 CONNECTIONS: What Have We Learned
interesting About Mars? 590
moons.
19.9 INVESTIGATION: How and When Did Geologic
Do Jupiter’s moons Features on This Alien World Form? 592
look like ours, and
are they all the same?
Saturn is similar to Jupiter, but it has Outside Our Solar System
O
a beautiful system of delicate, icy
ur galaxy, the Milky Way Galaxy, is
rings around the planet. Our
spacecraft are actively explor- only one of countless immense galaxies
ing Saturn and its moons. in the universe. Each galaxy is com-
posed of millions of stars, like the Sun, and
What have our spacecraft many of these stars are orbited by planets.
found so far?
Astronomers have captured some amazing
images of other galaxies and of nebulae, which
are large accumulations of space dust and stars.
Below are the Whirlpool Galaxy (top) and the
Eagle Nebula (bottom), a birthplace for stars.
19.00.a2
Uranus is large, but smaller

than Jupiter and Saturn. It is
much farther out in the solar
system, being as far from
Saturn as Saturn is from the
Sun. Uranus has arguably
the oddest moon in the
solar system.
Neptune is very similar in size and composition to

Uranus. Both planets are gaseous and have a blue color.
Why are Neptune and Uranus blue?
Pluto is a tiny body with an icy surface and an unusual orbit. Once
considered to be the ninth planet, Pluto is no longer classified as a
true planet, leaving our solar system with only eight true planets.
The four large outer planets — Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune — are known as the gas
giants because of their large size and gas-rich character, which is quite different from the
19.0
inner terrestrial planets. All four planets have their own moons and some type of rings. One
way to think of the solar system is as an inner zone of rocky planets, an outer zone of
giant, gaseous ones, and finally a zone of small, distinct objects, like Pluto, dominated by
ice. This outward progression is related to how the solar system formed and evolved.
19.00.a3
576
19.1 How Do We Explore Other Planets and Moons?

EXPLORING THE GEOLOGY OF OTHER PLANETS and moons is not as easy as studying geology on Earth, even
when compared to Antarctica or other remote parts of our planet. Nearly all exploration of other planets and their
moons has to be done remotely (from a distance) by examining them with telescopes and other instruments, either on
Earth or in orbit around Earth. We gain additional information by sending spacecraft to visit these distant objects and
orbit them or land and explore their surfaces. Our Moon is the only place other than Earth where geologists and other
humans have walked on the surface, making observations and collecting rock samples.
What Can We Observe with Telescopes on Earth and in Earth Orbit?

Historically, most investigations of other planets and moons in the solar system have used Earth-based telescopes.
Astronomers still rely heavily on Earth-based telescopes, but they also use telescopes in orbit around Earth or launched into
space to avoid the distorting effect of Earth’s unpredictable atmosphere.
19.01.a2
1. These images of Mars (▼) were taken several months apart from 4. Common
the Hubble Space Telescope, which orbits Earth. telescopes view
19.01.a1 the night sky
using visible
light, but astron-
omers use
telescopes that
can also
observe other
parts of the
electromagnetic
spectrum.
These three
views of Saturn
from the Hubble
Space Tele-
scope show
2. In this view, Mars has an overall 3. Several months later, a how the planet
orange-red color, but contains dark planet-wide dust storm appears when imaged in v isible light (center), short-wavelength
rocky areas, as well as ice caps at had covered most of Mars, ultraviolet light (top), and long-wavelength infrared light (bottom). Each
the north and south poles. obscuring its surface. type of image provides data about different aspects of an object.
What Do Radar Observations Tell Us About a Planetary Surface?

We can observe the surfaces of other planets and moons remotely by using radar or other techniques that can penetrate the
atmosphere of a planet and reveal topographic features and roughness of the surface.
19.01.b2
1. In this technique, a satellite transmits radar waves down and sideways toward a 4. This radar image
planetary surface. A sensor on the satellite then measures the amount of the radar from Venus shows
signal reflected back from the surface. a crater produced
by a meteoroid
2. If the planetary surface is 3. If the planetary surface is smooth impact. Much of the
rough or slopes toward the or slopes away from the satellite, interior of the crater
satellite, the surface will most of the radar energy will is dark because the
reflect more radar waves bounce away rather than return to surface there is rel-
back toward the satellite. the instrument. As a result, these atively smooth. Bro-
The area will appear types of areas will be relatively dark ken rocks ejected
bright on the radar on the radar image. from the crater form
image (lots of an apron of ejected
returned rock around the
energy). crater and appear
bright because
they form rough
topography.
19.01.b1
How Can We Remotely Observe Temperature and Composition of Surfaces?

Geologists, working with engineers, develop sophisticated instruments that allow us to measure the temperature of, and to
infer the composition of, a planetary surface from afar. One technique measures the energy given off by rocks in the
infrared part of the electromagnetic spectrum.
19.01.c1
1. When rocks and other materials are 2. This image of an impact crater on Mars combines
heated by the Sun, they re-emit some of the visible and infrared measurements. The colors depict
energy as thermal energy with infrared wave- nighttime temperatures: reds show warmer areas and
lengths. By measuring how much infrared blues show colder ones. The bright colors on this
energy is given off, geologists can calculate and similar images in this chapter are not the actual
the temperature of the surface, even at night. colors of the Martian surface.
They infer what types of material are present
by how well the material holds heat. Uncon- 3. The floor of the crater is bluish in this image,
solidated sediment and other low-density showing that the materials cooled relatively quickly
materials lose their heat faster than solid after sunset. Geologists therefore infer that the cra-
rock and materials that are relatively dense. ter contains some loose, unconsolidated material,
probably sediment.
How Have We Explored the Surfaces of the Moon and Some Planets?
In addition to observations from spacecraft, NASA and other space agencies have landed or intentionally crashed probes on
several planets, moons, and asteroids. Astronauts have walked on the Moon with the expressed intent of collecting rock
samples and observing other aspects of its geology.
19.01.d1 19.01.d2 19.01.d3 Curiosity Rover
Astronaut and geologist Harrison (Jack) Humans have landed spacecraft on the In recent years, NASA has explored the
Schmitt collects a sample near the Apollo 17 surfaces of Venus, Mars, Earth’s moon, a geology of the Martian surface using rovers,
landing site on the Moon. What an amazing moon of Saturn, and even an asteroid. Such which are small-wheeled vehicles that drive
field site in which to do geologic field work! spacecraft, called landers, collect images and around on the surface, following commands
various types of data during their descent and issued from Earth. The rovers take images,
after they have landed. collect infrared and other data, and even
drill through the surface coating of rocks.
Encounters with Asteroids
F
arther from the Sun than Mars, but this between Mars and Jupiter, and others that reside
side of Jupiter, is a belt of hundreds of or travel closer to Earth.
thousands of rocky chunks drifting in Before You Leave This Page
space. Some are more than 500 km (300 mi)
across, others are meters across. Most asteroids Briefly explain why we put telescopes
are thought to be debris left over from the for- in orbit to better observe space.
mation of the solar system 4.5 billion years ago, Sketch or describe what radar and
but some are probably parts of objects that infrared observations indicate about
broke up. Several space missions have passed a planetary surface.
close enough to asteroids to take detailed pho-
Describe ways we collect information
tographs or even to land on the surface, as did
by landing spacecraft on an object,
the Near Earth Asteroid Rendezvous – Shoe-
including those with geologists
maker. NASA’s Dawn spacecraft captured this
or rovers.
stunningly detailed image of an asteroid called
19.1
Vesta. There are plans to land humans on an Describe what asteroids are and
asteroid within the next decade or two. There where most are located.
are many asteroids within the main asteroid belt
19.01.t1 Vesta
578
19.2 Why Is Each Planet and Moon Different?

THE PLANETS AND MOONS OF OUR SOLAR SYSTEM exhibit a remarkable diversity of atmospheric and geologic
characteristics. Some are gaseous giants with thick atmospheres, whereas others are like cratered snowballs. What
processes affect the surfaces of planets and moons, and what causes these differences?
What Determines the Kinds of Materials and Features on a Planet or Moon?

The surface environments of planets and moons are governed by their position in the solar system. The distance from the
Sun to a planet or moon influences what material the planet or moon contains and how much solar heating they experience.
The planetary objects are equally influenced by their size, whether they have an atmosphere, and whether liquid water
currently exists, or ever existed, on the planet or moon.
19.02.a1 Europa 19.02.a2 Jupiter 19.02.a3 Mars (Thermal Infrared Image)
1. Composition — The appearance and domi- 2. Atmosphere — The presence of a thick 3. Impacts — All planetary surfaces have at
nant processes of a planetary object are influ- atmosphere can obscure the planet’s surface. least some craters formed by the impact of
enced by its composition, including its chemi- It can block incoming solar radiation, trap in meteoroids and other objects. Some planets
cal composition, and the proportions of ice (▲), heat, and lead to other phenomena, such as and moons contain many craters, whereas
rock, liquid, and gas. rain and erosion. others have few preserved craters.
19.02.a4 Mars (Thermal Infrared Image) 19.02.a5 Olympus Mons, Mars 19.02.a6 Mars
4. Tectonics — Faulting and other tectonics 5. Volcanism — Magma erupts onto the sur- 6. Erosion and D eposition — Wind, water,
modify planetary surfaces, causing variations face and may form a silicate rock, like on this ice, and gravity can erode some areas and
in topographic relief. Only Earth exhibits our basaltic shield volcano on Mars, may be redeposit eroded material elsewhere. In this
style of plate tectonics, but some other sulfur rich, as on Jupiter’s moon Io, or may be image, sedimentary layers are being eroded,
objects have tectonics. liquid water on an icy moon. revealing their upturned edges. Blowing sand
partly covers these layers. Erosion, d eposition,
volcanism, and tectonics can remake a surface,
a process called resurfacing.
How Are Impact Craters Formed?
The dominant geologic process in our solar system is the formation of impact craters. Impact craters of all sizes are
abundant on the surfaces of most planets and moons, except in areas that have been resurfaced. Impacts were more
frequent early in the solar system’s history because there was more debris in space.
19.02.b2 Mars
⊳ An impact crater forms when a meteoroid, comet, or other object from space strikes
a planetary surface at an extremely high velocity, blasting open a crater and fracturing
adjacent rocks. Pieces of the S
hoemaker-Levy 9 comet collided with Jupiter in 1994,
as recorded by this series of images. These collisions caused a disruption of Jupiter's
gaseous surface but did not form visible craters.
⊲ Most impact craters are circular and surrounded by an apron of material ejected
from the crater during the impact. Larger impacts can cause melting of the rocks by
the intense shock waves that pass through the rocks. The impacting comet or meteor-
oid may be totally vaporized, leaving only a crater as a record.
19.02.b1 Jupiter
What Determines Whether an Object Has Active Tectonics and Volcanism?

Why do some planets and moons have active tectonics and volcanism, whereas others are inactive and heavily cratered? The
main cause of this difference is the size of the object, which controls how fast it loses heat.
1. The size of an object affects 2. Smaller objects, like the planet Mercury, have a 4. Larger rocky planets, like
heat loss. As the radius (r) of a large surface area relative to their volume. This causes Earth, have a relatively
sphere increases, surface area them to lose heat more quickly, which in turn causes small surface area com-
increases by r2 (area of sphere them to solidify, shutting off volcanism and tectonism. pared to their inner
= 4πr2), whereas volume volume. This allows
increases by r3 (volume of 19.02.c2 3. The solar system has them to retain heat
sphere = 4/3πr3). Therefore, a few smaller objects that generated from their
larger objects have less sur- remain volcanically and initial formation and
face area relative to their vol- tectonically active. Io, an from post-formation
ume than do smaller objects. inner moon of Jupiter, is radioactive decay. As
Here, we examine three 19.02.c1 active because gravita- a result, larger planets
objects, which are shown at tional effects of Jupiter and its other moons remain volcanically and
their correct relative sizes. provide additional heat energy to Io. tectonically active longer
than smaller planets.
19.02.c3
How Can Water and Wind Modify a Planet’s Surface?

Water is currently abundant on Earth, and scientists have demonstrated that water was present in the past on Mars and
perhaps on other planets and moons. Water promotes chemical and physical weathering, erosion, transportation, and
deposition of sediment. Flowing water leaves telltale landforms, including drainage networks, that point to its earlier
existence. Wind forms dunes and other distinctive landforms and can bury or modify parts of a planet’s surface.
19.02.d1 Mars 19.02.d2 Mars 19.02.d3 Mars
Weathering and Erosion — These channels Deposition — Material can be moved and Wind — If a planet has an atmosphere and
on Mars are interpreted to have been eroded deposited by various processes, including run- strong winds, sand and dust can be blown
by running water because they are similar to ning water, wind, flowing ice, and slope failure. across the surface, forming distinctive dunes
stream channels on Earth. If there is no water This channel on Mars has a curved meander and covering up what lies beneath. Much of
or wind, there will be little or no erosion of an that is floored with sedimentary deposits that the surface of Mars is obscured by windblown
object's surface. look like a typical point bar. dust and sand dunes, like those shown above.
Using Crater Density to Estimate the Age of a Surface
A
cross the solar system, the degree to which the surface of
a planet or moon is cratered varies widely. Planetary geol- Summarize the factors and processes
ogists use the density of craters to estimate the age of a that affect the appearance of a moon
planetary surface. The underlying principle is that the longer a or planet.
surface is exposed, the more impact scars it receives. Surfaces that
have remained undisturbed by tectonics, volcanism, and deposition Summarize the characteristics of an
for a long time will be more heavily cratered than those that have impact crater and how one forms.
been more recently resurfaced by these processes. So a region that Explain why smaller objects are more
has a high density of craters is interpreted as being older than a likely to be tectonically or volcanically
region with fewer craters. Which part of this image of the Coper- inactive than larger objects.
nicus area of Earth’s moon (⊳) is youngest? The foreground, con-
19.2
Explain how crater density can be

sisting of dark lava flows, is less cratered and is younger than the
used to estimate the age of a
older, more heavily cratered part in the background. planetary surface.
19.02.t1 Moon
580
19.3 What Is the Geology of the Inner Planets?

THE FOUR PLANETS CLOSEST TO THE SUN are the inner planets: Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars. These four
terrestrial planets all have a rocky surface. The geology of these four planets differs primarily because of their different
sizes and different atmospheres. For each planet, observe the images first, noting what features are most obvious, before
you read the accompanying text.
What Is on the Surface of Mercury, the Closest Planet to the Sun?

Mercury is a small and rocky planet that is relentlessly baked by its proximity to the Sun. It speeds through space at about
50 km/s and orbits the Sun in 88 days (that is, a Mercury-year is only 88 days long).
1. Mercury (⊳) has almost no atmosphere, and the temper- 3. In this close-up view of part of
ature can reach 460°C (860°F) during the day and an Mercury, the surface is covered
extremely cold minus 80°C (–290°F) at night. by impact craters of various sizes
(⊳). The surface appears so heav-
2. With so little atmosphere, there is no erosion by water ily cratered because tectonic and
or wind, so the surface is not modified by these pro- volcanic activity on this small
cesses. As a result, Mercury’s surface is covered with planet ceased early in the solar
numerous craters produced when meteoroids and other system’s history, when there still
planetary debris collided with the planet’s surface. was an a bundance of debris to
Because of its extremely thin atmosphere, impacts are collide with the planet. The sub-
more common on Mercury than on the other terrestrial sequent lack of volcanoes, wind,
planets. If planets have a thick atmosphere, meteoroids or water means that the craters
and other objects often burn up due to frictional heating in have not been eroded or cov-
the atmosphere before they reach the planet's surface. ered by lava or sediment — that
is, the surface of Mercury has
19.03.a1 19.03.a2 not been recently resurfaced.
What Is Beneath the Atmospheric Shroud of Venus?

Venus, the second planet out from the Sun, is similar to Earth in size, mass, and composition, but has a thick atmosphere
that hides the planet’s surface. It has experienced volcanism and tectonism in the last billion years, but there is no evidence
of active plate tectonics.
19.03.b2
1. In this tele- 2. Planetary scientists used radar to image the surface of
scopic view of Venus (⊳) through the thick atmosphere. The radar image
Venus (⊳), the sur- shows that the planet has significant topographic relief,
face of the planet including large, continent-sized high areas and vast, low
is obscured by a plains. This map is shaded by e levation: blues are low
thick atmosphere regions and reds are high regions.
of clouds and
19.03.b4
toxic gases that
swirl around the
planet. The atmo-
sphere consists
mostly of carbon
dioxide and drop-
lets of sulfuric
acid, with almost
no water vapor. 19.03.b3
The atmosphere
19.03.b1 exerts a stifling
amount of air pressure. It allows the
Sun’s energy in, but keeps the heat 3. This radar image (⊳) 4. These 25-km-wide,
from escaping back to space, caus- shows bright areas that pancake-shaped moun-
ing the atmosphere to heat up, like have a rough surface. The tains are interpreted to be
a closed greenhouse. As a result of rough areas are interpreted thick lava domes (▲), dem-
these extreme greenhouse effects, as lava flows that flowed onstrating that v olcanism
surface temperatures are more than across a linear ridge formed has played an important
450°C (840°F). by faulting or some other role in the history of Venus.
type of deformation.
What Makes Earth Unique?

Earth is very different from its neighbors because it is just the right distance from the Sun to contain abundant water and to
allow a thick, but not too thick, atmosphere to develop, along with oceans, rivers, and life. It has the right conditions to
have water in all three phases, making it more suitable for life. A planetary object under these conditions is said to be in the
“Goldilocks zone,” not too hot, not too cold, but just right for life.
19.03.c2 Sahara Desert, Africa
1. In this computer-rendered view of Earth, the planet is domi- 3. On Earth, weather-
nated by its blue oceans but also shows green and brown ing produces abun-
continents and white clouds and ice. Even when viewed dant sediment, which
over the short time frame of hours or days, Earth is a can be transported
dynamic place, with clouds, oceans, wind, rivers, and by water and atmo-
other features being in constant motion. Over the longer spheric winds. A thin
perspective of geologic time, mountains rise and are veneer of sediments
eroded down, continents break apart and travel great and sedimentary
distances, and oceans widen or shrink with time due to rocks covers most of
seafloor spreading and subduction. the land and seafloor.
This image shows a
2. Earth’s surface conditions allow water to exist as water large dust storm
vapor, liquid, or ice (in the atmosphere, oceans, and moving many tons of
glaciers, respectively). Moving water and ice erode the land sediment across
19.03.c1
and deposit sediment, modifying or completely resurfacing northern Africa.
the land surface.
4. Earth is big enough and generates enough heat to allow 5. Without tectonics
plate tectonics to operate and form the large-scale features to dewater and degas
observed today. The existence of tectonic activity on Earth, Earth's interior, Earth
especially plate tectonics, is largely responsible for Earth's might not have oceans,
uniqueness. Tectonic-related volcanoes, like in the steam- lakes, streams, or other
emitting, divergent rift shown here (⊲), release water vapor parts of the hydrosphere.
and other gases that are an essential part of our atmo- Without oceans and rain,
sphere. Subduction takes carbon-rich crustal materials, like it is likely that wind and
limestone and organic shale, to great depths, removing the dust storms would be
carbon from the near-surface environment. Without plate the dominant agents of
tectonics, Earth could have a thick, stifling, CO2-rich atmo- erosion, transport, and
sphere like that of Venus and might be lifeless. It might not deposition of sediment,
have a temperature or atmospheric chemistry that would as is the current situation
support life as we know it. on Mars.
19.03.c3 Krafla, Iceland
What Is on the Surface of Mars, the Red Planet?

Compared to Earth, Mars is smaller and has a thinner atmosphere. The color of the planet is due to an abundance of
reddish, windblown dust. Mars has been orbited by spacecraft with sophisticated cameras and instruments, and it has
been visited by landers and rovers. It is the focus of the Connections pages near the end of this chapter.
19.03.d1
1. Mars has enough atmosphere to maintain
ice caps on the south and north poles, as
well as patches of ice in some shaded Before You Leave This Page
areas. The ice caps shrink and grow with
the Mars seasons.
Explain why the surface of Mercury
is so heavily cratered.
2. Much of the surface consists of reddish
dust that has been weathered from rocks Describe why radar was required to
and blown around the surface by strong investigate the surface of Venus, and
Martian winds. The reddish color is from iron what types of features we found.
oxide minerals, like hematite.
Discuss factors that make the
surface of Earth so different from
3. Geologists interpret Martian bedrock its neighbors.
to consist of basaltic lavas, including
19.3
some with recently photographed colum- Summarize the materials and

nar joints. Other areas have layered rocks features present on the surface
that many geologists think are probably of Mars.
sedimentary in origin.
582
19.4 What Is the Geology of Our Moon?

OUR NEAREST NEIGHBOR IN SPACE is the Moon. It is much closer than any other object in the solar system and
can be observed in detail with the simplest of telescopes or binoculars. It was the first object in the solar system to be
systematically studied by geologists, who observed the Moon with telescopes. Subsequently, geologists mapped the
topography, geology, and composition by sending spacecraft to orbit the Moon, and finally they walked and drove on
the Moon’s surface, observing the features and collecting rock samples to bring back to Earth for detailed study.
What Are the Main Geologic Features of the Moon?

Observe this large image of the Moon. The surface of the Moon is not all the same. It has lighter colored areas, with some
dark, somewhat-circular patches. With binoculars, we can observe individual craters.
19.04.a2
1. This view of the Moon shows the features on the side of the Moon that 2. Much of the near
always faces Earth, called the near side. The other, or far side, cannot be seen side and nearly all of
from Earth but has been photographed by spacecraft. the far side consists of
light-colored material
that is heavily cratered
(⊲). This material mostly
occurs at higher eleva-
tions and is called the
lunar highlands or the
cratered highlands.
3. From samples col-

lected by astronauts
and other information,
we know that the cra- 19.04.a3
tered highlands con-
tain igneous rocks that
are light colored be-
cause they consist al-
most entirely of feld-
spar. Rocks from the
highlands (⊲) have
been dated to more
than 4 billion years.
4. The dark patches on the Moon (▼) are lower, flatter, and
less cratered; they are maria (plural of mare, meaning sea).
The maria have far fewer craters than the highland and so are
much younger. The maria consist of dark basalt erupted as
lava flows that buried and filled craters that existed in the
older, lunar highland material.
19.04.a1
19.04.a4
6. The other obvious features on the Moon are 5. Samples from maria consist
impact craters, some of which have bright rays of of basalt lava (▼), mostly dated
material radiating outward. The rays overlie and at 3.8 to 2.5 billion years old,
cut across the top of the maria. Such rayed craters when the Moon retained enough
are some of the youngest features on the Moon, in heat to allow volcanism. Vesicles
some places probably being less than 100 million in the basalt record gas in the
years old. Samples collected from lunar craters are magma.
mostly breccia 19.04.a5
containing angular
rock fragments (⊲)
generated
during impacts.
19.04.a6
What Other Features Are Observed on the Moon?

The Moon is tectonically and volcanically inactive, and has been so for more than two billion years. The vast majority of
craters on the Moon are due to impacts of meteoroids and other objects onto the Moon’s surface, and once formed, they lead
to some familiar features. In addition, the Moon contains more water than we originally thought.
19.04.b1
After a crater is excavated by an 19.04.b2 Several independent observations have con-
impact, the shattered walls of firmed that the Moon has abundant water as
the crater are commonly too ice beneath shadowy craters and in minerals in
steep to withstand the Moon’s the Moon's interior. The image here represents
gravity, even though it is only 1/6 measurements of the amount of neutrons com-
that of Earth. Slope failures are ing from the Moon's South Pole, which can be
common along the walls, like the related to the amount of water. The purplish
rotated slump blocks, debris area in the center is interpreted to have the
avalanches, and other loose most water, and NASA deliberately crashed part
debris shown here. of a rocket into this area and measured water
in the ejected debris.
What Causes the Phases of the Moon?

Every month the Moon appears to change its illumination on a regular schedule, going from completely dark to fully lit and
back to dark again. Why is this cycle, called phases of the Moon, happening?
1. At times, the side of 4. Half of the Moon is always illuminated by the Sun, but from Earth we may not be
19.04.c1
the Moon facing Earth able to see the entire sunlit half because of the Moon’s position. The Moon orbits Earth
(near side) appears fully in 28 days, and we see different amounts of the Moon’s sunlit side on different nights.
illuminated by sunlight.
This is a full moon. 5. During a new moon, the side being illuminated 7. During a full moon,
by sunlight is away from our view. The Moon the side of the
2. Seven days later, only appears dark to us, but the other side of the moon being
19.04.c2
half of the near side can Moon is still completely sunlit. The yellow illuminated by
be seen from Earth. This arrows depict the rays of sunlight, sunlight is
is a quarter moon. but the Sun is not shown. facing
Earth,
6. At other times, we see half of so we
3. Six days later, a thin the sunlit half of the Moon, so it is
19.04.c3
see all of it.

sliver of the near side is a quarter moon. When the moon is The other
illuminated. The next day, in this position, we can tell that the side is dark.
none is illuminated, which phases of the Moon are not in any way
is a new moon. related to Earth’s shadow.
19.04.c4
A Model for the Formation of the Moon
W
here did the Moon come from, aggregated under the force of gravity and impacts. This proposed history of the Moon
and how did it form? Geologists and formed the Moon. came from diverse sources of information,
other scientists have investigated this As the Moon formed, and soon thereafter, it including telescope observations, field excur-
question by examining several types of data. became hot enough for large parts to melt. As sions to the lunar surface, and lots of laboratory
They calculate the age of the Moon by dating the magma began to solidify, heavier crystals measurements and computer simulations.
actual lunar samples. The chemical composition sank downward (crystal settling), while less
of these samples, including isotopic analyses, dense crystals, especially feldspar, floated
showed some unexpected similarities to rocks upward. The floating crystals accumulated near Before You Leave This Page
on Earth. This led to a hypothesis, currently the surface, forming the light-colored igneous
favored by many scien- rocks of the highlands. Summarize the physical characteristics
tists, that the Moon Early, intense impacts and rock compositions of the lunar
formed when a Mars- cratered the highlands. highlands, maria, and craters, and
sized object collided Later, basaltic magmas explain how each feature formed.
with Earth early in the from depth erupted,
history of the solar sys- forming the dark-col- Sketch and describe what causes the
phases of the Moon.
19.4
tem. The collision ored maria. Rayed cra-

ejected a huge part of ters formed even later, Summarize one model for how the
Earth’s mantle into from more recent Moon and its different parts formed.
space, where it later
19.04.t1
584
19.5 What Is Observed on Jupiter and Its Moons?

JUPITER, THE LARGEST PLANET IN THE SOLAR SYSTEM, is a gas giant more than three times farther from the
Sun than Mars. Jupiter is orbited by, at present count, 67 officially named moons, including the largest moon in the
solar system. To geologists, the icy and rocky moons are of greater interest than the gas-dominated planet itself because
of their solid surfaces, spectacular geologic features, and wide diversity.
Jupiter is nearly 780,000,000 km from the Sun, but it is so large that we can see it on most clear nights. It is about 2.5 times
more massive than all the other planets combined, and it contains more than 300 times the mass of Earth. Examine the large,
page-spanning image, which was computer generated by wrapping actual images of Jupiter around a sphere. What do you observe
on the surface of the planet?
19.05.a1
19.05.a2
1. Jupiter is so far from the Sun that it takes nearly 12 Earth-years to
complete an orbit — a Jupiter year is more than 4,300 Earth-days
long. As viewed from Jupiter, the Sun appears much smaller
and dimmer than it does from Earth.
2. The dominant features of Jupiter are the c olorful

bands and swirls of the planet’s a tmosphere. The
atmosphere is mostly h ydrogen with lesser
amounts of helium, and trace amounts of meth-
ane, ammonia, and other gases. The interior of
the planet is interpreted to consist of hydro-
gen in liquid and liquid-metallic forms, sur-
rounding a solid core of mostly iron silicate
minerals. Most of the planet is gas, so its
overall density is less than that of Earth.
3. One of the most distinctive features

in Jupiter’s atmosphere (⊳) is the Great
Red Spot, which is a storm that has
existed for hundreds of years. This
spot is three times wider than the
19.05.a3
diameter of Earth but is currently
shrinking in diameter.
4. Jupiter’s four largest moons (⊳) were

discovered by Galileo Galilei in 1610
when he observed the planet with a
telescope. These four moons are the
Galilean moons, and are named Io,
Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto. The
dramatic differences between the moons
are largely due to differences in their
distance from the massive gas giant
around which they revolve. The moons
are not as close to one another, nor to
Jupiter, as shown here.
19.05.a4
5. This image (⊳) shows Jupiter’s

moon Io and the shadow of Io
on Jupiter’s surface. The image
was taken by the Hubble Space
Telescope, which orbits Earth.
19.05.a5 6. Of the four Galilean moons, Io is clos- 7. Pulling and squeezing
est to Jupiter. It is slightly larger than of rocks by tidal forces
Earth’s moon. Because it is so close generates heat, making Io
to massive Jupiter, it is subjected to the most volcanically
extreme tidal forces that deform its active object in the solar
land surface up and down by as system. Sulfur-rich lava
much as 100 m, in the same way flows cover its surface.
that our Moon moves Earth’s oceans NASA’s Galileo spacecraft
up or down a few meters, causing photographed one such
tides in our oceans. eruption of lava (⊲).
19.05.a7 19.05.a6
8. Europa is farther away from Jupiter but is still heated by the tidal forces
of Jupiter and the other Galilean moons. These forces allow Europa to
remain tectonically active longer than would be merited by its size. Tec-
tonic processes have extensively reworked the surface, accounting for the
linear features (⊳) and the nearly complete lack of craters. Beneath the icy
crust is probably an ocean
19.05.a9
of liquid water.
19.05.a8
9. The surface of
Europa is a crust of
ice (mostly frozen
water) marked by
intersecting lines (⊳).
These lines appear
to be fissures that
allowed liquid water 10. Parts of Europa’s surface are covered by huge
to erupt onto blocks of ice (▲) that broke apart and then froze
the surface. in place, like icebergs in a frozen sea.
19.05.a11
19.05.a10
12. Ganymede’s surface contains dark, heavily cratered
11. Ganymede (▲), the largest patches (▲) that are relatively old. Younger patches and
moon in the solar system, is belts cross-cut the older surfaces and contain tectonic
thought to consist of a rocky features similar to those seen on Europa, including some
core with a water-ice mantle interpreted to be water-erupting fissures.
and a crust of water-ice and rocks.
13. Callisto, the third-largest moon Before You Leave This Page
in the solar system, is the most
heavily cratered object (⊳) in the Summarize the key characteristics of Jupiter,
solar system. It is far enough from such as its size, internal composition, and
Jupiter’s tidal forces that its sur- atmospheric composition.
19.5
face has remained largely intact

for the last 4 billion years. Briefly summarize the main characteristics
of each Galilean moon.
19.05.a12
586
19.6 What Is Observed on Saturn and Its Moons?

SATURN IS A BEAUTIFUL PLANET, a gas giant encircled by a set of spectacular rings. Saturn is the second-
largest planet in the solar system and is orbited by more than 50 named moons. Saturn’s moons are quite diverse,
reflecting differences in the materials and in the role of different geologic processes.
Saturn is farther from the Sun than Jupiter, in fact nearly twice as far. Saturn and Jupiter are very far apart, with the distance
between them being greater than the distance between the Sun and Mars. The large photograph was taken by the Voyager
spacecraft, and colors have been enhanced in the smaller photograph to accentuate the bands.
19.06.a1
1. Saturn, like Jupiter, consists mostly of hydrogen and helium, which make up
the gaseous atmosphere. The gases become liquid as they are compressed
closer to the center of the planet. The center of the planet is interpreted to
have a solid core of rock and metal. Saturn is more than 1.4 billion km from
the Sun, and it takes 29.5 Earth-years to orbit the Sun.
2. Like Jupiter, Saturn is a mini solar system orbited by a collection of large
and small moons. Our knowledge of the geology of these moons has increased
dramatically due to the arrival of the Cassini-Huygens spacecraft in 2004. The
image to the right shows Saturn, its rings, and some of its moons (small light-
brown spots), four of which are discussed here: Titan, Iapetus, Enceladus, and
Mimas. Titan is the largest of Saturn's moons, and the other three are included
not because they are the three next largest, but because they are geologically
interesting and nicely illustrate the geologic diversity of Saturn’s moons.
3. Saturn is best known for its rings (▼), which extend outward from the planet
a distance nearly equal to the distance between the Earth and Sun. The rings
consist of widely separated icy chunks floating in space. Most of the icy chunks
are the size of sand, pebbles, and boulders, with some larger pieces. Close-ups
of the rings display intricate details of concentric thick and thin rings separated
by dark-colored, more-empty space, as viewed in the image below, which is
colored by particle size. Purple indicates regions where particles are larger than
5 cm (pebble size and larger), green and blue indicate particles smaller than
5 cm, and white bands mark rings where particles were large enough or dense
enough to block the radio signals used to determine size.
19.06.a2
19.06.a4
4. Titan is the largest of Saturn’s moons 5. The Cassini space-
and the second-largest moon in the solar craft released the
system, even larger than the planet Mer- Huygens probe, which
cury. Its surface is obscured by a thick, parachuted through
cloudy atmosphere of mostly nitrogen and Titan’s atmosphere
methane, but this image (⊳) generated and softly landed on
from various types of data shows some of the surface. On the
Titan’s surface features. The surface is way down, it captured
inferred and observed to contain solid images of drainage
materials (ices) and liquids, including liquid networks and a lake
methane and other hydrocarbons. or ocean. Cassini (⊲)
has continued to cap-
19.06.a3
ture radar images of
the surface, confirm-
ing that liquids are
widespread on Titan’s surface. Once on the surface, the Huygens
probe sent back an image of well-rounded icy boulders, presumably
rounded by transport in flowing liquid.
6. Iapetus, another moon of Saturn, is distinctive in that most of its icy,

cratered surface is light colored (⊳), but part is quite dark. The light-col-
ored side is water ice; the darker side is interpreted to be a coating of
dust that probably escaped from an adjacent moon and has been plas-
tered on the leading edge of Iapetus as it orbits Saturn.
19.06.a5
7. Enceladus (▼) is one of the lightest-colored objects in the solar system, possibly because
an icy frost continuously forms on the surface.
8. The surface of Enceladus consists of at least three

distinct types of terrain, the oldest of which is heavily
cratered. Broad plains lie adjacent to the cratered
terrain, and are much less cratered and therefore
younger. They are interpreted to have been resurfaced
by the eruption of water onto the surface.
9. The third type of terrain con-

sists of tectonic belts that slice
through the heavily cratered
material and through the plains.
These belts have linear ridges
and troughs that probably
formed as fissures through which
water erupted to the surface.
The Cassini team discovered
active ice geysers fountaining
from the surface (⊲).
19.06.a6 19.06.a7
10. Mimas (▼) is a relatively small moon whose pock-

marked surface contains a large crater 130 km in Before You Leave This Page
diameter, with walls nearly 10 km (~33,000 ft) high.
This crater formed from an impact that scientists
Summarize the key characteristics of
have calculated nearly blasted the moon apart.
Saturn, such as its size and composition.
Describe what materials compose the
rings of Saturn.
Summarize the main characteristics of

19.6
the four moons of Saturn described here

and the main geologic processes
expressed on the surface of each.
19.06.a8
588
19.7 What Is the Geology of the Outer Planets

and Their Moons?
THE OUTER PLANETS OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM and their moons are less well known than those from Saturn
inward to the Sun. Many of the observations are based on images taken by the Voyager 2 spacecraft, which flew through
the outer reaches of the solar system in the late 1980s. These images provided a wealth of new information about the
planets Uranus and Neptune, which are called ice giants, and some of their moons.
What Features Characterize Uranus and Its Unusual Moons?

The next large planet out from Saturn is another large, gaseous world called Uranus. This planet and some of its moons
have some unusual characteristics and features.
1. The planet Uranus is nearly 2.9 billion km from the Sun. 4. Uranus is unusual in that its axis of rotation, orientation
The distance from Uranus to Saturn, the next planet in, is of rings, and orbits of its moons are roughly perpen-
comparable to the distance from Saturn to the Sun. dicular to those of every other planet in the solar
It takes Uranus 84 Earth-years to orbit the Sun. system. That is, if Earth’s Moon orbits “hori-
zontally” around Earth, Uranus’ rings and
moons go around it vertically (▼).
2. Uranus consists largely of liquid and
19.07.a2
icy materials, including water, methane,
and ammonia. The atmosphere is a mix-
ture of hydrogen, helium, and methane.
The blue-green color is caused by meth-
ane, which absorbs red light and reflects
blue light. Uranus does not appear to
have a solid surface.
3. Uranus has rings and at least 27

moons named after characters from the
works of William Shakespeare and Alex-
ander Pope, including Oberon, Titania,
Juliette, Puck, Ariel, and Miranda.
19.07.a1
Ariel
5. Ariel (▼) is a moderate-sized moon,
approximately 580 km (360 mi) in diameter,
and is covered by ice. The surface is
Miranda 19.07.a4
cut by long fractures, some of which have 6. To some geologists, Miranda, a
been filled by upwelling liquid water. This small (236 km-diameter) moon of Ura-
moon is thought to be mostly inactive. nus, is the most bizarre world (⊲) in our
solar system. The surface of Miranda is
19.07.a3
covered with ice and displays several
distinct types of terrain.
7. There is highly cratered terrain that

is lighter colored and relatively old.
8. Disrupting the heavily cratered ter-

rain are huge oval to angular features,
each of which is a corona. The origin
of these features is unresolved among
planetary geologists, but they involve
some normal faulting and probably
upwelling of deeper materials.
What Is the Geology of Neptune and Its Moon, Triton?

Neptune is the eighth and last planet from the Sun and is another gas giant similar in many ways to Uranus. The existence
of Neptune was predicted mathematically before the planet was discovered by telescope.
19.07.b2
1. Neptune is nearly 4.5 billion km from the
Sun, and the distance from Uranus to Nep-
tune is more than that between Uranus
and Saturn. In other words, the distance
between adjacent planets increases
as one moves outward through the
solar system. Neptune is so far from
the Sun that it has not completed
even one orbit since it was discov-
ered. It takes 165 Earth-years to
go around the Sun.
2. Neptune is about the same size

as Uranus (~50,000 km in diameter) 3. The surface of Triton (▲), Neptune’s only large moon,
and has a similar composition, with consists of ices of nitrogen and carbon substances. It
ices and liquids inside and an outer has two distinct halves; one part appears like the sur-
atmosphere of hydrogen, helium, and face of a cantaloupe and is interpreted to represent
methane. Its blue color is due to methane. activity from volcanic eruptions and active geysers.
19.07.b1
What Do We Know About Pluto and Its Companions?

Pluto was once considered to be the ninth and outermost planet, but astronomers recently reassigned Pluto to a type of solar
system object called a dwarf planet or plutoid. So our solar system has eight planets, not nine, but this is still being debated.
Pluto was always an oddity In 2015, NASA’s New Hori-
compared to the eight zons spacecraft visited Pluto
planets. It is a relatively and its moon Charon, provid-
small, icy object, even ing much higher resolution
smaller than Earth’s moon. images (⊳) than previously
Pluto orbits the Sun in a existed. The spacecraft then
very elliptical orbit that headed out toward the Kuiper
sometimes brings it closer Belt, a disk-like zone of
to the Sun than Neptune. objects that lies beyond the
A circuit around the Sun orbit of Neptune. This belt
takes 248 Earth-years. has a number of objects that
Pluto has a large compan- are similar to and far beyond
ion named Charon, which Pluto. Some of the named
is half Pluto’s size, plus Kuiper Belt objects are shown
several very small moons. in this artist’s conception (⊲).
19.07.c1
19.07.c2
Comets
C
omets are among the more interesting Rosetta space mission has given us the most com- Before You Leave This Page
spectacles that sometimes grace the prehensive view of the geology of a comet, which
night sky. Comets are small, icy, and in this case is quite complex and odd (▼). Describe some key features of
rocky objects with very elliptical orbits around Uranus and Neptune, and explain
the Sun. Some comets, such as Halley’s Comet, how they are similar.
visit the inner solar system regularly, whereas Describe unusual features on Ariel,
others visit at very long intervals. Comets are Miranda, and Triton, and identify the
thought to come from a very outer part of the materials that comprise the surfaces
solar system, well beyond the orbit of Neptune. of these moons.
As a comet nears the Sun, gas and dust are
Describe what is known about Pluto
19.7
stripped off by the solar wind and carried out-

and its companions.
ward, forming a tail that always points away
from the Sun. Spacecraft have visited and even Describe a comet and its tail.
crashed into comets to help us study them. The
19.07.t1 Comet P67/C-G Rosetta Mission
590
CONNECTIONS
19.8 What Have We Learned About Mars?
EXCITING DEVELOPMENTS IN PLANETARY GEOLOGY involve Mars, the Red Planet. Recently, Mars has been
explored by orbiting spacecraft that carried sophisticated cameras and other instruments, many designed and controlled
by planetary geologists. Spacecraft have landed on the planet and unleashed small, robotic rovers that travel across the
surface, exploring and collecting data.
What Have We Learned from Instruments Orbiting Mars?

Several spacecraft, including Mars Odyssey, Mars Express, and Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, orbit the planet. As
they pass over the planet’s surface, they record images and take measurements designed to detect water and determine
the composition of rocks, sediment, and ice. Using these spacecraft, we have made major discoveries.
19.08.a2 Valles Marineris, Mars 19.08.a5
1. Mars contains a huge canyon 4. Many parts of Mars have
system (⊳), 4,000 km long — layered rocks (⊲), which vari-
Valles Marineris. The canyon's ably have a sedimentary or
length is equivalent to the width volcanic origin. Some are
of the United States. The canyon, related to the polar ice caps.
which began as a large rift, has Layers in this image are col-
been widened by inward col- orized for emphasis. The sur-
lapse of the steep canyon face of Mars is not this color.
walls and by other
types of erosion.
19.08.a3 Candor Chasm, Mars
5. Some parts of
Mars have spec-
tacular channels
(⊲), interpreted to
have been
formed by tor-
rents of running
water flowing on
the surface some
time in the past.
Where the chan-
19.08.a1 nels reached the
2. This image (▲) shows Candor Chasma, a part gentle plains,
of the Valles Marineris system. The steep walls of they deposited
the chasm have collapsed downslope, providing 19.08.a7 Olympus Mons, Mars piles of sediment,
some of the most spectacular examples of slope equivalent to del-
failure in the solar system. Gullies carve into the tas and alluvial
cliffs and steep slopes. fans on Earth.
19.08.a6
19.08.a4 Victoria Crater, Mars
3. The Martian atmo- 6. Mars has the solar system’s larg-

sphere is less dense than est volcano, Olympus Mons (⊳). The
Earth’s, but the winds are volcano is 600 km across and 27
strong. Lace-like sand km high, nearly three times the
dunes occupy the center height of Mount Everest. It is a large
of beautiful Victoria Crater shield volcano like those on Hawaii,
(⊳). The crater was visited but is inactive. Large segments of
by the Mars Exploration the mountain collapsed in landslides
Rover named Opportunity. and debris avalanches that moved
downhill, spreading out to form
areas of hummocky topography.
591
G e o l o g y o f t h e S o l a r S y s t e m 591
What Have We Learned from Landers and Rovers on Mars?

NASA successfully landed three spacecraft that carried small rovers to navigate and photograph the Martian landscape.
The three famous recent rovers, Spirit, Opportunity, and Curiosity, provided a wealth of new geologic information,
including a few surprises.
19.08.b1 19.08.b2 19.08.b3
1. Spirit and Opportunity landed on the sur- 2. The rovers rolled across the surface on 3. The Phoenix Mars Lander, shown in an
face by cushioning themselves with large air wheels, stopping to inspect outcrops or inter- artist's conception, landed south of the polar
bags that inflated just before the spacecraft esting rocks. They spun their wheels to dig up ice cap to investigate the presence of water
bounced onto the surface. Then the rovers, sediment on the surface or used a tool to ice. The lander verified the presence of ice
shown here in an artist’s conception, rolled off scratch at the rocks. They have cameras and by observing patches below the spacecraft
to explore nearby parts of the planet, taking scientific instruments to measure composition, and in shallow trenches dug by the robotic
photographs and collecting various data. temperature, and other aspects. arm, and by chemical analyses of samples.
19.08.b4 19.08.b5 19.08.b6
4. Layers — Many rock exposures in Mars 5. Blueberries — Within the layered rocks 6. Habitability for Life — The Curiosity rover
have layers, such as these exposed on the and weathering out onto the surface are carries the Mars Science Laboratory, which
floor of a crater. Geologists interpret some of millimeter-sized spherical objects, nicknamed has various scientific instruments and tools,
these layers as indicating that liquid water blueberries. Measurements document that including a small drill, to investigate the
existed on Mars' surface sometime in the past, these contain the mineral hematite, which geology and climate of Mars. The aim is to
and the water was flowing, like in a stream. some planetary scientists interpret to have evaluate the past habitability of the planet.
formed in the presence of water. The drilling has discovered minerals and
chemical elements favorable for supporting
19.08.t1
past life, if it existed.
Choosing a Landing Site
H
ow do researchers choose where to land? Before You Leave This Page
For the Opportunity rover, they chose the
site on the basis of infrared measurements Summarize two of the ways that
that, to geologists, indicated the presence of abun- geologists have explored Mars.
dant hematite in the area. On Earth, hematite most Describe some features found by
commonly forms under wet, oxidizing conditions. orbiting spacecraft and what they
The geologists therefore concluded that if you imply about processes that have
were looking for water on Mars, this would be a occurred on the planet's surface.
good place to start. When Opportunity rolled off
its platform to explore, it confirmed the presence Describe some features discovered
by the rovers Spirit and Opportunity.
of hematite in blueberries lying on the ground and
19.8
weathering out of rocks — a great place to land! Explain how Opportunity’s discoveries
This image shows areas with several percent hema- were made possible by prior
tite in blue to 20% hematite in red. spacecraft measurements.
19.9 How and When Did Geologic Features
on This Alien World Form?
TRAVELING THROUGH SPACE, YOU ENCOUNTER AN UNKNOWN WORLD. Your spacecraft orbits the planet
and takes images and measurements of the different geologic regions and of the most interesting geologic features. You
will use these images and some initial observations about the features to interpret how each region or feature formed
and in what chronological order they formed.
1. The large image on the next page shows one side of the planet as
Goals of This Exercise: illuminated by the local sun. The surface contains different types of geo-
• Observe the planet to identify large regions that logic terrain as well as several obvious large geologic features. North is
up in this view, south is down, west is to the left, and east is to the right.
have a similar geologic appearance. Some observations about this place are listed below, labeled with letters
• Examine close-up images of features and read corresponding to the name or character of the place. Corresponding let-
descriptions for each to interpret how each fea- ters mark the place on the large view of the planet.
ture formed.
• Use several strategies to reconstruct the se- 2. Western Terrain (W) — The western side of the planet (⊲) consists of
a heavily cratered terrain with many large and small craters. Samples
quence in which the different features formed. of the rocks are very shattered and contain many angular fragments
• Summarize the geologic features and history of of highly weathered basalt.
this planet.
3. Dark Terrain (D) — A dark, wide strip curves across the planet from
south to northwest. Radar measurements indicate that it has a rough
Procedures upper surface. A few normal faults cut across the dark material. As
Use the available information to complete the following shown in the image below (▼), the dark material locally protrudes into
the adjacent, heavily cratered terrain, covering it and filling some cra-
steps, entering your answers in the appropriate places on ters. The dark material is partly weathered basalt. The dark terrain has
the worksheet or online. some small impact craters, but fewer than the western terrain.
19.09.a2
A. Observe the image of the entire planet on the next page.
Identify regions that have different geologic characteristics,
and locate their approximate boundaries.
B. Observe each of the close-up images and read the
description that accompanies each, looking for further clues
about what types of geologic features are present and how
each feature might have formed.
C. Determine the relative ages of the different geologic regions
and features using cross-cutting relationships and the density
of impact craters.
4. Chasm (C) — Cutting across the highly cratered terrain is a deep
D. Your instructor may have you draw a simple geologic map of chasm that narrows progressively toward the south. On the image of
the planet, on which each map unit is a different type of the entire globe, the chasm has some important relationships with the
geologic region or geologic feature. If you do this, draw a dark terrain and to a reddish-brown sedimentary area (S) to the north.
legend to accompany your map that has (1) a small box with The close-up below (▼) shows one wall of the chasm. What features
the color or pattern you chose to depict that geologic do you observe?
19.09.a3
terrain, (2) the name of the geologic terrain or feature, and
(3) a brief description of less than 30 words that conveys the
key characteristics of this terrain and your interpretation of the
terrain‘s origin.
E. Write a short report or list summarizing the geology of the
planet and its geologic history. Your instructor will guide you
about the length and detail expected. This report should
demonstrate the breadth of knowledge you have gained in
this course, not just the concepts from this last chapter. In
other words, use this final investigation to bring together
concepts you have learned throughout the course.
592
G e o l o g y o f t h e S o l a r S y s t e m 593
5. Polar Ice (P) — The 6. Sedimentary Terrain (S) — Adjacent to the north
north and south poles pole and the northern ice cap is a distinctive
are covered with water reddish-brown region. The unit has layers and
ice year round. The appears to be sedimentary in origin. Along the south-
close-up image to the ern edge of the terrain, the soft-looking, loose sedi-
left (⊳) shows the edge ment is in contact with terrain that is more heavily
of the layered ice over- cratered, as shown in the detailed image to the right
lapping a crater. The ice (⊲). The sedimentary region has very few craters. Simi-
has almost no craters. lar material may be present near the south pole but is
not visible in this view of the planet.
19.09.a5
19.09.a4
7. Valleys (V) — A few valleys or channels
extend south from the sedimentary region.
They appear to be filled with s ediment, and
there is a feature that looks like a delta or
fan where one c hannel empties into a cra-
19.09.a1 ter. The large crater is part of moderately
cratered terrain that makes up much of
the eastern part of the globe. A
close-up view of one channel is
shown below (▼).
19.09.a6
8. Mountains (M) — In the

southeastern part of this
view, three large mountains
rise above the plain. The
close-up below shows one of
the mountains (▼). The mountain
is cone shaped with a central cra-
ter. The flank is indented by small
craters, and the lower part of the
mountain appears to be missing on one
side (upper left side in this view).
19.09.a7
9. Eastern Terrain

(E) — Much of the eastern
19.9
hemisphere of the planet consists of

a moderately dark, moderately cratered terrain. This terrain has fewer craters
than the heavily cratered western terrain, but has more craters than are present
in the valleys, sedimentary terrain, chasm, or dark terrain.
GLOSSARY
Definitions in this glossary are derived largely from this textbook, with additions from aphanitic rock An igneous rock that does not contain crystals visible to the unaided eye;
the American Geological Institute Glossary of Geology (K. K. E. Neuendorf and others, can consist of microscopic crystals, fine-grained volcanic ash, volcanic glass, or a
5th edition, 2005, Alexandria, VA) and the McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Geology and Min- combination of these. (5.1)
eralogy (2nd edition, 2003, New York). Numbers in parentheses after each entry refer to aquatic plant A plant that grows in water. (18.1)
the chapter and section number in this textbook where that term is defined or described. aquifer A permeable body of saturated material through which groundwater can flow
and which yields significant volumes of water to wells and springs. (17.4)
aquitard A low-permeability bed or other unit that retards but does not prevent the flow
A of water to or from an adjacent aquifer. (17.4)
arid region A relatively dry region of land that receives less precipitation than it loses to
evaporation and other processes. (13.10)
AA lava A blocky type of lava with a rough, jagged surface. (6.3)
arkose A sedimentary rock composed of sand-sized clasts that contain a high proportion
abrasion The mechanical wearing away of rock surfaces by contact with sand and other
of feldspar grains in addition to quartz and other minerals. (7.5)
solid rock particles transported by running water, waves, wind, ice, or gravity. (16.2)
arroyo Small, deep gully containing a sandy or gravel-rich channel in an arid area. (13.12)
absolute age See numeric age.
artesian Groundwater that is in a confined aquifer and is under enough water pressure to
abyssal plain A relatively flat, smooth region of the deep ocean floor. (10.3)
rise above the level of the aquifer. (17.4)
Acadian orogeny A middle Paleozoic mountain-building event in eastern North Amer-
asbestos A general name for the fibrous varieties of a number of silicate minerals whose
ica; occurred when a series of landmasses, referred to as Avalonia, collided with the
common characteristic is that they tend to form fibers. (4.6)
eastern coast of North America. (11.12)
assimilation The process in which melted wall rocks become incorporated into
accretion The addition of tectonic terranes and other material to an existing landmass,
magma. (5.6)
usually along a convergent or transform plate boundary. (11.9)
asteroid One of countless rocky fragments in orbit around the Sun, mostly concentrated
accretionary prism A prism- or wedge-shaped, structurally complex zone of faults,
between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. (19.0)
folds, and mostly metamorphosed rocks that form along the upper parts of a subduc-
asthenosphere The area of mantle beneath the lithosphere that is solid, but hotter than
tion zone; material derived from sediment contributed by adjacent volcanoes or a con-
the rock above it and can flow under pressure; functions as a soft, weak zone over
tinent, along with oceanic crust scraped off the downgoing slab. (10.3)
which the lithosphere may move. (1.3)
acre-foot The volume of water required to cover an acre of land to a height of one
atmosphere The gaseous envelope that surrounds the solid Earth and includes air,
foot. (17.2)
clouds, and precipitation. (1.7)
active dunes Dunes that are actively moving and being reshaped by the wind. (13.11)
atmospheric pressure The pressure, or force per unit area, exerted by the atmosphere;
aerial photograph A photograph taken from the air, such as a photograph taken by a
generally greater at sea level than in high elevations. (1.4)
camera mounted in an aircraft. (2.3)
atoll A curved to roughly circular reef that encloses a shallow, inner lagoon and low
aerosols Very small solid particles or drops of liquid dispersed in the atmosphere. (6.6)
islands. (10.8)
aftershocks Smaller earthquakes that occur after a main earthquake and in the same
atom Smallest possible particle of an element that retains the properties of that
area. (12.7)
element. (4.11)
aggregate Construction materials, such as sand and gravel or crushed stone, used alone
atomic mass The number of neutrons and protons in an atom. (4.11)
as in construction fill or mixed into concrete, asphalt, and other materials. (18.14)
atomic number The number of protons in an atom. (4.11)
A horizon Topsoil composed of dark gray, brown, or black organic material mixed with
atomic symbol One or two letters representing the name of an element, as in the Periodic
mineral grains. (15.8)
Table. (4.6)
albedo The ratio of the amount of electromagnetic energy reflected by a surface to the
atomic weight The sum of the weight of the subatomic particles in an average atom of an
amount of energy incident upon it. (14.8)
element, given in atomic mass units. (9.4)
Alleghenian orogeny Late Paleozoic mountain-building event that occurred during the
axial surface A surface that connects the hinge lines in a fold. (8.5)
collision of Africa and eastern North America. (11.12)
alluvial fan A low, gently sloping mass of sediment, shaped like an open fan or a seg-
ment of a cone; typically deposited by a stream where it exits a mountain range or
joins a main stream. (7.8)
B
alluvial plain A nearly level or gently sloping plain formed during widespread deposi- back-arc The region adjacent to a subduction-related volcanic arc, on the side opposite
tion of sediment by a stream or river. (7.8) the trench and subducting plate. (10.5)
alpha decay The radioactive decay process in which an unstable atom fissions, releasing banded iron formation A sedimentary mineral deposit displaying layers or bands of
a positively charged particle with two protons and two neutrons. (5.4) iron-rich minerals and fine-grained, silica-rich material. (18.12)
alpine glacier A glacier that begins in mountainous terrain and flows down a valley as a bar A unit for measuring atmospheric pressure that is approximately equal to the average
narrow tongue of ice and rocks; syn. valley glacier. (14.1) air pressure at sea level. (13.1)
amphibole A group of silicate minerals, including hornblende, characterized by barchan dune A crescent-shaped dune of windblown sand with its tails pointing in the
double chains of silicate tetrahedra; most common in igneous and metamorphic direction of the prevailing wind. (13.11)
rocks. (4.6) barometer An instrument used to measure atmospheric pressure. (13.1)
analytical dating methods Analytical methods, commonly using isotopes, to determine barrier island A long, narrow island adjacent to a coastline and commonly containing
the ages and histories of rocks and minerals in hundreds, thousands, millions, and sandy areas, like dunes, marshes, and sandy beaches. (7.2)
billions of years. (9.4) barrier reef A long, commonly curved, coral reef that parallels the coast of an island or
andesite An intermediate-composition igneous rock that is the fine-grained equivalent of continent from which it is separated by a lagoon. (10.8)
diorite; typically gray or greenish-gray, commonly with phenocrysts of cream-colored basalt A fine-grained, dark-colored mafic igneous rock, with or without vesicles and
feldspar or dark amphibole. (5.2) phenocrysts of pyroxene, olivine, or feldspar. (5.2)
angle of repose The steepest angle at which a pile of unconsolidated grains remains base level The lowest level to which a stream can erode, commonly represented by the
stable. (15.10) level of the sea, lake, or main river valley. (16.4)
angular unconformity An unconformity (ancient erosion surface) in which the older, basement rock The oldest crystalline rocks (igneous or metamorphic) in an area, com-
underlying strata dip more steeply or at a different angle than the younger, overlying monly underlying all other rock units. (11.8)
strata. (9.3) base metal A relatively common and chemically active metal, including copper, lead,
anthracite A metamorphic coal with a high carbon content, high density, and black, and zinc. (18.12)
shiny appearance. (18.4) basin 1. A low-lying area or an area in which sediments accumulate with no surface out-
anticline A fold, generally concave downward, with the oldest rocks in the center. (8.5) let. 2. A structural feature toward which rock strata are inclined in all directions. (11.4)
G-1
batholith One or more contiguous plutons that cover more than 100 km2. (5.12) caliche A soil-related accumulation of calcareous material that cements sand, gravel, and
baymouth bar A bar of sand or gravel deposited entirely or partly across the mouth of other materials, commonly forming a hard layer. (13.12)
a bay. (14.14) calving The breaking off of a mass of ice from a glacier, iceberg, or ice shelf. (14.2)
beach A stretch of coastline along which sediment, especially sand and stones, has Cambrian The earliest geologic period of the Paleozoic Era. (9.8)
accumulated. (7.2) Cambrian explosion The widespread, relatively rapid appearance of diverse types of
beach nourishment The procedure of bringing sand to a beach to replenish any sand lost hard-shelled organisms near the beginning of the Cambrian Period. (9.11)
to storms and currents. (14.15) Canadian Shield A vast area of mostly crystalline rocks exposed in the eastern half of
bed A distinct layer formed during deposition, generally in sediment or sedimentary Canada and the Great Lakes region of the United States. (1.1)
rock; can be present in volcanic tuff and some metamorphic rocks. (2.1) capacity (stream) The amount of sediment, at a given flow rate, that a river is capable
bedding Layers or beds of varying thickness and character, generally in a sediment or of transporting. (16.3)
sedimentary rock. (2.1) carbonate compensation depth (CCD) The depth in the ocean at which carbonate min-
bed load Material, commonly sand and larger, that is transported along the bed of a erals dissolve into seawater as fast as they accumulate so that no calcium carbonate is
river. (16.2) preserved; typically 4 to 5 km deep. (10.2)
bedrock stream A stream that is carved into bedrock, commonly in mountainous carbonate minerals Minerals containing a significant amount of the carbon-oxygen
areas. (16.2) combination called carbonate. (4.9)
beta decay Radioactive decay that involves an atom losing a beta particle, which is an carbonate rock A rock composed mostly of carbonate minerals, especially calcite and
electron or a positron. (5.4) dolomite. (7.11)
B horizon A zone in the soil characterized by the accumulation of material, includ- carbonates Rocks or minerals that contain abundant carbonate. (4.6)
ing iron oxide, clay, and calcium carbonate, depending on the climate and starting Carboniferous A Paleozoic geologic period used outside of North America for the com-
materials. (15.8) bined duration of the Pennsylvanian and Mississippian Periods. (9.8)
biochemical rock A sedimentary rock resulting from chemical processes and the activi- Cascade forearc basin A basin that sits between the Cascade volcanic arc and an off-
ties of organisms. (7.6) shore trench, indicating subduction beneath the continent. (11.4)
biome A major community of organisms defined by the predominant types of vegetation cations Positively charged atoms. (4.7)
and characterized by organisms that are adapted to that environment. (13.10) cave A natural underground chamber, generally large enough for a person to enter.
biosphere The spherical zone that includes life and all of the places life can exist on, (15.6)
below, and above Earth’s surface. (1.7) cement 1. A natural material precipitated in the pore spaces between grains, helping to
biotite A typically black or brown mica (sheet silicate mineral). (4.8) hold the grains together. 2. A processed, whitish powder, typically derived from cal-
bituminous coal A dark brown to black coal that is high in carbonaceous matter and has cium carbonate, that sets to a solid mass when mixed with water and usually other
15% to 50% volatile matter. (18.4) materials. (7.5)
black smokers Hydrothermal vents on the seafloor in which hot water from within the cementation The precipitation of a binding material (the cement) around grains in sedi-
rock jets out into cold seawater and forms a cloud of minerals, especially those rich mentary rocks. (7.5)
in sulfur. (10.2) Cenozoic Era A major subdivision of geologic time from 65 Ma to the present; charac-
block diagram A diagram that portrays in three dimensions the shape of the land surface and terized by an abundance of mammals. (9.6)
the subsurface distributions of rock units, folds, faults, and other geologic features. (2.4) chalk A soft, very fine-grained limestone that forms from the accumulation of calcium
blueschist A metamorphic rock, commonly with a bluish color, formed by high pressure/ carbonate from microscopic organisms that float in the sea. (7.6)
low temperature metamorphism and associated with subduction zones. (8.9) chemical weathering Chemical reactions that affect a rock or other material by breaking
body waves Seismic waves that travel within Earth. (12.5) down minerals and removing soluble material from the rock. (7.3)
bonding The process in which two atoms bond together by sharing, donating, or borrow- chert A sedimentary rock composed of fine-grained silica. (7.6)
ing electrons from their outermost orbital shells. (4.12) chimney A hollow, circular column formed by sulfur-rich minerals precipitating around
boulder A clast or rock fragment with a diameter exceeding 0.25 m. (7.4) a submarine, hydrothermal vent. (10.2)
Bowen’s Reaction Series An idealized sequence in which minerals could crystallize C horizon A zone in the soil composed of weathered bedrock or sediment, grading
from a magma as it cools. (5.8) downward into unweathered bedrock or sediment. (15.8)
brachiopods A phylum of marine-invertebrate animals, commonly containing two chrysotile A fibrous form of the silicate mineral serpentine; the most commonly used
valves and living on or close to the bottom of the seafloor. (9.11) asbestos in the United States. (4.6)
brackish Water that is intermediate in salinity between normal freshwater and cinder cone See scoria cone.
seawater. (17.1) cirque An open-sided, bowl-shaped depression formed in a mountain, commonly at the
braided stream A stream or river with an interconnecting network of branching and head of a glacial valley; produced by erosion of a glacier. (14.4)
reuniting shallow channels. (16.5) clast An individual grain or fragment of rock produced by the physical breakdown of a
breakwater An offshore structure (such as a wall), typically parallel to the shore, that larger rock mass. (4.2)
breaks the force of the waves to protect a shoreline or harbor. (14.15) clastic A material consisting of pieces (clasts) derived from preexisting rocks; usually
breccia A rock composed of large, angular fragments; typically formed in sedimentary formed on Earth’s surface in low-temperature environments; syn. detrital. (4.2)
environments, but can be formed by volcanic, hydrothermal, or tectonic processes. (7.5) clay 1. Any fine-grained sedimentary particle that is finer than 1/256 mm (7.4). 2. A
breccia pipe A pipe- or cone-shaped structure filled with breccia; mostly formed by cave family of finely crystalline, hydrous-silicate minerals with a two- or three-layered
collapse, but can also form by igneous and hydrothermal processes. (18.7) crystal structure. (4.8)
brittle A rock or material that deforms by fracturing and frictional processes. (8.1) cleavage 1. The tendency of minerals to break along specific orientations of closely
burrow A commonly tubular opening formed when creatures wiggle or tunnel into mud; spaced planes (4.3). 2. The tendency of a rock, especially a metamorphic rock, to split
can be filled with a different type of sediment to form a trace fossil. (9.5) along mostly parallel planes. (8.6)
butte An isolated, steep-sided feature that rises above the surrounding landscape. (2.2) coal The natural, brown to black rock derived from peat and other plant materials that
have been buried, compacted, and heated (7.6); used for heating and to generate
C electricity. (18.4)
coal-bed methane A type of natural gas released by coal beds. (18.4)
calcite A common rock-forming calcium carbonate mineral occurring in limestone and a coal seam A layer or bed of coal, typically much thinner than its lateral extent. (18.4)
variety of water-related deposits. (4.9) coastal desert A desert that forms adjacent to the ocean, typically where cold, upwelling
caldera A large volcanic depression that is typically circular to elongate in shape and ocean currents cool the air and reduce its ability to hold moisture. (13.10)
formed by collapse of a magma chamber. (6.10) coastal dune A windblown sand dune that is inland from a beach along a sea or lake. (7.2)
G-2
cobble A rock fragment larger than a pebble and smaller than a boulder, having a diam- continental shield A central region of many continents consisting of relatively old meta-
eter in the range of 64 to 256 mm. (7.4) morphic and igneous rocks, commonly of Precambrian age. (11.8)
cold front The sloping boundary surface between an advancing mass of cold air and a continental slope A submarine slope that connects the continental shelf with deeper
warmer air mass. (13.4) seafloor. (10.9)
columnar joints Distinctive fracture-bounded columns of rock formed when hot but continent-continent convergent boundary A plate-tectonic boundary where two conti-
solid igneous rock contracts as it cools. (5.13) nental masses collide. syn. continental collision. (3.6)
compaction Process by which soil, sediment, and volcanic materials lose pore space in contour line A line on a map or chart connecting points of equal value, generally
response to the weight of overlying material. (7.5) elevation. (2.3)
competence A stream’s ability to carry materials. (16.2) convection Transfer of thermal energy by flow of a liquid or a solid, but weak
composite volcano A common type of volcano constructed of alternating layers of material. (5.4)
lava, pyroclastic deposits, and mass-wasting deposits, including mudflows; syn. convection cell The movement of material in an elliptical to roughly circular loop by the
stratovolcano. (6.7) process of convection; movement is driven by differences in density, especially those
compression The type of differential stress that occurs when forces push in on a caused by temperature variations. (5.4)
rock. (8.2) convection current A flowing liquid or solid material that transfers heat from hotter
concave-up profile A river profile that becomes less steep in a downstream direc- regions to cooler ones, commonly involving movement of material in a loop. (3.9)
tion (has a lower gradient in a downstream direction). (16.4) convergent boundary A plate-tectonic boundary in which two plates move toward (con-
conchoidal fracture A fracture in rock that has an irregular or smoothly curving verge) relative to one another. (3.4)
surface. (4.8) converging air currents Atmospheric currents that create high-pressure zones by com-
concrete A mixture of cement, aggregate, and water that hardens to a rocklike pressing more air into a smaller space. (13.1)
consistency. (18.14) Coriolis effect The tendency of particles in motion on Earth’s surface to have an appar-
concretions A hard, compact accumulation of mineral matter in the pores of sedimentary ent deflection related to the rotation of Earth about its axis. (13.2)
or volcanic rocks; representing a concentration of constituents of the rock or cement- covalent bond A chemical bond created when two atoms share an electron. (4.12)
ing material. (9.5) crater A typically bowl-shaped, steep-sided pit or depression, generally formed by a vol-
condensation The process by which a vapor becomes a liquid; the opposite of canic eruption or meteorite impact. (2.10, 6.1)
evaporation. (13.3) cratered highlands See lunar highlands.
condensation nuclei Tiny airborne particles around which water condenses to form creep The slow, continuous movement of material, such as soil and other weak materials,
clouds. (13.3) down a slope. (15.13)
conduction Transfer of thermal energy by direct contact. (5.4) crescent dune See barchan dune.
cone of depression A depression in the water table that has the shape of a downward- crest The highest part of a wave, fold, hill, or other feature. (14.12)
narrowing cone; develops around a well that is pumped, especially one that is Cretaceous The youngest geologic period of the Mesozoic Era. (9.8)
overpumped. (17.7) crevasse A fracture in a glacier caused by internal stresses. (14.1)
confined aquifer An aquifer that is separated from Earth’s surface by materials with low crinoid A marine creature anchored to the seafloor with a stem or column and capped by
permeability. (17.4) a starlike head. (9.11)
confining pressure The type of pressure that results when the force imposed on a rock is cross bed A series of beds inclined at an angle to the main layers or beds. (7.7)
the same amount from all directions. (8.1) cross-cutting relations The principle that a geologic unit or feature is older than a rock
conglomerate A coarse-grained clastic sedimentary rock composed of rounded to sub- or feature that crosscuts it. (9.1)
rounded clasts (pebbles, cobbles, and boulders) in a fine-grained matrix of sand and cross section A diagram representing the geology as a two-dimensional slice through the
mud. (7.5) land. See also geologic cross section. (2.4)
contact effects Evidence of baking, passage of hot fluids, or some other manifestation crust The outermost solid layer of Earth, consisting of continental and oceanic crust. (1.3)
of the thermal and chemical effects of a magma chamber or a hot volcanic unit, as crystalline A mineral that has an ordered internal structure due to its atoms being
expressed in changes to adjacent wall rocks. (9.1) arranged in a regular, repeating way. (4.1)
contact metamorphism Metamorphism that principally involves heating of the rocks crystalline basement The crystalline (metamorphic and igneous) rocks that under-
next to a magma or hot igneous material. (8.8) lie sedimentary and volcanic rocks in an area; widely exposed in the continental
continental collision A convergent plate boundary that involves the collision of two shield. (11.8)
masses of continental crust. (3.6) crystalline rock A rock composed of interlocking minerals that grew together; usually
continental crust The type of Earth’s crust that underlies the continents and the continen- formed in high-temperature environments by crystallization of magma, by metamor-
tal shelves; average granitic composition, but includes diverse types of material. (1.3) phism, or by precipitation from hot water. (4.2)
continental desert A desert that forms in the interior of a continent, far from sources of crystal settling The process in which more dense minerals settle and less dense minerals
moisture or where prevailing winds blow toward the sea. (13.10) rise through magma. (5.6)
continental drift The concept of the movement of continents and other landmasses cubic A common arrangement of atoms in a mineral or the tendency for a mineral to
across the surface of the Earth. (3.2) break along three perpendicular planes. (4.4)
continental ice sheet A large mass of ice, including glaciers, that covers a large part of cutbank A steep cut or slope formed by lateral erosion of a stream, especially on the
a continent. (14.0) outside bend of a channel. (16.5)
continental platform A broad region that surrounds the continental shield and typically cutoff meander A new channel formed when a stream cuts through the neck of a
exposes horizontal to gently dipping sedimentary rocks. (11.8) meander. (16.5)
continental rift A low trough or series of troughs bounded by normal faults, especially cyclone An atmospheric low-pressure system with a closed, roughly circular wind
where two parts of a continent begin to rift apart. (3.5) motion. (13.5)
continental rifting The pulling apart of a continent, forming a low, fault-bounded
trough (continental rift); may lead to a divergent plate boundary that leads to seafloor
spreading and splitting apart a continent. (3.5) D
continental rise A gently sloping edge of a continental plate connecting the continental
slope and the abyssal plain; built up by shedding of sediments from the continental Darcy’s law An equation used to describe the flow of a fluid through a porous
block. (10.9) material. (17.3)
continental shelf A gently sloping, relatively shallow area of seafloor that flanks a con- daughter product The element produced by radioactive decay of a parent atom; syn.
tinent and is underlain by thinned continental crust. (10.9) daughter atom. (9.4)
G-3
debris avalanche A high-velocity flow of soil, sediment, and rock, commonly from the drainage basin An area in which all drainages merge into a single stream or other body
collapse of a steep mountainside. (15.13) of water. (16.1)
debris flow Downhill-flowing slurries of loose rock, mud, and other materials, and the drainage divide The boundary between adjacent drainage basins. (16.1)
resulting landform and sedimentary deposit; sometimes called a mudflow. (7.8) drainage network The configuration or arrangement of streams within a drainage
debris slide The downslope movement of soil, weathered sediment, or other unconsoli- basin. (16.1)
dated material, partly as a sliding, coherent mass and partly by internal shearing and driftless area A region that was never glaciated. (14.8)
flow. (15.13) drill core A cylinder-shaped sample produced by drilling into rock and sediment in the
decompression melting Melting of a rock or other material due to a decrease in subsurface. (12.14)
pressure. (5.5) drill log A log that geologists and others use to graphically portray the results of
deformation Processes that cause a rock body to change position, orientation, size, or drilling. (17.6)
shape, such as by folding, faulting, and shearing. (8.0) driving force A force that causes the movement of tectonic plates. (3.8)
delta A nearly flat tract of land formed by deposition of sediment at the mouth of a river dropstone A stone that was carried within a floating iceberg and then dropped into fine
or stream. (7.1) sediment on the seafloor or lake bottom. (14.7)
dendrite One or more minerals that has crystallized in a branching pattern. (9.5) drought An extended period of below-average precipitation. (13.8)
density A measure of how much mass is present per given volume of a substance. (2.5) drumlin A commonly teardrop-shaped hill formed when a glacier reshapes glacial
desert A dry region with a mean annual precipitation of 25 cm or less; commonly deposits. (14.5)
applied to areas with sparse vegetation or the presence of desert-type plants and ductile A rock or material that is able to flow as a solid or otherwise deform without
landscapes. (13.10) fracturing and faulting. (8.1)
desertification The converting of a land into a desert by natural or human causes. (13.10) dust devil A fast-moving whirlwind that picks up loose dust and sand. (13.11)
desert pavement A natural concentration of pebbles and other rock fragments that man- dust storm A moving mass of dust and sand propelled by strong winds. (13.11)
tle a desert surface of low relief. (9.2) dynamic equilibrium A condition of a system in approximate steady state where there is
desert soil A soil developed in a desert or semiarid region, generally characterized by a balanced inflow and outflow of materials. (16.4)
an accumulation of abundant calcium carbonate and by a relative lack of organic dynamo An electrical generator. (3.9)
material. (15.8)
desert varnish A thin, dark film or coating of iron and manganese oxides, silica, and
other materials; formed by prolonged exposure at the surface; syn. rock varnish. (9.2)
desert wash A sandy or gravel-rich channel in a desert or other arid region. (13.12)
detrital See clastic. E
Devonian A geologic period near the middle of the Paleozoic Era. (9.8)
diamond The hardest naturally occurring mineral, commonly used as a gemstone and earth flow A flowing mass of weak, mostly fine-grained material, especially mud and
industrial abrasive. (4.12) soil. (15.13)
diamond pipe A steep, cylindrical- to funnel-shaped volcanic conduit that contains dia- earthquake Sudden movement of the earth caused by the abrupt release of energy.
monds dispersed in an igneous rock; syn. kimberlite pipe. (18.12) (12.1)
differential stress A condition with unequal stresses from different directions. (8.1) earthquake cycle The gradual accumulation of stress on a fault followed by an abrupt
differential weathering Weathering of different rock units, or different parts of a rock, decrease in stress during an earthquake. (12.2)
at different rates. (15.3) eccentricity The barely noncircular shape of Earth’s orbit around the Sun. (14.9)
dike A sheetlike intrusion that cuts across any layers in a host rock, commonly formed eclogite A metamorphic rock, commonly with certain minerals, formed at very high
with a steep orientation. (5.13) pressure, like in subducting slabs. (8.9)
diorite A medium- to coarse-grained, intermediate-composition igneous rock; the pha- ecology The complex set of relations between living organisms and their environment.
neritic equivalent of andesite. (5.2) (13.9)
dip The angle that a layer or structural surface makes with the horizontal, measured per- ecosystem An ecologic system consisting of organisms and their environment. (2.9)
pendicular to the strike. (8.4) effervescence The potential of a mineral to have a vigorous bubbling reaction when a
dip-slip fault A fault on which the relative movement is parallel to the dip of the drop of dilute hydrochloric acid (HCl) is placed on it. (4.3)
fault. (8.4) effervescing A vigorous bubbling reaction that results when a drop of dilute hydrochlo-
directional drilling Drilling within a targeted shale body to permit hydraulic fracturing. ric acid (HCl) is placed on a mineral like calcite. (4.3)
(18.3) E horizon A light-colored, leached zone of soil, lacking clay and organic matter. (15.8)
discharge The volume of water flowing through some stretch of a river or stream per elastic behavior The ability of a material to strain a small amount and then return to its
unit of time. (16.14) original shape when the stress is decreased. (12.2)
disconformity An unconformity in which the bedding planes above and below the break electromagnetic energy Various forms of energy, including light, infrared, and ultravio-
are essentially parallel, but the unconformity surface records erosion or some other let radiation. (1.4)
interruption in the deposition of layers. (9.3) electromagnetic spectrum A range of electromagnetic radiation that includes visible
dissolution The process by which a material is dissolved. (7.3) light, infrared, ultraviolet, X-rays, and other wavelengths. (19.1)
dissolved load Chemically soluble ions, such as calcium and sodium, that are dissolved electron A stable, subatomic particle with a negative charge. (4.11)
in and transported by moving water, as in a stream. (16.2) electron cloud The area most likely to contain the electrons within an atom. (4.11)
distributary system The branching drainage pattern formed when a stream branches and electronegativity The measure of an element’s ability to attract electrons. (4.12)
spreads out into a series of smaller channels. (16.9) electron shells The different energy states of electrons arranged around the nucleus of
divergent boundary A plate-tectonic boundary in which two plates move apart (diverge) an atom. (4.11)
relative to one another. (3.4) element A type of atom that has a specific number of protons and chemical characteristics.
diverging air currents Atmospheric currents that create low-pressure zones by moving (4.6)
air away from an area. (13.1) elevation The vertical distance of an object above or below a reference datum (usually
dolomite A carbonate mineral containing calcium and magnesium. (4.9) mean sea level); generally the height of a ground point above sea level. (2.4)
dolostone A rock composed mostly of the mineral dolomite. (7.6) El Niño A condition that occurs when warmer-than-average ocean surface temperatures
dome 1. A circular or elliptical anticlinal structure in which the rocks dip gently away in occur in the central and east-central Equatorial Pacific. (13.7)
all directions (8.5). 2. A dome-shaped accumulation of lava and other volcanic materi- emergent coast A coast that forms where the sea has retreated from the land due to fall-
als. See also volcanic dome. (6.9) ing sea level or due to uplift of the land relative to the sea. (14.17)
G-4
entrenched meander A curved canyon that represents a meander carved into the land fissure eruption A volcanic eruption that occurs when magma rises through and erupts
surface. (16.11) onto the surface in a long fissure. (6.4)
ephemeral stream A stream that has periods during the year when it does not flow. (16.3) fjord A long, narrow arm of the sea contained within a steep-sided valley, interpreted
epicenter The point on Earth’s surface directly above where an earthquake to be carved by a glacier and later invaded by the sea as the ice melted and sea level
occurs (directly above the focus or hypocenter). (12.1) rose. (14.17)
equilibrium line The zone in a glacier where the losses of ice and snow balance the flash flood A local and sudden flood of short duration, such as that which may follow a
accumulation of ice and snow. (14.2) brief but heavy rainfall. (16.12)
equilibrium profile A profile reflecting a river in an approximate steady state where flood The result of water overfilling a channel and spilling out onto the floodplain or
deposition of sediment is balanced by erosion. (16.4) other adjacent land. (16.12)
era A main subdivision in the geologic timescale. (9.8) flood basalts Large-volume basaltic lava flows that cover vast areas. (6.5)
erosion The wearing away of soil, sediment, and rock through the removal of material by floodplain An area of relatively smooth land adjacent to a stream channel that is inter-
running water, waves, currents, ice, wind, and gravity. (1.6) mittently flooded when the stream overflows its banks. (16.8)
erosional remnant A mountain or hill that remains when adjacent areas have eroded to flood stage The level at which the amount of discharge causes a river to overtop its banks
lower levels. (11.3) and spill out onto the floodplain. (16.12)
eruption column A rising column of hot gases, tephra, and rock fragments that erupts flow band Layering in an igneous rock, especially a lava flow, formed by shearing and
high into the atmosphere. (6.2) other processes within the magma. (6.9)
esker A long, narrow, sinuous ridge composed of sediment deposited by a stream flow- flow cell A huge, tube-shaped cell of atmospheric circulation. (13.2)
ing within or beneath a glacier. (14.5) flowstone Any deposit of calcium carbonate or other mineral formed by flowing water
estuary A channel where freshwater from the land interacts with salt water from the sea on the walls or floor of a cave. (15.6)
and commonly is affected by ocean tides. (14.17) fluvial Pertaining to rivers or streams, including the processes, sediment, resulting rock,
ethanol A type of alcohol that is produced when corn, sugarcane, and other plant mate- and landforms. (7.1)
rial is soaked in ammonia, fermented, and distilled. (18.9) focus The place where an earthquake is generated; syn. hypocenter. (12.1)
evaporation The process by which a substance passes from a liquid to a vapor. (13.3) foliation The planar arrangement of textural or structural features in metamorphic rocks
evaporite mineral A mineral precipitated as a result of the evaporation of water. (7.2) and certain igneous rocks. (8.6)
evaporite rock Soluble rock formed by the evaporation of water. (15.7) footwall The wall rock beneath an inclined fault. (8.4)
evapotranspiration The process by which plants take moisture from the soil, surface Foraminifera A group of small to microscopic, mostly marine, animals that produce
water, or air and release water vapor into the atmosphere. (1.4) shells. (10.1)
evolution The observed changes in the fossil record or in living organisms; also used to force A push or pull that causes, or tends to cause, change in the motion of a body. (8.1)
refer to theories that help explain the observed changes. (9.6) forearc basin A sedimentary basin that lies between the volcanic arc and the trench in a
evolutionary diagram A block diagram, cross section, or map that shows the history convergent plate boundary. (11.4)
of an area as a series of steps, proceeding from the earliest stages to the most recent foreland basin A basin that forms when crust (either continental or oceanic) is warped
one. (2.4) by the weight of thrust sheets, especially when formed between a mountain belt and
exfoliation The processes by which a rock sheds concentric plates, such as that which continental interior. (11.4)
occurs due to the release of pressure during exposure. (15.1) foreshocks Small earthquakes that occur before a main earthquake. (12.12)
exfoliation joint A joint that forms during exfoliation and mimics topography. (15.1) forest soil A soil formed in temperate climates and in forests of deciduous trees or pine
expansion joint A joint that forms as a result of expansion due to cooling or to a release trees. (15.8)
of pressure as rocks are uplifted to the surface. (15.1) formation A rock unit that is distinct, laterally traceable, and mappable (7.7); also used
external energy Energy that comes from outside Earth, especially from the Sun. (1.4) as an informal term for an eroded, perhaps unusually shaped, mass of rock.
extrusive rock An igneous rock that forms when magma is erupted onto Earth’s surface; fossil Any remains, trace, or imprint of a plant or animal that has been preserved from
syn. volcanic rock. (5.6) some past geologic or prehistoric time. (9.5)
fossil fuel A nonrenewable resource formed in the past, especially petroleum, natural gas,
F and coal. (18.6)
fracking See hydraulic fracturing.
fracture A break or crack in a rock; subdivided into joints and faults. (4.3)
Fall Line An imaginary line connecting waterfalls on several adjacent rivers, espe-
framework silicates A group of silicate minerals in which tetrahedra share all four oxy-
cially along the boundary between the Piedmont and Coastal Plain in Eastern North
gen atoms, forming a structure bonded well in three dimensions. (4.7)
America. (16.4)
fringing reef A reef that fringes the shoreline of an island or continent. (10.8)
far side (Moon) The side of the Moon that cannot be seen from Earth. (19.4)
frost heaving The uneven upward movement and distortion of soils and other materials
fault A fracture along which the adjacent rock surfaces are displaced parallel to the
due to subsurface freezing of water into ice. (15.10)
fracture. (8.3)
frost wedging Process by which jointed rock is pried and dislodged by the expansion of
fault block A block of rock bounded on at least two sides by faults. (8.4)
ice during freezing. (15.1)
fault breccia A rock composed of angular fragments formed by fracturing and crushing
fuel cell An electrochemical device that produces electrical energy by reacting a fuel
within a fault zone. (8.12)
with an oxidant, such as hydrogen with oxygen. (18.9)
fault scarp A step in the landscape caused when fault movement offsets Earth’s surface.
funnel cloud A rapidly rotating, funnel-shaped column of air that does not reach the
(8.12)
ground. (13.5)
fault zone A zone of faults and associated fracturing. (8.12)
fusion See nuclear fusion.
faunal succession The systematic change of fossils with age. (9.6)
feldspar A very common rock-forming silicate mineral that is abundant in most igneous
and metamorphic rocks and some sedimentary rocks. (5.2)
felsic rock An igneous rock with a felsic composition, including granite, a light-colored
G
igneous rock that contains abundant feldspar and quartz. (5.2) Ga Billions of years before present (Giga-annum). (2.6)
fission See nuclear fission. gabbro A medium- to coarse-grained mafic igneous rock, the phaneritic equivalent of
fissure 1. A fracture or crack on the land surface, such as that which forms by differential basalt. (5.2)
subsidence (17.7). 2. A magma-filled fracture in the subsurface that typically solidi- gaining stream The part of a stream or river that receives water from the inflow of
fies into a dike, or a linear volcanic vent erupting onto the land surface. (6.1) groundwater. (17.5)
G-5
galena A lead sulfide mineral with a high specific gravity and distinctive metallic-gray Goldilocks zone The region where a planet might be able to retain liquid water on its
cubes. (4.9) surface. (19.3)
gamma decay Radioactive decay in which an isotope emits an energetic particle called Gondwana Name given by geologists to the hypothetical combination of the southern
a photon. (5.4) continents into a single large supercontinent. (11.11)
garnet A fairly common silicate mineral with a distinctive shape but nearly any color (red graben An elongate, downdropped crustal block that is bounded by faults on one or both
is most common). (4.8) sides. (8.4)
gas centrifuge A mechanical device used to separate elements or isotopes by their graded bed A sedimentary or volcanic layer that displays a gradational change in grain
weight, such as in the enrichment of uranium isotopes. (18.7) size from bottom to top. (7.7)
gas field A volume of rock that contains natural gas, or the projection of that area to the graded stream A stream in equilibrium, showing a balance between its capacity to trans-
surface. (18.2) port sediment and the amount of sediment supplied to it, thus with no overall erosion
gas giant A large, gas-dominated planet, including the four outer planets of our solar or deposition of sediment. (16.4)
system (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune). (1.8) gradient The change in elevation for a given horizontal distance. (16.3)
gas hydrate An icelike solid mixture of water and a natural gas, usually methane. (18.5) granite A coarse-grained, felsic igneous rock containing mostly feldspar and quartz.
gauging station A site where measurements from a stream are collected in order to cal- (4.1)
culate discharge of that segment of the stream. (16.14) graphite A soft, black, greasy-feeling carbon mineral. (4.12)
geochemical samples Samples that are collected and analyzed, either in the field or later grassland soil A soil formed in a temperate climate beneath a surface of grass and other
by chemists in a laboratory, for their content of specific chemicals. (17.9) small plants. (15.8)
gravity The force exerted between any two objects, such as that between the Sun, Earth,
geologic cross section A two-dimensional diagram representing a slice through Earth
and Moon; syn. gravitational pull. (1.4)
that depicts the subsurface geometry of rock units and geologic structures. (18.6)
gravity meter An instrument that measures variation in the gravitational field from place
geologic map A map that shows the distribution, nature, and age relationships of rock
to place. (12.14)
units, sediments, structures, and other geologic features. (2.3)
graywacke Sandstone containing grains of different materials, including quartz, feld-
geologic time The exceptionally long period of time dealt with by geology; the time
spar, mica minerals, and small fragments of other rocks. (7.5)
extending from the formation of Earth to the beginning of written history. (2.6)
greenhouse effect The process that occurs when infrared energy radiating upward from
geologic timescale A chronologic subdivision of geologic time depicting the sequence
a planetary surface is trapped by the atmosphere, warming the planetary body; green-
of geologic events, including those represented by fossils; ages of boundaries are
house gases include water vapor, methane, and carbon dioxide. (1.4)
assigned through numeric dating of key rock units. (2.6)
greenhouse gases Atmospheric gases, including water vapor, carbon dioxide, and meth-
geologist A person trained in any of the geological sciences. (2.9) ane, that contribute to the Earth’s greenhouse effect. (13.14)
geology The study of planet Earth and other solid planetary objects, including their mate- greenschist A greenish metamorphic rock with a schistosity defined by crystals of green
rials, processes, products, and history. (1.0) or black mica and amphibole. (8.7)
geomagnetic polarity timescale A chronology based on the pattern and numeric ages of groin A low wall built out into a body of water to affect the lateral transport of sand by
reversals of Earth’s magnetic field. (3.9) waves and longshore currents. (14.15)
geophone A portable electronic device used to record seismic waves. (10.1) ground deformation Changes in the height or shape of Earth’s surface, such as those
geophysical survey The use of one or more geophysical techniques to explore Earth’s that take place before a volcanic eruption. (6.13)
subsurface, including seismic, gravity, electrical, magnetic, radioactivity, and heat- ground moraine A moraine composed of sediment deposited from the base of a
flow measurements. (12.14) glacier. (14.5)
geophysicist A geoscientist who measures and interprets seismic, gravity, magnetic, and groundwater Water that occurs in the pores, fractures, and cavities in the subsurface.
other geophysical data. (12.14) (17.0)
geoscientist A person trained in the geological sciences or closely related fields. (1.3) groundwater divide A relatively high area of the water table, separating groundwater
geothermal energy Energy that can be extracted from Earth’s internal heat. (18.9) that flows in opposite directions. (17.4)
geothermal gradient The rate at which temperature increases with depth into the gully A small channel eroded into the land surface. (16.6)
subsurface. (5.4) gypsum A common calcium sulfate mineral, generally formed by the evaporation of
geyser A type of hot spring that intermittently erupts fountains of hot water and water. (4.9)
steam. (17.5) gyre An oval-shaped circulation pattern formed by adjacent warm and cold ocean cur-
glacial drift Any sediment that is carried by ice, icebergs, or meltwater. (14.3) rents. (13.6)
glacial erratic A rock fragment carried by moving ice and deposited some distance from
where it was derived. (14.7)
glacial maximum A time when glaciers were most widespread. (14.7)
glacial outwash Glacially derived sediment that is carried and deposited by a stream.
H
(14.5) hailstone A ball of ice that forms under freezing temperatures within certain types of
glacial period A time interval when glaciers were abundant. (14.7) storm clouds. (13.3)
glacier A moving mass of ice, snow, rock, and other sediment. (14.1) half-life In radioactive decay, refers to the time it takes for half of the parent atoms to
global cooling A climate change in the direction of cooler temperatures due to the effects decay into a daughter product. (9.4)
of volcanic ash and other aerosols. (13.14) halide mineral One of a family of minerals that consist of a metallic element, such as
Global Positioning System (GPS) An accurate location technique that uses small radio sodium or potassium, and a halide element, usually chlorine or fluorine. (4.9)
receivers to record signals from several dozen Earth-orbiting satellites. (3.8) halite A salt mineral (NaCl) generally formed by the evaporation of water; cleaves into
global warming Increasing global atmospheric and oceanic temperatures as measured or cubes and has a distinctive salty taste. (4.4)
inferred from some point in the past to the present. (13.13) hand lens A small magnifying glass, commonly used in the field to examine a rock,
gneiss A metamorphic rock that contains a gneissic foliation defined by a preferred mineral, or fossil. (4.1)
orientation of crystals and generally by alternating lighter and darker colored hand specimen A hand-sized piece of rock for study, sampling, or for inclusion in a
bands. (8.6) collection. (4.1)
gneissic structure A metamorphic foliation defined by a preferred orientation of crystals hanging valley A glacial valley whose mouth is higher than the bottom of a larger gla-
and generally by alternating lighter and darker colored bands representing varying cially carved valley it joins. (14.4)
percentages of different minerals. (8.6) hanging wall The wall rock above an inclined fault. (8.4)
G-6
hard-rock geologist A geologist who focuses on the geology of igneous and metamor- hypocenter The place where an earthquake is generated; syn. the focus. (12.1)
phic rocks as opposed to softer sedimentary rocks. (18.6) hypothesis A conception or proposition that is tentatively assumed and then tested for
hazard The existence of a potentially dangerous situation or event. (6.6) validity by comparison with observed facts and by experimentation. (2.7)
headward erosion Erosion at the headwater of a gully as runoff water cuts the gully back
toward the divide. (16.6)
headwaters The location or general area where a stream or river begins. (16.3)
heat The transfer of thermal energy from high-temperature to low-temperature objects. I
(5.4)
heat flow Transfer of thermal energy that results when two adjacent masses have differ- ice age A period of time in which large regions of land are covered year-round with ice
ent temperatures, especially from depth to Earth’s surface. (5.4) and snow, especially in the last 2 m.y. (14.8)
heft test An approach to determining the approximate density of a mineral by simply iceberg A massive piece of ice floating or grounded in the sea or other body of
holding a mineral and noting how heavy it feels. (4.3) water. (14.2)
hematite An iron oxide metal that has a reddish streak and commonly forms under oxi- icefall A steeply flowing mass of ice. (14.1)
dizing conditions. (4.9) ice sheet A mass of ice of considerable thickness and more than 50,000 km2 in area,
high-pressure system An area in the atmosphere characterized by relatively high atmo- forming a nearly continuous cover of ice and snow over a land surface. (14.1)
spheric pressure, sinking air, and generally fair weather. (13.4) igneous rock A rock that formed by solidification of molten material (magma). (1.5)
high tide The maximum height to which water in the ocean rises relative to the land in imbrication A sedimentary fabric characterized by disk-shaped or elongate pebbles
response to the gravitational pull of the Moon; also refers to the time when such high and larger clasts inclined in a preferred direction in response to the direction of
levels occur. (14.11) current. (7.13)
hinge The part of a fold that is most sharply curved. (8.5) inclusion A fragment of older rock or material that is contained within another rock or
hogback Any ridge with a sharp summit and one slope inclined approximately parallel to material, as in a fragment of preexisting rock in a magma. (12.14)
the dip of layers, resembling in outline the back of a hog. (8.12) index contour A dark line on a topographic map which helps emphasize the broader
hoodoos Rock spires formed by the weathering of highly jointed rock layers. (15.5) elevation patterns of an area and allows easier following of lines across the map; on
horizon A zone in soil that is distinct from adjacent zones, including differences in color, most topographic maps, every fifth line is an index contour. (2.3)
texture, content of minerals and organic matter, or other attributes. (15.8) infiltration Water and other fluids that seep into the ground through open pores, frac-
tures, and cavities in soil and rocks. (17.1)
horizontal surface wave A type of surface wave in which material vibrates horizontally,
infrared energy A form of electromagnetic energy with longer wavelengths than
from side to side, perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation. (12.5)
visible light; much of the Sun’s light that reaches Earth converts into this type of
hornfels A fine-grained, nonfoliated metamorphic rock, typically formed by contact
energy. (1.4)
metamorphism of nearly any kind of starting rock. (8.7)
inner core The solid central part of Earth’s core, extending from a depth of about 5,100
horst An elongate, relatively uplifted crustal block that is bounded by faults on two
km to the center of Earth (6,371 km); its radius is about one-third of the whole
sides. (8.4)
core. (1.3)
hot spot A volcanically active site interpreted to be above an unusually high-temperature
inner planets The four planets closest to the Sun (Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars);
region in the deep crust and upper mantle. (10.4)
syn. terrestrial planets. (19.3)
humidity A measure of the amount of water vapor in the air. (13.3)
inorganic Pertaining to a compound that is not produced by living organisms or that
hummocky topography A type of chaotic landscape characterized by randomly distrib-
chemically contains no carbon. (4.1)
uted humps and pits, commonly created by a landslide or less commonly by a pyro-
interferogram The combining of satellite mapping images taken of a place at two
clastic eruption. (15.15)
different times to compare changes in the land surface, for example, during an
hundred-year flood The size of a flood that is predicted, from the existing data, to have
earthquake. (12.11)
a 1 in 100 probability (1%) of occurring in any given year. (16.14)
interglacial period A time during an ice age when glaciers are melting, retreating, or
hurricane A tropical cyclone in which the wind velocity equals or exceeds 64 knots diminished in extent. (14.7)
(73 mph); syn. typhoon. (13.5) intermolecular force A bond that occurs when several types of weak bonds attract a
hydraulic fracturing The use of high-pressure fluids and sand to open up fractures in molecule (a combination of atoms) to another molecule. (4.12)
limited-permeability reservoir rocks in order to extract oil and gas. (18.3) internal energy Energy that comes from within Earth and includes both the heat
hydraulic gradient The slope or gradient of the water table. (17.4) energy trapped from when the planet formed and the heat produced by radioactive
hydrocarbon A gaseous, liquid, or solid organic compound composed of carbon and decay. (1.4)
hydrogen. (18.1) Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) A sinuous line more or less along the equa-
hydroelectric power Power produced by the movement of water, specifically the generator where the northeast and southeast trade winds converge, promoting rain and the
tion of electrical energy. (18.8) development of rain forests. (13.9)
hydrogen bond A weak bond in water that forms between one molecule’s hydrogen intrusive rock An igneous rock that solidified from magma below Earth’s surface; syn.
atom and another molecule’s oxygen atom. (4.13) plutonic rock. (5.6)
hydrogeologist A geoscientist who specializes in groundwater and surface-water ion A charged atom. (4.11)
investigations. (17.6) ionic bond Chemical bond formed because of the attraction of two oppositely
hydrograph A graph showing the change in the amount of flowing water (discharge) charged ions, such as by the loaning of one or more electrons from one ion to
over time. (16.1) another. (4.12)
hydrologic cycle The cycle representing the movement of water between the oceans, iron formation A rock composed of millimeter- to centimeter-thick layers of iron-bear-
atmosphere, land, rivers and other surface water, groundwater, and organisms. (1.7) ing minerals, especially iron oxide, commonly with quartz. (7.6)
hydrolysis A decomposition reaction involving water and commonly producing clays, island A tract of land smaller than a continent, surrounded by water of an ocean, sea,
as in soil. (7.3) lake, or stream. (3.1)
hydrosphere The part of Earth characterized by the presence of water in all its expres- island arc A generally curved belt of volcanic islands above a subduction zone; also used
sions, including oceans, lakes, streams, wetlands, glaciers, groundwater, moisture in as an adjective to refer to this setting. (3.1)
soil, water vapor, and drops and ice crystals in clouds and precipitation. (1.7) isobar A line on a map that depicts areas with equal atmospheric pressure. (13.1)
hydrothermal rock A rock that precipitated directly from hot water, either at depth or isostasy The condition of equilibrium, comparable to floating, of the crust resting on the
on the surface. (1.5) solid mantle. (1.3)
G-7
isostatic rebound Uplifting caused by the removal of weight on top of the crust, as when lava Magma that is erupted onto the surface, or the rock mass into which it solidifies. (6.2)
an ice sheet melts away or when erosion strips material off the top of a thick crustal lava dome A dome-shaped mountain or hill of at least partly solidified lava generally of
root of a mountain. (11.2) felsic to intermediate composition. (6.2)
isotope One of two or more species of the same chemical element but differing from one lava flow Magma that erupts onto the surface and flows downhill from the vent; also the
another by having a different number of neutrons. (9.4) solidified body of rock formed by this magma. (6.2)
isotopic dating The process of dating rocks using radioactive decay. (9.4) lava fountain A fountain of molten lava propelled into the air by pressure and escaping
gases. (6.2)
J lava tube A long, tubular opening under the crust of solidified lava and representing an
active or partially emptied subsurface channel of lava. (6.3)
leaching The separation or dissolution of soluble constituents from a rock, sediment, or
jetty An engineering structure built from the shore into a body of water to redirect cur-
soil by percolation of water. (15.8)
rent or tide, for example, to protect a harbor. (14.15)
levee A long, low ridge of sediment deposited by a stream next to the channel; some
joint A fracture in a rock where the rock has been pulled apart slightly without signifi-
levees are built by humans to keep floodwaters from spilling onto a floodplain. (16.8)
cant displacement parallel to the fracture. (8.3)
joint sets A set of parallel or nearly parallel joints. (8.12) LIDAR (LIght Detecting and Ranging) A mapping method that uses reflection and
Jupiter The largest planet in the solar system. (19.5) scattering of light to determine distance and other characteristics of the land. (14.16)
Jurassic A geologic period in the middle of the Mesozoic Era. (9.8) lightning An abrupt atmospheric discharge of electricity. (13.5)
lignite A brownish-black coal that is intermediate in quality between peat and bitumi-
nous coal. (18.4)
K limbs The planar or less curved parts of a fold on either side of the hinge. (8.5)
limestone A sedimentary rock composed predominantly of calcium carbonate, princi-
karst topography Topography characterized by sinkholes, caves, limestone pillars, pally in the form of calcite, and which may include chert, dolomite, and fine-grained
poorly organized drainage patterns, and disappearing streams; generally formed from clastic sediment. (7.11)
the dissolution of limestone. (15.7) lineation A linear structure in a metamorphic rock. (8.6)
kerogen A thick substance composed of long chains of hydrocarbons. (18.1) liquefaction Loss of cohesion when grains in water-saturated soil or sediment lose grain-
kettle A pitlike depression in glacial deposits, commonly a lake or swamp; formed by to-grain contact, as when shaken during an earthquake. (12.7)
the melting of a large block of ice that had been at least partly buried in the glacial lithification The conversion of unconsolidated sediment or volcanic ash into a coherent,
deposits. (14.5) solid rock, involving processes such as compaction and cementation. (1.6)
kettle lake A body of water occupying a kettle. (14.5) lithosphere Earth’s upper, rigid layer composed of the crust and uppermost mantle. (1.7)
K-feldspar A very common feldspar mineral containing potassium (K); syn. potassium lithospheric mantle The part of the uppermost mantle that is in the lithosphere. (1.3)
feldspar. (15.2) loading The process by which weight is added to the lithosphere. (14.18)
kinetic energy Energy due to movement of an object. (1.4) local mountain A mountain that is supported by the strength of the crust and is too small
K-P extinction Refers to the extinction of the dinosaurs and many other animals at to be accompanied by a regional increase in crustal thickness. (11.3)
the end of the Mesozoic Era, between the Cretaceous Period (K) and the Paleogene loess An essentially unconsolidated sediment consisting predominantly of silt, inter-
Period (P); traditionally referred to as the K-T extinction, separating the Cretaceous preted to be windblown dust, commonly of glacial origin. (13.11)
Period (K) and the Tertiary (T). (9.12) longshore current A current, generally in an ocean or large lake, flowing more or less
K-T extinction See K-P extinction. (9.12) parallel to a coastline. (14.13)
Kuiper Belt A zone of planetary objects beyond the orbit of Neptune. (19.7)
losing stream Part of a stream or river that loses water from outflow to groundwater.
(17.5)
L low-pressure system An area in the atmosphere characterized by relatively low atmo-
spheric pressure, rising air, and commonly stormy weather. (13.4)
laccolith A bulge-shaped igneous body that has domed and tilted overlying layers and low tide The lowest height to which water in the ocean drops relative to the land in
that is observed or interpreted to have a relatively flat floor. (5.13) response to the gravitational pull of the Moon; also refers to the time when such low
lagoon A shallow part of the sea between the shoreline and a protecting feature, such as levels occur. (14.11)
a reef or barrier island, farther out to sea. (7.2) lunar highlands High elevations on the Moon that contain a light-colored, heavily
lahar A mudflow mostly composed of volcanic-derived materials and generally formed cratered material; syn. cratered highlands. (19.4)
on the flank of a volcano. (6.7) luster The reflection of light from the surface of a mineral, especially its quality and
laminar flow Smooth flow of water, air, or some other fluid, where velocity is constant. intensity; the appearance of a mineral in reflected light. (4.3)
(16.2)
land breeze A local wind that blows from the land to the sea due to higher-pressure air
over the land. (13.2) M
lander A spacecraft that lands on a planetary object and collects images and other
data. (19.1) Ma Millions of years before present (Mega-annum). (2.6)
landslide A general term for the rapid downslope movement of soil, sediment, bedrock, mafic A material having high contents of magnesium (Mg) and iron (Fe), generally
or a mixture of these; also the material or landform formed by this process. (15.11) accompanied by a decreased amount of silica. (5.2)
La Niña A condition that results in the concentration of warm water in the western mafic mineral A generally dark-colored, silicate mineral with a high magnesium (Mg)
equatorial Pacific Ocean, accompanied by cooling in the eastern equatorial Pacific and iron (Fe) content. (4.8)
Ocean. (13.7) mafic rock A generally dark-colored igneous rock with a mafic composition. (5.2)
lateral erosion Erosion of materials to the side of a stream. (16.6) magma Molten rock, which may or may not contain some crystals, solidified rock, and
lateral moraine Sediment carried in and deposited along the sides of a glacier. (14.4) gas. (1.5)
laterite A type of tropical soil rich in iron (Fe) and aluminum (Al) oxides, commonly magma chamber A large reservoir in the crust or mantle that is occupied by a body of
giving the soil a deep red color. (15.8) magma. (5.12)
Laurasia The inferred northern supercontinent that existed in the Mesozoic and included magma mixing Process whereby two different magmas come into contact and partially
North America, Europe, and Asia. (11.11) mix, forming a magma that has a composition intermediate between the two. (5.6)
G-8
magnetic reversal A reversal of the polarity of Earth’s magnetic field, from normal Milankovitch cycles Periodic variations in Earth’s orbit and tilt, interpreted to influence
polarity to reversed polarity. (3.9) Earth’s climate. (14.9)
magnetite An iron oxide mineral that is typically black and is strongly magnetic. (4.9) Milky Way Galaxy The spiral galaxy in which Earth is located; only one of countless
magnetometer An instrument used to measure the direction and strength of magnetism galaxies in the universe. (19.0)
in rocks and other materials. (3.9) millibar One-thousandth of a bar. See also bar. (13.1)
magnitude A measure of the amount of energy released by an earthquake; used to com- mineral A naturally occurring, inorganic, crystalline solid with a relatively consistent
pare sizes of earthquakes. (12.6) composition. (4.1)
manganese nodule Small, irregular, black to brown concretions formed on the seafloor mineral deposit A mass of naturally occurring rocks and other materials that are espe-
and consisting primarily of manganese and iron minerals. (10.1) cially rich in some commodity that might be valuable. (18.10)
mantle The most voluminous layer of Earth; located below the crust and above the mineralize To convert to or impregnate with mineral material, as in the processes of ore
core. (1.3) deposition and of fossilization. (18.10)
mantle convection Movement of mantle material in response to variations in density, mineralogists Geologists and other scientists who study minerals. (4.4)
especially those caused by differences in temperature. (3.8) mineral wedging The growth of minerals that exert an outward force that can fracture
marble A metamorphic rock composed of recrystallized calcite or dolomite. (8.7) rock or loosen grains. (7.3)
mare A dark, low-lying, relatively smooth area on the Moon consisting of basalt. (19.4) Mississippian A geologic period near the middle of the Paleozoic Era. (9.8)
maria Plural of mare. (19.4) modified Mercalli intensity scale An earthquake intensity scale recording the relative
marine evaporite deposit A salt accumulation formed when seawater evaporates, leav- amount of damage and how the earthquake was perceived by people. (12.6)
ing behind a residue of material that was dissolved in the water. (10.10) Mohorovičić Discontinuity The boundary between the crust and mantle, commonly
marine terrace A platform that was cut or constructed by waves but is now elevated referred to as the moho. (12.15)
above sea level; commonly covered by a thin veneer of marine sediment. (14.14) Mohs Hardness Scale Consists of ten common minerals ranked in order of increasing
Mars Fourth planet out from the Sun. (19.3) relative hardness, from 1 to 10. (4.3)
mass extinction The disappearance of many species and families of creatures in a geo- moment magnitude (Mw) A measure of the amount of energy released by an
logically short period of time. (9.8) earthquake. (12.6)
mass spectrometer An instrument used to measure the abundance of different atoms and monocline A fold defined by local steepening in gently dipping layers. (8.5)
isotopes in a material, such as a rock or mineral to be numerically dated. (9.4) monsoon Refers to winds that reverse directions depending on the season. (13.8)
mass wasting Downward movement of material on slopes under the force of moraine Sediment carried by and deposited by a glacier; also refers to the resulting
gravity. (15.10) landform. (14.4)
matrix The finer grained material enclosing or filling the areas between larger grains, mouth The location where a stream, river, or canyon ends, such as where a river enters
crystals, or fragments of a rock. (4.2) the sea. (16.3)
maturation The process by which coal increases its carbon content and loses volatiles mud A mixture of silt and clay, or a general term used to refer to either silt or clay. (7.10)
and other impurities as it is buried and heated (18.4); also the process by which mudcrack A somewhat polygonal pattern of fractures, formed by the shrinkage of mud
organic material becomes petroleum upon burial and heating. (18.1) as it dries. (7.13)
meander A sinuous curve or bend in the course of a stream or river. (16.5) mudflow A general term for mass movement involving a fluidly flowing mass of mud
meandering river A river that has a strongly curved channel (with meanders). (16.5) and other material and the resulting landform; applied to some earthflows and debris
meander scar A crescent-shaped feature in the landscape that indicates the former posi- flows. (6.7)
tion of a river meander. (16.8) mudrock A general term for a rock composed of consolidated clay, silt, or a combination
medial moraine Sediment carried in the center of a glacier, representing where two gla- of these. (7.10)
ciers joined; also refers to the deposited sediment and resulting landform. (14.4) mudstone A rock composed of consolidate mud (silt, clay, or especially a combination
megathrust A huge thrust fault representing the boundary between the subducted slab of the two). (7.10)
and overriding plate. (8.9) muscovite A light-colored, sheet silicate mineral that is part of the mica family. (4.8)
Mercury The closest planet to the Sun. (19.3)
mesa A broad, flat-topped and steep-sided, isolated hill or mountain. (11.3)
Mesozoic Era A major subdivision of geologic time from 251 Ma to 65 Ma; character-
ized by dinosaurs. (9.6) N
metallic bond A chemical bond formed when electrons are shared widely by many
atoms. (4.12) native mineral Rock-forming mineral that contains only a single element. (4.6)
metamorphic rock A rock changed in the solid state by temperature, pressure, deforma- natural gas Hydrocarbons that exist as gas or vapor at ordinary temperatures and
tion, or chemical reactions that modified a preexisting rock. (1.5) pressures. (18.1)
metamorphism The mineralogical and structural changes of solid rock in response to natural resource A naturally occurring resource, including energy, mineral, and water
changes in environmental conditions, especially at depth. (8.0) resources, as well as soil and timber. (18.0)
metarhyolite A metamorphic rock formed through the metamorphism of rhyolite, tuff, natural selection The process by which the organism best adapted to its environment
and other felsic volcanic rocks. (8.7) tends to survive and transmit its genetic characteristics to the population; one theory
Meteor Crater A meteoroid impact crater located in northern Arizona. (2.10) for natural evolution. (9.6)
meteorite A fragment of a meteoroid that has fallen to a planetary surface. (2.8) neap tide Lower-than-average high tides and higher-than-average low tides caused when
meteorite crater A crater formed by the impact of a meteoroid onto a surface. (2.10) the Sun’s gravity partially offsets the effects of the Moon’s gravity. (14.11)
meteoroid Solid object in interplanetary space; distinguished from asteroids by a smaller near side (Moon) The side of the Moon that always faces Earth. (19.4)
size. (2.10) nebula A shapeless cloud of gas and dust in space. (19.0)
microburst A strong, downward-moving wind, generally associated with thunder- negative magnetic anomaly A measurement of Earth’s magnetic field that is lower than
storms. (13.5) average. (3.9)
microorganism An organism of microscopic size, such as bacteria. (18.1) Neogene The youngest geologic period of the Cenozoic Era. (9.8)
mid-ocean ridge A long mountain range on the floor of the ocean, associated with sea- Neptune The eighth and last planet from the Sun. (19.7)
floor spreading. (3.1) neutron A subatomic particle that contributes mass to a nucleus and is electrically
migmatite A rock composed of both metamorphic and igneous or igneous-appearing neutral. (4.11)
material. (8.9) nickpoint A point at which a stream has an abrupt change in gradient. (16.6)
G-9
nomograph A type of graph used in seismology to determine the local magnitude of an outwash plain An area in front of a glacier where streams deposit glacially produced
earthquake. (12.6) sediment. (14.6)
nonclastic rock A sedimentary rock not composed of clasts. (7.6) overpumping Pumping of groundwater at a rate that causes severe lowering of the water
nonconformity An unconformity in which the older rocks below the unconformity are table in the aquifer or other detrimental effects. (17.7)
not layered. (9.3) oxbow lake An isolated, curved lake formed when a cutoff meander is filled with
nonrenewable resource A resource, such as a fossil fuel, that has a finite supply. (18.0) water. (16.5)
nonsilicate A mineral or other material that does not include silicon. (4.9) oxidation The chemical process during which a material combines with oxygen. (7.3)
nonvesicular An igneous rock that does not contain obvious gas pockets or vesicles. (6.3) oxide 1. Any member of a group of minerals that consist of oxygen bonded with a
normal fault A fault in which the hanging wall moves down relative to the footwall. (8.4) metallic element, like iron (4.6). 2. Mineralized rock that contains minerals, espe-
normal-fault basin A low area that has been downdropped by one or more normal cially those of iron and copper, that formed near the surface or in other oxidizing
faults. (11.4) conditions. (18.10)
normal polarity Refers to the current polarity of Earth’s magnetic field. (3.9)
nuclear fission The breaking apart of atoms during radioactive decay, in the process
releasing a large amount of energy. (1.8)
P
nuclear fusion The combination, or fusion, of two nuclei to form a heavier nucleus, in pahoehoe A type of lava or lava flow that has a smooth upper surface or folds that form
the process releasing a large amount of energy. (18.7) a “ropy” texture. (6.3)
nucleus A particle composed of protons and generally neutrons in the core of an Paleogene The oldest geologic period of the Cenozoic Era. (9.8)
atom. (4.11) paleomagnetism The rock record of past changes in Earth’s magnetic field. (3.9)
numeric age Geologic age of a rock, sediment, fossil, or event calculated in thousands, Paleozoic Era A major subdivision of geologic time, beginning at the end of the Precam-
millions, or billions of years before present; syn. absolute age. (2.6) brian; from 542 to 251 million years ago. (9.6)
numeric dating The process of determining ages of rocks by using analytical measure- Pangaea An inferred supercontinent that existed from about 300 to about 200 million
ments; syn. absolute dating. (9.8) years ago and included most of Earth’s continental crust. (11.11)
parallel beds A sequence of beds that are approximately parallel. (7.7)
parent atom An atom before it undergoes radioactive decay; syn. parent isotope. (9.4)
O passive margin A continental margin that is not a plate boundary. (3.5)
passive solar The use of solar energy involving light and infrared energy from the Sun
oblique-slip fault A fault on which slip has both dip-slip and strike-slip components. (8.4) entering a space through windows and naturally heating the inside air and mass. (18.9)
obsidian A generally gray to black, shiny volcanic glass, usually of felsic patterned ground Geometric patterns that appear in the ground over permafrost. (14.6)
composition. (5.3) peat An unconsolidated deposit of partially decayed plant matter. (7.6)
ocean acidification An increase in the acidity of oceans due to increasing amounts of pebble A small stone between 6 and 64 mm in diameter. (7.4)
CO2 in Earth’s atmosphere, a large amount of which goes into the oceans. (13.14) pediment A gently sloping, low-relief plain or erosion surface carved onto bedrock,
ocean basin The deeper parts of the ocean, especially those that are not underlain by commonly with a thin, discontinuous veneer of sediment. (13.12)
continental crust. (1.2, 3.5) pegmatite An igneous rock containing very large crystals, which may be centimeters to
ocean-continent convergent boundary A plate-tectonic boundary where an oceanic meters long. (5.1)
plate converges with a continental plate, generally expressed by subduction of the Pennsylvanian A geologic period in the latter part the Paleozoic Era. (9.8)
oceanic plate beneath the continent. (3.6) perched water Groundwater that sits above the main water table and generally is
oceanic crust The type of thin, mafic crust that underlies the ocean basins. (1.3) underlain by a layer or lens of impermeable rock that blocks the downward flow of
oceanic fracture zone Crack or step in elevation of the seafloor that formed as a trans- groundwater. (17.4)
form fault along a mid-ocean ridge but is no longer a plate boundary. (3.1) perennial stream A stream or river that flows all year. (16.3)
ocean oscillations Variations in ocean temperatures that occur over years or decades. (13.14) peridotite An ultramafic igneous rock generally containing abundant olivine, commonly
octahedron A polyhedron with eight faces. (4.4) with smaller amounts of pyroxene. (5.2)
O horizon An upper, organic-rich soil horizon composed of dead leaves and other plant period A time interval in the geologic timescale; a subdivision of an era. (9.8)
and animal remains. (15.8) Periodic Table Table that organizes all the chemical elements according to the element’s
oil field The region in the subsurface that contains petroleum, especially oil; also the atomic number and electron orbitals. (4.6)
projection of that area to the surface. (18.2) permafrost A condition in which water in the uppermost part of the ground remains
oil sand A sand or other porous sediment impregnated by petroleum. (18.1) frozen all or most of the time. (14.6)
oil seep The seepage of liquid petroleum at the surface. (18.1) permeability A measure of the ability of a material to transmit a fluid. (17.3)
oil shale A kerogen-bearing, thinly layered, fine-grained sedimentary rock that yields Permian The last geologic period of the Paleozoic Era. (9.8)
liquid or gaseous hydrocarbons upon heating and distillation. (18.5) petrified wood A piece of fossilized wood that has been replaced by silica and other
olivine A green iron-magnesium silicate mineral that composes much of the upper man- material, preserving some of the original structure of the wood. (9.5)
tle and also occurs in mafic and ultramafic igneous rocks. (4.8) petroleum A general term for naturally occurring hydrocarbons, whether liquid, gas-
ophiolite complex A consistent sequence of, from top to bottom, oceanic sediment, pil- eous, or solid. (18.1)
low basalt, sheeted dikes, and gabbro, interpreted to represent a slice of oceanic crust petroleum geologist A geologist engaged in exploration for, or production of, oil or
or an oceanic volcano. (5.9) natural gas. (2.9)
Ordovician A geologic period in the early part of the Paleozoic Era. (9.8) phaneritic rock An igneous rock containing crystals that are visible to the unaided
ore A rock, sediment, or other material that can be mined for a profit. (18.10) eye. (5.1)
ore deposit A mineral deposit that contains enough of a commodity to be mined at a phases of the Moon The monthly cycle of the Moon in which its illumination changes
profit. (18.10) on a regular schedule, going from completely dark to fully lit and back again. (19.4)
original horizontality The principle that most sediments and many volcanic units are phenocrysts Crystals in an igneous rock that are larger than those around them, as in a
deposited in layers that originally are more or less horizontal. (9.1) porphyritic rock. (5.1)
orogeny The formation of mountains or the time period during which tectonic activity phosphate rock A rock that is rich in the element phosphorus. (18.14)
causes deformation and forms mountains. (11.12) photon An energetic particle released from an atom, such as during gamma decay. (5.4)
outer core The molten outer part of Earth’s core, extending from a depth of 2,900 km to photosynthesis The process by which plants produce carbohydrates using water, light,
5,100 km. (1.3) and atmospheric carbon dioxide. (1.4)
G-10
photovoltaic panel A solar-energy device that converts sunlight directly into principle of superposition The concept that a sedimentary or volcanic layer is younger
electricity. (18.9) than any rock unit on which it is deposited. (9.1)
phyllite A shiny, foliated, fine-grained metamorphic rock, intermediate in grade between probability The statistical description of the likelihood that an event will occur. (16.14)
slate and schist. (8.7) promontory A ridge of land that juts out into a body of water. (14.13)
physical weathering The physical breaking or disintegration of rocks when exposed to proton Principal particle of an atomic nucleus with a positive charge. (4.11)
the environment. (7.3) proxy evidence Types of observations, other than direct measurements, used to infer past
piedmont glacier A broad glacier that forms when an ice sheet or valley glacier spreads conditions, including temperatures. (13.13)
out as it moves into less confined topography. (14.1) P-S interval The time interval between the arrivals of the P wave and the S wave. (12.6)
pillow A rounded, pillow-shaped structure that forms when lava erupts into water. (6.4) pull-apart basin A basin that forms as the result of movement within a zone of strike-
pillow basalt A basaltic lava flow that includes pillow structures. (6.4) slip faulting. (11.4)
placer A surficial mineral deposit in which a valuable substance, like gold or diamonds, pumice Volcanic rock, especially of felsic or intermediate composition, containing many
has been concentrated, such as on rivers and beaches. (18.11) vesicles (holes) formed by expanding gases in magma. (5.3)
plagioclase A very common rock-forming feldspar mineral that contains sodium, cal- pump-and-treat A commonly used option to clean up, or remediate, a site of groundwa-
cium, or both elements. (4.8) ter contamination. (17.9)
planet A large celestial body that revolves around a sun in a solar system. (19.0) punctuated equilibrium A hypothesis that new organisms or new characteristics of
planetary geologist A geoscientist who applies geologic principles and techniques to the an existing organism appear rather suddenly in geologic terms instead of evolving
study of planets, moons, and other planetary objects. (2.9) gradually. (9.6)
plateau A broad, relatively flat region of land that has a high elevation. (3.1) P-wave See primary wave.
plate boundary Zone of tectonic activity, including earthquakes, along the boundary P-wave shadow zone The region on Earth’s surface, 103° to 142° away from an
between two lithospheric plates that are moving relative to one another. (3.4) earthquake epicenter, in which direct P waves from the earthquake are not recorded.
plate tectonics A theory in which the lithosphere is divided into a number of mostly (12.15)
rigid plates that move relative to one another, causing tectonic activity along these pyrite A common, pale bronze to brass yellow, iron sulfide mineral, commonly called
boundaries. (3.4) “fool’s gold.” (4.9)
platinum The native metallic element (Pt) and metal alloys that contain it. (18.11) pyroclastic eruption A volcanic eruption where hot fragments and magma are thrown
playa A shallow, closed basin in a generally dry environment. (13.12) into the air; also refers to a deposit or rock produced by such an event. (6.2)
plucking The removal of pieces of rock by a glacier. (14.3) pyroclastic flow A fast-moving cloud of hot volcanic gases, ash, pumice, and rock frag-
plume 1. A rising mass of mostly solid mantle material, thought to be the causal mecha- ments that generally travel down the flanks of a volcano; syn. ash flow. (5.1, 6.2)
nism of a hot spot (5.11). 2. A mass of groundwater contamination that spreads out pyroxene One of a group of mostly dark, single-chain silicate minerals. (4.8)
away from the source. (17.9)
plunge The inclination of a geologic structure, commonly measured in degrees from the
horizontal. (8.5)
plunging An adjective that describes an inclined, linear geologic structure, for example,
Q
a fold whose hinge is not horizontal. (8.5)
qualitative data Data that include descriptive words, labels, sketches, or other
plutoid A class of dwarf planet farther from the Sun than the orbit of Neptune. (19.7)
images. (2.5)
pluton A subsurface magma body or the mass of rock in which it solidifies; syn.
quantitative data Data that are numeric and typically visualized and analyzed using data
intrusion. (5.12)
tables, calculations, equations, and graphs. (2.5)
plutonic rock An igneous rock that solidified at depth rather than on the surface; syn.
quartz A very common rock-forming silicate mineral consisting of crystalline
intrusive rock. (5.6)
silica. (4.8)
point bar A series of low, arcuate ridges of sand and gravel deposited on the inside of a
quartzite A very hard rock consisting chiefly of quartz grains joined by secondary silica
stream bend or meander. (16.5)
that causes the rock to break across rather than around the grains; formed by meta-
pore space Any open space within rocks, sediment, or soil, including open space between
morphism or by silica cementation of a quartz sandstone. (8.7)
grains in a sedimentary rock, within fractures, and in other cavities. (7.5)
quartz sandstone Sandstone composed mostly of quartz grains. (7.5)
porosity The percentage of the volume of a rock, sediment, or soil that is open
space (pore space). (17.3)
porphyritic An igneous texture in which larger crystals are set in a finer grained
matrix. (18.12)  R
porphyry A porphyritic igneous rock that contains conspicuous phenocrysts in a fine-
grained matrix. (18.12) radiant heat transfer Transfer of thermal energy as electromagnetic waves. (5.4)
positive magnetic anomalies A measurement of Earth’s magnetic field that is higher radioactive decay The spontaneous disintegration and emission of particles from an
than average. (3.9) unstable atom. (9.4)
potassium feldspar A very common silicate mineral that contains potassium; syn. rain forest A forest with high annual rainfall, no freezing temperatures, and a rich collec-
K-feldspar. (4.8) tion of plant and animal communities. (13.9)
pothole A bowl-shaped pit eroded into rock by swirling water and sediment. (16.2) rain shadow A relatively dry region on the downwind side of a topographic obstacle,
Precambrian A very long interval of geologic time, from the formation of the solid usually a mountain range; rainfall is noticeably less than on the windward side. (13.4)
earth to the beginning of the Paleozoic; it is equivalent to 90% of geologic time. rain-shadow desert A desert formed in a rain shadow. (13.10)
(9.6) rapid A segment of rough, turbulent water along a stream. (16.6)
precession The changing orientation of the Earth’s rotation axis over long periods of recessional moraine A moraine that forms as the front of a glacier melts back and stag-
time. (14.9) nates for some time in one location, depositing a pile of sediment. (14.5)
precious metal Gold, silver, or any minerals of the platinum group. (18.11) recharge The replenishment of water into a groundwater system, whether natural or done
precipitation Atmospheric water that falls to the surface as rain, snow, hail, or sleet. (1.4) by humans. (17.5)
pressure gradient A difference in air pressure between two adjacent areas. (13.1) recrystallization The formation, essentially in the solid state, of new crystalline grains
primary wave (P-wave) A seismic body wave that involves particle motion, consisting in a rock. (8.8)
of alternating compression and expansion, in the direction of propagation. (12.5) recurrence interval The time between repeating earthquakes. (12.2)
G-11
reefs Shallow, mostly submarine features, primarily built by colonies of living marine root wedging The process of plant roots extending into fractures and growing in length
organisms, including coral, sponges, and shellfish, or by the accumulation of shells and diameter, expanding preexisting fractures. (15.1)
and other debris. (10.8) rotational slide A slide in which shearing takes place on a well-defined, curved shear
refraction The deflection of a ray, as in light or a seismic wave, due to its passage from surface, concave upward, producing a backward rotation in the displaced mass; syn.
one material to another of different density. (12.15) slump. (15.12)
regional metamorphism Metamorphism affecting an extensive region and related rover A small, remotely controlled wheeled vehicle used to explore the surface of a
mostly to regional burial, heating, and deformation of rocks. (8.8) planet or moon. (19.1)
regional mountain range A mountain range that is hundreds to thousands of kilometers runoff Precipitation that collects and flows on the surface, such as in streams. (1.7)
long, contains many peaks, and typically involves uplifted, thickened crust. (11.2)
regional subsidence The process by which a region decreases in elevation, for example,
subsidence due to crustal thinning. (11.4) S
regression The retreat of the sea from land areas and evidence of such withdrawal. (7.12)
relative age The age of a fossil, organism, rock, geologic feature, or event as defined salinity The concentration of salt in water. (15.2)
relative to other geologic features or events. (2.2) saltation Transport of sediment in which particles are moved in a series of short, inter-
relative motion The motion of tectonic plates relative to one another across a plate mittent bounces on a bottom surface. (16.2)
boundary. (3.4) salt dome A structure formed when buried salt buoyantly flows to the surface in steep,
relief The difference in elevation of one feature relative to another; syn. topographic pipelike conduits. (10.10)
relief. (2.4) salt flat The nearly level, salt-encrusted bottom of a lake that is temporarily or perma-
remediate To remedy a fault or deficiency; for example, to clean up a site of soil or water nently dried up. (13.12)
contamination. (17.9) salt glacier A gravitational flow of rock salt downhill on the surface. (10.10)
renewable resource A resource that has a virtually unlimited supply and does not saltwater incursion Displacement of fresh groundwater by the advance of salt water,
remove something irreplaceable when it is used. (18.9) usually in coastal areas; syn. saltwater intrusion. (17.7)
reservoir 1. A lake that is created by a human-constructed dam (16.6). 2. A subsurface sand A grain or rock fragment smaller than 2 mm and larger than 1/16 mm. (7.4)
volume of rock that has sufficient porosity and permeability to permit the accumula- sandbar A low, sandy feature, possibly submerged, offshore of a shoreline or within a
tion of oil or natural gas under adequate trap conditions. (18.2) sandy river. (14.14)
resisting force A force that resists the motion of an object, such as resisting the move- sand dune An accumulation of loose sand piled up by the wind. (7.1)
ment of tectonic plates. (3.8) sand spit A low ridge of sand and other sediment that extends like a prong off a
resurfacing Remaking a surface through erosion, deposition, volcanism, or coast. (14.14)
tectonics. (19.2) sandstone A medium-grained, clastic sedimentary rock composed mostly of grains of
reversed polarity Refers to times in the past when the polarity of Earth’s magnetic field sand, along with other material. (7.9)
was the opposite of what it is today. (3.9) sandstorm See dust storm.
reverse fault A fault in which the hanging wall moves up relative to the footwall. (8.4) satellite A celestial body, natural or manmade, that revolves around a planet or other
rhomb An oblique, equilateral parallelogram with a shape like a sheared box. (4.5) large planetary object. (19.1)
rhyolite A mostly fine-grained, felsic igneous rock, generally of volcanic origin; satellite image Image taken by an artificial satellite and generally depicting the types of
can contain glass, volcanic ash, pieces of pumice, and variable amounts of visible materials on the surface of Earth or another planetary object. (2.3)
crystals (phenocrysts). (5.2) saturated zone The area in the subsurface where water fills nearly all the pore
Richter scale A numeric scale of earthquake magnitude devised by the seismologist C. spaces. (17.3)
F. Richter. (12.6) Saturn The second-largest planet in the solar system; the sixth planet outward from the
ridge On a weather map, an elongated area of high atmospheric pressure. (13.1) Sun. (19.6)
ridge push A plate-driving force that results from the tendency of an oceanic plate to slide scarp 1. A linear or curved scar left behind by a landslide on a hillslope, marking where
down the sloping lithosphere-asthenosphere boundary near a mid-ocean ridge. (3.8) the landslide pulled away from the rest of the hill (15.12). 2. A break or step in the
ripple marks Small ridges and troughs formed by moving currents. (7.13) land surface formed by movement along a fault (fault scarp). (12.2)
rip rap A layer of large, durable fragments of broken rock, concrete, or other material, schist A shiny, foliated, metamorphic rock generally containing abundant visible crystals
placed to prevent erosion by waves or currents. (14.15) of mica. (8.6)
risk An assessment of whether a hazard might have some societal impact. (6.6) schistosity A metamorphic foliation representing the parallel arrangement of mineral
river A large moving stream of water driven by gravity and flowing from higher to lower grains, especially mica in schist or other coarse-grained metamorphic rocks. (8.6)
elevations. (16.0) scoria A dark gray, black, or reddish volcanic rock that contains abundant vesicles, usu-
rock avalanche High-velocity, turbulent flow of rock, sediment, and soil that results ally having the composition of basalt or andesite; syn. volcanic cinders. (5.3)
from the collapse of a steep mountain front. (15.13) scoria cone A relatively small type of volcano that is cone shaped and mostly composed
rock cycle A conceptual framework presenting possible paths and processes to which of scoria; syn. cinder cone. (6.3)
a rock can be subjected as it moves from one place to another and between different sea arch An opening through a thin promontory of land that extends out into the
depths within Earth. (1.6) ocean. (14.14)
rock fall A mass-wasting process whereby large rocks and smaller pieces of bedrock sea breeze A local wind that blows from the sea to the land due to higher-pressure air
detach and fall onto the ground. (15.12) over the water. (13.2)
rock flour Finely ground sediment produced by the action of a glacier on rock. (14.3) sea cave A cave at the base of a sea cliff, usually flooded by seawater. (14.14)
rock slide A slab of relatively intact rock that detaches from bedrock and slides downhill, sea cliff A cliff or steep slope situated along the coast. (14.14)
shattering as it moves. (15.12) seafloor spreading The process by which two oceanic plates move apart and new mag-
rock varnish A thin, dark film or coating of iron and manganese oxides, silica, and other matic material is added between the plates. (3.2)
materials; formed by prolonged exposure at the surface; syn. desert varnish. (9.2) sea ice Ice that forms from the freezing of seawater. (14.2)
Rodinia An inferred supercontinent, consisting of all the continents joined, that existed seal An impermeable layer that traps petroleum at depth. (18.2)
near the Precambrian-Paleozoic boundary. (11.11) seamount A submarine mountain, in some cases flat-topped, that rises above the
roll-front An arcuate deposit of uranium that forms where uranium carried by ground- seafloor. (10.4)
water encounters water with a different chemistry. (18.7) sea stack An isolated, pillar-like, rocky island or pinnacle near a rocky coastline. (14.14)
G-12
seawall A human-constructed wall or embankment of concrete, stone, or other materials silt A fine-grained rock fragment or clast, 1/256 to 1/16 mm in diameter. (7.4)
along a shoreline, intended to prevent erosion by waves. (14.15) silting up A filling, or partial filling, with silt of a reservoir as it receives sediment
secondary wave (S-wave) A seismic body wave propagated by a shearing motion that brought in by streams and surface runoff. (18.8)
involves movement of material perpendicular to the direction of propagation; an S siltstone A sedimentary rock composed of consolidated silt-sized particles, generally
wave cannot travel through magma and other liquids. (12.5) mostly quartz. (7.5)
sediment Grains and other fragments that originate from the weathering and trans- Silurian A geologic period in the early part of the Paleozoic Era. (9.8)
port of rocks, and the unconsolidated deposits that result from the deposition of this sinkhole A closed, circular depression, usually in a karst area, resulting from the collapse
material. (1.5) of an underlying cave. (7.11)
sediment budget The amount of sediment available to a system, such as along a sinuosity The amount a river or stream channel curves for a given length. (16.5)
shoreline. (14.13) slab pull A plate-driving force generated by the sinking action of a relatively dense, sub-
sediment load The amount of sediment, including material chemically dissolved in a ducted slab. (3.8)
solution, carried by a stream. (16.2) slate A compact, fine-grained, low-grade metamorphic rock that possesses slaty
sedimentary rock Rock resulting from the consolidation of sediment. (1.5) cleavage. (8.7)
seismic activity. See seismicity. slope failure The sudden or gradual collapse of a slope that is too steep for its material to
seismic gap A segment of an active fault zone that has not experienced a major earth- resist the pull of gravity. (15.10)
quake during a time interval when most other segments of the zone have experienced slump A slide in which shearing takes place on a well-defined, curved shear surface,
earthquakes. (12.12) concave upward, producing a backward rotation in the displaced mass; syn. rotational
seismicity Earth movements, either on the surface or at depth, caused by earthquakes. slide. (15.12)
(12.3) smelter A mineral-extraction facility in which sulfide ores and other material are roasted
seismic ray The path that any part of a seismic wave travels. (12.15) in a furnace. (18.13)
seismic-reflection profile A cross section plotting data gathered from a seismic- snowfield A large area covered with snow and ice that, unlike a glacier, does not
reflection survey. (10.1) move. (14.2)
seismic-reflection technique A technique, widely used in exploring for petroleum, in soft-rock geologist A geologist who focuses on the geology of sediments and sedimen-
which seismic energy (sound waves) is generated near the surface, bounces off sub- tary rocks as opposed to igneous and metamorphic rocks. (18.6)
surface layers, is recorded on the surface using geophones, and processed with sophis- soil Unconsolidated material at and near the surface, produced by weathering; includes
ticated computers and numerical methods. (10.1) mineral matter, organic matter, air, and water, and is generally capable of supporting
seismic station The location of a scientific instrument (seismograph) that measures seis- plant growth. (15.8)
mic vibrations. (12.1) solar energy 1. Electromagnetic energy from the Sun (1.4). 2 Energy that uses the Sun’s
seismic tomography A technique using the arrival times of seismic waves to identify electromagnetic energy to heat buildings, heat water, or generate electricity. (18.9)
materials with different physical properties within the Earth. (12.16) solar system The Sun, its eight planets, and other celestial bodies that orbit the Sun. (1.8)
seismic wave Elastic waves produced by earthquakes or generated artificially. (12.1) solidification The process in which magma cools and hardens into solid rock, with or
seismogram The record made by a seismograph, an instrument that records seismic without the formation of crystals. (1.6)
waves. (12.5) sonar Using sound waves to determine the distance to reflecting objects, especially
seismologist A scientist who studies seismic waves by analyzing when and how these depth of the seafloor or a lake bottom. (10.1)
waves arrive and by using powerful computers and sophisticated programs to model source rock A rock or sediment that contains enough organic material to produce
subsurface parameters, such as density. (12.5) petroleum. (18.1)
seismometer An instrument that measures ground shaking or seismic activity. (12.5) specific gravity The ratio of the density of a substance to the density of freshwater. (4.3)
shaded-relief map A map of an area whose relief is made to appear three-dimensional by spheroidal weathering A form of mostly chemical weathering in which concen-
simulating the shading on mountains, valleys, and other features. (2.3) tric or spherical shells of decayed rock are successively separated from a block of
shale A fine-grained clastic sedimentary rock formed by the consolidation of clay and rock. (15.5)
other fine-grained material. (7.5) spit A small point or low ridge of sand or gravel projecting from the shore into a body
shale gas Natural gas trapped within a relatively nonpermeable shale body, extracted by of water. (14.14)
hydraulic fracturing. (18.3) splash erosion Erosion caused by raindrops as they strike the ground. (16.6)
shale oil Oil trapped within a relatively nonpermeable shale body, extracted by hydraulic spreading center Divergent boundary where two oceanic plates move apart (diverge).
fracturing. (18.3) (3.5)
shatter cone A distinctively conical fracture, usually interpreted to form during meteor- spring A place where groundwater flows out of the ground onto the surface. (17.5)
oid impacts. (18.12) spring tides Higher-than-average high tides and lower-than-average low tides caused
shear The type of differential stress that occurs when stresses on the edge of a mass are when the Sun’s gravity adds to the effects of the Moon’s gravity. (14.11)
applied in opposite directions. (8.2) stabilized dunes Dunes that are relatively inactive and permit some plant growth. (13.11)
shear zone A generally tabular zone of rock that is more highly sheared and deformed stalactite A conical or cylindrical cave formation that hangs from the ceiling of a cave
than rocks outside the zone. (8.2) and is composed mostly of calcium carbonate. (15.6)
sheet erosion The gradual erosion of a broad surface by flowing water. (16.6) stalagmite A conical, cylindrical, or moundlike cave formation that is developed upward
sheet silicates A group of silicate minerals, including micas, that have a distinctly sheet- from the floor of a cave and is composed mostly of calcium carbonate. (15.6)
like crystalline structure. (4.7) stationary front A boundary between warm and cold air masses that features little or no
shield volcano A type of volcano that has broad, gently curved slopes constructed mostly movement over a period of time. (13.4)
of relatively fluid basaltic lava flows. (6.4) stick-slip behavior The sequence of a rock straining before an earthquake, ruptur-
silica Silicon dioxide (SiO2), appearing either as a relatively pure form in a mineral (e.g., ing during an earthquake, and then mostly returning to its original shape after the
quartz) or as a component in more chemically complex minerals and rocks. (4.7) earthquake. (12.2)
silicates Minerals that contain silicon-oxygen tetrahedra; the most common mineral storm surge A local rise in the level of a sea or a lake during a hurricane or other
group on Earth. (4.6) storm. (14.15)
silicon The fourteenth element in the Periodic Table, having the atomic symbol Si. (4.7) strain Change in shape or volume of a body as a result of stress. (8.1)
silicone A synthetic material in which carbon is bonded to silicon atoms to keep the stratigraphic section A columnar diagram that shows the sequence of rock units, gener-
material in long chains. (4.7) ally in their approximate relative thicknesses. (2.4)
sill A tabular igneous intrusion that parallels layers or other planar structures of the surround- stratovolcano See composite volcano.
ing rock and which usually has a subhorizontal orientation. (5.13) streak The color of powder a mineral leaves when rubbed against a porcelain plate. (4.3)
G-13
streak plate A piece of unglazed porcelain used to obtain a streak during mineral
identification. (4.3) T
stream capture The natural diversion of water from one stream into another. (16.6)
stream table A scale model of a stream channel used to study stream development. (16.7) Taconic orogeny An early Paleozoic orogeny that occurred in the northern Appala-
stream terrace A relatively flat bench that is perched above a river or stream and was chians and is interpreted to represent a collision between an island arc and North
formed by past deposition or erosion of the river or stream. (16.11) America. (11.12)
stress The amount of force divided by the area on which the force is applied. (8.1) talus Loose rock fragments upon a steep slope, or an accumulation of such
stress field The entire array of stresses applied on a point or volume of rock. (8.1) fragments. (15.1)
striation 1. A series of straight, subparallel lines on the surface of a crystal (4.8). 2. Lin- talus slope A steep slope composed of loose rock fragments, that is, talus. (15.1)
ear features, resembling scratch marks, on a fault surface. (8.12) tar A thick, brown to black organic liquid formed when petroleum loses its volatile
strike The direction of a horizontal line on an inclined surface. (8.4) components. (18.1)
strike-slip fault A fault in which the relative movement is essentially horizontal, parallel tarn A small lake, especially one within a cirque, a glacially scoured depression. (14.4)
to the strike of the fault surface. (8.4) tar sand A sand or other sediment containing tar. (18.5)
strip mine A mine, usually a coal mine, in which a long strip of material is mined at any tectonic activity See tectonics.
one time, as the mining operation moves across the landscape. (18.4) tectonic plates The dozen or so fairly rigid blocks into which Earth’s lithosphere is
stromatolite A mound- or column-shaped feature of concentrically laminated carbon- broken. (3.4)
ate materials, generally in ancient sedimentary rocks, interpreted to have been con- tectonics Earthquakes, volcanoes, and other processes that deform Earth’s crust and
structed by microscopic algae; also modern living examples. (9.11) mantle; syn. tectonic activity. (3.4)
subbituminous coal A black coal, intermediate in maturity, between lignite and bitumi- tectonic terrane A fault-bounded body of rock that has a different geologic history than
nous coals. (18.4) adjacent regions. (11.9)
subduction The process along a convergent plate-tectonic boundary in which an oceanic temporary base level Any base level, other than sea level, that limits the downward
lithospheric plate descends beneath the overriding plate. (3.6) extent of erosion. (16.9)
subduction zone A zone in which subduction takes place, either referring to the actual tension The type of differential stress where stress is directed outward, pulling the
downgoing slab and its surroundings or to the region, including Earth’s surface, above material. (8.2)
the subducting slab. (3.6) tephra A pyroclastic material, regardless of size or origin, ejected during an explosive
sublimation The process by which material moves from a solid phase directly into a volcanic eruption; includes ash, pumice, and rock fragments. (6.2)
vapor, as occurs when a glacier loses ice molecules directly to the air. (14.2, 17.1) terminal moraine Glacially carried sediment that accumulates at the terminus (end) of
submarine canyon A submarine valley incised into the continental shelf or slope. (7.2) a glacier and a landform composed of such material; generally marks the glacier’s
submarine delta The part of a delta that is below sea level. (7.2) farthest downhill extent. (14.4)
submarine fan A broad, fan-shaped accumulation of sediment on the seafloor, espe- termination The well-defined, commonly sharp end of a crystal. (4.4)
cially below the mouth of a large river or submarine canyon. (10.0) terminus The lower end of a glacier. (14.2)
submarine slope failure Slope failure that occurs on the seafloor. (15.11) terrace A relatively level or gently inclined surface or bench bounded on one edge by a
submergent coast A coast that forms where land has been inundated by the sea because steeper descending slope. (9.2)
of a rise in sea level or subsidence of the land. (14.17) terracing The practice of shaping steep terrain to provide flat areas suitable for agricul-
submersible A small submarine, typically capable of carrying two to three people, that ture or ranching, or to protect soil from erosion. (15.9)
scientists use to study the ocean floor. (10.1) terrestrial planets Our solar system’s four inner planets, which have solid rocky surfaces
subtropical desert A desert located in the subtropics, generally due to atmospheric cir- and include Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars; syn. inner planets. (19.0)
culation of dry, descending air. (13.10) terrestrial plant A plant that grows on land. (18.1)
subtropics Geographical zones located directly north and south of the tropics, approxi- tetrahedron A four-sided pyramid, as in a silica tetrahedron. (4.4)
mately centered on 30°S and 30°N. (13.4) texture The general physical appearance or character of a rock, especially the size,
sulfates A group of minerals that contain sulfur (S) bonded to oxygen. (4.6) shape, and arrangement of minerals and other materials. (4.2)
sulfides A group of minerals containing sulfur (S) bonded with a metal. (4.6) theory An explanatory system of propositions and principles, supported to some extent
sunspots Dark areas on the Sun’s surface that appear cyclically and affect the Sun’s by experimental or factual evidence and held to be true until contradicted or amended
energy output. (13.14) by new facts. (2.8)
supercell thunderstorm An especially large and violent thunderstorm, commonly asso- theory of plate tectonics The theory currently accepted by nearly all geologists that
ciated with damaging hail, wind, and tornadoes. (13.5) Earth’s lithosphere is broken into a number of fairly rigid plates that move relative to
supervolcano An unusually large volcano that has the potential to produce very large one another. (3.4)
eruptions. (6.11) thermal expansion The expansion of material as it is heated, such as heating and cooling
surface currents Relatively fast-moving flows of shallow ocean water. (13.7) that cause different minerals, or different parts of a rock, to expand and contract by
surface water Water that occurs in streams, rivers, lakes, oceans, and other settings on different amounts. (7.3)
Earth’s surface. (17.0) thermohaline conveyor A mostly deep-water ocean current driven by density differ-
surface waves Seismic waves that travel on Earth’s surface. (12.5) ences that are caused by variations in temperature and salinity. (13.7)
surf zone The area where waves break and spread water upon the shore. (14.12) thrust fault A reverse fault that has a gentle dip. (8.4)
suspended load Fine particles, generally clay and silt, that are carried suspended in mov- thrust sheet The sheet of rock that has been displaced above a thrust fault. (8.4)
ing water. (16.2) thunder A loud sound resulting from the rapid heating and expansion of air along the
suspension A mode of sediment transport in which water or wind picks up and carries path of a lightning bolt. (13.5)
the sediment as floating particles. (13.11) thunderstorm A cloudy column of turbulent, moist air with variable amounts of light-
S-wave See secondary wave. ning, thunder, rain, hail, and strong wind. (13.5)
S-wave shadow zone The region on Earth’s surface (at any distance more than 103° tidal flat A low, gently sloping to horizontal area commonly covered by sediment that is
from an earthquake epicenter) in which direct S waves from the earthquake are absent flooded by ocean water during high tide. (7.2)
because they cannot pass through Earth’s molten outer core. (12.15) tide A cyclic change in the height of the sea surface, generally measured at locations
swelling clays Soil that contains a high portion of certain clay minerals and increases in along the coast; caused by the pull of the Moon’s gravity and to a lesser extent the
volume (expands) when it becomes wet. (15.9) Sun’s gravity. (14.11)
syncline A fold, generally concave upward, with the youngest rocks in the center. (8.5) till Unsorted, generally unlayered sediment, deposited directly by or underneath a
synthetic Refers to material produced by humans. (4.7) glacier. (14.3)
G-14
tillite A consolidated sedimentary rock formed by lithification of glacial till. (14.7) turbidity current A current in water or air that moves downward because it is more
tiltmeter A scientific instrument used to determine whether a site is being tilted by earth dense than the adjacent water or air, especially applied to a swift, bottom-flowing cur-
movements. (6.13) rent of water and suspended sediment on the seafloor or the bottom of a lake. (10.9)
time-travel plot A graph that plots the time difference between the arrivals of P waves turbulent flow Chaotic flow of water, air, or some other fluid. (16.2)
and S waves as a function of the distance from the epicenter or other seismic distur- typhoon A tropical cyclone that occurs in the western Pacific Ocean; syn. hurricane.
bance to a seismic station. (12.6) (13.5)
topographic map A map showing the topographic features of a land surface, commonly
by means of contour lines. (2.3)
topographic profile A cross-sectional view across a part of Earth’s surface, showing U
variations in elevation or depth. (2.4)
topographic relief The difference in elevation of one feature relative to another; syn. ultramafic A generally dark or greenish igneous rock composed chiefly of mafic miner-
relief. (2.4) als rich in magnesium and iron. (5.2)
topography The general configuration of a surface, especially the land surface or sea- ultraviolet radiation The ultraviolet part of the electromagnetic spectrum. (1.4)
floor, including its elevation, relief, and features; shape of the land. (2.3) unconfined aquifer An aquifer where the water-bearing unit is open (not restricted by
tornado A violent, rapidly rotating, funnel-shaped column of air that extends to the impermeable rocks) to Earth’s surface and atmosphere. (17.4)
ground. (13.5) unconformity A boundary between underlying and overlying rock strata representing a
tornado alley The area in the central part of the United States that experiences frequent significant break or gap in the geologic record; an unconformity represents an interval
tornadoes. (13.5) of nondeposition or erosion, commonly accompanied by uplift. (9.3)
tourmaline A group of generally dark to multicolored, prismatic silicate minerals, com- uniformitarianism The concept that the present is the key to the past; that is, geologic
monly used as semiprecious gemstones. (4.0) processes occurring today also occurred in the geologic past and can be used to
trace fossils Features in rocks made by animals that moved across the surface or bur- explain ancient events and the geologic features they produced. (9.0)
rowed into soft sediment. (9.5) unloading The process during which weight is removed from a landmass, such as by the
traction The process by which particles roll, slide, or otherwise move on the surface by melting of a glacier. (14.18)
such transport agents as streams, wind, or waves. (16.2) unloading joints Joints formed from stresses that arise during uplift of buried rocks and
trade winds Winds that blow in a generally consistent direction that can be used by that cause rocks to fracture due to reduced pressure. (8.3)
wind-powered ships to cross the ocean. (13.2) unsaturated zone A part of the subsurface where most of the pore spaces are filled with
trading location for time A strategy that uses different parts of a landscape to represent air rather than water. (17.3)
different stages in the evolution of the landscape. (2.2) updraft An upward-moving current of air, as in a thunderstorm. (13.5)
transform boundary A plate boundary in which two tectonic plates move horizontally Uranus The seventh planet out from the Sun. (19.7)
past one another. (3.4)
transform fault A strike-slip fault that accommodates the horizontal movement of one
tectonic plate past another. (3.7) V
transgression The advance of the sea across the land and the evidence of such an
advance. (7.12) valley glacier A glacier that flows down a valley and tends to be narrow; syn. alpine
transpiration The process by which plants, through their leaves, emit water vapor into glacier. (14.1)
the atmosphere. (17.1) varves Thin, alternating light-colored and dark layers of sediment that form in lakes
travertine A variety of limestone that is commonly concentrically banded and because of seasonal variations of deposition and biologic activity. (9.9)
porous. (7.11) vein A generally tabular accumulation of minerals that filled a fracture or other disconti-
trench A narrow, steep-sided, elongate depression of the deep seafloor, formed by bend- nuity in a rock; formed by precipitation of material from fluids, especially hydrother-
ing down of a subducting oceanic plate at a convergent plate boundary; includes the mal fluids. (8.2)
deepest parts of the ocean. (3.1) Venus The second planet from the Sun. (19.3)
trench rollback Process by which a dense oceanic plate subducts into the asthenosphere, vertical surface wave A type of surface wave in which material moves up and down,
sinks, and tends to bend or roll away from the island arc. (10.5) perpendicular to the propagation direction of the wave. (12.5)
Triassic The earliest geologic period in the Mesozoic Era. (9.8) vesicles Small holes found in a volcanic rock, representing gas bubbles in a magma that
tributary A secondary stream that joins or flows into a larger stream, river, or lake. (16.1) were trapped when the lava solidified. (5.1)
trilobite A marine creature of the Paleozoic Era, characterized by a three-lobed external vesicular Adjective used to describe a rock containing vesicles. (5.1)
skeleton. (9.11) vesicular basalt A basalt that contains vesicles. (6.3)
triple junction The place where three tectonic plates, and three plate-tectonic boundar- viscosity A measure of a material’s resistance to flow. (5.7)
ies, meet. (3.7) viscous magma Magma that does not flow easily. (5.7)
trough 1. The lowest part of a wave. (14.12). 2. On a weather map, an elongated area of volatile A chemical component that readily converts to a vapor phase under the proper
low atmospheric pressure. (13.1) conditions. (18.4)
troy ounce A unit of weight (about 1.1 normal ounces) by which a precious metal is volcanic ash Particles of volcanic tephra that are sand-sized or smaller, and accumula-
priced. (18.11) tions of such material. (5.1)
tsunami A large sea wave produced by uplift, subsidence, or some other disturbance of volcanic bomb A large rock fragment representing either a large blob of magma or a
the seafloor, especially by a shallow submarine earthquake. (12.7) solid angular block ejected during an explosive volcanic eruption. (6.3)
tsunami warning system An array of sensors in the ocean and computerized infrastruc- volcanic breccia A volcanic rock containing angular fragments in a matrix of finer
ture to provide a warning upon formation of a tsunami. (12.10) material. (5.1)
tuff Volcanic rock composed of consolidated volcanic ash and other tephra, commonly volcanic dome A dome-shaped volcanic feature, largely composed of solidified lava of
including pumice, crystals, and rock fragments. (5.3) felsic to intermediate composition. (6.9)
turbidite A sediment or rock deposited from, or interpreted to be deposited from, a tur- volcanic field A region that contains an abundance of volcanic rocks and perhaps pre-
bidity current; typically characterized by graded bedding. (10.9) served volcanoes. (6.3)
G-15
volcanic glass A natural glass produced by the cooling and solidification of molten lava wave-cut platform A gently sloping surface or bench produced by wave erosion. (14.14)
at a rate too rapid to permit crystallization. (5.1) wave height The vertical distance between the trough and the crest of a wave. (14.12)
volcanic neck A steep, typically butte-shaped topographic feature composed of volcanic wavelength The horizontal distance between two adjacent crests in a set of waves.
materials that formed in the conduit within or beneath a volcanic vent and that were (14.12)
more resistant to erosion than surrounding materials. (5.13) weather front The narrow zone that separates two air masses. (13.4)
volcano A vent in the surface of Earth through which magma and associated gases and weathering Physical disintegration and chemical decomposition of rocks, sediment,
ash erupt; also the form or structure, usually conical, that is produced by material and soil due to exposure to water and other chemical, atmospheric, and biological
erupted from the vent. (6.1) agents. (1.6)
weathering rind A weathered, outer crust on a rock fragment or bedrock mass exposed
W to weathering. (15.5)
weight A measure of how much downward force the mass of an object exerts under the
pull of gravity. (2.5)
warm front The sloping boundary between an advancing warm air mass and a cooler westerly A wind that generally blows from the west. (13.2)
air mass. (13.4) whirlwind A rotating column of wind and usually dust. (13.11)
waterfall A steep descent of water within a stream, such as the place where it crosses a whitecap A white, foamy wave that forms when wind causes a wave to become too steep
cliff or steep ledge. (16.6) and to collapse. (14.12)
water table The surface between the unsaturated zone and the saturated zone, as in the wind Movement of air relative to Earth’s surface. (13.1)
top of groundwater in an unconfined aquifer. (17.3) wind streaks Thin streaks of sand formed by strong prevailing winds. (13.11)
wave 1. An irregularity on the surface of a body of water (14.12). 2. See seismic wave.
wave amplitude The height between the trough and the crest of a wave, including ocean
waves and seismic waves. (12.5)
wave base The depth at which the action of a wave in an ocean or lake no longer has an Z
effect. (14.12)
wave-cut notch A notch or indentation produced in rocks or sediment by continued wave zone of accumulation The upper part of a glacier or ice sheet, where snow and ice are
action at a specific level along a coast. (14.13) added faster than they are removed by melting and other processes. (14.2)
G-16
CREDITS
by Michael Ort; 04.01.a4: Photo by Susanne Gil- Remote Sensing Unit, NASA Johnson Space Cen-
PHOTO CREDITS latt; 04.01.a6: ©Doug Sherman/Geofile RF; ter; 06.07.t3: Source: NASA/GSFC Scientific
Unless otherwise credited: ©Stephen J. Reynolds. 04.01.b5: ©John A. Rizzo/Getty Images RF; Visualization Studio and USGS; 06.08.a2: ©Poro-
04.03.a6: ©Doug Sherman/Geofile RF; 04.04.a1: jnicu Stelian/Shutterstock RF; 06.08.b2: Source:
FRONT MATTER ©McGraw-Hill Education/Bob Coyle, photogra- William H. Rau/Boston Public Library; 06.08.c3:
pher; 04.10.a5: ©Dr. Parvinder Sethi; 04.13.t1, Source: Harry Glicken/U.S. Geological Survey;
Image Number: UN00.01: ©Michael Collier;
04.14.a3: Photos by Susanne Gillatt; 04.15.a6: 06.08.c7: Source: Peter W. Lipman/U.S. Geologi-
UN00.28: ©Julia K. Johnson.
Photo by Thomas Sharp/Arizona State University. cal Survey; 06.09.a1: Source: T. Miller/Alaska
Volcano Observatory/U.S. Geological Survey;
CHAPTER 1 CHAPTER 5 06.09.a2: Source: Steve Schilling/U.S. Geological
Image Number: UN01.01: Source: NASA GSFC Survey; 06.09.c5: Source: William E. Scott/U.S.
Image Number: 05.13.a6: Photo by George H.
image by Robert Simmon and Reto Stöckli; 01.00.a2: Geological Survey; 06.09.t1: Source: Steven R.
Davis; 05.13.b6: Photo by Steven Semken; 05.14.
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a2: Photo by ©Allen Glazner; 05.14.a4: Photo by
Michael P. Doukas/U.S. Geological Survey; 01.02. Source: U.S. Geological Survey; 06.10.t1: Source:
Michael Ort; 05.14.a5: Photo by ©Allen Glazner;
d1: ©Karen Carr; 01.03.a5: ©Dr. Parvinder Sethi; Michael P. Doukas/U.S. Geological Survey; 06.10.
05.14.a6: Photo by Michael Ort; 05.14.t1: Photo
01.05.b2: Source: C.G. Newhall/U.S. Geological b5: Source: Steven R. Brantley/U.S. Geological
by ©Allen Glazner.
Survey; 01.05.b3: Source: J.D. Griggs/U.S. Geologi- Survey; 06.11.a1: Source: EROS Center, U.S.
cal Survey; 01.05.b4: Photo ©Ariel Anbar; 01.07.a2: Geological Survey; 06.12.a1, 06.13.b1: Source:
Photo by Susanne Gillatt; 01.09.a3: Source: Edwin
CHAPTER 6 Game McGimsey, Alaska Volcano Observatory/
L. Harp/U.S. Geological Survey. Image Number: 06.00.a1: Source: Donald A. U.S. Geological Survey; 06.13.b2: Source: U.S.
Swanson/U.S. Geological Survey; 06.00.a3: Geological Survey; 06.13.c1: Source: Maxim
Source: John Pallister/U.S. Geological Survey; Sorokin/Alaska Volcano Observatory/U.S. Geo-
CHAPTER 2 logical Survey; 06.13.c2: Source: Steve J. Smith/
06.00.a4: Source: Austin Post/U.S. Geological
Image Number: 02.03.a2: Source: Wendell Survey; 06.00.a5: Source: Lyn Topinka/U.S. Geo- Alaska Volcano Observatory/U.S. Geological Sur-
Duffield/U.S. Geological Survey; 02.05.a1: logical Survey; 06.01.a1: Source: J.D. Griggs/U.S. vey/Geophysical Institute University of Alaska,
Source: Cyrus Read/Alaska Volcano Observatory/ Geological Survey; 06.01.a2: Source: E. Klett/U.S. Fairbanks; 06.13.d1: Source: M. Sako/U.S. Geo-
U.S. Geological Survey; 02.05.a2: Source: Kate Fish and Wildlife Service; 06.02.a1: Source: J. logical Survey; 06.13.d2: Source: J.D. Griggs/U.S.
Bull/Alaska Volcano Observatory/Alaska Divi- Judd/U.S. Geological Survey; 06.02.a3: Source: Geological Survey; 06.13.d3: Source: Steven R.
sion of Geological & Geophysical Surveys; 02.05. J.D. Griggs/U.S. Geological Survey; 06.02.a2: Brantley/U.S. Geological Survey; 06.13.e1:
a3: Source: T.A. Plucinski/Alaska Volcano Source: Donald A. Swanson/U.S. Geological Sur- Source: U.S. Geological Survey; 06.13.t1: Source:
Observatory/U.S. Geological Survey; 02.05.b2: vey; 06.02.a4: Source: R. Clucas/Alaska Volcano Dan Dzurisin/U.S. Geological Survey; 06.14.a2:
Photo ©J. Ramón Arrowsmith; 02.05.b3: Source: Observatory/U.S. Geological Survey; 06.02.a5: Source: Lyn Topinka/U.S. Geological Survey.
Game McGimsey/Alaska Volcano Observatory/ Source: Alaska Volcano Observatory/U.S. Geo-
U.S. Geological Survey; 02.05.b4: Photo by logical Survey; 06.02.a6: Source: M.E. Yount/
Hilairy Hartnett; 02.05.c1: Photo by Chris Alaska Volcano Observatory/U.S. Geological Sur- CHAPTER 7
Marone; 02.05.c3: Photo ©Ariel Anbar; 02.07.d1: vey; 06.02.c1: Source: John Pallister/U.S. Geolog- Image Number: 07.01.a3: Photo by Jessica Bar-
Source: David E. Wieprecht/U.S. Geological Sur- ical Survey; 06.02.c2: Source: Hawaiian Volcano one; 07.01.a6: ©Peter Bowater/Alamy; 07.02.a4:
vey; 2.08.t1: Photo by Daniel Ball/Arizona State Observatory/U.S. Geological Survey; 06.03.a1: Photo by Cynthia Shaw; 07.02.a7: Source: Earth
University; 02.09.a1: Photo by Paul Fitzgerald; Source: J.D. Griggs/U.S. Geological Survey; Science and Remote Sensing Unit, NASA Johnson
02.09.a2: Source: Hawaiian Volcano Observatory/ 06.03.a5: Source: U.S. Geological Survey; 06.03. Space Center; 07.02.a8: Source: U.S. Geological
U.S. Geological Survey; 02.09.b1: Source: NASA/ a6–a7: Source: J.D. Griggs/U.S. Geological Sur- Survey; 07.04.a3-5: ©McGraw-Hill Education/
JPL-Caltech/Arizona State University; 02.09.b2: vey; 06.04.a2: Source: U.S. Geological Survey; Bob Coyle, photographer; 07.04.b3, 07.04.b5,
Courtesy of Jason Leigh/Electronic Visualization 06.04.a3: Source: R.W. Decker/U.S. Geological 07.06.a1: Photos by Susanne Gillatt; 07.06.a5:
Lab; 02.09.b3: ©Nicholas Schmerr/University of Survey; 06.04.a4: Source: T.J. Takahashi/Hawai- Photo by Cynthia Shaw; 07.07.b6: ©Sheila Terry/
Maryland, Edward Garnero/Arizona State Univer- ian Volcano Observatory/U.S. Geological Survey; Science Source; 07.09.d3: ©Jerome Nuefeld/The
sity; 02.10.a1: Source: David J. Roddy/U.S. Geo- 06.04.b1–b2: Source: J.D. Griggs/U.S. Geological Experimental Nonlinear Physics Group/The Uni-
logical Survey. Survey; 06.04.b3: ©Felix Nendzig/Shutterstock versity of Toronto; 07.10.b3: ©Julia Waterlow/
RF; 06.05.a2 Photo by Cynthia Shaw, 06.05.a3, Corbis Documentary/Getty Images; 07.11.d2:
CHAPTER 3 06.06.b1: Source: J.D. Griggs/U.S. Geological Photo by Edmund Stump; 07.14.b1: Source: Guy
Image Number: 03.07.b2: Source: Robert E. Survey; 06.06.b3: Courtesy of Henrik Thorburn; Gelfenbaum/U.S. Geological Survey; 07.15.b1–
Wallace/U.S. Geological Survey; 03.08.d3: 06.06.c1–c2: Source: J.D. Griggs/U.S. Geological b3, 07.15.c2–c4: Source: Colorado Geological
Source: Peter J. Haeussler/U.S. Geological Sur- Survey; 06.07.a1: Source: Jim Vallance/U.S. Geo- Survey; 07.15.c5–c7: Map data ©Ron Blakey,
vey; 03.09.b1: Courtesy of Gary Wilson-Paleo- logical Survey; 06.07.a3: Source: C.G. Newhall/ Deep Time Maps, Arizona USA.
magnetic Research Facility, University of Otago. U.S. Geological Survey; 06.07.a4: Source: Game
McGimsey/Alaska Volcano Observatory/U.S.
Geological Survey; 06.07.a5: Source: T.A. Plucin- CHAPTER 8
CHAPTER 4 ski/Alaska Volcano Observatory/U.S. Geological Image Number: 08.00.a3: Photo by Duncan Heron;
Image Number: 04.00.a4: ©PhotoTake/Alamy; Survey; 06.07.t1: ©Peerapat Tandavanitj/Getty 08.01.t1, 08.02.t1: Source: Spokane Research
04.01.a1: ©Dr. Parvinder Sethi; 04.01.a2: Photo Images; 06.07.t2: Source: Earth Science and Lab/NIOSH/CDC; 08.10.c2: Source: Ohio State
C-1
University, U.S. Geological Survey, National Cen- CHAPTER 11 Jacques Descloitres, MODIS Land Rapid
ter for Airborne Laser Mapping and J. Ramón Response Team, NASA/GSFC; 13.00.a4: Photo
Arrowsmith, Arizona State University; 08.14.a2: Image Number: 11.00.a3: Photos by Susanne Gil- by Susanne Gillatt; 13.00.a7: Jeff Schmaltz,
©Charles Ver Straeten/New York State Museum. latt; 11.03.a2: ©Scott U. Johnson; 11.11.a1–a6, MODIS Rapid Response Team, NASA/GSFC;
11.12.a1–a5, 11.13.a2, 11.13.a4, 11.13.a5, 11.13. 13.02.a2: Photo by Mark Francek; 13.02.a4: Photo
a7, 11.13.a9, 11.13.a13: Map data ©Ron Blakey, by Susanne Gillatt; 13.05.c2: ©2010 Willoughby
CHAPTER 9 Deep Time Maps, Arizona USA. Owen/Getty Images RF; 13.08.a3–a4: Jacques
Image Number: 09.05.a7: ©Iconotec/Alamy RF; Descloitres, MODIS Rapid Response Team,
09.06.b3–b4: Photos by Susanne Gillatt; 09.09.a2: CHAPTER 12 NASA/GSFC; 13.09.a1, 13.09.a3: Photos by
©Dr. Parvinder Sethi; 09.09.b1: ©Daniel Griffin, Susanne Gillatt; 13.09.c3: ©Kim Steele/Getty
University of Minnesota; 09.09.b2: Source: Image Number: 12.00.a2: Source: U.S. Geological
Images RF; 13.10.d2: Source: Jesse Allen and
National Ice Core Laboratory/U.S. Geological Survey; 12.00.a3: Source: U.S. Navy photo by
Robert Simmon, MODIS Science Team, NASA;
Survey/National Science Foundation; 09.09.b3: Photographer’s Mate 3rd Class Jacob J. Kirk;
13.11.b1: Source: Norman Kuring/NASA; 13.11.
Photo by Jack Ridge; 09.09.b4: Source: David R. 12.07.a2: Source: H.W. Wilshire/U.S. Geological
b3: Photo by Craig Idso; 13.11.c1: ©Martin Rueg-
Sherrod/U.S. Geological Survey; 09.09.t1: Photo Survey; 12.07.a3: Source: J.D. Nakata/U.S. Geo-
ner/MasterFile RF; 13.11.d2: ©iStockphoto/Getty
by Daniel Ball/Arizona State University; 09.10. logical Survey; 12.07.b1: Source: U.S. Geological
Images; 13.13.b3: ©Imagemore/Glow Images;
c1: Photo by Susanne Gillatt; 09.11.a2: ©Zoonar Survey; 12.07.b2: ©Karl V. Steinbrugge Collec-
13.13.b5: ©McGraw-Hill Education/Richard
GmbH/Alamy Stock Photo RF; 09.11.b2: ©Sin- tion, Earthquake Engineering Research Center, Gross, photographer; 13.13.b6: Source: Heidi
clair Stammers/Science Source; 09.11.c1: “Ordo- NISEE, University of California, Berkeley; 12.07. Roop, NSF; 13.14.a5: Source: NASA; 13.16.a1:
vician Marine Environment,” ©Karen Carr and b3: Source: Guy Gelfenbaum/U.S. Geological Photo by Susanne Gillatt; 13.16.a2: Source: U.S.
courtesy Indiana State Museum Foundation; Survey; 12.07.c2: Source: U.S. Geological Sur- Geological Survey; 13.16.a3: Source: Game
09.11.c2: “Devonian Marine Environment,” vey; 12.08.a2: Source: U.S. Army Photo, U.S. McGimsey/Alaska Volcano Observatory/U.S.
©Karen Carr and courtesy Indiana State Museum Geological Survey Photographic Collection; Geological Survey; 13.16.b1–b3: Map data ©Ron
Foundation; 09.11.c3: “Permian Riverside,” 12.08.a3: Source: W.C. Mendenhall/U.S. Geologi- Blakey, Deep Time Maps, Arizona USA; 13.17.
©Karen Carr and courtesy Indiana State Museum cal Survey; 12.08.a4–a5: Source: Mechmet a1: Source: NASA Earth Observatory image by
Foundation; 09.12.a1: “Triassic Landscape,” Celebi/U.S. Geological Survey; 12.08.a6: Source: Robert Simmon with data courtesy of the NASA/
©Karen Carr; 09.12.a2: “Jurassic Landscape,” J.R. Stacy/U.S. Geological Survey; 12.08.a8: NOAA GOES Project Science team; 13.17.a2–a3:
©Karen Carr; 09.12.a3: “Cretaceous Coastal Source: J.K. Hillers/U.S. Geological Survey; Source: NASA Goddard MODIS Rapid Response
Landscape,” ©Karen Carr; 09.12.a4: “Cretaceous 12.09.a2: Source: MC3 Alexander Tidd/U.S. Team; 13.17.a4: Source: ISRO/NASA/JPL-
Marine Environment,” ©Karen Carr; 09.12.b1: Navy; 12.09.a3: Source: NOAA Center for Tsu- Caltech; 13.17.a5–a7: Source: NASA-Goddard
“Alaskan Dinosaurs,” ©Karen Carr; 09.12.c1: nami Research; 12.09.b2: ©Logan Abassi/AFP/ Space Flight Center, data from NOAA GOES;
“Miocene River Landscape,” ©Karen Carr; 09.12. Getty Images; 12.09.b4: Source: NZ Defence 13.17.t1: Source: NOAA; 13.17.t2: Source:
c2: “North American Pleistocene Landscape,” Force; 12.10.a5: ©Lynette Cook/SPL/Science Andrea Booher/FEMA; 13.17.t3: Source: DoD/
©Karen Carr; 09.14.c1: Photo by Susanne Gillatt; Source; 12.10.b2: Source: NOAA/NGDC; 12.10. U.S. Air Force photo by Master Sgt. Mark C.
09.14.c2: ©Daniel Griffin, University of b3: Source: NOAA/NGDC, U.S. Navy; 12.10.b4: Olsen; 13.18.a2: Photo by Susanne Gillatt; 13.18.
Minnesota. Source: NOAA/NGDC, International Tsunami a7: ©BWAC Images/Alamy; 13.18.a8–a9: Photos
Information Center; 12.10.b5: ©Hugh Davies/ by Susanne Gillatt; 13.18.a10: Source: Image pro-
University of Papua New Guinea; 12.10.t1: duced by Hal Pierce, Lab for Atmospheres, NASA
CHAPTER 10 NOAA; 12.11.a2: Photo ©J. Ramón Arrowsmith; Goddard Space Flight Center.
Image Number: 10.01.a2: Source: OAR/National 12.12.c1: ©James L. Stanfield/National
Undersea Research Program (NURP); JAMSTEC; Geographic/Getty Images; 12.13.a2: Source: W.C.
10.01.a3, 10.01.c1: Source: William Crawford, Mendenhall/U.S. Geological Survey; 12.13.a3: CHAPTER 14
Integrated Ocean Drilling Program/Texas A&M Source: C.E. Meyer/U.S. Geological Survey; Image Number: 14.02.a1: Photo by Cynthia Shaw;
University; 10.01.c2: Source: L. Weiss/U.S. Geo- 12.13.a5: Photo ©J. Ramón Arrowsmith; 12.13. 14.03.a2: Courtesy of Skye L Rodgers, www.skye-
logical Survey; 10.01.t1: ©Tom McHugh/Science a6: Source: Robert E. Wallace/U.S. Geological writercom.com; 14.03.a6: “Blue Cavity,” ©2012,
Source; 10.02.c1: ©Dr. Ken MacDonald/Science Survey; 12.14.a9: Courtesy of JT Busby; 12.16. Dan Trimble; 14.03.b2–b3: Photo by Cynthia Shaw;
Source; 10.02.t1: Source: NOAA Okeanos a2: Courtesy of J.M. Logan and F.M. Chester, 14.03.b4: Courtesy of Bixler McClure; 14.03.c1:
Explorer Program, Galapagos Rift Expedition Center for Tectonophysics, Texas A&M Univer- Source: Bruce F. Molnia/U.S. Geological Survey;
2011; 10.04.c2: Source: NASA/GSFC/MITI/ERS- sity; 12.17.a2: Source: Austin Post/U.S. Geologi- 14.03.c3: U.S. Geological Survey; 14.04.a3, 14.04.
DAC/JAROS and U.S./Japan ASTER Science cal Survey; 12.17.a3: Source: U.S. Army; 12.18. b1: Photo by Cynthia Shaw; 14.04.c3: Source:
Team; 10.08.a2: Photo by Cynthia Shaw; 10.08. a4: Source: W.R. Hansen/U.S. Geological Survey; Bruce F. Molnia/U.S. Geological Survey; 14.04.c7:
a3: ©greenantphoto/Getty Images RF; 10.08.a4: 12.18.a1: Source: G. Plafker/U.S. Geological Sur- Source: NASA/Michael Studinger; 14.05.a3:
©Paul A. Souders/Corbis/VCG/Getty Images; vey; 12.18.b2: Source: U.S. Navy Photo; 12.18.c3: ©Doug Sherman/Geofile RF; 14.05.a5: ©Think-
10.08.a5: Source: Earth Science and Remote Source: Cyrus Read/AVO/USGS. stock/Getty Images RF; 14.05.a7: Source: Don
Sensing Unit, NASA Johnson Space Center; Poggensee, USDA/Natural Resources Conservation
10.09.b1: Photo by National Center for Earth-sur- Service; 14.05.a12: Source: Wisconsin Department
face Dynamics; 10.10.c3: Photograph by Martin CHAPTER 13 of Natural Resources; 14.06.a2: ©Pixtal/AGE
P.A. Jackson; 10.11.a1–a6: Map data ©Ron Image Number: 13.00.a2: Jeff Schmaltz, MODIS Fotostock RF; 14.06.b3: Courtesy of Vladimir E.
Blakey, Deep Time Maps, Arizona USA. Rapid Response Team, NASA/GSFC; 13.00.a3: Romanovsky; 14.06.b4: Photo by Susanne Gillatt;
C-2
14.06.c2: Photo by Cynthia Shaw; 14.07.a2: ©Doug Topinka/U.S. Geological Survey; 15.15.b2: 18.07.c1: Source: U.S. Department of Energy;
Sherman/Geofile RF; 14.07.a6: Photo by Gary M. Source: Matthew C. Larsen/U.S. Geological Sur- 18.07.c2: ©Tim Wright/Getty Images; 18.07.d1:
Fleeger, Pennsylvania Geological Survey; 14.07. vey; 15.15.b4: Source: Donald A. Swanson/U.S. ©Pete McBride/National Geographic Creative/
b3: Photo by Cynthia Shaw; 14.10.a2: ©John A. Geological Survey; 15.15.c6: Source: Jennifer Alamy Stock Photo; 18.07.d2: Source: U.S.
Karachewski RF; 14.10.a3: ©Bruce Heinemann/ Adleman/Alaska Volcano Observatory/U.S. Geo- Department of Energy, Office of Civilian Radio-
Getty Images RF; 14.10.a4–a5: Photo by Cynthia logical Survey. active Waste Management; 18.07.d3: ©Igor Kos-
Shaw; 14.10.b3: Source: EROS Center, U.S. Geo- tin/Getty Images; 18.07.t1: Source: U.S.
logical Survey; 14.11.t1–t2: ©Bill Brooks/Alamy Department of Energy; 18.08.b3: ©Marine Cur-
Images; 14.15.a2: ©Jeff Spielman/Getty Images CHAPTER 16 rent Turbines, a Siemens Business; 18.09.c1:
RF; 14.15.a3: ©Stefan Witas/Getty Images RF; Image Number: 16.00.a1: Source: EROS Center, Photo by Susanne Gillatt; 18.09.d3: Source:
14.15.a4–a5: Source: U.S. Geological Survey; U.S. Geological Survey; 16.00.a3: Photo by Cyn- NASA/JPL; 18.14.c1: ©John A. Karachewski RF;
14.15.b3: Source: Ken Winters/U.S. Army Corps of thia Shaw; 16.00.a4: Source: Joel Schmutz/U.S. 18.14.d2: Photo by Susanne Gillatt; 18.14.d3:
Engineers; 14.16.t1–t5: Source: U.S. Geological Geological Survey; 16.06.a1: Source: USDA Nat- ©Commission Air/Alamy Stock Photo.
Survey; 14.17.a3: Source: Image courtesy Storm- ural Resources Conservation Service; 16.06.b5,
Center Communications, produced from data cour- 16.06.b6: Photos by Susanne Gillatt; 16.06.d1:
tesy MODIS Rapid Response Team at NASA ©Doug Sherman/Geofile RF; 16.06.d2, 16.07.b1:
CHAPTER 19
GSFC; 14.17.a5: Source: U.S. Geological Survey; Photo by Michal Tal/National Center for Earth- Image Number: 19.00.a2: Source: NASA and the
14.17.b3: ©John A. Karachewski RF; 14.17.b5, Surface Dynamics; 16.07.b2: Photo by Cynthia Hubble Heritage Team (STSci/AURA), acknowl-
14.19.a1: Photos by Susanne Gillatt; 14.19.b1–b2: Shaw; 16.07.t1–t6: Photo by Michal Tal/National edgement: N. Scoville (Caltech) and T. Rector
Source: NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center, Sci- Center for Earth-Surface Dynamics; 16.08.a2: (NOAO); 19.00.a3: Source: NASA, ESA, and the
entific Visualization Studio. ©Alan Morgan RF; 16.08.a4–a5: ©Doug Sher- Hubble Heritage Team (STScl/AURA); 19.01.a1:
man/Geofile RF; 16.09.a2: Source: Jacques Des- Source: NASA, James Bell (Cornell University),
cloitres, MODIS Rapid Response Team, NASA/ Michael Wolff (Space Science Institute), and the
GSFC; 16.09.b1: Source: EROS Center, U.S. Geo- Hubble Heritage Team (STSci/AURA); 19.01.a2:
CHAPTER 15 logical Survey; 16.11.a1: Photo by Cynthia Shaw; Source: NASA and E. Karkoschka (University of
Image Number: 15.00.a3: Source: Matthew C. 16.12.b4: Source: Kathleen Macek-Rowland/U.S. Arizona); 19.01.b2: Source: NASA/JPL; 19.01.c1:
Larsen/U.S. Geological Survey; 15.00.a4: Source: Geological Survey; 16.12.b5: Source: Lyn Source: NASA/JPL-Caltech/Arizona State Uni-
Lawson Smith, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers; Topinka/U.S. Geological Survey; 16.12.b6: versity; 19.01.d1–d2: Source: NASA; 19.01.d3:
15.00.a5: Source: Matthew C. Larsen/U.S. Geo- Source: U.S. Bureau of Reclamation; 16.12.b7: Source: NASA/JPL-Caltech; 19.01.t1: Source:
logical Survey; 15.04.c2, 15.04.d1–d2, 15.05.c2– ©Dr. Parvinder Sethi; 16.13.a3–a4: Source: NASA NASA/JPL -Caltech/UCAL/MPS/DLR/IDA;
c4: Photos by Mark Francek; 15.06.b1: ©Galyna images created by Jesse Allen, Earth Observatory, 19.02.a1: Source: NASA/JPL/University of Ari-
Andrushko/Alamy RF; 15.00.a3: Source: Tom using data provided courtesy of the Landsat Proj- zona; 19.02.a2: Source: NASA/JPL; 19.02.a3:
Scott/Florida Geological Survey; 15.07.a5: Photo ect Science Office; 16.13.b3–b4: Source: W.R. Source: NASA/JPL-Caltech/Arizona State Uni-
by Susanne Gillatt; 15.08.a1: ©Kenneth Fink/Sci- Hansen/U.S. Geological Survey; 16.15.a10: versity; 19.02.a4: Source: NASA/JPL-Caltech/
ence Source; 15.08.c1: ©W.K. Fletcher/Science Source: NASA/GSFC/MITI/ERSDAC/JAROS and Arizona State University; 19.02.a5: Source:
Source; 15.09.a2: ©Getty Images RF; 15.09.b2: U.S./Japan ASTER Science Team; 16.15.a11: NASA; 19.02.a6: Source: NASA/JPL-Caltech/
Photo by Susanne Gillatt; 15.09.c7: Source: C.E. Source: Michael Rymer/U.S. Geological Survey. MSSS; 19.02.b1: Source: R. Evans, J. Trauger, H.
Meyer/U.S. Geological Survey; 15.09.c9: ©Victor Hammel and the HST Comet Science Team, and
de Schwanberg/Science Source; 15.09.t1: ©John NASA; 19.02.b2: Source: NASA/JPL/MSSS;
Carnemolla/Shutterstock; 15.10.b3, 15.10.t1: CHAPTER 17 19.02.d1: Source: NASA/JPL/Arizona State Uni-
Photo by Susanne Gillatt; 15.11.a2: Source: U.S. versity; 19.02.d2: Source: NASA/JPL/MSSS;
Image Number: 17.00.a3: ©Peg Owens/Depart-
Geological Survey Earthquake Hazards Program; 19.02.d3: Source: NASA/JPL/University of Ari-
ment of Tourism-Idaho; 17.02.a3: Photo by Cyn-
15.11.a4: Source: Edwin L. Harp/U.S. Geological zona; 19.02.t1: Source: NASA; 19.03.a1: Source:
thia Shaw; 17.02.b2: ©Glow Images RF; 17.06.
Survey; 15.11.a5: Source: Jonathan Warrick, U.S. NASA/JPL/USGS; 19.03.a2: Source: NASA/JPL/
a2: ©Terry Whittaker/Science Source; 17.06.a3:
Geological Survey; 15.11.b2: Source: D.M. Northwestern University; 19.03.b1: Source:
Source: U.S. Geological Survey Ohio Water Sci-
Peterson/U.S. Geological Survey; 15.11.b5: NASA/JPL; 19.03.b2: Source: NASA/JPL/USGS;
ence Center; 17.08.a2: ©Antoine Gyori/Corbis/
Source: Matthew C. Larsen/U.S. Geological Sur- 19.03.b3, 19.03.b4: Source: NASA/JPL; 19.03.c1:
Getty Images; 17.08.t1–t2: Source: U.S. Geologi-
vey; 15.13.a3: ©Ole Humlum, University of Oslo, Source: NASA, James Ben (Cornell University),
cal Survey; 17.09.b1: ©Colin Cuthbert/Newcastle
Department of Geography and the University Michael Wolff (Space Science Institute), and the
University/Science Source; 17.09.b2: Photo by
Centre in Svalbard; 15.13.a9: Source: Matthew C. Hubble Heritage Team (STSci/AURA); 19.03.c2:
Doug Bartlett/Clear Creek Associates.
Larsen/U.S. Geological Survey; 15.13.a11: Source: NASA; 19.03.d1: Source: NASA, James
©Llyod Cluff/Getty Images; 15.14.a1: Source: Ben (Cornell University), Michael Wolff (Space
Peter J. Haeussler/U.S. Geological Survey; 15.14. Science Institute), and the Hubble Heritage Team
a2: Source: J.T. McGill/U.S. Geological Survey; CHAPTER 18 (STSci/AURA); 19.04.a1: Source: NASA/JPL/
15.14.a3: Source: Gerald Wieczorek/U.S. Geo- Image Number: 18.01.a1: Photo by Cynthia Shaw; USGS; 19.04.a2: Source: NASA; 19.04.a3:
logical Survey; 15.14.a5: ©John A. Karachewski 18.05.a2: Photo by Julia K. Johnson; 18.05.b2: Source: NASA/JSC; 19.04.a4–a5: Source: NASA/
RF; 15.14.t1: Source: R.L. Schuster/U.S. Geologi- Courtesy of Gary P. Klinkhammer/Oregon State JSC; 19.04.a6, 19.04.b1: Source: NASA; 19.04.
cal Survey; 15.15.a1: Source: Matthew C. Larsen/ University; 18.05.d1: Source: U.S. Department of c1, 19.04.c3: Photos by Donald Burt; 19.04.t1:
U.S. Geological Survey; 15.15.a2: Source: Lyn Energy; 18.06.d2: ©Greg Smith/Getty Images; Source: NASA/JPL/Caltech; 19.05.a2: Source:
C-3
NASA/JPL; 19.05.a3: Source: NASA; 19.05.a4: CHAPTER 3 CHAPTER 10
Source: John Spencer (Lowell Observatory) and
NASA; 19.05.a5: Source: NASA/JPL/Ames Figure 03.02.a1–b1, 03.03.a1: Data from Michelle Figure 10.00.a2: After D. Wagner and others/Cali-
Research Center; 19.05.a6: Source: NASA/JPL/ K. Hall-Wallace; 03.08.c1: C. Kreemer and others, fornia Geological Survey CD 2002-04; 10.01.a1:
University of Arizona; 19.05.a7: Source: NASA/ 2002; 03.09.b2: Source: After J. Kious/U.S. Geo- After G. Hatcher, Monterey Bay Aquarium
JPL/DLR; 19.05.a8: Source: NASA/JPL/Univer- logical Survey, 1996; 03.09.c1: Source: U.S. Geo- Research Institute; 10.01.d1: Source: After M.
sity of Arizona/University of Colorado; 19.05.a9: logical Survey; 03.09.c2: Source: U.S. Geological Fisher and others, U.S. Geological Survey Profes-
Source: NASA/JPL/University of Arizona; 19.05. Survey. sional Paper 1687; 10.02.b1: After K. MacDon-
a10: Source: NASA/JPL; 19.05.a11: Source: ald, Academic Press, 2001; 10.03.a2: After Gabi
Laske, University of California, San Diego; 10.03.
NASA/JPL/Brown University; 19.05.a12: Source: CHAPTER 5 a3: After David Sandwell/Scripps Institution of
NASA/JPL/DLR; 19.06.a1–a2: Source: NASA/
Figure 05.08.t1: Data from GEOROC/Max-Planck Oceanography; 10.03.a4: After R. Dietmar Muller/
JPL; 19.06.a3: Source: NASA/JPL/University of
Society; 05.11.t1; Ocean Drilling Project, Site School of Geosciences University of Sidney;
Arizona; 19.06.a4: Source: NASA/JPL-Caltech/
1201, Texas A&M University; 05.12.t1: Source: 10.04.c1: Don Anderson/Seismological Labora-
ASI/Cornell; 19.06.a5: CICLOPS/Space Science
Modified from King and H. Beikman/U.S. Geo- tory, California Institute of Technology; 10.05.d1:
Institute; 19.06.a6: Source: NASA/JPL/USGS;
logical Survey; 05.14.a1: Source: Modified from Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program; 10.06.
19.06.a7–a8: Source: NASA/JPL/Space Science
Institute; 19.07.a3: ©Calvin J. Hamilton; 19.07.
U.S. Geological Survey Digital Data Series 11. a5, 10.06.a6: After P. Gans, Tectonics, 1997;
a4, 19.07.b2: Source: NASA/JPL/USGS; 19.07. 10.07.a2: After N. White, Oxford University
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Figure 06.04.a1: Inset from Schmincke, 2004, Arctic & Alpine Research, University of Colorado
t1: Source: ESA/Rosetta/MPS for OSIRIS Team
Springer-Verlag; 06.05.a1: After D. Swanson, at Boulder; 10.09.a1: D.L. Divins/National Geo-
MPS/UPD/LAM/IAA/SSO/INTA/UPM/DASP/
American Journal of Science, 1975; 06.05.c4: physical Data Center; 10.09.b3: Gerry Hatcher/
IDA; 19.08.a2: Source: NASA/JPL/Arizona State
After Chris Jenkins, Institute of Arctic & Alpine Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute;
University; 19.08.a3: Source: NASA/JPL/USGS;
Research, University of Colorado at Boulder; 10.09.b4: D.L. Divins/National Geophysical Data
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06.08.a1: After L. Gurioli, Geology, 2005; 06.08. Center; 10.10.c2: After T. Affolter and J-P Grat-
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Department of Geological Sciences Bulletin; d1: After F. Diegel, American Association of
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06.08.c2: Source: U.S. Geological Survey; 06.10. Petroleum Geologists, Memoir 65; 10.11.t1:
19.08.b1: Source: NASA; 19.08.b2: Source:
a2: After F. Goff, Geo-Heat Center Bulletin, 2002; Source: After NASA; 10.12.a2: After J. Pindell
NASA/JPL/Cornell; 19.08.b3: Source: NASA/JPL/
06.11.c1: Source: U.S. Geological Survey Fact and L. Kennan, GCSSCPM Conference, 2001;
UA/Lockheed Martin; 19.08.b4: Source: NASA/
Sheet 100-03; 06.11.c2: Source: U.S. Geological 10.12.a3: After J. Pindell and L. Kennan, GCSS-
JPL-Caltech/MSSS; 19.08.b5: Source: NASA/JPL/
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Caltech/MSSS; 19.08.t1: Source: NASA/JPL/Ari-
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06.14.c1: Source: U.S. Geological Survey Open-
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TEXT AND LINE ART 11.09.t1: Source: W. Nokleberg and others, U.S.
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CHAPTER 1 CHAPTER 7 11.10.a1: Source: U.S. Geological Survey Tapes-
Figure 07.15.a1, 07.15.c1: Colorado Geological try of Time; 11.10.b1: Geologic Survey of Canada/
Figure 01.02.c1, 01.02.c2: Martin Jakobsson/ Digital Data Cornell University; 11.10.t1: After E.
Stockholm Geo Visualisation Laboratory; 01.09. Survey.
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Figure 08.00.a2: After P. King, Princeton Univer-
sity Press, 1977; 08.14.a1: Source: P. King and H.
CHAPTER 2 Beikman/U.S. Geological Survey, 1974; 08.14.b1: CHAPTER 12
Figure 02.06.c1: Kentucky Geological Survey; R. Stanley and N. Ratcliffe, Geological Society of Figure 12.01.d1: Source: After J. Zucca/Lawrence
02.07.d2: Source: U.S. Geological Survey Fact America Bulletin, 1985; 08.14.c1: Geology Livermore National Laboratory; 12.01.d2: Jet Pro-
Sheet 100-03; 02.11.b2: T. Kenkmann and D. Department, Union College; 08.14.c2: After F. pulsion Laboratory/NASA; 12.03.a1: Source:
Scherler, Lunar Planetary Science, 2002. Spear, Journal of Petrology, 2002. Paula Dunbar/National Oceanographic and
C-4
Atmospheric Administration; 12.06.a1: Source: 13.05.b1: Source: National Severe Storms Labora- Geological Survey; 16.10.a3–a4: Martin Jako-
U.S. Geological Survey; 12.06.a2, 12.06.a4, tory, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Adminis- bsson/Stockholm Geo Visualisation Laboratory;
12.06.b1: Source: Data from National Earthquake tration; 13.09.b1: National Center for Atmospheric 16.13.a1: Source: K. Wahl, U.S. Geological Sur-
Information Center/U.S. Geological Survey; Research; 13.10.b1, 13.10.c1: Source: U.S. Geo- vey Circular 1120B; 16.13.a2: Source: After C.
12.06.b2: Source: After N. Short, 2006/National logical Survey; 13.10.d1: Source: After P. Reich, Parett, U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1120-A;
Aeronautics and Space Administration; 12.06.c1: World Soil Resources/United States Department 16.13.a5: Source: U.S. Geological Survey; 16.13.
Source: Modified from U.S. Geological Survey; of Agriculture; 13.13.a1–a3: National Academy of b2: Data from R. Maddox and others, Monthly
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Geological Survey Public Information Series 76; Physics, 1999; 13.14.a4: Carbon Dioxide Infor- Geological Survey; 16.14.b2: Source: Data from
12.08.a1: Source: Paula Dunbar/National Oceano- mation Analysis Center Oak Ridge National Labo- National Water Information System, U.S. Geolog-
graphic and Atmospheric Administration; 12.08. ratory; 13.14.t1: Source: NOAA Earth System ical Survey.
a7: Source: Kathleen M. Haller/U.S. Geological Research Laboratory/Marsupilami Rosentod;
Survey; 12.10.b1: J. Calzia, 2005, EOS Transac- 13.16.c3: After C. Duncan, Geology 31, 75–78, CHAPTER 17
tions AGU (86)52; 12.11.c1–c2: Y. Klinger and 2003.
Figure 17.01.a2: Source: After U.S. Geological
others, Bulletin of the Seismological Society of
Survey; 17.10.a1: Source: High Plains Regional
America, 2003; 12.11.t1: Source: After CHAPTER 14 Ground Water Study/U.S. Geological Survey;
Earthscope/U.S. Geological Survey; 12.12.a1: D.
Figure 14.06.b2: After PACE21 Network, Euro- 17.10.a2, 17.10.b2: Texas Water Development
Giardani, Global Seismic Hazard Assessment Pro-
pean Science Foundation; 14.06.t1: Source: After Board; 17.10.b1, 17.10.c1: Source: U.S. Geologi-
gram; 12.12.a2: Source: U.S. Geological Survey;
L. Topinka, Cascade Volcano Observatory/U.S. cal Survey.
12.12.a3: Source: After R. Wesson and others,
Geological Survey; 14.07.b2: University of Brit-
1999, U.S. Geological Survey Map I-2679; 12.12.
a4: Source: After F. Klein and others, 2000, U.S.
ish Columbia; 14.08.c3: Personal correspondence CHAPTER 18
with Emi Ito, University of Minnesota, 2009;
Geological Survey Map I-2724; 12.12.b1: Source: Figure 18.00.a2: Source: R. Pollastro, U.S. Geo-
14.18.t1: After S. Dutch/University of Wisconsin,
G. Plafker, ed., U.S. Geological Survey Circular logical Survey Bulletin 2202-H; 18.00.a3: various
Green Bay; 14.19.d1: Source: U.S. Geological
1045, 1989; 12.12.b2, 12.12.c2–c3: Source: U.S. sources; 18.02.c5: Source: W. Perry, U.S. Geo-
Survey Fact Sheet 076-00.
Geological Survey; 12.13.a1: Source: Kathleen logical Survey Bulletin 2146-D, 1997; 18.05.a1:
M. Haller/U.S. Geological Survey; 12.15.c1: Source: Energy Information Administration,
Incorporated Research Institutions for Seismol-
CHAPTER 15 DOE; 18.05.b1: Source: U.S. Geological Survey
ogy; 12.15.c2: Joint Earth Science Education Ini- Figure 15.07.b1: http://web.env.auckland.ac.nz/ Fact Sheet 021-01, 2001; 18.05.c2: Source:
tiative Royal Society of Chemistry; 12.16.c1–c3: our_research/karst/; 15.07.b2: Source: USGS; Energy Information Administration, DOE; 18.05.
Edward Garnero/Arizona State University; 12.17. 15.12.t1: After G. Kiersch, Civil Engineering, d2: Source: Energy Information Administration,
c1, 12.18.a1: Source: After G. Plafker, U.S. Geo- 1964; 15.14.b1: Source: U.S. Geological Survey DOE; 18.06.d1: Source: T. Moore, U.S. Geologi-
logical Society Professional Paper 543, 1969. Open-File Report 97-0289; 15.16.a3, 15.16.b1, cal Survey Open-File Report 98-34, 1999; 18.15.
15.16.c1–c2: Source: D. Varnes and W. Savage, a1: Source: P. King and H. Beikman/U.S. Geologi-
U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 2130, 1996. cal Survey; 18.15.a2, 18.15.b1–b3: Wyoming
CHAPTER 13 Geological Survey.
Figure 13.05.a1: Source: Earth Observatory/ CHAPTER 16
National Aeronautics and Space Administration; Figure 16.04.a2: C. Bailey/William and Mary CHAPTER 19
13.05.a3: Source: Goddard Space Flight Center/ College, 1998; 16.10.a1: Source: U.S. Geological Figure 19.07.a2: Source: Erich Karkoschka/Uni-
National Aeronautics and Space Administration; Survey Tapestry of Time; 16.10.a2: Source: U.S. versity of Arizona/NASA.
C-5
INDEX
A A horizon, 462 formation of, 71 Armero disaster (Colombia, 1985), 163
air pollution, 549 glaciers, 407 arroyos, 390
aa lava, 144 air pressure, 368–369 plate boundaries near, 70, 302 arsenic, 533, 534
abbreviations, time periods, 36 Airy, George, 301 volcanoes, 60 artesian wells, 525
abrasion, 177, 410, 486. See also Alaska Current, 379 angiosperms, 260 asbestos, 87
erosion; weathering Alaskan geology angle of repose, 466–467, 468 ash (coal), 549
absorption of sunlight, 394 earthquakes, 335, 344, 352, angular clasts, 178 ash (volcanic). See volcanic ash
abutments (dam), 556 362–363, 474 angular unconformities, 242 ash-flow tuff, 153
abyssal plains, 50, 54, 276, 288 land-bridge hypothesis, 41 animals. See also fossils Asia, formation of, 292–293, 319
Acadian orogeny, 322, 323 oil fields, 545 deep-sea, 275 Asian plate, 282
Acasta Gneiss, 255, 318 permafrost, 416 Earth history, 258–261 Assembling California (McPhee), 319
accretionary prisms terranes, 317, 318 fossilized, 246, 247 assimilation into magma, 119, 130
adjacent to Sierra Nevada Yukon Delta, 482–483 livestock raising, 385, 464, 520 asteroids, 19, 574, 577
batholith, 135 albedo of Earth, 423 weathering by, 176, 449, 455 asthenosphere
earthquakes in, 336 Aleutian Islands (Alaska), 60, 281, animal wastes, 532 basic features, 9
formation of, 60, 276, 308 283, 335, 363 Animas River (Colorado), 498, 499 beneath mid-ocean ridges, 58
thrust faults in, 223, 336 algae, 258, 542 anions, 100 beneath plate boundaries, 60
accretion of terranes, 316–318 alkali earth metals, 86, 95 anomalies, temperature, 392 convection in, 64
accumulation zone in soils, 462 Alleghenian orogeny, 322, 323 Antarctica melting in, 129
acid rain, 149, 549 Allende meteorite, 255 in continental drift hypothesis, 52, asymmetric folds, 215
acids Allosaurus, 260 53, 292–293, 321 Atacama Desert, 387
mineral testing with, 81, 92 alloys, 87 depicting in topographic maps, 50 Athabasca Basin (Alberta), 551
from mine wastes, 567 alluvial fans desert climates, 386 Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation, 395
from volcanoes, 150, 151 breccia formation, 186 ice core data from, 393, 395 Atlantic Ocean. See also Mid-Atlantic
weathering by, 176, 177, 450, 451, in deserts, 390 ice sheets, 407, 442–443 Ridge
455, 458 formation of, 495 Antarctic Circumpolar Current, currents, 379, 380
acre-feet, 521 human settlement on, 446–447 378, 379 earthquakes, 335
active dunes, 389 alluvial plains, 187 Antarctic plate, 70 formation of, 59, 292–293
active layer, 416 alpha decay, 114 antecedent streams, 505 land-bridge hypothesis, 41
active solar, 559 Alpine glaciers, 407 anthracite, 548, 550 mid-ocean ridge, 48, 53, 62
adaptability of species, 249 Alps (Europe), 223, 293, 302 anticlines storm data, 397
Adirondack Mountains (U.S.), 232 Alps (New Zealand), 347, 399, 496 basic features, 214 atmosphere of Earth. See also climate;
Aegean Sea, 281, 284 alteration, 566 as petroleum reservoirs, 544, 546 weather
aerosols, 151, 394 alternative energy sources, 558–559 related to faulting, 226, 227, 305 basic features, 17
Afar region (East Africa), 312 aluminum, 90, 91, 465 apatite, 81, 102 circulation patterns, 375
African continent formation, 52, 68, aluminum oxides, 463 Apatosaurus, 260, 261 climate change processes, 394–395
292–293, 319 Amazon rain forest, 384 aphanitic rocks, 108 forces of, 11
aftershocks, 329, 342, 346 Amazon River (South America), 483 Apollo 17, 577 formation of, 257
ages. See also isotopic dating amber, 246 Appalachian Basin, 547, 550 water in, 16, 17, 372–375, 518
of basins, 311 ammonia on Jupiter, 584 Appalachian Mountains (U.S.) atmospheres
determining for streams, 502 amphibians, 259 basin underlying, 307, 309 Jupiter, 19, 584
of Earth, 254–255 amphiboles early climatic effects, 398 Mars, 581
of faults, 231 asbestos, 87 erosion, 303 planets compared, 18, 19, 578
geologic timescale, 36, 37, 248– basic features, 91 formation of, 318, 320–323 Saturn, 19, 586
249, 252–253 cleavage, 85, 89 landscape variety, 204–205 Titan, 587
laboratory measurement, 35, 37 crystallization temperatures, 123 landslide hazards, 475 Uranus and Neptune, 19, 588, 589
of landscapes, 240–241, 263 in gabbro, 94 aquaculture, 520 Venus, 18, 574, 580
of planetary surfaces, 579 in metamorphic rocks, 219 aquamarine, 103 atmospheric pressure, 10, 368–369
relation to distance from hot spots, in volcanic rock, 153 aquifers, 525, 534, 536–537. See also atolls, 286–287
69, 161 amplitude of waves, 339, 341 groundwater atomic mass, 96
relative, 29, 238–239 Anak Krakatau (Indonesia), 160 aquitards, 525 atomic numbers, 86, 96, 97
of rocks and events, 244–245, Ancestral Rockies, 201, 324 Arabian Peninsula, 49, 59, 540–541 atomic symbols, 86
250–251 Anchorage earthquake (Alaska, 1964), Arabian plate, 285 atomic weights, 244
of seafloor, 68, 277 344, 362–363 aragonite, 92 atoms
of sedimentary layers, 200, 201, andalusite, 231 Archaeopteryx, 260 arrangement in crystals, 82–85
231, 250–251, 262 Andaman Islands, 329 archeologists, 265 bonds between, 98–99
of volcanoes, 162, 245 andesite Arctic National Wildlife Refuge as mineral building blocks, 96–97
aggregate, 568 formation of, 153 (Alaska), 553 modeling, 96, 97
agriculture metamorphosed, 219 Arctic Ocean, 379, 396 radioactive decay, 114, 244–245
in floodplains, 23, 513 minerals in, 111 arêtes, 413 Augustine volcano (Alaska), 34, 142
fresh water use, 520, 536 relation to volcano danger, 162 argon-argon dating, 245 Australia
impact on rain forests, 385 in volcanic domes, 157 arid regions, 386, 463. See also desert in continental drift hypothesis, 52,
near Snake River, 516, 517 Andes Mountains (South America) climates 292–293
soil damage, 464, 532 desert formation, 387 Ariel, 588 contrasts with adjacent seafloor, 6
water pollution, 532 fold and thrust belts, 227 arkose, 180 lack of earthquakes, 352
I-1
Australia—Cont. formation of, 214, 304, 306–311 organic deposits from, 542 Bushveld complex (South Africa), 563
rain forests, 384 ice-age lakes in, 417 sediments from, 176, 182 buttes, 28
sea stacks, 432 investigation activity, 326–327 weathering by, 449, 455, 457 b.y. (billions of years), 36
terranes, 319 Mexico City location, 344 biological water, 518 by-product gold, 562, 563
avalanches, 473. See also petroleum, 545, 547 biomass, 559
landslides; slopes in Wyoming, 570–571 biomes, 386 C
Avalonia microcontinent, 320, batholiths, 131, 134–135 biosphere, 17
322, 323 bauxite, 465, 561 biotic weathering, 455, 457 cadmium in drinking water, 534
Avalon terrane (North America), baymouth bars, 433 biotite, 91, 123 calcite
318, 322 Bay of Fundy (Canada), 427, 557 bituminous coal, 548, 550 basic features, 92
axes of folds, 215 bays, 430 Black Canyon (Colorado), 487 as carbonate, 87
axial surfaces of folds, 215, 227 beaches. See also shorelines Blackhawk Landslide (California), 477 as cement, 181
axial tilt. See tilt of Earth assessing risks to, 436 Black Hills (South Dakota/Wyoming), chemical bonds, 99
azurite, 92, 104 conglomerate formation in, 187 20–21, 563 cleavage, 85
limestone formation from, 193 Black Rapid Glacier (Alaska), 474 deposition, 182
B sandstone formation from, 189 Black Sea, 285 dissolution, 450, 458
as sedimentary environments, 174, black smokers, 275, 564 human uses, 102
back-arc basins, 280, 282, 311 194–195 Blakey, Ronald, 292, 320, 322 in limestone, 77, 192, 450
backwash, 429, 431 sediment types, 12 block diagrams, 33, 44, 529 metamorphosed, 218
bacteria, 258, 275, 542 beach nourishment, 435 blue asbestos, 87 testing for, 81
badlands, 191, 202 bedding. See also layers; sedimentary blueberries, 591 calcium
Badlands National Park (South rocks blue-green algae, 257 chemical bonding, 99
Dakota), 20 as clue to rock formation blueschist, 222 effect on plagioclase feldspar, 123
Badwater salt flat (U.S.), 390 environments, 196 bluffs, 499 human uses, 102
Bahamas, 286, 287 in deltas, 500 body waves, 338 in Periodic Table, 86, 95
Baja Peninsula, 74, 75, 283 determining sequences, 29 bonding, atomic, 82–85, 88–89, precipitation, 182
Baker, Mount (Washington), 171 effects on slope stability, 467 98–99. See also chemical rock-forming minerals based on,
Bakken Shale, 547 folds in, 214–215 bonds 87, 90–92
Baltic Sea, 284 formation in sedimentary rocks, bones, fossilized, 246, 247. See also calcium carbonate
Baltimore Canyon, 288 184–185 fossils in arid soils, 463
Banda Aceh (Indonesia), 329 in metamorphic rocks, 216–218 Bonneville, Lake (Utah), 417 in calcite, 92
banded iron formations, 92, 564 observing in landscapes, 26, 27 Bonneville Salt Flats (Utah), 417 in caliche, 391, 463
Bandelier National Monument, relative dating principles, Borah Peak earthquake (Idaho, 1983), in chalk, 183
106, 107 238–239 228, 333 in coral reefs, 286
Bangladesh, 509, 533 rock slides involving, 470, 471 bottled water, 521 dissolution, 450, 457
barchan dunes, 389 Siccar Point features, 236–237 boulders, classifying, 178 in fossil shells, 419
barometers, 368 submarine, 289 boundaries of layers, 184 human uses, 102
barrier islands, 175, 433, 438 subsurface depictions, 33 Bowen’s Reaction Series, 123, 452 in limestone, 182, 183
barrier reefs, 286, 287, 436 varied sequences, 194–197, 199 brachiopods, 258 precipitation as travertine,
bars (pressure), 368 bed loads, 486, 489 brackish lakes, 518 182, 459
basalt bedrock Brahmaputra River (India), 367 in sand, 431
chemical analyses of, 129 clasts from, 178, 179, 239 braided streams calcium sulfate, 568
metamorphosed, 219 glacial erosion, 410, 411, 413, 418 clasts in, 187, 497 calderas
at mid-ocean ridges, 124 of Michigan Basin, 307 defined, 172, 492 disasters associated with, 160–161
minerals in, 111 smoothing by waterborne formation of, 495–497 domes within, 156
on Moon, 582, 583 debris, 177 Brazil Current, 379 eruptions from, 140, 160–161
in oceanic crust, 8, 94 speed of glacial movement, 409 breakers, 429 formation of, 106–107, 128,
basalt flows. See also flood basalts stream erosion, 486, 487, 494 breakfast food example, 121 158–159
basic features, 143–145, weathering, 460, 462 breakwaters, 435 in Kilauea, 146
148–149 bedrock streams, 487 breccia Yellowstone National Park, 312
in Grand Canyon, 266 Bellingham, Washington, 170 with faults, 228 caliche, 391, 463
hazards, 150–151 Benguela Current, 379 on Moon, 582 California, Gulf of, 283
mass extinctions from, 259, 261 Bering Current, 379 sedimentary, 180, 186 California Current, 379, 380
from Yellowstone Caldera, 161 Bering Sea, 283 volcanic, 109, 112, 113, 153, 157 California Gold Rush, 563
base levels of streams, 490, 500–501 beryl, 103 breccia pipes, 554 Callisto, 584, 585
base maps, 230 beta decay, 114 Bretz, J. Harland, 417 calories in coal, 548
basement rocks, 200, 267, 314, 315 B horizon, 462 bristlecone pine rings, 254 calving glaciers, 409
base metal deposits, 564–565 Bhutan, 399 brittle deformation, 206 Cambrian Period, 252, 258
Basin and Range Province (U.S.), 303, big bang, 574 brittle fracture, 209 Canada
312, 325 Big Island (Hawaii), 146, 348 Bryce Canyon National Park continental glaciers, 405, 420
basins Big Lost River (Idaho), 516, 517 (Utah), 456 convergent plate boundary, 302
around Australia, 6 Big Thompson River flood (Colorado, Bullard, Edward, 68 Earth’s oldest rock in, 255, 318
in continental platforms, 314 1976), 509 burial, in rock formation, 15, 220 gold deposits, 563
at continental rifts, 59 biochemical rocks, 182 burrowing organisms, 176, 449, 455 isostatic rebound in, 441
drainage, 484 biological activities burrows, fossilized, 247 nickel-sulfide deposits, 565
I-2
permafrost, 416 groundwater in, 522 C horizon, 462 global changes, 7, 392–397,
tar sands, 543, 551 in igneous rock, 458 Christchurch earthquake (New 422–423
world’s highest tides, 427 in limestone, 193, 450, 458–459 Zealand, 2011), 347 impact of flood-basalt
Canadian Shield, 5, 255, 318 limestone formation in, 192 chromium contamination, 534, 535 eruptions, 149
canals, 521 proxy climate data from, 393 chrysotile, 87 of Indian subcontinent, 366–367
Canary Current, 379 shoreline, 432 cinder cones. See scoria cones investigation activity, 402–403
Candor Chasma (Mars), 590 Cayman Trough, 294 cirques, 413 ocean currents and, 380–381, 383,
canopy, rain forest, 384 cells in Earth’s atmosphere, 375 A Civil Action, 535 395, 423
Canterbury earthquake (New Zealand, cementation of sediments, 181, 188 clastic rocks. See also sedimentary rocks precipitation, 372–375
2010), 347 cements, 102, 105, 198, 568 basic features, 78–79 shoreline effects, 425
Canyon Lake (South Dakota), 21 Cenozoic Era clues to rock formation short-term variations, 382–383
Canyonlands National Park (Utah), continental rock from, 318–319 environments, 196, 197 tectonic activity and, 398–399
46–47 continent formation, 293, 295, 325 formation processes, 180–181, weather versus, 366, 393
canyons fauna characterizing, 248, 261 186–193 winds, 368–371, 388–389
buried, 24, 25 Front Range layers from, 201 types, 180–181 climate change. See global climate
hydroelectric dams in, 556 on geologic timescale, 36, 37, 252 clastic sediments, 176–181 change
incision by streams, 505 proposed changes, 37 clasts. See also sediments clouds
interpreting features, 6 Wyoming deposits from, 570, 571 in braided streams, 187, 497 formation, 11, 372, 373
on Mars, 590 central African rain forest, 384 as clues to rock formation on Venus, 18
submarine, 174, 270–271, Central America, 294, 335 environments, 29, 196, 197 coal
288, 289 central creeping segment (San Andreas defined, 78 in Antarctica, 52
capacities, sediment, 489 fault), 354 erosion and deposition in streams, exploration methods, 552–553
Cape Cod (Massachusetts), 405, 433 Ceres, 574 486–487 formation of, 182, 183, 548
Cape Wind Project, 559 Cerros del Rio volcanic field, 106, 107 size classification, 178, 187 mining and transport, 549
Caraballeda (Venezuela) disaster, chalcopyrite, 93 sorting of, 179, 187 as sedimentary deposits, 198, 203
446–447, 473 chalk, 183 sources, 176–177 in Wyoming, 571
carbon-14 dating, 245, 265 Channeled Scablands varieties in rocks, 79, 178–179 coal-bed methane, 548, 550, 571
carbonate compensation depth, 274 (Washington), 417 in younger rock, 239 coal seams, 549
carbonate platforms, 286 channelized streams, 493 clay minerals, 91, 102, 103 coarsely crystalline rocks, 108,
carbonate rocks, 192–193. See also channels on Mars, 590 clays 109, 111
limestone Charleston earthquake (South in carbonate rocks, 192 coarse sand, 178
carbonates, 87, 92 Carolina, 1886), 345 as cement, 181 coastal deserts, 387
carbon dioxide Charon, 589 classifying, 178 coastal dunes, 175
in early Earth atmosphere, 257, 258 chemical analyses of rock, 35 compaction, 181 Coastal Plain region (North America),
flood basalt release, 149 chemical bonds in deltas, 500 318
as greenhouse gas, 394, 395, 423 effects of heat on, 116–117 formation by weathering, 451, 453 Coast Range (British Columbia), 399
rain forest uptake, 385 formation of, 100–101 groundwater in, 523 coasts. See continental margins;
role in chemical weathering, 450 in silicates, 88–89 human uses, 569 shorelines
in Venus’s atmosphere, 580 types, 98–99 sedimentary rock formation, cobbles, 177, 178, 497
from volcanoes, 150 chemical contaminants, 464, 532, 190–191 Cocos plate, 294
carbonic acid, 450, 455 533, 535 swelling, 465 cold fronts, 374, 375
Caribbean plate, 294, 347 chemical elements. See elements clear-cutting, 385 Colorado Plateau (U.S.), 266
Caribbean Sea, 287, 294–295, 427 chemical reactions, 100–101, 182, 221 cleavage Colorado River (U.S.), 266, 512–513
Carlsbad Caverns (New Mexico), chemical weathering effects on slope stability, 467 colors
458, 459 cave and sinkhole formation, 458–459 formation in metamorphic rocks, as clues to rock formation
Carr, Karen, 7, 259, 260 major causes, 176, 448, 450–451, 216, 221, 227 environments, 196
Carrizo Plain, 63 455 in minerals, 80, 84–85, 89 in geologic maps, 31, 252
Cascade forearc basin, 307 relative resistance to, 452–453 cliff dwellings, 265 of minerals, 80
Cascade Mountains (U.S.). See also siltstone formation from, 190 cliffs observing in landscapes, 26, 27
St. Helens, Mount, eruption Chernobyl (Ukraine) nuclear illustrating, 32 silicates, 90–91
(Washington, 1980) accident, 555 interpreting features, 6, 26, 27 in topographic maps, 30, 48–51
convergent plate boundary chert, 183, 229 rock falls, 468, 470 Columbia Plateau (U.S.), 148,
beneath, 60, 166 Chesapeake Bay, 405, 438 sandstone, 188 149, 161
historic volcanoes, 155, 167 Chicxulub crater (Mexico), 261 shoreline, 425, 432, 436 columnar joints, 133, 211, 228
Mount Rainier hazards, 166–167 Chilean earthquake (1960), 349 climate. See also precipitation; weather comets, 589
St. Helens in, 138, 139, 155 chimneys, 275 desert, 375, 386–387, 390–391, 463 compaction
Cascadia subduction zone, 63, 166 China, earthquakes and volcanoes, 54, 55 effect of changes on of clastic sediments, 181
Casper Arch (Wyoming), 570 China Sea, 282 continents, 315 of clay soils, 465
Cassini-Huygens spacecraft, 586, 587 chlorine effects on slope stability, 467 from groundwater withdrawal,
casts (fossil), 246 atomic structure, 96, 97 effects on soils, 463 531, 537
cations, 88, 100 bonding in halite, 77, 82–83, 93 effects on species survival, 249, 259 competence of streams, 486, 494
Catskill Delta, 309, 323 dissolution and precipitation from effects on streams, 491, 503 competition for resources, 249
Catskill Mountains (New England), 232 halite, 100–101 effects on weathering, 450, 454 complete melting, 119
caves chlorite, 224 evidence of changes in rock layers, complex craters, 256
forming karst topography, 460 chonchoidal fractures, 90 185, 199 complex dunes, 389
I-3
components of force, 466 continental extension, 310–311. See beneath Cascade Range, 60, 166 cross beds, 185, 196, 197
composite volcanoes also extensional settings magma formation, 126–127 cross-cutting features, 29, 239, 253
basic features, 141, 152–153 continental hot spots, 312–313. See metamorphism in, 222–223 cross sections, 33, 47, 553
disasters from, 154–155 also hot spots mineral deposits, 566 crushed rock, 569
distribution on Earth, 163 continental ice sheets, 7, 405, mountains and basins, 302, 308 crust of Earth
domes within, 156, 157 414–415, 420–421. See also types, 60–61 basic features, 8, 9
hazards, 162, 166–167 ice sheets converging air currents, 369 elements in, 86
in island arcs, 280 continental interiors, 314–315 cooling of magma, 122–123 factors affecting elevations, 300
as local mountains, 304 continental margins. See also copper deposits magma movement through, 120
composition, laboratory studies, 35 shorelines distribution, 5 mineral distributions, 94–95
compression basins, 306 formation of, 465, 564–565 partial melting, 127
mountain and basin formation evaporite deposits, 290 gold from, 562 relation to surface elevation,
from, 308 formation by rifting, 59, 224, 295 human use, 102 9, 303
rock responses to, 208, 210–211, 214 Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean, ores containing, 560 strength as a function of
of snow in glaciers, 408 294–295 weathering, 565 depth, 206
computer modeling, 360, 529, 553. See investigation activity, 296–297 coral reefs temperatures within, 115
also modeling major features, 288–289 erosion, 431 crystal faces, 84
concave-up profiles, 490 metamorphism in, 224 exposure, 439 crystalline basement, 314
concept sketches, 17 mountains on, 68 formation of, 194, 286–287 crystalline rocks, 78–79, 107, 108–109
concrete, 568 passive, 59, 70, 288 organic deposits from, 542 crystalline structures, 77, 78, 82–85,
concretions, 247 sediment thickness, 276 proxy climate data from, 393 88–89
condensation, 372–374, 519 continental platforms, 314 as sedimentary environments, crystallization
condensation nuclei, 373 continental rifting 174, 193 effect of cooling speed on, 122
conduction, 115, 122 in Appalachian evolution, 323 corals, 259 forming mineral deposits, 561
cones of depression, 530 basin formation, 306 Cordillera de la Costa (Venezuela), idealized mineral sequence, 123
Coney Island (New York), 401 in Caribbean, 295 446–447 in igneous rock formation, 119
confined aquifers, 525 earthquakes from, 337 Cordilleran ice sheet, 420 relation to weathering, 452
confining pressures, 206 magma formation, 125, 129 core of Earth, 8, 66, 94, 115 in rock cycle, 14
conglomerates metamorphism in, 224 Coriolis effect, 371, 375, 376 crystal settling, 119, 130
basic features, 180 overview, 59 coronas of Miranda, 588 crystal shapes, 79, 80, 82–83
deformation in metamorphic continental rises, 288 correlations between rock units, crystals in magma, 121
rocks, 217 continental shelves 251, 262 cubic crystals, 82, 83
formation processes, 187 of Australia, 6 corundum, 81, 102, 103 Curiosity rover, 591
precious metals in, 562 common features, 288–289 cosmic radiation, effects on rock, 241. currents
relative age, 239 depictions of, 51 See also solar energy effect on clast sizes, 179
contact effects, 239 eastern North America, 3, 288 counter currents, 381 hydroelectric power from, 557
contact metamorphism eastern South America, 70 covalent bonds, 98, 99 in oceans, 10, 378–381
conditions for, 222, 223 Gulf Coast (U.S.), 291 cratered highlands, 582 sedimentary evidence of, 185, 197
defined, 220 lack of earthquakes, 54 Crater Lake National Park shoreline effects, 424, 429, 431,
as evidence of relative age, 239 at Monterey Bay, 270–271 (Oregon), 158 433
with rifting, 224 as part of continents, 52, 68 craters cutbanks, 492, 493
contacts, at Siccar Point, 236–237 sandstone formation in, 189 estimating planets’ age from, 579 cutoff meanders, 493
contamination as sedimentary environments, as features of volcanoes, 140 cyanobacteria, 257, 258
from coal burning, 549 174, 193 formation from impacts, 256, 578 cyclones, 376
from mining, 555, 567 continental shields, 314 Jupiter’s moons, 585
radioactive, 555 continental slopes, 288, 289 Mars, 577 D
soils, 464 continent-continent convergent Mercury, 580
water, 43, 530, 532–535, 538–539 boundaries, 61, 127, 223. See Moon, 582, 583 Dakota Formation, 200, 201
continental collisions also continental collisions Saturn’s moons, 587 Dakota Hogback (Colorado), 200
earthquakes from, 337 continents. See also plate tectonics studying, 30, 31, 44–45 dams
magma formation, 127, 130 common interior features, 314–315 Venus, 576 on Colorado River, 512, 513
major features, 61 evolution of, 292–293, 318–321 Craters of the Moon National common uses, 521
metamorphism in, 223 ocean basins versus, 6 Monument (U.S.), 312 earthquake damage to, 343
mountain and basin formation, sea level effects, 441 creep, 469, 472 earthquakes caused by, 331
205, 302, 309 contours, 31, 529, 535 crescent dunes, 389 effects on stream systems, 501,
continental crust, 8, 9, 300 convection crests of folds, 544 503, 557
continental deserts, 387 in asthenosphere, 64 crests of waves, 428 erosion and deposition from, 501
continental divide, 485 in Earth’s liquid core, 66 Cretaceous Period failures, 507
continental drift. See also plate heat transfer by, 115 climate, 398 hydroelectric, 556, 557
tectonics magma cooling by, 122 continent formation, 292–293, 295 rain forest destruction for, 385
in Caribbean, 295 conventional oil and gas, 546. See also dates, 252 slope failures from, 471
data supporting hypothesis, natural gas; oil life in, 260 dangerous sites. See hazardous sites
52–53, 68 convergent plate boundaries Crete, 160 Dante’s View, 310
modern continent formation, Arabian Peninsula, 540 crevasses, 406 Darcy’s law, 523
292–293, 318–321 basic features, 57 crinoids, 192, 247, 259 Darwin, Charles, 249, 287
I-4
data by glaciers, 411, 416 in streambeds, 486 Earthquake Lake (U.S.), 345
from landscape observations, hydrothermal, 561 weathering by, 176, 177, 450 earthquake-proof buildings, 343
26–27, 38–39 on planets and moons, 578, 579 dissolved loads, 486 earthquakes
quantitative versus qualitative, in rock cycle, 15 distributary systems, 500 causes, 330–333, 336–337
34–35 shoreline, 430–431, 433 divergent plate boundaries causing Indian Ocean tsunami
dating methods. See ages by streams, 482–483, 486–487 Arabian Peninsula, 540 (2004), 328–329
daughter atoms, 244 typical pattern, 240 basic features, 57 damage caused by, 342–347
Dauphine Island (Alabama), 437 of windblown sediments, 389 continental, 59 detecting and locating, 338–341
Dawn spacecraft, 574, 577 depth magma formation, 124–125 distribution on Earth, 54–57,
Death Valley (California), 304, 310, changes in Earth’s composition metamorphism in, 224 334–335, 352
390 with, 8 at mid-ocean ridges, 58 effects on landscapes, 228
debris avalanches, 473 effect on rock responses to stress, mineral deposits, 566 field studies, 350–351, 353, 355
debris falls, 470 206, 209 transform, 62 investigation activity, 364–365
debris flows, 446–447, mapping, 32 diverging air currents, 369 judging danger from, 264
472–476 role in metamorphism, 222 divides (drainage), 484 at plate boundaries, 328, 334–337
debris slides, 472 seafloor, 277 divides (groundwater), 524 predicting, 352–355
Deccan Traps (India), 149, 261 desert climates, 375, 386–387, D” layer, 361 relation to plate movements, 56–57
decompression melting, 117, 124, 125, 390–391, 463 dolomite, 92, 183, 192 slope failures from, 467, 468, 473,
129 desertification, 387, 396 dolostone, 92, 183, 192, 193 474, 477
deep-interior waters, 518 desert pavement, 241, 391 domes. See also volcanic domes subsurface studies from, 360
deep mines, 563 desert varnish, 241, 265, 391 above hot spots, 313 threats to human settlement, 4
deep ocean currents, 380 detritus, 179 in continental interiors, 314 with volcanic eruptions, 154, 155,
deep time, 255 Devils Tower (South Dakota), 20 salt, 291, 544 164, 331
deforestation, 385, 464 Devonian Period, 252 from uplifted folds, 214, 233 Earth’s interior layers, 8–9
deformation. See also metamorphism diamond pipes, 565 domestic water use, 520 East African reefs, 287
defined, 204 diamonds Dover, England, 183 East African Rift
forces of, 206–207 chemical bonds in, 99 downdrafts, 369 earthquakes, 334
as indicator of volcanic formation of, 103 downstream changes in stream magmatic heating beneath, 302,
eruptions, 165 as form of carbon, 77 systems, 488–489 312
laboratory studies, 207 geologic setting, 561, 565 drainage basins, 484, 512–513 segments of, 59
in rock cycle, 15 on Mohs scale, 81 drainage divides, 484, 485 uncertain future, 293
role in metamorphism, 220, 221, Dietz, Robert, 53 drainage networks, 484–485 volcanoes on, 153
223, 231 differential erosion, 305 drift, glacial, 411 East Australian Current, 378, 381
deformed granite, 219 differential stress, 206, 208, 210 drift, longshore, 431 East California Shear Zone, 333, 355
Delaware Bay, 405 differential subsidence, 491 driftless areas, 421 East Coast (U.S.), effect of sea-level
deltas differential weathering, 453, 456, 457 drill cores rise, 443
Colorado River, 512 dikes from ice sheets, 254 easterlies, 371
flooded, 438 as cross-cutting features, 239, 253 from oceanic crust, 68, 125, East Pacific Rise, 50, 61, 274, 283
human settlement on, 170, 171 differential weathering, 457 272, 273 ebb tide, 426
as sedimentary environments, as evidence of flood basalts, 148 subsurface studies with, 356, eccentricity of Earth’s orbit, 422
173, 175 formation of, 120, 130, 132, 140 528, 553 eclogite, 222
shoreline effects, 425, 431, at mid-ocean ridges, 124, 274 drill logs, 528 ecosystems, 43, 385
500–501 Dinosaur National Park (Utah), 7, drinking water standards, 521, 534 eddies, 487
Yukon, 482–483 305, 505 driving forces of tectonic plates, 64 effervescence, 81, 92
Denali earthquake (2002), 474 dinosaurs dropstones, 418 E horizon, 462
Denali National Park (Alaska), 483 era of, 248, 260–261 droughts, 383 elastic behavior, 332
dendrites, 247 evidence for, 7, 203 drumlins, 415, 418 Eldfell volcano (Iceland), 145
dendritic drainage patterns, 485 diorite, 111 dry cleaners, 533 electrical surveys, 357
density dip, 212, 226 dry seasons, 367, 382 electric charge, 88, 96, 100–101
calculating, 35 dip-slip faults, 212 ductile behavior, 209 electric power generation
of craters, 579 dip slopes, 229, 234 ductile deformation, 206, 226 alternative sources, 558, 559
of crust, 300 direct damage from earthquakes, 342 ductile shearing, 216, 217 fresh water use, 520
differences causing magma directional drilling, 546, 552 dumps, ore rock, 567 hydroelectric, 521, 556–557
movement, 120 disappearing streams, 459, 460, 516 dunes. See sand dunes nuclear plants, 554, 555
of ice, 101 discharge dust devils, 388 use of coal, 549
impact on regional elevations, 9 calculating, 488, 510, 511, 515 dust storms, 388, 581 electromagnetic energy, 10, 11
of oil, 543 defined, 484 dwarf planets, 574, 589 electromagnetic spectrum, 576
testing minerals for, 81 effects on delta sediments, 501 dynamic equilibrium, 491 electron clouds, 96
Denver, Colorado, 200 seasonal variations, 489 dynamos, 66 electronegativity, 99
deposition. See also sedimentary disconformities, 243, 266, 267 electrons, 96
rocks; sediments discontinuities, 453 E electron shells, 96, 97
dating, 245 displacement, 207, 210 elements
in deltas, 500–501 disposal wells, 533 Eagle Nebula, 575 as mineral building blocks, 77,
effects on crustal thickness, dissolution earth flows, 472 96–97
300, 301 of limestone, 193, 458–459 earthquake cycle, 333 Periodic Table, 86–87, 97, 99
I-5
elevations by streams, 485, 486–487, Fargo flood (North Dakota, 1997), 509 in caldera formation, 159, 161
coastal hazards and, 436 490–495 farming. See agriculture crystallization, 123
defined, 32 submarine, 271, 289 fault blocks formation of, 119, 125,
factors controlling, 9 of tilted and folded layers, 229 in calderas, 158 127–129
regional, 9, 300–301, 303, 441 typical patterns, 28, 240 on continental margins, 288 at plate boundaries, 125
El Niño, 381, 392, 395 by winds, 389 defined, 212 viscosity, 121, 143
El Niño–Southern Oscillation, 395 erosional remnants, 305 mountain and basin formation, volcano hazard indication, 162
emerald, 103 erosion surfaces, 242–243. See also 306, 310–311, 313 felsic minerals, 90, 119, 123
emergent coasts, 439 unconformities tilted, 226, 229, 231, 310 felsic rocks, 111, 113, 219
Enceladus, 586, 587 erratics, 410, 418 fault breccia, 228 fiberglass insulation, 105
energy resources. See also natural eruption columns, 142, 152 faults. See also earthquakes; fractures; fields, oil and gas. See natural gas; oil
gas; oil eruption styles, 142–143 plate boundaries; plate fields
alternative forms, 558–559 escarpments, 294, 540 tectonics field sketches, 27, 33
defined, 540 eskers, 414 basic features, 210 field studies
distribution on Earth, 541 estuaries, 438 basin formation, 306, 308–311 of earthquakes, 350–351, 353, 355
employing geologists to find, ethanol, 559 in calderas, 158 to find mineral resources, 566–567
42, 43 Etna, Mount (Italy), 153 as cause of earthquakes, 330, investigation activity, 234–235
fossil fuels, 542–553 Eurasian plate, 285, 328 332–333 main tasks, 42
hydroelectric, 521, 556–557 Europa, 584, 585 changes along, 65 of metamorphic structures,
investigation activity, 572–573 European geology, 292–293, 319, 461 from continental extension, 230–231
modern consumption, 541 evaporation 310–311 shoreline, 436
nuclear, 554–555 in hydrologic cycle, 16, 519 in continental interiors, 314, 345 of slope failures, 476–477
of Wyoming, 570–571 impact of climate change on, on continental margins, 284, 288 subsurface data from, 356–357,
energy sources, 11 396, 397 drainage along, 485 552–553
Engineer Mountain, 78 from Mediterranean Sea, 24, 25 effects on crustal thickness, Findlay Arch (Ohio), 314
enriched uranium, 555 principles of, 11, 372 300, 301 fine-grained clastic rocks, 190–191
entrainment, glacial, 411 role in ocean salinity, 451 field studies, 231, 350–351, 355 fine-grained igneous rocks, 108, 109,
entrenched meanders, 505, 513 role in weather and climate, 374, formation of, 211 111
environmental changes. See also 376, 380, 381, 397 geologic evidence, 23 fine sand, 178
global climate change sediment formation by, 182 geothermal energy from, 558 fires, 343, 467
effects on weathering, 450 evaporite deposits, 290–291. See also in Grand Canyon, 266 first-order streams, 485
evidence in sedimentary rocks, salt deposits groundwater in, 526 fish, 246, 259, 260
196–197, 199 evaporite minerals, 175, 182, 568 judging hazards of, 4, 264 fission, 554
impact on sedimentary sequences, evaporite rocks, 461 in landslides, 479 fissures
194–195 evapotranspiration, 11 metamorphism in, 223–225 eruptions from, 140, 146–148
impact on species survival, 249 Everest, George, 301 at mid-ocean ridges, 274 formation of, 120
Environmental Protection Agency Everest, Mount, 49, 51, 298, 299 near Monterey Bay, 271 in landslides, 479
(U.S.), 521, 534 Everglades National Park (Florida), 3 mountain building from, 134, 304, subsidence along, 531
ephemeral streams, 489 evolutionary diagrams, 33 308–311 fjords, 413, 438
epicenters, 330, 340 evolution of species, 249, 259 relation to geologic structures, Flagstaff, Arizona, elevation, 303
equant crystals, 91 exceedance probability plots, 515 225–227, 228 flash floods, 21, 390, 506, 509
equator, 375 exfoliation, 448 with salt deposits, 291 flood basalts
equilibrium lines, 408 expansion joints, 448 from shearing stresses, 208 causes, 148–149, 313
equilibrium stream profiles, 491 explanations, 39–41 shoreline effects, 424 hazards, 150–151
eras, 252. See also ages; geologic explosions, seismic waves from, 331 terranes on, 316, 317 mass extinctions from, 259, 261
timescale extensional settings, 224–225, 308, trapping petroleum, 545 oceanic plateaus from, 278
erosion. See also weathering 310–311 types, 62–63, 212–213 from Yellowstone Caldera, 161
as cause of rock unit external energy from Sun, 10, 11 weathering at, 470, 471 floodplains
discrepancies, 263 extinctions fault scarps agriculture in, 23, 513
desert features from, 391 of dinosaurs, 261 observing in landscapes, 228, assessing histories, 264
differing resistance to, 26, 27, 33 at end of Paleozoic Era, 149, 248, 263, 333 formation of, 493, 504, 506
effects on crustal thickness, 300 252, 259 studying, 231, 264 of low-gradient streams, 498, 499
effects on slope stability, 467, 468 factors affecting, 249 fault zones, 228 sandstone formation in, 188
following deforestation, 385 marking eras by, 252 faunal succession, 248, 250–251 as sedimentary environments, 173
glacial, 2, 16, 410–415 in Mediterranean region, 25 feldspars siltstone formation in, 190
in Grand Canyon, 267 extrusive rock, 118 in arkose, 180 terrace formation, 504
of local mountains, 305 Eyejafjallajökull volcano, 150 atomic structure, 89 floods. See also stream channels;
of mountain belts, 303, 399 eye of a storm, 376, 400 in gabbro, 94 streams
from normal river flows, 506 in granite, 110 assessing risks, 264, 436
on planets and moons, 578, 579 F human use, 103 Colorado River history, 513
in rock cycle, 14, 15 in Moon rocks, 582, 583 from dam failures, 343
from runoff, 16 facies, sedimentary, 194, 195, 263 types, 90 destruction from, 21, 503,
of scoria cones, 145 failed rifts, 313 in volcanic rock, 153 507–509
shoreline, 430–432, 435, 436 Fall Line, 490, 502 weathering, 177, 451–453 flash floods, 21, 390, 506, 509
soils, 385, 464 fans, submarine, 271, 289 felsic magma. See also magma investigation activity, 514–515
I-6
levees and, 499, 506 data obtained from, 7 Garnero, Ed, 361 gradual acceptance of continental
measuring, 510–511 dating rock layers from, 37, 203, garnets drift, 53
normal flow versus, 506–507 238, 250–251, 262 basic features, 91 isotopic dating techniques, 244
from overtopped reservoirs, 471 in drill cores, 273 human use, 102 major activities, 42–43
overview of common causes, 507 formation of, 246–248 in metamorphic rocks, 218, 219, Mediterranean Sea studies, 25
runoff and, 503 in Front Range layers, 201 231 Sierra Nevada studies, 135
from sea-level changes, 398, 438 ice age evidence, 419 gas centrifuges, 555 studies of metamorphic features,
sedimentary layers formed by, 185 in limestone, 182, 192, 461 gases. See also natural gas 230–231
from tectonic activity, 398 proxy climate data from, 393 basic features, 83 subsurface study methods, 356–
from volcanic melting of ice, similarity between continents, 41 gathering data about, 34 361, 552–553
151, 507 in tar pits, 543 hazards, 150 time and rate estimates by, 36–37
flood tide, 426 in terranes, 317 as indicator of volcanic eruptions, volcano monitoring, 139, 147,
floodways, 511 Four Corners region (U.S.), 132 164 155, 165
flow bands, 157 fracking, 331, 546–547 in magma, 120, 142, 143 geology defined, 2
flow cells, 371 fracture resistance of Earth’s layers, 9 gas fields, 544. See also natural gas geomagnetic polarity timescale, 66
flows. See also discharge fractures. See also faults gas giants, 19, 575, 584–589 geophones, 273, 356
in Earth’s mantle, 361 as cross-cutting features, 239 gas hydrate, 550, 551 geophysical surveys, 356, 357, 553
groundwater, 16, 519, 523–527, effects on slope stability, 467 gasoline contamination, 40 geophysical techniques, 567
530, 534 with faults, 228 gas pressure, 120, 368, 369 geophysicists, 357
salt, 290, 291, 544 groundwater in, 522, 523, 526 gas stations, 532 geothermal energy, 558, 571
slope failure, 469, 472–473 impact on weathering, 177, 449, gauging stations, 510 geothermal gradient, 115
flowstone, 459 450, 456 gem-quality minerals, 103 geysers, 526, 558, 587
fluid magma, 121 in minerals, 80, 84, 90 gentle slopes, 32, 179 Gibraltar, Strait of, 24, 25
fluid pressures in pore spaces, 206 observing in landscapes, 26 geochemical sampling, 534 glacial drift, 411
flumes, 497 as response to stresses, 206, 208 geochemistry, 566 glacial erratics, 410, 418
fluoride, 102 surface processes causing, 176, geographic information systems, 529 glacial grooves, 410
fluorine, 97, 150 449 Geological Survey of Bangladesh, 533 glacial outwash, 415
fluorite, 81, 99, 102, 565 types, 210–211 geologic cross sections, 33, 47, glacial periods, 419, 420, 423
fluvial processes, 172 fracture zones, 50 552, 553 glacial striations, 410
foci of earthquakes, 330 framework silicates, 89 geologic diagrams, 33 Glacier National Park (Montana),
fold and thrust belts, 227, 308 Fran, Hurricane (1996), 434 geologic events, determining 2, 413
folds Fraser River Valley (British sequences, 29 Glacier Peak, 167
basic features, 214–215 Columbia), 170–171 geologic features, observing in glaciers
with cleavage, 227 free oxygen, 257 landscapes, 6, 26–29 Antarctic melting, 442–443
erosion of, 229 freeze-thaw cycles, 467 geologic histories. See also ages; Baltic Sea formation by, 284
in evaporite deposits, 290 fresh water, 17, 518, 520–521. See geologic timescale basic features, 406–407
extreme examples, 217 also water of Colorado, 201 breccia formation from, 186
with faults, 226–227 fringing reefs, 286 of Grand Canyon, 266–267 Cape Cod formation by, 433
in landslides, 479 Front Range, 304 investigation activities, 46–47, climate change data from, 393
mountain building from, 305 Front Range foothills, 200–201 202–203, 268–269 continental drift support from, 53
observing in landscapes, 204, 205 frost heaving, 467 reasons to explore, 264–265 effects on rivers, 503
petroleum in, 544 frost wedging, 176, 430, 449 reconstruction, 28–29, 135, erosion by, 2, 16, 410–415
foliation, 216, 221 fuel cells, 559 262–263 evidence for, 410–419
Food and Drug Administration Fuji, Mount, 49, 153 types of sedimentary rock flooding hazards from, 151
(U.S.), 521 Fukushima Nuclear Power Plant, 346 evidence, 199 formation processes, 16, 408,
footprints, fossilized, 247 full moon, 427, 583 western United States, 324–325 422–423
footwalls, 212 fumes, water pollution from, 533 geologic maps. See also mapping during ice ages, 405
Foraminifera, 273 Fundy, Bay of (Canada), 427, 557 basic features, 30, 31 impact of climate change on,
force, defined, 206 funnel clouds, 377 colors, 31, 252 7, 396
forearc basins, 306, 307, 308, 311 fusion, nuclear, 18, 554 in fossil fuel exploration, 552 movements, 409
forecasting earthquakes, 352–353 to guide field work, 230, 566 salt, 291
forecasting volcanoes, 163–165 G Smith’s pioneering efforts, 251 sea level effects, 404, 440, 441
foreland basins, 306, 308, 309, 325 geologic timescale sediment deposition, 411, 416
foreshocks, 353 Ga (giga-annum), 36 development of, 252–253 sediment formation and transport,
forest soils, 463 gabbro, 94, 111, 124 fauna in, 238, 248–249 12, 16, 173, 406, 410–412,
formations defined, 184 gaining streams, 527 portion represented in Grand 414
formations in caves, 459 Galápagos Islands, 69, 70, 279 Canyon, 267 solar energy reflected by, 394
Fort Tejon earthquake (California, galaxies, 575 stages of, 36, 37, 252 as source of Earth’s water, 518
1857), 354 galena, 93, 565 geologists glaciofluvial deposition, 411, 414, 415
fossil fuels, 552–553, 572–573. See Galilei, Galileo, 584 data gathering approaches, 26–29, glasses, 77, 108, 109, 112, 157
also coal; natural gas; oil Galileo spacecraft, 585 34–35, 38–39 glass making, 103
fossils gamma decay, 114 diagrams used by, 17, 27, 33, 230 Glen Canyon Dam (Arizona), 557
as clues to rock formation Ganges River (India), 367 earthquake study and prediction, global climate change
environments, 196, 199 Ganymede, 584, 585 350–353 causing glaciation, 422–423
continental drift support from, 52 Garden of the Gods, 304 fossil fuel explorations, 552–553 evidence in rock layers, 185
I-7
global climate change—Cont. grassland soils, 463 dissolution of limestone, 193, lava hazards, 151
global warming evidence, gravel, 199, 497, 569 458–459 reefs, 287
392–393, 396–397 gravity exploration methods, 265, as seamount, 50, 69
investigation activity, 444–445 effects on Earth, 10, 11, 368 528–529 seismic hazards, 352
potential causes, 394–395 measuring variations, 357, 528 flows, 16, 519, 523–527, 530, 534 submarine slope failures, 348, 469
potential consequences, 396–397, on Moon’s surface, 583 fracking’s potential effects, 547 tsunamis, 348, 349
442–443 role in mass wasting, 466 as freshwater source, 518 volcano types, 146–147
rain forests as buffer, 385 role in plate movements, 64 mineral transport, 554, 565 Hawaii Volcanoes National Park, 140
since last ice age, 7 of Sun and Moon, 10, 11, 18, 35, Ogallala aquifer, 536–537 Hayward fault (San Andreas fault), 354
global cooling, 394 426–427 oil separation from, 543 hazardous sites. See also volcanoes
Global Positioning System. See also gravity meters, 357 overpumping, 530–531, 536–537 assessing histories, 264
satellite studies graywacke, 180 relation to surface waters, 526–527 of basaltic eruptions, 150–151
measuring plate movements Great Barrier Reef (Australia), Snake River Plain, 517 coal mines, 549
with, 65 286, 287 groundwater divides, 524 for landslides, 446–447, 474–477
measuring surface elevations Great Divide Range (Australia), 302 growth rings in trees, 254 near calderas, 160–161
with, 436 Great Dying, 149, 248, 252, 259 Gulf Coast (U.S.), 291, 307 near volcanoes, 154–155, 157,
measuring uplift with, 299, 441 Great Falls of Potomac (U.S.), 502 Gulf of Aden, 312 162–169, 264
monitoring volcanoes with, 165 Great Lakes region (U.S.), 404, 405, Gulf of California, 283 on shorelines, 434–437
studying landslides with, 479 415, 418, 421 Gulf of Mexico, 291, 292, 294–295, for sinkholes, 460
global warming, 392–393, 396–397. Great Ocean Road (Australia), 432 427 study methods, 42
See also global climate change Great Oxygenation Event, 257 Gulf Stream, 379–381 tectonic activity, 72–73
Glomar Challenger, 25 Great Plains (U.S.), 20, 303 gullies, 494 headward erosion, 494
Glossopteris, 52 Great Red Spot (Jupiter), 584 Gunnison River (Colorado), 478 headwaters
gneiss domes, 233 Great Rift Valley (Africa), 59 gypsum Colorado River, 513
gneisses, 216, 218, 219, 255 Great Salt Lake (Utah), 417, 569 association with halite, 290 defined, 488
gneissic foliation, 216, 218 Great Unconformity (U.S.), 242, basic features, 93 development of, 494–495
Gobi Desert, 382, 387 243, 267 as common sulfate, 87 gradient, 488, 490
gold, 20, 560, 562–563 Great Valley forearc basin, 325 formation of, 183, 561 heat. See also climate; temperatures
Goldilocks zone, 581 greenhouse effect (Earth), 11, 394. See human use, 103, 568 calories, 548
gold mines, 20, 21, 42 also global climate change on Mohs scale, 81 as cause of uplift, 300, 301
Gondwana greenhouse effect (Venus), 574, 580 gyres, 378, 379 effects on gas pressure, 368
Africa and South America in, 71 greenhouse gases, 394–395, 423, geothermal energy, 558
development of concept, 52 549, 550 H from gravitational forces, 11
formation and division, 292, 293, Greenland as indicator of volcanic
320, 321 in continental drift habitation. See human settlement eruptions, 164
role in Appalachian evolution, 323 hypothesis, 293 hail, 372, 373 for oil and gas formation, 542
grabens, 213, 224, 310 depicting in topographic maps, 50 hailstones, 373 within planets, 579
graded beds, 185, 196, 289 flood basalts, 149 Haiti earthquake (2010), 347 role in metamorphism, 220,
graded streams, 491 glaciers and ice sheets, 407, 420 Half Dome (Yosemite National 221, 222
grade of ore, 560 ice core data from, 393, 419 Park), 76 solar, 11, 371, 374, 380
gradients Greenland Current, 379 half-life, 244 sources within Earth, 10, 114–115
hydraulic, 524 Greenland Sea, 380 halides, 87, 93 transfer by ocean currents,
of river systems, 495 Green Mountain (Colorado), 200 halite. See also salt deposits 378–381
of slopes, 32 Green Mountains (New England), atomic structure, 77, 82, 87, 96 transfer within Earth, 10, 115
of stream systems, 488, 490, 232, 233 basic properties, 93 heat flow, 115
498–499 Green River Formation (Wyoming), chemical bonds in, 99 Hebgen Lake earthquake (Montana,
Grand Canyon (Arizona), 242, 254, 551 cleavage, 85 1959), 333, 345
266–267 Green River headwaters deposition, 290–291 Hector Mine earthquake (California,
Grand Junction (Colorado), 513 (Wyoming), 513 dissolution and precipitation in 1999), 351, 355
granite Green River incision (Utah), 505 water, 100–101, 182, 183 heft tests, 81
of Black Hills, 20 greenschist, 219 human use, 102, 569 Heimaey (Iceland), 145
caves in, 458 greenstone, 219, 256 Halley’s Comet, 589 helium
in continental crust, 8 Grenville Province (North hand lenses, 76 abundance in universe, 86, 95
density, 35 America), 318 hand specimens, 76 on Jupiter, 584
distribution on Earth, 94 groins, 435, 436 hanging valleys, 413 in Periodic Table, 97
impermeability, 543 grooves, glacial, 410 hanging walls, 212 on Saturn, 586
magma cooling speed, 122 Gros Ventre landslide (Wyoming, Harding Pegmatite Mine, 107 on Uranus and Neptune, 588, 589
metamorphosed, 217, 219 1925), 474 hardness tests, 81 hematite
minerals in, 94, 110, 111 ground deformation, 165. See also hard parts, fossilized, 246, 247, 258 atomic structure, 87
of Peninsular Ranges, 74, 75 deformation hard-rock geologists, 552 basic features, 92
as plutonic rock, 118 ground moraine, 414 Harney Peak (South Dakota), 20 formation of, 451
responses to weathering, 453 groundwater Harr, Jonathan, 535 human uses, 102
of Sierra Nevada batholith, 134 accumulation, 198, 522 Hawaii on Mars, 591
of Yosemite National Park, 76 contamination, 40, 530, 532–535, earthquakes, 54 mining for, 564
graphite, 99 538–539 landslides, 331, 348 streak, 81, 92
I-8
Henry Mountains (Utah), 132 volcano hazards to, 150–151, icebergs, 409, 442 climate, 366–367, 382
Herculaneum destruction, 154 154–155, 160, 166–167 ice caps, 518, 581. See also ice sheets compared to Himalaya, 298
Hess, Harry, 53 water pollution from, 532 ice cores, 254, 393, 395, 419 in continental drift hypothesis,
high-grade metamorphism, 218 human waste, 532 icefalls, 407 292–293, 321
high-grade ore, 560 Humboldt Current, 379, 380 ice geysers, 587 flood basalts, 149
High Plains aquifer (U.S.), 536–537 hummocky topography, 476 ice giants, 588–589 rain forests, 384
high-P/low-T environments, 222, 223 hundred-year floods, 511 Iceland terranes, 319
high-pressure minerals, 360 Hurricane Cliffs, 23 as active volcanic site, 55, 151, indirect seismic waves, 359
high-pressure systems, 369, 375 Hurricane fault, 266 163 Indonesia
high relief, 32 hurricanes Eldfell volcano, 145 Krakatau eruption, 160, 348
high-sulfur coal, 549 destruction from, 400–401, 434, Eyejafjallajökull volcano, 150 reefs in, 287
high tides, 424, 426–427, 557 437, 509 floods from volcanic tsunami of 2004, 281, 282,
hillsides. See slopes formation of, 376 melting, 151 328–329
Himalaya Mountains Hutton, James, 15, 236, 237 geothermal energy resources, 558 industrial rocks and minerals, 568–569
basic features, 298–299 Huygens probe, 587 glaciers and ice sheets, 407 industrial use of water, 520
climatic effects, 366–367, 382 hydraulic fracturing, 331, 546–547 ice sheets. See also glaciers industrial water pollution, 533
elevation, 298 hydraulic gradient, 524 Antarctic melting, 442–443 infiltration of water, 519
formation of, 61, 293, 302 hydrocarbons, 542, 550–551. See also effects on streams, 503 infrared energy, 11, 394. See also heat;
glaciers, 407 natural gas; oil evidence for, 410, 414–415, temperatures
location, 49 hydrochloric acid, 81, 92, 150 420–421 infrared imaging, 576, 577
slope failures, 477 hydroelectric power, 521, 556–557 floods from volcanic melting, 151 inner core of Earth, 94
uplift and erosion, 399 hydrogen ice ages and, 405 inner planets, 18, 580–581
hinges of folds, 215 abundance in universe, 86, 95 impact of climate change on, 7 insects, 259
hogbacks, 200, 202, 229 on Jupiter, 584 sea level effects, 440, 441 instruments
Hokkaido tsunami (Japan, 1993), 349 in Periodic Table, 97 settings for, 407 checking for validity, 38
Homestake Mine, 20, 21, 563 on Saturn, 586 as source of Earth’s water, 518 data gathering with, 34, 39
Homo sapiens, 261 on Uranus and Neptune, 588, 589 ice shelves, 409, 442 studying inaccessible sites with,
Hood, Mount (Oregon), 476 hydrogen bonding, 100 igneous rocks. See also magma 42, 43
hoodoos, 456 hydrogen ions, 450, 451. See also in Black Hills, 20, 21 insulation, fiberglass, 105
horizons of soil, 462, 479 acids causes of melting, 116–117 In Suspect Terrain (McPhee), 319
horizontality principle, 238 hydrogen sulfide, 150, 275 chemical composition, 113 intensity scales, 341
horizontal joints, 210 hydrogeologists, 528–529 common metamorphosed interference (wave), 429
horizontal surface waves, 338 hydrographs, 484, 510 types, 219 interferograms, 351
hornfels, 219 hydrologic cycle, 16, 519 common types, 110–113 interglacial periods, 419, 420, 423
horns, 413 hydrolysis, 176, 451, 453 formation processes, 13, 15, intermediate magmas, 119, 125,
horses, 261 hydrosphere, 17 118–119 127, 128
horsts, 213, 310 hydrothermal deposition, 561, 562 in Grand Canyon, 266 intermediate rocks, 111, 113
hot spots. See also volcanoes hydrothermal replacement, 561, 566 identifying, 137 intermittent streams, 489
continental, 312–313 hydrothermal rocks, 13 landscapes formed by, 106–107 intermolecular force, 98
distribution on Earth, 279 hydrothermal veins, 93 low porosity, 523 intermountain seismic belt, 352
effect on plate movements, 64 hydrothermal vents, 275 at mid-ocean ridges, 124 internal energy sources, 10, 11
flood basalts from, 149 hypocenter of earthquake, 330, of Moon, 582 interpretations, data versus, 38
magma formation, 128, 130 333, 340 responses to weathering, 453 Intertropical Convergence Zone,
plate movements over, 69, 128, hypotheses, 39–41 studying sites for, 136–137 371, 384
278 textures, 108–109, 112 intrusions
in Yellowstone National Park, 39, I iguanas, 249 defined, 118
161 Illinois Basin, 307 field studies, 231
hot springs, 13, 526, 558, 571 Iapetus, 586, 587 imbrication, 197 formation of, 132–133
housing, use of minerals in, 105 ice impact craters, 256 iron deposits, 564
Hubble Space Telescope, 576, 584 in atmosphere, 372, 373 impact features, 578. See also craters; metamorphism from, 219
human modifications chemical bonds, 101 meteoroid impacts in terranes, 317
as cause of flooding, 507 density, 35 impact melting, 256 Io, 579, 584, 585
effects on slope stability, 464, 467 as mineral, 77, 92, 101 impermeable units, 525, 543 ionic bonds, 98, 99
to stream channels, 493, 503 on planets and moons, 583, 585, impressions (fossil), 246 ions, 96, 100, 101
human settlement 587, 591 incision by streams, 494, 503–505, iron
as cause of flooding, 507 weathering by, 176, 449 513 abundance on Earth, 95
on deltas, 170, 171 ice ages. See also glaciers; ice sheets inclusions, 239, 356 in Earth’s core, 8, 66, 94, 114
early migrations, 261 causes, 423 index contours, 31 human use, 102
earthquake hazards to, 342–347 climate change since, 7 index fossils, 250, 262 oxidation in rocks, 451, 457
earthquakes caused by, 331 gathering data about, 419–421 Indian-Australian plate, 328 in sedimentary rocks, 92, 183
investigating, 265 impact on present coastlines, Indian Ocean currents, 378 in silicates, 90, 91
landslide risks, 446–447, 468, 405, 502 Indian Ocean tsunami (2004), 281, iron deposits, 5, 183, 564
474, 475 massive lakes in North 282, 328–329 iron formation, 183, 257
on shorelines, 434–437 America, 417 Indian plate, 282 iron oxides
tectonic activity and, 72–73 river formation after, 502 Indian subcontinent as cement, 181, 188
I-9
iron oxides—Cont. Juan de Fuca plate, 63, 166, 167 Lahontan, Lake (Nevada), 417 hazards, 150, 151
common types, 92 Juan de Fuca Ridge, 48 lakes on Io, 585
formation of, 451, 457 Jupiter, 19, 575, 578, 584–585 on Colorado River, 512 island extension from, 146, 147
on Mars, 581 Jura Mountains salt deposits, 291 glacial, 413, 414, 417 mapping, 30
mineral deposit formation, 561 Jurassic Period limestone formation in, 192 on Moon, 582
in rock varnish, 241 continent formation, 292, 295, 321 in mountains, 494 from shield volcanoes, 146–147
staining with, 391 dates, 252 oxbow, 493, 498, 499 submarine, 58
in tropical soils, 463 fauna characterizing, 7, 260 sediment formation, 12, 173 types, 144
irregular plutons, 131 siltstone formation, 190 on Venus, 580
irrigation, 464, 520, 532, 536 K as source of Earth’s water, 518 lava fountains, 142, 144, 147
Isla Chiloe, 349 water supplies for, 526, 527 lava tubes, 144, 458
island and seamount chains, 50, 69, Kaibab Plateau (Arizona), 266, 267, Laki eruption (Iceland), 151 layers
278, 279 512 laminar flow, 487 in crystalline and clastic rocks, 79
island arcs Kaibab Uplift, 512 land breezes, 370 dating from fossils, 37, 250–251
basic features, 51 Kalahari Desert, 387 land bridges, 41, 52 in deltas, 500
formation of, 60, 69, 126, 280–281 kames, 414 landers, 577, 591 determining sequences, 29
Paleozoic Era, 324 Kanaga volcano (Alaska), 140 Landers earthquake (California, 1992), of Earth’s interior, 8–9
as tectonic terranes, 316 kaolinite, 102 333, 355 of evaporite deposits, 290
volcanoes and earthquakes, 54, 55 karst topography, 460–461 landfills, 530, 532 folds in, 214–215
island extension from lava flows, Katrina, Hurricane (2005), 437 landforms in Mars rock, 590, 591
146, 147 Kelvin (William Thomson), 254 glacial, 410–418 in metamorphic rocks, 217, 218
islands, barrier, 175, 433, 438 Kerguelen Plateau, 51, 149, 278, 279 low-gradient streams, 498–499 observing in landscapes, 26, 27, 263
isobars, 369 kerogen, 542 shoreline, 432–433 offsets and terminations, 228
isostasy, 9, 301, 303 kettle lakes, 414 landscapes. See also geologic histories petroleum in, 543–545
isostatic rebound, 303, 441, 503 kettles, 414, 415 age determination, 240–241, 263 relative dating principles, 238–239
isotopes, 244, 393 Keystone XL Pipeline, 551 effects of weathering, 26–28, rock slides involving, 471
isotopic dating K-feldspar 456–461 sandstone, 188
age of Earth from, 254, 255 basic features, 90 faults in, 355 sedimentary rock principles, 184–185
age of Himalaya from, 299 chemical weathering, 451 joints in, 448 Siccar Point features, 236–237
age of Moon from, 255 crystallization temperatures, 123 metamorphic rocks in, 228–229, subsurface depictions, 33
correlations by, 262 melting temperatures, 127 234–235 typical accumulation, 240
of drill core samples, 273, 393 on Mohs scale, 81 observing, 6, 26–29, 38–39, 44–47 unconformities, 242–243
glacial evidence from, 419 Kilauea volcano (Hawaii), 69, landslides. See also slopes varied sequences, 194–197, 199
of major eras, 248, 252, 253 146, 147 breccia formation in, 186 leaching
principles of, 238, 244–245 Kilimanjaro, Mount (Tanzania), 153 from composite volcanoes, 152 forming mineral deposits,
Ivan, Hurricane (2004), 437 kimberlite pipes, 103, 565 earthquakes with, 331, 345 561, 565
kinetic energy, 11 evidence in sedimentary in soils, 462, 463, 465
J Kodiak Island, 363 rocks, 199 leach pads, 567
K-P boundary, 252 hazardous sites for, 12, 446–447, lead in drinking water, 534
Jackson Hole (Wyoming), 517 Krakatau eruption (1883), 160, 348 474–477 lead-zinc deposits, 565
Japan K-T extinction, 261 on Mars, 590 Lee’s Ferry (Arizona), 513
plate-tectonic features, 49 Kuiper Belt, 589 on Moon, 583 left-lateral faults, 213
Tohoku earthquake, 346 Kuroshio Current, 378 studies, 478–479 Lena Delta (Siberia), 501
tsunamis, 346, 349 kyanite, 217, 561 submarine, 271, 289, 348, 469, 551 lenses (fresh water), 531
volcanoes, 55 tsunamis from, 348 lenses (magnifying), 76, 110
Java, formation of, 60 L types and causes, 468–469 lenses (rock)
Java Sea, 282 La Niña, 381, 395 base metal, 564
Jemez Mountains (New Mexico), laboratory studies Laramide Orogeny, 325 creating oil reservoirs, 545
106–107 braided channels, 497 Larsen ice shelf (Antarctica), 442 between disconformities, 243
jet stream, 508 data gathering in, 35, 37 lasers, 353, 436, 437 in metamorphic rocks, 217, 229
jetties, 435 of deep environments, 209, 360 lateral continuity principle, 262 perched water above, 525
Jewel Caves National Park, 20 rock strength, 207, 211 lateral erosion, 495 of volcanic material, 112, 137
Johnston, David, 155 simulations in, 42 lateral moraines, 412 Lesser Antilles, 281, 287, 294, 295
Johnstown flood (Pennsylvania, Labrador Current, 379 laterites, 463 levees, 499, 506, 508
1889), 509 Labrador Sea, 380 Laurasia supercontinent, 321 lichens, 455, 457
joints La Brea tar pits (California), 543 Laurentide ice sheet, 420 lidar, 437
columnar, 133, 211, 228 laccoliths, 132 lava, 13, 58, 581. See also magma; life. See also fossils
drainage along, 485 La Conchita landslides (California, volcanoes conditions supporting, 581
expression in landscapes, 228 1995, 2005), 475 lava domes, 139, 142, 152, 580. See evidence from past, 7
with faults, 226 lagoons also volcanic domes historic milestones, 258–261
formation of, 210–211 formation of, 433 lava flows at hydrothermal vents, 275
weathering, 448–449, 453, 456, protective role, 436 age determination from, 145, impact of climate change on, 396
470, 471 as sedimentary environments, 174, 241, 264 Mars’ potential, 591
Joshua trees, 386 191, 194 basic features, 142, 144, 145 in rain forests, 384, 385
Juanannita volcano exercise, 168–169 lahars, 152, 153. See also mudflows from composite volcanoes, 152 lightning, 377
I-10
light-water reactors, 555 low tides, 424, 426–427, 557 magnesium marine organisms, proxy climate data
lignite, 548, 550 lunar highlands, 582 abundance on Earth, 95 from, 393
limbs of folds, 215 luster, 80 atomic structure, 97 marine terraces, 432, 439
lime, 568 Lyell, Charles, 237 in dolomite, 183, 192 Mars
lime muds, 193 effect of crystallization on magma basic features, 18, 574
limestone M content, 123 explorations, 43, 577, 590–591
caves in, 458–459 in silicates, 90, 91 images of, 576, 577
cements from, 198 Ma (mega-annum), 36 magnesium carbonate, 450 surface features, 43, 579, 581
chemical weathering, 193, 450, Madagascar, 52 magnetic fields, 66–67, 262, 357 winds, 388, 579
452, 455, 458–461 Madison Canyon slide (U.S.), 345 magnetic highs, 567 marshes, 433, 436
colors, 192 mafic magma magnetic reversals, 66–67, 262 marsupials, 261
composition, 77, 92, 182 crystallization, 119, 123 magnetism Martinique, 281
formation of, 182, 183, 192–193 density, 120 mineral explorations using, 567 mass, 35, 96
in landscapes, 193, 460–461 formation of, 119, 125, 128, 129 in minerals, 81, 92 mass extinctions
metamorphosed, 218 at plate boundaries, 124–125 seafloor data, 53, 66–67 association with flood basalts,
mining, 568 viscosity, 121, 143 subsurface studies with, 357 149, 259
permeability, 524, 526 volcano hazard indication, 162 testing for, 81 of dinosaurs, 261
resistance to physical weathering, mafic minerals magnetite marking eras by, 252
193, 452 basic features, 91 basic features, 81, 92 massive sulfide deposits, 564
lineation, 217, 221 crystallization temperatures, 119, human uses, 102 mass spectrometers, 244
liquefaction, 342, 347, 465 123 mining for, 564 mass wasting, 466. See also erosion;
liquids, 83, 116 platinum deposits, 563 paleomagnetic data from, 66, 67 slopes; weathering
lithification, 15, 180 weathering, 177 magnetometers, 66, 67 Mathews, Drummond, 67
lithium, 97 mafic rocks magnitudes of earthquakes, 341 matrices, 78
lithosphere. See also plate tectonics basic features, 111 main channels of streams, 498 matter, states, 83
asthenosphere melting into, 129 classifying rocks as, 113 Maine coastline, 405 Matterhorn (Switzerland), 413
basic features, 9, 17 metamorphosed, 219 malachite, 92, 104 maturation of coal, 548
beneath seafloor, 58, 61 weathering, 453 Malaysia, 287 maturation of petroleum, 542
movement over hot spots, 39, 128, magma. See also igneous rocks; lava; mammals, 248, 261. See also animals Maui, 69
149, 278 volcanoes Mammoth Cave system (Kentucky), 458 Mauna Kea (Hawaii), 146
tectonic plates, 56–57, 115 caldera formation from, 158–159 mammoths, 248 Mauna Loa (Hawaii), 146–148,
temperature and thickness, 9, 301 capturing energy from, 558 manganese nodules, 273 394
lithospheric mantle, 9 causes of melting, 116–117 manganese oxides, 241, 247 maximum tilt angle, 422
Little Lost River (Idaho), 516, 517 at continental rifts, 59, 129, mantle Mazama, Mount (Oregon), 158
livestock raising, 385, 464, 520 130, 313 composition and depth, 8 McPhee, John, 319
loading landmasses, 441 copper formation from, 5 convection in, 64, 124 Mead, Lake (Arizona, Nevada), 331
Local magnitude scale, 341 crustal thickening from, 301 layers, 9 meanders
local mountains, 304–305 earthquakes from, 337 melting in, 119, 125, 126 entrenched, 505, 513
local winds, 370 of flood basalts, 148–149 minerals of, 94 formation of, 492–493
locations, trading for time, 28 formation into rock, 118–119 seismic studies, 360, 361 of low-gradient streams, 498–499
locked segment (San Andreas fault), 354 gases in, 142, 143 temperatures within, 115 meander scars, 498, 499
loess, 389, 416 at hot spots, 69, 128, 130 upwellings, 149, 302 measurements
logarithmic scales, 341 island formation from, 69, mantle plumes, 128, 149, 278 common examples, 34
logging, 385 278, 280 Mantoloking (New Jersey), 401 geologic processes, 36
Loma Prieta earthquake (1989, landscapes formed by, 106–107 mapping. See also geologic maps laboratory, 35, 37
California), 353, 354, 465 local uplift from, 39 earthquake hazards, 343, 345, 352 validity, 38
Long Island (New York), 405 at mid-ocean ridges, 58, 124, 127, earthquakes, 54–55, 334–335, 352 mechanical concentration, 561
longitudinal dunes, 389 163, 274 geologic units, 33, 201, 230 mechanisms of movement on
long-range earthquake forecasts, 353 movement of, 10, 120–121 seafloor, 272–273, 295 slopes, 469
longshore currents, 431, 433 at plate boundaries, 57–61, surface features, 30–33 medial moraines, 412
longshore drift, 431 124–127, 308 tsunamis, 346 Medicine Lake, 167
Long Valley caldera (California), 159 predicting types, 137 volcanoes, 55, 155, 163, 165 Mediterranean Sea, 24–25, 284,
losing streams, 527 role in metamorphism, 220, water table, 529 293, 427
Love waves, 338 223, 224 weather patterns, 375 medium-grained igneous rocks, 108, 109
lower mantle composition, 8 small intrusions of, 132–133, 219 marble, 92, 218, 455 medium sand, 178
Lower Mississippi River, 502 solidification, 122–123 Marcellus Shale, 309, 547 megathrusts
lower unconformity, in Grand Canyon, as suggested Upheaval Dome Mariana island arc, 51, 281, 282 Alaskan earthquake (1964), 363
266, 267 cause, 47 Mariana trench, 51, 281, 282 subduction zones as, 223, 336, 337
low-grade metamorphism, 218 magma chambers maria of Moon, 582 Tohoku earthquake, 346
low-grade ore, 560 beneath Hawaii, 146 marine animals of Paleozoic Era, 248 tsunamis from, 346, 348
low-gradient streams, 498–499 caldera formation from, 158–159 marine environments. See oceans; melanges, 229
low-P/high-T environments, 222 Devils Tower as, 20 seafloor melting (ice), 7, 396
low-pressure systems, 369, 375, 382 formation of, 130–133 marine evaporite deposits, 290–291. melting (rock), 14, 15, 116–117, 256.
low relief, 32 rock formation from, 13, 107, 118 See also salt deposits See also magma
low-sulfur coal, 549 magma mixing, 119 marine iguanas, 249 melting curve, 116, 117
I-11
Mendocino fracture zone, 63 on Uranus and Neptune, 19, using geologic histories to find, in Grand Canyon, 266, 267
Mercury (planet), 18, 574, 579, 580 588, 589 68, 265 Mono Lake (California), 192
mesas, 28, 140, 305 Mexican terranes, 318 minerals monsoons, 367, 382
Mesosaurus, 52 Mexico, seismic activity, 335, 344 basic properties, 77 Monterey Submarine Canyon
Mesozoic Era Mexico City earthquake (1985), 344 Bowen’s Reaction Series, 123, 452 (California), 270–271, 288
continental rock from, 318–319 mica chemical reactions on, 100–101 Monticello Reservoir (South
continent formation, 292–293, 325 cleavage, 85, 89 classifying, 86–87 Carolina), 331
exposed structures in New England colors, 91 cleavage, 80, 84–85, 89 Mont-Saint-Michel (France), 424
from, 232 in metamorphic rocks, 218, 219 common nonsilicates, 92–93 Montserrat, 154, 281
fauna characterizing, 248, 260 Michigan Basin, 306, 307, 547 crystal shapes, 80, 82–83 Monument Valley (Arizona), 27
Front Range layers from, 201 microbursts, 377 distribution on Earth, 94–95 Moon
on geologic timescale, 36, 37, 252 Micronesia, 287 elements as building blocks, 77, exploration, 577
Grand Canyon layers from, 266 microorganisms, 542 96–97 forces affecting Earth, 10, 11, 18,
Mississippi River origins in, 502 Mid-Atlantic Ridge formation of deposits, 465, 426–427
Wyoming deposits from, 570, 571 continued spread, 70, 71 560–565 formation of, 574, 583
metal deposits, 465, 562–565 data supporting continental human use, 102–105 geologic features, 255, 579,
metallic bonds, 98, 99 drift, 53 identifying, 80–81, 104, 110 582–583
metals earthquakes, 335 leaching in soils, 465 surface features, 18
alloys, 87 as mountain range, 48 responses to weathering, 452–453 weak gravity, 35
base metal deposits, 465, 564–565 rifting at, 274 rocks versus, 76–79 Moon rocks, 255, 577, 582
chemical bonds, 98, 99 transform faults, 62 silicate types and structures, moons
most abundant, 95 Middle East earthquake hazards, 352 87–91 of Jupiter, 584–585
precious metal deposits, 562–563 mid-ocean ridges. See also plate mineral wedging, 176, 449 of outermost planets, 588–589
sulfide minerals, 93 boundaries; seafloor minimum tilt angle, 422 of Saturn, 586–587
metamorphic rocks age of crust in relation to, mining studying and comparing, 576–579
in Black Hills, 20, 21 68, 277 coal, 549 moraines, 412, 415, 421
common types, 218–219 analyzing basalts from, 129 distribution in North America, Morley, Lawrence, 67
dating, 29, 245 basic features, 50–51, 274–275 5, 20 Morrison Formation, 201
expression in landscapes, earthquakes, 54, 334–336 economics of, 560 mountain belts, 302–303
228–229, 234–235 geomagnetic reversal data, 53, 67 environmental issues, 567 mountains
formation processes, 13, 15, 204 heat transfer at, 115 impact on rain forests, 385 of Antarctica, 442
in Grand Canyon, 266 lack of sediments, 276 industrial rocks and minerals, climatic effects, 367, 374, 387,
identifying, 235 as local flow, 361 568–569 398
investigation activity, 234–235 magma chamber formation, 130 precious metal, 562–563 in continental interiors, 315
low porosity, 523 magma formation, 58, 124, 127, subsurface studies with, 356 crustal thickness beneath, 9
in New England, 232–233 163, 274 uranium, 554 erosion and weathering, 399, 454
in Sierra Nevada, 134 metamorphism in, 224 water used in, 520 formation of, 61, 301–305,
study methods, 230–231 as mountain ranges, 48 Minoan civilization, 160 308–311, 322–323
metamorphism plate movements, 58, 62, 274 Miranda, 588 human settlement in, 4
common features, 216–217 rate of movement, 70, 274 Mississippian Period, 252 investigation activity, 326–327
defined, 13 spreading forces, 64 Mississippi Embayment, 502 major locations on Earth, 51
forces of, 204, 218, 220–225 Midway Island, 69 Mississippi River, 499, 500, 502, 508 minerals in, 78
forming mineral deposits, 561, 562 migmatites, 222 Mississippi Valley deposits, 565 rivers and streams in, 505
relation to geologic structures, Milankovitch, Milutin, 422 Missoula, Lake (Montana), 417 seafloor, 48, 50, 53, 276, 278
226–227 Milankovitch cycles, 422 Mitch, Hurricane (Central America, as sedimentary environments,
at subduction zones, 126 Milky Way Galaxy, 255, 575 1998), 509 12, 172
metarhyolite, 219 millibars, 368 mnemonics, 253 southern California, 74–75
Meteor Crater (Arizona), 44–45 mills, 567 modeling streams in, 487, 490, 494–495
meteorites, 41, 44, 255 mill tailings, 567 atoms, 96, 97 variety in North America, 3
meteoroid impacts Mimas, 586, 587 deep processes, 360, 361 water resources in, 5
during Earth’s formation, 114 mineral groups, 86 streams, 497 of western South America, 48,
kinetic energy of, 11 mineralized rocks, 560 subsurface geology, 553 70, 71
mass extinctions from, 259, 261 mineralogists, 82 water table, 529 mouth of a stream, 488
mineral deposits from, 565 mineral resources. See also energy moderately sorted sediments, 179 Mozambique Current, 378
on planets and moons, 576, 578 resources moderator material, 555 mudcracks, 196
as suggested Meteor Crater defined, 540 Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale, 341 mud flats, 191
cause, 45 distribution in North America, Mohorovicic Discontinuity, 359 mudflows
as suggested Upheaval Dome 5, 20 Mohs Hardness Scale, 81 Armero disaster, 163
cause, 47 distribution on Earth, 541 Mojave Desert (California), 386 basic features, 472, 473
methane exploration methods, 566–567 molds (fossil), 246 breccia formation in, 186
coal bed, 548, 550, 571 formation of deposits, 275, 465, mollusks, 259 from composite volcanoes, 152,
in gas hydrate, 550, 551 560–565 moment magnitude, 341 153, 507
as greenhouse gas, 257, 394, modern consumption, 541 monoclines Mount Rainier risk, 167
395, 423 in rain forests, 385 defined, 215 remote detection, 165
on Jupiter, 584 study methods, 42, 43 formation of, 226 mud-sized clasts, 180
I-12
mudstone, 190, 191 nitrogen, 17, 97 nuclear fusion, 18, 554 ocean temperatures, effects on sea
muscovite, 90, 123 nitrous oxides, 394, 395 nuclei (atoms), 96, 114 level, 440
m.y. (millions of years), 36 noble gases, 86, 97 numeric ages, 37 ocean waves. See waves
nodules of chert, 183 nutritional minerals, 77 octahedra, 83
N nomographs, 341 offset layers, 228
nonclastic sedimentary rocks, 182–183 O offset streams, 225, 350
Naples (Italy), 154 nonconformities, 243, 315 offshore breezes, 370
National Center for Earth-surface nonfoliated metamorphic rocks, 219 oblique-slip faults, 212 offshore environments for sandstone
Dynamics, 497 nonmetals, 86 observations formation, 189
National Oceanic and Atmospheric nonrenewable resources, 541, 552 guidelines for, 26–27 Ogallala aquifer (U.S.), 536–537
Administration (U.S.), 349 nonsilicates, 92–93 leading to theories, 40–41 Ohio cross section, 314
National Palace (Haiti), 347 nonvesicular basalt, 144 Meteor Crater, 44–45 O horizon, 462
native elements, 77 nonwelded ash, 109 scientific, 38–39 oil
native minerals, 87 nonwelded tuff, 112 obsidian association with salt deposits,
natural gas normal components, 466 atomic structure, 77 290, 291
coal bed, 548 normal faults basic features, 112 entrapment in sedimentary rocks,
entrapment in sedimentary rocks, basin formation, 306 classifying, 113 23, 198, 541, 544–545
198, 541, 544–545 on continental margins, 288 in volcanic domes, 157 exploration methods, 552–553
exploration methods, 552–553 defined, 213 ocean acidification, 394 formation of, 542–543
formation of, 542–543 earthquakes, 330, 337 ocean basins, 6 fracking to extract, 331, 546–547
Persian Gulf reserves, 540 effects on crustal thickness, 300 ocean-continent convergent Persian Gulf reserves, 540
unconventional sources, 331, metamorphism in, 224 boundaries. See also using geologic histories to find,
546–547, 550, 571 mountain building from, 304 subduction zones 265
using geologic histories to trapping petroleum, 545 basic features, 60 water pollution from, 532
find, 265 normal polarity, 66 magma formation, 127 in Wyoming, 571
in Wyoming, 571 North America metamorphism in, 223 oil fields
natural hazards. See hazardous sites ages of terranes, 318 mountain and basin formation, formation processes, 23, 544
natural resources, 3, 5, 265, 541. See basins in, 307 308, 311 Gulf of Mexico, 291
also energy resources; mineral climatic evolution, 398 ocean currents North Sea, 284
resources in continental drift hypothesis, causes, 10 in Persian Gulf, 285, 540, 541
natural selection, 249 292–293 effects on climate, 380–381, 383, unconventional, 546–547, 551, 571
natural stains, 391 earthquakes and volcanoes in, 395, 423 oil sands, 543, 551
Nazca plate, 70 54–55, 344–345, 362–363 oceanic crust. See also crust of Earth; oil seeps, 543
neap tides, 427 geologic diversity, 2–3 seafloor oil shale, 551, 571
Near Earth Asteroid Rendezvous – glaciers and ice sheets, 407, age, 276, 277 olivine
Shoemaker, 577 416–418, 420–421, 502 approaches to studying, 125 basic features, 91
near-surface fracturing, 176 landslide hazards, 474, 475 in Caribbean, 294 crystallization temperatures, 123
nebulae, 574, 575 mountain formation, 322–323 composition, 8, 125 in Earth’s mantle, 8, 94
negative anomalies, 392 permafrost, 416 thickness, 8, 9, 300 lack of cleavage, 89
negative magnetic anomalies, 67 North American plate oceanic fracture zones, 50, 62, 70 in mafic rock, 113
Neogene Period, 37, 66, 252 fault types, 63, 65 oceanic plateaus, 51, 149, 278–279, Olympic Mountains (Washington), 399
Nepal, 399 Haiti earthquake near, 347 295, 316 Olympus Mons (Mars), 590
Neptune, 19, 575, 589 island arcs, 281 oceanic trenches. See trenches onshore breezes, 370
networks, drainage, 484–485 near Monterey Bay, 271 ocean-ocean convergent boundaries, Ontong Java Plateau, 279
neutrons, 96 North Anatolian fault, 351 60, 126 opal, 103
Nevado del Ruiz volcano (Colombia), North Atlantic Drift, 379 ocean oscillations, 395 open-pit mining, 549, 554, 560, 567
163 northeast trade winds, 371 oceans. See also seafloor; sea-level ophiolite complexes, 125
New Caledonia, 287 Northern Hemisphere changes Opportunity rover, 590, 591
New England geologic history, climate change investigation as carbon dioxide reservoir, 394 orbits
232–233 activity, 444–445 causes of waves, 16 of Earth, 383, 395, 422
New England glacial features, 421 Earth’s tilt in winter, 422 currents, 10, 378–381 of Jupiter, 584
New England Seamount Chain, 131 flood season, 507 earthquakes in, 54 of Moon, 426
New Hampshire rock types, 233 hurricanes, 376 evolution of, 292–293 of outer planets, 588, 589
New Horizons spacecraft, 589 ice ages, 405 glacier interface with, 409 of Saturn, 586
New Madrid earthquake (U.S., low- and high-pressure systems, impact of climate change on, 396 in solar system, 19
1811-1812), 345 375 replenishment, 519 Ordovician Period, 252
new moon, 427, 583 ocean currents, 378, 379 salinity, 254, 451 ores, formation of deposits, 560–565
New Orleans, Mississippi delta near, seasons, 383 sedimentary environments, organic materials, 462, 542, 548. See
500 North Pacific Current, 378 174–175, 189, 191 also vegetation
New Zealand Alps, 347, 496 Northridge earthquake (California, sedimentary evidence of, 196 organisms. See animals; biological
New Zealand earthquakes, 347 1994), 305, 344, 355 small seas within, 282–285 activities; life
Niagara Falls (Canada, U.S.), 503 North Sea, 284 as source of Earth’s water, 518 orientation of features, 34
nickel, 8, 95, 114, 561 Nova Scotia, 3, 427 streams’ connection to, 500–501 original horizontality principle, 238
nickel-sulfide deposits, 565 nuclear energy, 554–555 volcanoes in, 55 Orinoco Basin (Venezuela), 551
Nile River delta, 500 nuclear explosions, 331 weather effects, 370 orogenies, 322–323
I-13
oscillations, ocean, 395 exposed structures in New England Philippines, 55, 281, 287 continent formation, 292–293,
Ouachita Mountains (U.S.), from, 232, 233 Philippine Sea, 282 318–321
321–323 fauna characterizing, 248, 250, Phoenix, Arizona, elevation, 303 dating method based on, 254
outcrops, 33, 449 258, 259 Phoenix Mars Lander, 591 earthquake and volcano evidence,
outer core of Earth, 94 Front Range layers from, 200, 201 phosphate rock, 569 56–57
outer planets, 19, 584–589 on geologic timescale, 36, 37, 252 phosphorus, 102, 569 features resulting from, 68–71
outwash plains, 415, 416 Grand Canyon layers from, 266, photons, 114 forces and movements, 64–65
overburden, 549 267 photosynthesis, 11, 257, 258 formation of Sierra Nevada
overgrazing, 464 Wyoming deposits from, 570, 571 photovoltaic panels, 559 batholith, 135
overland flow, 494 Pangaea, 259, 292, 321, 398 phyllite, 218 formation of South America, 70,
overlapping rock units, 231 Papua New Guinea, 283, 349 physical properties, studying, 35 71
overpumping of groundwater, Papua New Guinea tsunami (1998), physical weathering, 176, 448–449, heat transfer by, 115
530–531, 536–537 349 452–453. See also erosion; importance to life on Earth, 581
Overthrust Belt (Wyoming), 570 parallel beds, 185 weathering mineral exploration based on, 566
overturned folds, 215 parent atoms, 244 piedmont glaciers, 407 mountain formation, 302
Owens Valley (California), 134, 355 Parkfield segment (San Andreas fault), Piedmont Province (U.S.), 318 natural hazards, 72–73, 163, 166
Owens Valley earthquake (California, 353, 354 pillars, 193, 460 shoreline effects, 424
1872), 355 partial melting, 118, 119, 126, 127 pillow basalts studying sites for, 136–137
oxalic acid, 455 parts per million, 534 formation at mid-ocean rifts, theory’s origins, 53, 56–57, 67,
oxbow lakes, 493, 498, 499 passive margins 124, 274 363
oxidation, 176, 451, 457 basic features, 288 from lava eruptions into platforms (carbonate), 286
oxides, 87, 92, 176 as basins, 306 water, 147 platforms (continental), 314
oxygen early Paleozoic, 324 in terranes, 316, 317 platinum deposits, 563
abundance on Earth, 86, 87, 95 formation of, 59, 313 Pinatubo, Mount (Philippines), 164 playas, 390
in Earth’s atmosphere, 17, 257, of South America, 70 placer deposits, 562, 563 Playfair, John, 237
258 passive solar, 559 plagioclase, 90, 94, 123 Pleistocene Epoch, 420, 423
isotopes, 419 pasture lands, 5 plagioclase feldspar, 94, 123 plucking, by glaciers, 410
in nonsilicates, 92 Patagonia Desert, 387 plains, abyssal, 50 plumes (contamination), 534, 535
in Periodic Table, 87, 95, 97 Patagonian Andes, 71, 227, 407 planets plumes (mantle), 128, 149, 278
in silicates, 87, 88 patterned ground, 416, 467 basic features, 18–19, 574–575 plunging folds, 215
as weathering agent, 450, 451 peak discharge, 489 differences between, 578–579 Pluto, 19, 575, 589
oxygenation events, 257 peat, 183, 548 studying, 43, 576–577 plutoids, 589
pebbles, 178, 188, 217, 497 plankton, 260 plutonic rock, 118, 219. See also
P pedalfers, 463 plants. See vegetation granite
pediment, 391 plaster, 568 plutonium, 86
Pacific Coast Highway, 468 pedocals, 463 plastics, 533 plutons
Pacific Decadal Oscillation, 395 pegmatites plateaus. See also Tibetan Plateau dating, 245
Pacific Equatorial Counter Current, classifying, 113 continental, 49, 51 defined, 118, 131
381 crystals, 108, 112 oceanic, 51, 149, 278–279, 295, on geologic maps, 252
Pacific Ocean formation of, 103, 109 316 in Sierra Nevada, 134, 135
in continental drift Pelée eruption (Martinique, 1902), 154 plate boundaries. See also earthquakes; types, 131
hypothesis, 293 Peninsular Ranges (California), 74–75 faults; mid-ocean ridges point bars, 492, 493, 498, 499
currents, 378–380 Pennsylvanian Period, 252 Arabian Peninsula, 540 polar climates, 375
earthquakes, 334, 335 perched lakes, 527 basins near, 308–309 polar easterlies, 371
El Niño and La Niña seasons, 381 perched water, 525 in Caribbean, 294 polarity (magnetic), 66–67
small seas within, 282–283 perennial streams, 489 changes along, 65 polarity (molecular), 100
transform faults, 63 peridotite, 111 continental margins as, 288 polarized light, 76, 80
volcanoes, 61 Periodic Table of Elements, 86–87, convergent, 57, 60–61 pollen records, 421
Pacific plate 97, 99 divergent, 57, 58–59 pollution
fault types, 63, 65 period of waves, 339 earthquakes, 328, 334–337, 345 from coal burning, 549
island arcs, 279, 281, 283 periods in geologic timescale, 252 Indian Ocean, 328 investigation example, 40
near Monterey Bay, 271 permafrost, 416 magma formation at, 58–61, from mining, 555, 567
Pacific Ring of Fire permeability, 523, 524, 543 124–127 radioactive, 555
subduction zones forming, 61, 71 Permian Basin, 307 metamorphism in, 220, 222–225 soils, 464
volcanoes on, 152, 153, 163 Permian Period, 252, 398 mineral deposits in, 566 water, 43, 530, 532–535, 538–539
pahoehoe, 144 Persian Gulf, 49, 285, 306, 540–541 mountain belts near, 302, Polynesia, 287
Painted Desert (Arizona), 266 petrified wood, 246 308–309 Pompeii destruction, 154
Paleogene Period, 37, 252 petroleum, 23, 198, 533, 542. See also natural hazards, 72–73, 163, 166 pool-and-riffle streams, 495
paleomagnetism, 66–67 natural gas; oil near Monterey Bay, 271 pools, 493, 495
Paleozoic Era petroleum basins, 545 transform, 57, 62–63 poorly sorted sediments, 179, 523
Appalachian Mountain formation petroleum geologists, 43 plate tectonics. See also faults; tectonic pore spaces
during, 205 phaneritic rocks, 108 activity fluid pressures in, 206
Catskill Delta formation, 309 phases of Moon, 583 basin formation, 306–311 groundwater in, 198, 522
continental rock from, 318–319 phases of water, 372 boundary types, 57–63 petroleum in, 543, 544, 546
continent formation, 320–324 phenocrysts, 108, 109, 153 climate and, 398–399 in sedimentary rocks, 198
I-14
in sediments, 181 predation, 249, 260 in granite, 110 refraction of seismic waves, 358
porosity, 523 predictions, testing, 40 human use, 102, 103 regional elevations, 9, 300–301,
porphyries preexisting faults, earthquakes in, 337 irregular growth, 83 303, 441
copper deposits, 564, 565, 567 prehistoric slope failures, 476, 477 lack of cleavage, 80, 89 regional metamorphism, 220, 222, 223
formation of, 118 pressure melting temperatures, 127 regional mountain belts, 302–303
magma cooling speed, 122 atmospheric, 10, 368–369 metamorphosed, 218 regional subsidence, 306. See also
texture, 108, 109, 564 compaction from, 181 on Mohs scale, 81, 90 subsidence
positive anomalies, 392 effect on rock responses to stress, weathering of, 177, 452, 453 regional winds, 371
positive feedback, 493 206, 209 quartzite, 218, 452, 569 regressions, 195
positive magnetic anomalies, 67 effects on metamorphism, 204, quartz sandstone, 180 relative age, 29, 238–239
potassium, 90, 97 218, 220 Quaternary Period, 66, 252 relative dating, 238
potassium-argon dating, 245 groundwater under, 525 Queen Charlotte fault, 63, 65 relief, illustrating, 30–32
potassium feldspar. See K-feldspar on magma, 120 quicksand, 465 remediation, groundwater, 535
potassium ions, 451 ranges within Earth, 114–115 remobilization of chemicals in
potential energy, 556 resistance to melting, 116–117 R rock, 221
potentiometric surface, 525 pressure gradients, 369, 370 renewable resources, 541, 558–559
potholes, 486 pressure melting, 410 radar observations, 576, 580 repose, angle of, 466–467, 468
Potomac River (U.S.), 484, 502 pressure solution, 221 radial drainage patterns, 485 reproductive strategies, 249
Powder River Basin (Wyoming), 570, primary body waves, 338 radiant heat transfer, 115 reptiles, 259
571 probability of flooding, 511, 515 radioactive decay reservoirs
power plants profiles, topographic, 32 dating rocks from, 37, 244–245 on Colorado River, 512
fresh water use by, 520 profiles of streams, 488, 490–491 heat from, 10, 114, 115 common uses, 521
hydroelectric, 521, 557 promontories, 430, 432 radioactive waste, 555 defined, 494
nuclear, 554, 555 propagation of waves, 338, 428, 429 rain. See precipitation earthquake hazards, 331
use of coal, 549 protons, 96 raindrops, 372, 373, 494 hydroelectric power from,
Precambrian proxy evidence of past temperatures, rain forests, 384–385 556–557
continental rock from, 318–319 393 Rainier, Mount (Washington), impact on rain forests, 385
continent formation, 320, 324 P-S interval, 340 166–167 rock slides into, 471
exposed structures in New England public water supplies, 520 rain shadows, 374, 387, 398, 503 sediment buildup, 501
from, 232, 233 pull-apart basins, 306 rainy seasons, 367, 382 reservoirs (rock), 544
fauna characterizing, 248 pumice, 112, 113, 159 Rancho La Brea tar pits, 543 residual materials, 561
Front Range layers from, 200, 201 pump-and-treat remediation, 535 Rapid City (South Dakota), 20–21 resistance to weathering, 26, 27, 33
on geologic timescale, 36, 37, 252 punctuated equilibrium, 249 Rapid Creek, 21 resisting forces of tectonic plates, 64
Grand Canyon layers from, 266, Puù Ò ò volcano (Hawaii), 140 rapids, 495 resonance, 339
267 P-waves, 338–340, 359 rates of processes, 36 resurfacing, 578
Wyoming deposits from, 570 P-wave shadow zone, 359 rayed craters, 582, 583 retreat of ice sheets, 420
precession, 422 pyrite, 87, 93 Rayleigh waves, 338 reversed polarity, 66
precious metal deposits, 562–563 pyroclastic eruptions, 142 ray paths (seismic), 360 reverse faults, 213, 304, 306, 330
precipitation. See also water pyroclastic flows recessional moraines, 415, 421 rhombs, 85
causes, 372–375 destruction from, 154, 155, 157 recharge, 526 rhyolite
contribution to groundwater, Mount Rainier risk, 167 reclamation of strip mines, 549 magma cooling speed, 122
522, 537 Mount St. Helens eruption, 139 recreation, water used in, 521 metamorphosed, 219
deserts and, 386–387 rock formation from, 13, 109, recrystallization, 209, 221 minerals in, 111
effects on slope stability, 467, 152, 153 recurrence intervals, 333 relation to volcano danger, 162
468, 473 speeds and temperatures, 142 Redoubt, Mount (Alaska), 363 in volcanic domes, 157, 158
effects on weathering, 454 pyroxenes Red River flood (North Dakota, Richter scale, 341
formation in atmosphere, basic features, 91 1997), 509 ridge push, 64, 345
11, 519 cleavage, 85, 89 Red Rocks Amphitheater, 200 ridges in North American landscape,
impact of climate change on, 396 crystallization temperatures, 123 Red Sea 404, 421
impact on stream discharge, in gabbro, 94 escarpments, 540 ridges of high pressure, 369
503, 510 in mafic rock, 113 formation of, 59, 285 rifts. See also faults; mid-ocean ridges;
of minerals from water, 101, 181, oxidation, 451 future growth, 293 plate tectonics
182, 459, 561 tectonic activity, 49, 59, 285, 312 in Appalachian evolution, 323
monsoon, 367, 382 Q red tube worms, 275 basin formation, 306
mountains’ effect on, 367, 374, reefs continental, 59, 125, 313
387, 398 qualitative data, 34–35 erosion, 431 on continental margins, 284, 288
ocean currents and, 381, 383 quantitative data, 34–35, 38 exposure, 439 failed, 313
in rain forests, 384, 385 quarries, 568 formation of, 194, 286–287 magmatism at, 129, 130
role in floods, 21, 506–509 quarter moon, 427, 583 organic deposits from, 542 metamorphism in, 224
of sediments from water, 15 quartz protective role, 436 at mid-ocean ridges, 58, 224
short-term variations, 382–383 atomic structure, 87, 89 as sedimentary environments, in Persian Gulf, 541
from storms, 376, 377 colors, 80, 90 174, 193 right-angle cleavage, 85
weathering and erosion from, crystallization temperatures, reflected sunlight, 394, 423 right-lateral faults, 213
16, 454 123, 452 reflection of seismic waves, 358 rings of Saturn, 586
precursor events, 353 gold deposits in, 560 refraction of ocean waves, 429, 430 Rio Grande Rift, 325
I-15
rip currents, 429 minerals, 221 shoreline transport and deposition, formation of, 30
ripple marks, 197, 417 rock, 207 431 hazards, 150
rip rap, 435 storms, 376, 377 sand and gravel, 199, 569 as local mountains, 304
risers, 499 Uranus, 588 sandbars, 433, 436, 439 mapping, 30, 31
risks, hazards versus, 150. See also rotational slides, 470 sand dunes with shield volcanoes, 146, 147
hazardous sites rounded clasts, 178 angle of repose, 466 Scotia Island arc, 70, 281
rivers. See also floods; streams rounded features, 456 common forms, 389 Scotland, 149, 236–237
changes over time, 502–503 rovers, 577, 590, 591 in deserts, 389, 390 scouring, 184
defined, 483 rubidium-strontium dating, 245 formation of, 12, 424, 431 scratch marks, 53, 228, 410, 418
as freshwater source, 518 ruby, 103 on Mars, 579, 590 scratch tests, 81
human settlement near, 4 runoff, 16, 503, 519 protective role, 436 sea arches, 432
movement of rocks, 15 Rushmore, Mount (South Dakota), 20 sandstone formation from, 188 sea breezes, 370
as sedimentary environments, 12 rust, 457 as sedimentary environments, sea caves, 432
sedimentary evidence of, 197 172, 175 sea cliffs, 432
road building, 385 S sandstone seafloor
roche moutonnée, 410 basic features, 180, 188 data supporting continental drift,
rock avalanches, 473 safety of geologic features, 4. See also contents of, 77 53, 68
rock cleavage, 205, 216. See also hazardous sites formation of, 188–189 depicting in topographic maps, 2,
cleavage Saharan Desert (Africa), 386 layers, 184, 188 3, 48–51
rock cycle, 14–15 Sahel (Africa), 386 metamorphosed, 218 earthquakes, 54, 328–329
rock falls, 470 salinity permeability, 524, 545 Earth’s major features, 50–51
rock flour, 411 causes in oceans, 451 at Siccar Point, 236, 237 exploration methods, 66–67,
rocks. See also igneous rocks; dating method based on, 254 types, 180 272–273
metamorphic rocks; effect on ocean currents, 380 weathering of, 452, 453 gas hydrate reserves, 550, 551
sedimentary rocks irrigation raising in soils, 464, 532 sandstorms, 388 Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean,
assessing volcano hazards from, saltation, 388, 486 Sandy, Hurricane (2012), 400–401 291, 294–295
162, 168–169 salt deposits. See also halite San Fernando earthquake (California, investigation activity, 296–297
common responses to stress, beneath Mediterranean, 24, 25 1971), 343 major features, 6, 276–277
206–211 Bonneville Salt Flats, 417 San Francisco earthquake (California, mapping, 272–273, 295
of composite volcanoes, 153 in Death Valley, 310 1906), 344, 354 Mediterranean Sea, 24–25
contorted layers, 3 formation of, 290–291 San Francisco gap, 353 metamorphism in, 224
differing responses to weathering, human uses, 198, 569 San Joaquin Basin (California), 307, 531 mineral distributions, 94
453, 456 impermeability, 543 San Juan Mountains (Colorado), 78, Monterey Bay, 270–271
families, 13 removal from oceans, 451 412, 478 mountains on, 48, 50
formation processes, 12–13, 28–29 as suggested Meteor Crater cause, San Rafael Swell (Utah), 215 sediment formation, 12, 68, 94,
gravity’s effects on, 10 45 Santa Fe Springs anticline, 305 174, 191
identifying, 137 as suggested Upheaval Dome Santorini (Greece), 160 shoreline effects, 425, 429
impact of density on regional cause, 47 sapphire, 103 slope failure, 289, 469
elevations, 9 salt domes, 291, 544 satellite radar maps, 165, 400 study methods, 43
impact of type on stream systems, salt flats, 25, 390 satellite studies volcanoes in, 55
491 salt formation, 451 climate change, 392 seafloor spreading. See also mid-ocean
laboratory studies, 35 salt glaciers, 291 faults, 351 ridges; plate tectonics
major processes affecting, 14–15 Salton Sea (California), 75, 512 land surfaces, 30, 31 in Appalachian evolution, 323
melting of, 116–117 Salton Trough (California), 75 planets, 576 from continental rifting, 59, 224,
minerals versus, 76–79 salt water, 17, 254, 451 seafloor, 272 295, 313
observing colors, 26, 27 saltwater incursion, 531 shorelines, 437 data supporting, 67, 68
oldest on Earth, 255 salt wedging, 430 uplift, 299, 441 discovery, 53
porosity and permeability, 523, 524 samarium-neodymium dating, 245 volcanoes, 161 forces of, 58
relative age, 29 San Andreas fault (California) saturated zone, 522, 537 measurement, 66–67
in volcanic domes, 157 basins along, 307 Saturn, 19, 575, 576, 586–587 metamorphism with, 224
rock salt, 93, 183, 569. See also halite earthquake forecasting, 353–355 scablands, 417 in Red Sea, 59, 285, 312
rock slides, 186, 470–471 field studies, 350, 353, 355 scarps, 471, 472 sea level effects, 398, 440
rock units, 26, 33, 230 hazards, 352, 353 scars, floodplain, 493 sea ice, 396, 409, 501
rock varnish, 241, 391 offset features, 225 schistosity, 216, 218 sea-level changes. See also tides
Rocky Mountain Arsenal, 331 origins, 325 schists with Antarctic ice sheet melting,
Rocky Mountains, 9, 200–201, 303 as transform fault, 63, 337 expression in landscapes, 229 442–443
Rodinia supercontinent, 320, 323 San Andreas Fault Observatory at foliation, 216 causes, 404, 440–441
roll-fronts, 554 Depth, 351 formation of, 218, 219 climate change and, 396
Ronne-Filchner ice shelf, 442 San Cristobal, Lake (Colorado), 478 in Swiss Alps, 223 effects on continental interiors,
root wedging, 176, 449, 455, 457 sand Schmitt, Harrison, 577 315, 325
Rosetta spacecraft, 589 in braided streams, 497 scientific method, 38–41, 393 evidence in rock layers, 185
Ross ice shelf (Antarctica), 442 classifying, 178 scoria, 112, 113, 144 hydroelectric power from, 557
rotating fault blocks, 310 formation of, 430, 453 scoria cones impact on stream profiles, 491, 503
rotation human use, 199, 569 basic features, 141, 144–145 in Mediterranean history, 25
Earth, 10, 371, 376, 422, 426 oil bearing, 543, 551 factors affecting slopes, 466 resulting landforms, 438–439
I-16
seals, 544 stream transport, 424, 482–483, sheet silicates, 89 sinuosity of streams, 492, 493
seamounts, 50, 69, 276, 278 486–493, 495–497 shelled organisms sketching
Sea of Japan, 282 transport by wind, 388–389, 424 evolution of, 258 geologic concepts, 17
seasons varied sequences, 194–197 in limestone, 182, 192 landscapes, 27
causes, 19, 383 from weathering of mountains, preservation, 246, 247 rock units, 27, 33, 230
long-term changes in, 422 303, 309 Sherman Glacier (Alaska), 362 skylights, 459
stream discharge variations, 489 seeps (oil), 543 shield volcanoes slab pull, 64
sea stacks, 432 seismic activity. See earthquakes; basic features, 141 slash-and-burn practices, 385
sea-surface temperatures seismic waves distribution on Earth, 163 slates, 218
global patterns, 380 seismic gaps, 353 formation of, 146–147 slips, 469
impact of climate change on, 396, seismic-hazard maps, 352 hazards, 162 slope aspect, 454
397 seismicity. See earthquakes Shiprock (New Mexico), 133 slopes. See also landslides
long-term data, 392 seismic rays, 358 Shoemaker-Levy 9 comet, 578 of drainage basins, 484
oscillations, 395 seismic-reflection profiles, 273 shorelines. See also beaches; effect on clast sizes, 179
seawalls, 435, 436 seismic-reflection surveys, 356, 552 continental margins effects of orientation on
secondary body waves, 338 seismic stations, 330, 340 environmental changes, 194–195 weathering, 454
secondary effects of earthquakes, 343 seismic tomography, 360, 361 erosion and deposition, 430–433, human settlement near, 4
second-order streams, 485 seismic waves 500–501 identifying failure risks, 446,
sedimentary copper deposits, 564 causes, 330–331 landforms, 432–433 474–477, 480–481
sedimentary environments, 170–175 detecting and interpreting, 43, major processes affecting, interpreting in landscapes, 26–27
See also sedimentary rocks 338–341 424–431 mapping, 31, 32–33
sedimentary facies, 194, 195, 263 modes of travel, 338, 358 risks of living on, 434–437 stability and failure processes,
sedimentary rocks subsurface studies with, 356–361, sandstone formation, 189 466–473
in Black Hills, 20, 21 552, 553 as sedimentary environments, terracing, 464
clastic types, 180–181 seismograms, 339–341, 365 174–175 underwater failure, 289, 469
clast origins and features, 176–179 seismographs, 339 silt and clay from, 191 Slumgullion landslide (Colorado),
common metamorphosed types, seismologists, 43, 338, 340 short-term earthquake predictions, 353 478–479
218 seismometers, 164, 339–341 Siberian Traps, 149, 259 slumps, 470
in continental interiors, 314, 315 semiarid regions, 386 Siccar Point (Scotland), 236–237 smelters, 567
dating from fossils, 37, 238, sequences of events, 29 Sierra Nevada batholith (California), Smith, Bob, 39
250–251 serpentine, 87 131, 134–135, 325 Smith, William, 251
formation processes, 13, 180–183, settlement. See human settlement Sigsbee Escarpment (Gulf of Mexico), Snake River (U.S.), 516–517
186–193 shaded-relief maps, 30, 31 291 Snake River Plain (Idaho)
fossil fuel explorations, 552 shadow zones, 359 silica, 89, 113, 181, 246. See also formation of, 39, 161, 312
Front Range foothills, 200–201 shale silicates water resources, 516–517
in Grand Canyon, 266 basic features, 180, 190 silica sand, 569 snowfields, 409
human uses, 198–199 colors, 203 silicates snowflakes, 372, 373, 408
interpreting history of, 202–203, formation of, 190–191 abundance, 87, 90 snowmelt
262–263 fossils in, 258 common types, 89, 90–91 as cause of flooding, 507
interpreting in landscapes, 26–27 impermeability, 523, 524, 543, 546 crystal structures, 88–89 contribution to groundwater, 522
layering principles, 184–185 interlayered with sandstone, 189 effects on magma viscosity, 121, impact on stream discharge, 489,
nonclastic types, 182–183 landslide hazards, 475 143 503, 510
relative dating principles, 238–239 metamorphosed, 218, 219 silicon soda example, 143
varied sequences, 194–197 oil-rich, 546–547, 551, 571 abundance on Earth, 86, 87, 95 sodium
water in, 198, 522 shale gas and oil, 546–547 effect of crystallization on magma atomic structure, 96
sediment budgets, 431 Shasta, Mount, 167 content, 123 bonding in halite, 77, 82–83, 93
sediment loads, 486, 488 shatter cones, 565 human use, 102 dissolution and precipitation from
sediments. See also deposition shear components, 466 in silicates, 87, 88 halite, 100–101
accumulation in dams, 501, 557 shearing synthetic, 89 human use, 102
angle of repose, 466 at convergent plate boundaries, silicone, 89 in Periodic Table, 97
clast origins and features, 176–179 223 sills, 132, 239 in silicates, 90, 91
compaction and cementation, 181, within glaciers, 409, 411 silt soft-rock geologists, 552
531 in landslides, 479 accumulation in dams, 557 soil pollution, 464
environments producing, 170–175 metamorphism with, 216, 217, classifying, 178 soil profiles, 462, 463, 479
formation of, 12, 171 225, 226 in deltas, 500 soils
glacial transport, 16, 173, 406, rock responses to, 208, 221 glacial, 416 age determination from, 241
410–412, 414 shear zones in sandstone, 188 formation of, 457, 462–463
ground shaking of, 342, 344 defined, 208 sedimentary rock formation from, importance to humans, 4, 464–465
impact on coral, 286 evidence in rock layers, 217 190–191 in rain forests, 384
porosity and permeability, 523 expression in landscapes, 229 siltstone, 180, 188, 190, 191 role in ecosystems, 43
in rock cycle, 14–15 formation of, 225, 226 Silurian Period, 252 water in, 518
seafloor, 12, 68, 94, 274, 276, 288 sheeted dikes, 124 silver, 562 solar energy
shoreline transport and deposition, sheet erosion, 494 simple craters, 256 climate change and, 394, 422–423
424, 431 sheetlike plutons, 131 simulations, 42 effects on Earth’s atmosphere, 371,
soils versus, 462 sheetrock, 568 sinkholes, 193, 458, 460, 461 374, 394
I-17
solar energy—Cont. spits, 433 streak tests, 81 defined, 212, 213
harnessing, 559 splash erosion, 494 stream capture, 494 earthquakes, 330, 332, 336
major effects on Earth, 10, 11, 394 Split Mountain (Utah), 505 stream channels. See also floods metamorphism in, 225
role in hydrologic cycle, 519 spreading centers, 58 bends in, 492–493 strip mining, 549
variation, 394, 395 springs, 16, 192, 516, 526. See also braided, 172, 187, 492, stromatolites, 246, 248, 257, 258
weathering and, 454 hot springs 495–497 structurally controlled drainage
solar nebula, 256 spring tides, 427 buried, 357 patterns, 485
solar system stabilized dunes, 389 conglomerate formation in, 187 subbituminous coal, 548
age of, 255 stable isotopes, 393 erosion and deposition, 486–487 subduction, 60, 220
basic features, 18–19, 574–575 stains, iron oxide, 391 floods versus normal flows, subduction zones
exploration methods, 576–577 stalactites, 393, 459 506–507 along West Coast (U.S.), 63, 166
forces shaping planets, 578–581 stalagmites, 459 formation in mountains, 487, basic features, 60
formation of, 574 star dunes, 389 494–495 basins in, 308
inner planet geology, 580–581, states of matter, 83 identifying rocks in, 28 earthquakes, 334–336
590–591 stationary fronts, 374, 375 incision process, 495, extension in, 311
Moon geology, 582–583 steam eruptions, 164 503–505 forces of, 64
outer planets, 584–589 steel, 102, 457 increase in size, 488 heat transfer at, 115
solar wind, 574 steep slopes. See also slopes judging flood danger, 264 Indian Ocean, 328
solidification of rock, 14 defined, 32 modifying, 493, 503 island arcs at, 280–281
solids, 83, 116 effect on clast sizes, 179 offset, 225 magma formation, 126–127,
solifluction, 472 effects on weathering, 454 sandstone formation in, 188 130, 166
solvent pollution, 533 landslides on, 12 stream flow. See discharge metamorphism in, 220, 222–223
sonar, 272 risk assessment, 477 stream order, 485 mountains in, 302, 308
Sonoran Desert (Arizona), 386 terracing, 464 streams Ring of Fire as, 61, 71
sorting of sediments, 179, 187 Stegosaurus, 260, 261 base levels, 490, 500–501 trenches as, 60, 276
sound waves, 272, 273. See also steppes, 386 bends in, 492–493 of western South America, 71
seismic waves St. George (Utah), 22–23 braided, 172, 187, 492, subglacial channels, 410, 414
source areas for magmas, 118 St. Helens, Mount, eruption 495–497 sublimation, 408, 519
source rocks, 542, 543 (Washington, 1980) changes along, 488–489 submarine canyons
South Africa, 53, 563, 565 changes to mountain’s form from, changes over time, 502–503 Baltimore Canyon, 288
South America 138 defined, 483, 484 formation of, 289
in continental drift hypothesis, 52, damages, 2, 139 disappearing, 459, 460, 516 Monterey Bay, 270–271
68, 292–293 debris flows, 474, 476 erosion and deposition, 240, sedimentation in, 174
differing coastline features, 48, event described, 139, 155 486–487, 490–495 submarine deltas, 175
70–71 mudflows, 165, 507 floods versus normal flows, submarine fans, 271, 289
earthquakes and volcanoes in, preceding events, 155 506–507 submarine slope failures, 289, 348,
54–55, 335 stick-slip behavior, 332 flow measurement, 510 469, 551
flood basalts, 149 stocks, 131 low-gradient, 498–499 submarine trenches. See trenches
South American plate, 70, 71, 281 Stone Mountain (Georgia), 305 major features, 484–485 submergent coasts, 438
Southampton (U.K.), 427 storms. See also climate; precipitation; offset, 225, 350 submersibles, 272, 273
Southeast Asian rain forests, 384 weather polluted, 533 subsidence
southeast trade winds, 371 formation of, 376–377 profiles, 488, 490–491 due to cooling of underlying rock,
Southern Alps (New Zealand), 347, Hurricane Sandy (2012), 400–401 relation to water tables, 527 300
399, 496 impact of climate change on, 396, as sedimentary environments, 172, from earthquakes, 343, 363
Southern Hemisphere 397 173 from groundwater withdrawal, 531
Coriolis effect, 376 on Jupiter, 584 shoreline effects, 424, 431 impact on stream profiles, 491
glaciers in, 407 shoreline effects, 425, 431, 434 stream systems regional, 306
low- and high-pressure systems, storm surges, 434, 436 changes along, 488–489, 503 tectonic, 398
375 St. Pierre disaster (Martinique), 154 profiles, 488, 490–491 subsistence farming, 385
ocean currents, 378, 379 strain, 207, 332 stream tables, 497 subsurface depictions, 33, 553
seasons, 383 Strait of Georgia, 170 stream terraces, 499, 504. See also subsurface investigations, 43,
spacecraft Strait of Gibraltar, 24, 25 terraces 356–361, 552–553
asteroid and comet studies, 577 stratigraphic sections stream valleys, 31 subtropical deserts, 387
gas giant studies, 585–587 basic features, 33 strength of rock, 206, 207, 211 subtropics, 375
major types, 577 Front Range foothills, 201 stress. See also earthquakes; faults Sudbury nickel-sulfide deposits
Mars studies, 581, 590–591 Grand Canyon, 267 common effects on rocks, 206–211 (Ontario), 565
to Moon, 582 interpreting history from, 203, defined, 206 sulfates, 87, 93
SP Crater (Arizona), 30, 31, 32 262–263 faulting from, 332–333 sulfides, 87, 93, 275, 564
species survival, 249. See also sample sedimentary sequences, forming cleavage in metamorphic sulfur, 95
extinctions 195, 197 rocks, 216 sulfur dioxide
specific gravity, 81 Upheaval Dome, 47 stress fields, 206 from coal burning, 549
spent fuel rods, 555 stratigraphy, 251 striations, 90, 93, 228, 410 as indicator of volcanic eruptions,
spherical weathering, 456 stratovolcanoes, 152. See also strike, 212 164
spheroidal weathering, 456 composite volcanoes strike-slip faults released with flood basalts, 149
Spirit rover, 591 streak plates, 81 basin formation, 306 from volcanoes, 150, 151
I-18
sulfuric acid Taconic Mountains (New England), in calderas, 158, 159 time-travel plots, 340
dissolution of limestone, 459 233 defined, 142 Titan, 586, 587
from mine tailings, 567 Taconic orogeny, 322, 323 hazards from fall of, 154 titanium analyses, 129
in Venus’s atmosphere, 580 Tahiti, 279 rock formation from, 153 toes of slope failures, 472
from volcanoes, 150, 151 tailings, 567 terminal moraines, 412, 415 Tohoku earthquake (Japan, 2011), 346
Sumatra-Java island arc, 281, 282 talc, 81, 102 terminations, 83, 228 tombstones, 455, 457
Sumatran earthquake (2004), 328–329. talus. See also clasts; sediments termini of glaciers, 408, 410–412 Tonga trench, 281, 283
See also Indian Ocean angle of repose, 466, 468 terraces topaz, 81
tsunami (2004) formation of, 191, 449 above streams, 241, 499, 504 topographic maps, 30, 31, 48–51, 479
Sun talus slopes, 449, 466, 468 marine, 432, 439 topographic profiles
birth of, 574 Tarim Basin, 298, 299 terracing, 464 defined, 32
electromagnetic energy, 10, 11 tarns, 413 terranes, tectonic, 316–318 mid-ocean ridges, 274
forces affecting Earth, 10, 11, 375 tar pits, 543 terrestrial planets, 18 North America, 303
gravitational effects, 10, 427 tar sands, 543, 551 Tertiary Period, 252 North Anatolian fault, 351
role in hydrologic cycle, 519 tectonic activity. See also plate testing hypotheses, 40 Tibetan Plateau, 299, 399
role in solar system, 18 tectonics tests to identify minerals, 81 topographic relief, 32
sunlight. See solar energy Arabian Peninsula, 540 Tethys Sea, 285, 292, 293, 321 topography, visual representations,
sunspot activity, 394, 395, 423 Caribbean, 294 Teton Dam failure (Idaho, 1976), 507 30–33, 48–51
supercell thunderstorms, 377 climate and, 398–399 tetrahedra, 83, 88–89, 99 Topsail Island (North Carolina), 434
supercontinents continent formation, 292–293, Texas, crustal thickness beneath, 9 topsoil, 462
Africa and South America in, 71 318–321 texture, 78, 108–109, 112 tornado alley, 377
in continental drift hypothesis, dating method based on, 254 theories, 40–41 tornadoes, 377, 397
52–53 defined, 56 Thera, 160, 281 tourmaline, 74, 110
at end of Paleozoic Era, 259, 292 effects on continental interiors, thermal expansion, 176, 449 trace fossils, 247
in future, 293 315 thermoelectric power, 520 trackways, 247
since Precambrian, 320–322 effects on metamorphism, 220, thermohaline conveyor, 380, 396 traction, 486
superposed streams, 505 222–225 thermometer records, 392 trade winds, 371
superposition principle, 238 effects on streams, 491, 503 thin films of carbon, 246 trading location for time, 28
superstorms, 400–401 importance to life on Earth, 581 thin sections, 76, 80 Transantarctic Mountains, 442
surface area for weathering, 449, 453 magma movement with, 120 Thistle landslide (Utah, 1983), 474 transform faults, 62–63, 336, 337, 540
surface area of planets, 579 mineral exploration based on, 566 thorium decay, 245 transform plate boundaries
surface currents in oceans, 378–379, patterns on Earth, 56–57 Thousand Springs (Idaho), 516, 517 Arabian Peninsula, 540
381 on planets and moons, 578, 579, thrust faults basic features, 57
surface features, depicting, 30–34 585 defined, 213 earthquakes, 330
surface waters, 516, 526–527. See also relation to volcano danger, 163 earthquakes, 330, 336, 337, 363 metamorphism in, 225
lakes; streams shoreline effects, 424 effects on crustal thickness, 301 types, 62–63
surface waves, 338 studying sites for, 136–137 metamorphism in, 223 transgressions, 194, 199
surf zone, 429, 430 tectonic settings, 163 mountain and basin formation, transition metals, 86, 95, 97
surveys tectonic stresses, 211, 220 304, 306, 309, 325 transpiration, 519
data gathering with, 34, 39 tectonic subsidence, 398 occurrence with folds, 226, 227 transport agents. See also weathering
geophysical, 356, 357, 553 tectonic terranes, 316–318 trapping petroleum, 545 common types, 14–16
monitoring volcanoes with, 165 telescopic observations, 576 thrust sheets, 213, 223 effect on clast sizes, 179
shoreline, 436 temperate rain forests, 384 thunderstorms, 377 glaciers, 16, 173, 406, 410–412,
slope topography, 476 temperatures. See also heat Tibet, 54 414
suspended loads, 486, 489 in Earth’s atmosphere, 11 Tibetan Plateau in rock cycle, 14, 15
suspension, 388, 486 effects on gas pressure, 368 basic features, 49, 298–299 shoreline, 430–431, 433
Susquehanna River, 204 effects on lithospheric thickness, 9 climatic effects, 367, 399 streams, 486–487
swamps, 173, 518, 548. See also effects on magma viscosity, 121 elevation, 49, 51, 298 winds, 388–389
wetlands effects on metamorphism, 218, formation of, 61, 302 transportation, water used in, 521
swash zones, 429, 431 220–222 glaciers, 407 transverse dunes, 389
swaths, lidar, 437 effects on regional elevation, 300 tidal bulges, 426 travertine, 182, 192, 459
S-waves, 338–341, 359 effects on rock responses to stress, tidal flats, 175, 290, 424 tree rings, 254, 265, 393
S-wave shadow zone, 359 206, 209 tidal forces on Jupiter’s moons, 585 trenches
swell (waves), 429 effects on weathering, 450, 454 tidal range, 427 basic features, 51
swelling clays, 465 global increases, 392–397 tides, 424, 426–427, 557 as basins, 308
Swiss Alps, 223 as indicator of volcanic eruptions, till, 411, 415, 418 in Caribbean, 294
sylvite, 290 164 tillite, 418 deepest, 51, 282
synclines, 214, 226, 227 for oil and gas formation, 542 tilted fault blocks, 226, 229, 231, 310 earthquakes, 54, 283, 334, 335
synthetic crystals, 77 phases of water and, 372 tiltmeters, 165 formation of, 60, 276, 280, 281
of planets, 577, 580 tilt of Earth, 383, 395, 422 near Japan, 49
T ranges within Earth, 114–115 tilt of Uranus, 588 of western South America, 48, 70
sea level effects, 440 time, as factor in weathering, 455 trench rollback, 280
table salt, 77, 82. See also halite temporary base levels, 501 time, trading locations for, 28 triangulation, 340
Tacoma, Washington, 166–167 tension, rock responses to, 208, 210 time periods, 36–37, 248, 252–253. Triassic Period, 252, 260
Taconic Arc, 323 tephra See also ages tributaries, 240, 485, 488
I-19
Triceratops, 261 unconventional resources, 546–547, valley glaciers, 407, 408, 412 volcanic gases, 34, 150, 164
trichloroethylene contamination, 534, 550–551, 571 Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes volcanic glass, 77, 108, 109, 112, 157
535 undercutting slopes, 467, 468 (Alaska), 156 volcanic islands, sand of, 189
trilobites, 250, 258, 259 underground mines, 549, 563, 567 valleys volcanic necks, 133
triple junctions, 63 underground storage tanks, 40, 532 formation by glaciers, 412–413 volcanic rock. See igneous rocks
Tristan da Cunha, 279 underthrust plates, 309 glacier formation in, 406–408 volcanic tremors, 331
Triton, 589 uniformitarianism, 237 mapping, 31 volcanoes. See also hazardous sites;
trona, 92, 102 United States earthquake hazards, 335, near volcanoes, 162 magma; St. Helens, Mount,
tropical cyclones, 397 344–345, 352 vanadium analyses, 129 eruption (Washington, 1980)
tropical rain forests, 384 unloading joints, 211, 410, 448 Vancouver, British Columbia, 170, 171 in Afar region (East Africa), 312
tropical soils, 463 unloading landmasses, 441 varves, 254 atoll formation from, 286, 287
tropics, weathering in, 454 unsaturated zone, 522, 536 vegetation as cause of flooding, 151, 507
troughs in continents, 404, 421 Unzen, Mount (Japan), 157 coal formation from, 548 climatic effects, 398, 423
troughs of low pressure, 369 updrafts, 369, 377 in deltas, 483, 501 data gathering examples, 38, 42
troughs of waves, 428 Upheaval Dome, 46–47 impact on stream channels, 497, dating, 162, 245
troy ounces, 563 uplift 501 defining features, 140
tsunamis. See also Indian Ocean of Black Hills and Rapid City, monsoon impact on, 382 disasters from, 154–155
tsunami (2004) 20, 21 organic deposits from, 542 distribution on Earth, 55–57
with 1964 Alaskan earthquake, in caldera formation, 161 in permafrost, 416 earthquakes with, 154, 155, 164,
344, 363 cliff formation from, 23 rain forest, 384 331
defined, 328, 342 common causes, 301, 313 relation to soils, 463, 464 in Earth’s early history, 256, 257
formation of, 348–349 at convergent plate boundaries, 60 soil stabilization by, 424, 425, 436 eruption styles, 142–143
as portion of earthquake damage, due to isostatic rebound, 303, 441 vulnerability of soils without, 388, geologic evidence, 23, 106
347 from earthquakes, 343, 350, 363 389, 464 human settlement near, 4, 150–151,
with Tohoku earthquake, 346 effects on streams, 491, 503 water in, 518, 519 154–155, 160, 166–167
tsunami warning systems, 346, 349 erosion versus, 303, 399 as weathering agent, 176, 449, 455, island formation from, 69, 278,
tube wells, 533 fractures caused by, 211 457 280
tube worms, 275 in Grand Canyon, 267 wetland, 173 judging danger from, 162–169,
tuff of Himalaya range, 299 veins 264
basic features, 112 measuring, 441 formation of, 208, 209 mountain building from, 304, 308
classifying, 113 melting with, 117 mineral deposits in, 561–563 over hot spots, 128
formation of, 153, 157, 159 Peninsular Ranges, 75 velocity in river channels, 488 on planets and moons, 578, 579,
Tully Valley landslide (New York, in rock cycle, 14, 15 Venezuela landslide disaster, 446–447 585, 590
1993), 474 shoreline, 425 Venus, 18, 574, 576, 580 at plate boundaries, 60–61, 363
turbidity currents of Sierra Nevada batholith, 135 Vermont rock types, 233 predicting eruptions, 163–165
conglomerate formation in, 187 weathering from, 398 vertical exaggeration, 22 quantitative versus qualitative data,
erosive force, 271, 289 in Yellowstone National Park, 39, vertical joints, 210 34
sandstone formation from, 189 161 vertical surface waves, 338 relation to plate movements, 56–57,
sediment movement in, 174, 189, upper-level circulation patterns, 397 vesicular rocks, 109, 112, 144, 523 363
271 upper mantle composition, 8, 9 Vesta, 577 rock formation from, 13, 118–119
turbines, 556–558 Upper Mississippi River, 502 Vesuvius, Mount (Italy), 154 slope failures from, 467, 474, 476,
turbulence, 487 upper unconformity in Grand Canyon, Victoria Crater (Mars), 590 477
Turkey, 1999 earthquake, 351 266, 267 Vine, Frederick, 67 as suggested Meteor Crater cause,
Turnagain Heights (Alaska), 362 upright folds, 215 Virgin River (Utah), 22 45
typhoons, 376 Ural Mountains, 51, 315 viscosity, 121, 143, 487 tsunamis from, 348
Tyrannosaurus rex, 260, 261 uranium viscous magma, 121 types, 30, 141, 144–147, 152–153
radioactive decay, 114, 245, 554 voids, 103 types of magma chambers beneath,
U as sedimentary deposits, 198, 554 volatiles, 121, 548 133
in Wyoming, 571 volcanic ash Voyager spacecraft, 586, 588
ultimate base level, 490 Uranus, 19, 575, 588 climatic effects, 423 V-shaped valleys, 495
ultramafic rocks, 111, 113, 124, 563 urbanization, 507. See also human drift of, 152
ultraviolet imaging, 576 settlement formation of, 118, 142 W
ultraviolet radiation, 11 U.S. Geological Survey, 533 hazards, 150
unconfined aquifers, 525, 536 U-shaped valleys, 412, 413 Mount St. Helens eruption, 139 wallboard, 568
unconformities U.S. National Seismic Network, 340 rock formation from, 13, 106, 109, warm fronts, 374, 375
beneath continental 159 Wasatch Front (Utah), 343, 475
platforms, 314 V types, 109 washes, 390
dating, 253, 262 volcanic bombs, 144, 150 wastewater injection, 331, 533
in Grand Canyon, 266, 267 Vaiont disaster (Italy), 471 volcanic breccia, 109, 112, 113 water. See also oceans; precipitation;
groundwater in, 526 validity of observations, 38 volcanic domes streams
interpreting, 242–243 Valles Caldera (New Mexico), in calderas, 158, 159 chemical weathering by, 176, 177,
at Siccar Point, 237 106–107, 158 with composite volcanoes, 141, 182, 450, 451
trapping petroleum, 545 Valles Marineris (Mars), 590 152, 153 density, 35
uranium deposits on, 554 Valley and Ridge Province (U.S.), formation of, 141, 156–157 dissolution of limestone, 193,
unconsolidated materials, 469 204–205, 323 volcanic fields, 145 458–461
I-20
distribution on Earth, 17, 518–519 surface water interactions, from precipitation, 16, 454 electric power generation from,
in Earth’s atmosphere, 16, 17, 526–527 in rock cycle, 14, 15 558, 559
372–375 wells into, 525, 530–531, 534 role in sediment formation, 171 material transport by, 388–389,
effect on magma viscosity, 121 water vapor role in soil formation, 462 424
effects on minerals, 100–101 in Earth’s atmosphere, 11, 16, 17, showing in stratigraphic sections, relation to volcano danger, 162
effects on rocks at depth, 206, 209 518 33 shoreline effects, 424, 431
effects on slope stability, 467, 473 as greenhouse gas, 394 variables affecting, 452–455 silt transport by, 190
electric power generation from, relation to precipitation, water pollution from, 532 in storms, 376, 377
521, 556–558 372–374 weathering rind, 456 upper-level, 397
fresh water uses, 520–521 sources, 11 weather maps, 369, 375 wind streaks, 389
gravity’s effects on, 10 waterways, 521 Wegener, Alfred, 52, 53 Winter Park (Fla.) sinkhole, 460
groundwater accumulation and wave base, 428 weight, 35 Wizard Island, 158
flow, 16, 198, 519, 522–527 wave-cut notches, 430, 439 welded textures, 109 Woburn, Massachusetts, 535
groundwater exploration, wave-cut platforms, 430, 432, 439 welded tuff, 112, 162 worm burrows, 247
528–529 wave height, 428 wells, 525, 530–531, 533, 534 Wrangellia (Alaska), 317, 325
impact on melting temperatures, wave interference, 429 well-sorted sediments, 179, 523 Wyoming energy resources, 570–571
117, 126, 127 wavelength, 428 West Antarctica ice sheets, 442–443
on Jupiter’s moons, 585 waves westerlies, 371
leaching in soils, 462 basic features, 338 Western Australian Current, 378 Y
magma cooling by, 122, 145 causes, 16, 428–429 western United States geologic history,
Yangtze River flood (China, 1931),
on Mars, 574, 579, 590, 591 effects on delta sediments, 501 324–325
509
mineral precipitation from, 13, hazards from, 434 West Wind Drift, 378
Yellowstone National Park
181–183 shoreline effects, 424, 425, wetlands
(Wyoming)
molecular structure, 98–100 430–431 coal formation, 548
calderas, 161, 312
on Moon, 583 weather. See also climate; precipitation formation of, 527
hot spot beneath, 312
movement on Earth, 16 climate versus, 366, 393 as freshwater source, 518
volcanic data, 38, 39
oil separation from, 543 drought patterns, 383 as sedimentary environments, 173,
Yellowstone River (U.S.), 511
physical weathering by, 16, 176, impact of climate change on, 396, 182
Yosemite National Park (California),
449 397 Whirlpool Galaxy, 575
76–77
role in ecosystems, 43 precipitation, 372–375 whirlwinds, 388
Yucatán Peninsula (Mexico), 261, 287,
role in metamorphism, 220 severe, 400–401 white asbestos, 87
294
on Saturn’s moons, 587 winds, 368–371, 388–389 whitecaps, 429
Yucca Mountain (Nevada), 555
sedimentary evidence of, 197 weather fronts, 374, 375 White Cliffs of Dover (England), 183
Yukon Delta (Alaska), 482–483
waterfalls, 495 weathering. See also erosion White Mountain batholith (New
Yukon River, 483
water-level indicators, 528 chemical processes, 176, 448, Hampshire), 131
water pollution, 43, 530, 532–535, 567 450–451 wildfires, 467
water resources, 5, 17, 34 of clasts, 176–177 Williston Basin, 547 Z
water table. See also groundwater copper deposits, 565 Wind Caves National Park (South
defined, 522 forming mineral deposits, 561 Dakota), 20 Zagros Mountains (Iran), 285, 540,
geometry, 524 major physical causes, 176, Wind River Range (Wyoming), 570 541
human-induced changes, 530–531, 448–449 winds zinc deposits, 565
536–537 observing in landscapes, 26, 27, causes, 10, 11, 368–371 Zion National Park (Utah), 22
mapping, 529 456–457 effects on oceans, 16, 428, 429 zones of accumulation, 408, 462
measuring, 528 on planets and moons, 579 effects on planets, 579, 590 zones of leaching, 462
I-21

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exploring

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Homework and Adaptive Learning

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CHAPTER 1: THE NATURE OF GEOLOGY............................................. 2

2.1 What Can We Observe in Landscapes? 26

8.1 How Do Rocks Respond to Stress? 206

12.4 What Causes Earthquakes Along 13.5 How Do Hurricanes, Tornadoes,

17.1 Where Does Water Occur on Our Planet? 518

TELLING THE STORY . . .

Weathering, Soil, and TOP ICS IN T H IS CHAPTER

rey29639_ch15_446-481.indd 446 09/15/17 09:43 PM

Exploring Geology promotes inquiry and science

Information from working memory is

When information from long-term

Cognitive scientists also speak about two

in working memory. For information

ponents, as most geoscience information response to a decrease

of information, on transferring informa-

tion from working memory to long-term

tion with our existing mental framework.

WHY ARE THERE SO MANY FIGURES?

This textbook contains more than 2,500

174 Sedimentary Environments and Rocks 175

7.2 What Sedimentary Environments 07.02.a5 Namibia

Are Near Shorelines and in Oceans?

07.02.a3 Akumal, Mexico

4. Away from the shoreline, many landmasses are

so that students can build a more coherent view of the environment or

Exploring Geology focuses on the most important geologic concepts and

The style of illustrations in Exploring Geology was designed to be more

What Types of Rocks and Landscapes Characterize Domes?

Expression in the Landscape

This book consists of two-page spreads, most of

in southern Japan. The top of

edly between 1990 and 1995. The collapsing

domes unleashed more than 10,000 small 06.09.c1 Newberry volcano, OR

1. Some parts of domes cool rapidly

pyroclastic flows (top photograph) toward the

which a volcanic dome can grow.

Explain or sketch how a volcanic

volcanologists and other onlookers to the moun-

occurred previously. This larger flow killed 43

Growth of a Dome Collapse or Destruction of a Dome 06.09.c5 Newberry volcano, OR

Describe how you might recognize

06.09.b3 longer be held. Describe how you might recognize

rey29639_ch06_138-169.indd 156 08/04/17 10:59 AM

rey29639_ch06_138-169.indd 157 08/04/17 10:59 AM

HOW IS THIS BOOK ORGANIZED?

Concept sketches are an excellent way to actively engage

TWO-PAGE SPREADS The next-to-last two-page spread in each chapter is a Connections

How Do We Explore for Groundwater?

In the distance are snow-covered

1.7 How Do the Atmosphere, Water, and Life I nteract