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Satellite Communications
Unit V: Satellite Navigation and GPS

Dr Yedukondalu Kamatham
B Tech (ECE), M Tech (OELT), Ph D (ECE), PGDDTVP
Fellow of IETE, India; Senior Member of IEEE, USA; Life Member of ISTE, India
Professor of ECE, CVR College of Engineering, Vastunagar, Magalpally (V),
Ibrahimpatnam (M), R.R. District, Hyderabad-501 510, India, [email protected]
5-12 November 2021

Unit-V: Satellite Navigation and GPS

CO5: Understand the principle of GPS
• Radio and Satellite Navigation
• GPS Position Location Principles
• Receivers and Codes
• Satellite Signal Acquisition
• Navigation Message
• Signal Levels, Receiver Operation
• GPS C/A Code Accuracy
• Differential GPS
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Radio and Satellite Navigation

➢ Prior to radio navigation
➢ Compass,
➢ Landmarks on land and
➢ By the sun and stars at sea

➢ Neither technique provides high accuracy and shipwrecks caused by in-accurate

navigation and foggy weather were a common occurrence.
➢ The development of bomber aircrafts that could fly above the clouds (1930), made radio
navigation essential.
➢ GPS was preceded by an earlier satellite navigation system called TRANSIT,
– Built for the U.S. Navy for ship navigation,
– which achieved much lower accuracy and became obsolete when GPS was introduced
– TRANSIT Satellites were in LEO
– The system used the Doppler shift observed at the receiver when a beacon signal was
transmitted by the satellite
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➢ Because of the high velocity of LEO satellites (about 7.5 km/s),

– Their signals are shifted up in frequency when the satellite appears over
the horizon with a component of velocity toward the receiver
– Doppler shift falls to zero as the satellite passes the observer, and then
become negative as the satellite flies away
– Observation of the Doppler shift with time, which may need to be as long
as 10 min, and knowledge of the satellite orbit allows calculation of the
receiver’s position.

➢ Disadvantages
– Sufficient number TRANSIT satellites were not there to provide
continuous position data, and
– The long time (10 min) required to obtain an accurate position fix.

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➢ A similar system called SARSAT (Search And Rescue Satellite) is used to find Emergency
Locator Transmitters (ELTs) on aircraft that have crashed.
– Analysis of the Doppler shift over the observation period provides information about
the location of the ELT, but with an accuracy of 1 or 2 kms.
– Almost 97% of ELT locations turn out to be false alarms- the ELT was dropped or
accidentally turned on.

➢ The Demand for accurate targeting of airborne weapons lead to the development of
GPS.
➢ GPS can provide a single navigation system with better accuracy and reliability than all
earlier radio navigation systems.
➢ It can provide navigation of aircraft directly between airports, instead of indirectly via
airways, while providing absolute position read out of Latitude and Longitude.
➢ Differential GPS can be used instead of ILS (Instrument Landing System).
➢ Eventually, GPS will replace all other means of Navigation
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Introduction to GPS
The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a space-based navigation system that provides location
and time information in all weather conditions, anywhere on or near the Earth where
there is an unobstructed line of sight to four or more GPS satellites.
➢ Primary means of navigation for
❖Ships
❖Aircrafts
❖Surveying
➢ GPS also called as Navigation Satellite Timing And Ranging (NAVSTAR)
➢ Developed as military Navigation system for guiding
➢Missiles, Ships, and Aircrafts to their targets
➢ GPS satellite transmits L-band signals that are modulated by several codes
➢ C/A code: Made available to public in mid 1980s
➢to achieve positioning accuracy of 30 m
➢ P-code (secure and high accuracy): Authorized users (military)
➢to achieve positioning accuracy of 3 m
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GPS architecture
➢ GPS architecture consists of three segments:
-- space segment,
-- control segment, and
-- user segment.

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Space Segment
➢ GPS satellite constellation
consists of a minimum of 24
satellites.
➢ Altitude of about 20,183 km and
takes 11hr 58mins to orbit one
time.
➢ There are 6 orbital planes, each
consisting of a minimum of 4
satellites.
➢ The orbits are at an inclination of
55o with respect to the equator.

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Control Segment
➢ The GPS is controlled by the US Air Force from
➢ The Master Control Station (MCS), at Falcon Air force base in Colorado Springs, Colorado.

➢ This station calculate ephemeris data for each satellite, atomic clock error, and numerous other
parameters needed for the navigation message.

➢ The data are transmitted to satellite using a secure S-band link and used to update onboard data.

➢ There are 5 GPS monitoring stations located in

1. Hawaii
2. Colorado Springs,
3. Ascension Island (in Atlantic Ocean)
4. Diego Garcia (in Indian Ocean)
5. Kwajalein (in Pacific Ocean)

➢ The monitor stations have precise Cesium standards and

➢ Make continuous measurement of range to all visible satellites
➢ These measurements are performed every 1.5 s, and
➢ are used to provide updates for the navigation
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The current Operational Control Segment (OCS) includes a master control

station, an alternate master control station, 11 command and control
antennas, and 16 monitoring sites.
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User segment (Receiver)

➢ The position of a GPS Rx is found by Trilateration
– The distance of the unknown point from the three known points is measured.
– The intersection of 3 arcs corresponding to 3 distances defines the unknown point,
relative to the known point.
•3 measurements are used to solve 3 equations to give Latitude, Longitude and
Height of the Rx.

➢ The distance between a transmitter and receiver can be found by measuring the time it
takes for a pulse of RF energy to travel between the two
– The distance is calculated using the velocity of Electromagnetic waves in free space,
assumed to be equal to velocity of Light v= 2,99, 792, 452 (~3x108) m/s.

➢ To achieve GPS location accuracy of 1 m, timing measurements must have an accuracy of

better than 3ns

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GPS satellite transmit two frequencies, L1 and L2

– The L2 signal (1227.60MHz) is modulated with a 10.23 Mbps pseudorandom (PN) bit sequence
called the P (Precise)-code
•Used by Military positioning systems
•The P-code is transmitted in an encrypted form (known as Y-code), which restricts the use of
P-code to unauthorized users.
– The L1 carrier frequency (1575.42MHz) is modulated by a 1.023Mbps PN sequence, called the
C/A (Coarse/ Acquisition)-code (for public use) and the P-code as quadrature modulation
•The higher bit rate for P code provides better measurement accuracy than the C/A code
– GPS systems using Y-code require the C/A code as an intermediate step in making distance
measurements
– The accuracy of C/A code receivers was deliberately degraded some of the time (Selective
availability (SA)).
•SA causes variations in the C/A code satellite transmissions that result in less calculation of
position.
•SA was discontinued in May 2000 but can be reinstituted if President of US declares National
Emergency.

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The GPS system provides two categories of services:

The Precise Positioning Service (PPS)

PPS Receivers track both P-code and C/A code on L1 and L2 frequencies.
PPS is used mainly by military users
Since the P-code is encrypted as Y-code before transmission and requires
decryption equipment in the receiver.

Standard Positioning Service (SPS)

SPS receivers track the C/A code on L1 only
SPS is used by general public

➢ The P(Y) and C/A codes transmitted by each satellite create direct sequence Spread
spectrum signals which occupy the same frequency bands.

➢ Both C/A and P codes are publicly available, but P code can’t be recovered
in a GPS Rx without a knowledge of the Y-code decryption algorithm

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Q: Find the exact altitude of a GPS satellite that has an orbital period equal to
precisely one half of a sidereal day. Use a value of mean earth radius re = 6378.14
km and a sidereal day length of 23 hours 56 minutes 4.1 seconds.
• The orbital period of the satellite is 11 hours 58 minutes 2.05 s = 43,082.05 s.
• The orbital period is given by T2 = 4 π2 a3 / μ
• where μ = 3.986004418 x 105 km3/s2 and ‘a’ is the radius of the orbit in km.
• Hence a3 = T2 μ / 4 π2 = 7.49602025 x 1013 km3
• a = 26,561.764 km
• The orbital altitude ‘h’ above a mean earth radius (re) of 6378.14 km is
• h = a - re =20,183.62 km

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Q: Find the maximum Doppler shift of the L1 signal frequency for a GPS satellite at an altitude of
20,200 km when the satellite has an elevation angle of 10o. Hint: Maximum Doppler shift occurs
when the observer is in the plane of the satellite orbit. Find the velocity of the satellite and the
component of velocity towards the observer.
• For a satellite with an orbit radius a = 20,200 + 6378.14 km = 26,578.14 km,
• The circumference of the orbit is 2 π a = 166,995.38 km.
• The orbital period is T2 = 4 π2 a3 / μ where μ = 3.986004418 x 105 km3/s.
• Hence, T = 43,121.90 s = 11 hrs 58 mins 41.8 s.
• The velocity of the satellite is vs = 2πa/T = 166995.38/43121.90 = 3.87264 km/s
• We must calculate the relative velocity of the satellite towards an observer who is in
the plane of the satellite orbit when the satellite has an elevation angle of 10 0
• The geometry in the plane of the orbit is a triangle OGS, where O is the center of the
earth, G is the observer at the earth’s surface, and S is the satellite.
• When the satellite has an elevation angle of 10o, the angle OGS = 90o + 10o = 100o.
• The known lengths of the sides of the triangle are OG = re, OS = a, and the angle
between the satellite velocity vector and the line OS is 90o.
• We need to find the angle q, between the satellite velocity vector and the line SG.
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• Denoting the angle GSO as α, we have sin α / re = sin 100o / α

• Hence sin α = sin 100o x re / a = 0.23633; α = 13.670o
• The angle q which defines the direction of the component of the satellite
velocity towards the observer is given by q = 90 - α = 76.33
• The component of velocity towards the observer is vr = vs cos q = 915.22 m/s
• The frequency of the L1 carrier signal for a GPS satellite is 1575.42 MHz,
giving a wavelength of λ = 0.190425 m.
• The maximum Doppler shift in the signal is
• Δf = vr / λ = 915.22 ms-1 / 0.190425 m = 4806.2 Hz
• A C/A code GPS receiver must be able to receive L1 signals that are shifted in
frequency by up to 4.8 kHz.
• The shift will be an increase in frequency as the satellite approaches, falling to
zero as the satellite passes overhead and then decreasing to a negative shift
of – 4.8 kHz as the satellite reaches 10o elevation before disappearing over
the horizon.
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Position Location in GPS

➢ Position location by measurement of the

distance to three satellites.
➢ The GPS receiver is located at point X,
where three spheres with radii R1, R2,
and R3 intersect.
➢ The centers of the spheres are the three
GPS satellites S1, S2, and S3.
➢ If the distances R1, R2, and R3 are
measured, the location of the point X
can be uniquely defined.

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GPS Position Location Principles

➢Basic requirement of satellite navigation system → 4 satellites transmitting suitable coded
signals from known positions.
➢3 satellites → provide 3 distance measurements
1 satellite → to remove receiver clock error
➢Ri (radius of sphere)→ range measurement from receiver to 3 known points.
➢Receiver lies at the intersection of 3 spheres, with satellite at the center.

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➢Range is calculated from the time delay incurred by the satellite signal in
traveling from the satellite to the GPS receiver, using known velocity of EM
waves in free space.
➢To measure the time delay we should know the precise instant at which the
signal was transmitted.
➢GPS satellite carry four atomic clocks → time standard → GPS time
➢Accuracy of atomic clock → 1 part in 1011
➢Clock offset.
➢C/A code receivers can synchronize their internal clocks to GPS time within
170 ns, corresponding to a distance measurement uncertainty of 50 m.
➢It is easy to remove the clock error.
➢3-time measurements to define location (x, y, z)
➢4th time measurement to remove receiver
KYK clock offset error T (x, y, z, T) 19

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➢ Earth Centered Earth Fixed (ECEF) coordinate system.

➢ WGS-84 internationally agreed description of the earth’s shape and parameters.
➢ GPS Rxs use WGS-84 parameters to calculate the orbits of GPS satellites with the accuracy
required to precisely measure the range.
➢ Rx coordinates are (Ux, Uy, Uz)
➢ Satellite coordinates (Xi, Yi, Zi), where i = 1, 2, 3, 4
➢ Pseudorange PRi; PRi = T * c; where i = 1, 2, 3, 4
➢ The distance R between two points A & B in rectangular coordinate system is

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The equations which relate psuedorange to time delay Ranging equations

➢ Accuracy for low cost GPS Rx using C/A code is 30 m defined as 2DRMS.
➢DRMS -> Distance Root Mean Square error of the measures position relative to the true position of Rx
➢ If measurement errors are Gaussian distributed -> 68% of measured position results in 1D
RMS from the true location.
➢ 95% of results in 2DRMS of the true location.
➢ Selective Availability (SA) -> Switched off on May 1, 2000 -> accuracy from 200 m to 10 m.

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Q: An observer at the geographical north pole has a GPS receiver. At an instant in time, four
GPS satellites all have the same range from the observer, and the GPS receiver records a
measured delay time for the C/A signal of 0.17097528 s for each satellite. The four satellites’
coordinates are calculated to be (0, -13280.5, 23002.5), (0, 13280.5, 23002.5), (-13280.5, 0,
23002.5), (13280.5, 0, 23002.5), where all distances are in km. Assuming an earth radius of
6378.0 km at the north pole, so that the observer’s coordinates are (0,0, 6378), determine the
clock offset error in the GPS receiver. (Use equations 12.1 and 12.3, and take the velocity of light
in free space to be 2.99792458 x 108 m/s.)
• From equation 12.1, the delay time of T = 0.17097528 s correspond to a
• psuedorange PR where
• PR = T c = 0.17097528 x 2.99792458 x 108 = 51,257,099 m = 51,257.099 km
• Equation 12.3 gives four simultaneous equations which give the psuedorange
to the satellite
• (Xi - Ux)2 + (Yi - Uy)2 + (Zi – Uz)2 = (PRi - t c)2
• where the receiver position is (Ux, Uy, Uz) and the four satellites have
positions (Xi , Yi, Zi).
• The earth station location is known asKYK(0, 0, 6378). 22

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• Hence the four simultaneous equations are (all distances in km)

• (0 – 0)2 + ( 13280.5 - 0)2 + ( 23002.5 - 6378.0)2 = (51,257.099 - t c)2
• (0 – 0)2 + (-13280.5 - 0)2 + ( 23002.5 - 6378.0)2 = (51,257.099 - t c)2
• ( 13280.5 - 0)2 + (0 – 0)2 + ( 23002.5 - 6378.0)2 = (51,257.099 - t c)2
• ( -13280.5 - 0)2 + (0 – 0)2 + ( 23002.5 - 6378.0)2 = (51,257.099 - t c)2
• Each of these equations gives the same result
• 13280.52 + ( 23002.5 - 6378.0)2 = (51,257.099 - t c)2
• 21,277.821 = (51,257.099 - t c)
• Hence t c = 29,979.278 km
• and the clock offset t is t = 0.10000010 = 100.000010 ms
• This simplified example illustrates how the four psuedorange equations can
be solved to find
• clock offset error. KYK 23

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GPS Time
➢GPS Rx use highly stable crystal oscillators
➢GPS satellite consists of two cesium clocks plus two rubidium clocks
(atomic clocks).
➢An atomic clock uses the fundamental resonance of the cesium or
rubidium molecule as a frequency reference to lock a crystal
oscillator.
➢In GPS satellites -> master oscillator is at 10.23 MHz
➢The atomic clocks are updated by controlling ground stations to
keep them within 1 μs of Universal Time Coordinated (UTC) (UTC =
GMT)
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GPS Receivers and Codes

➢ GPS satellite transmit using pseudorandom sequence (PN) codes.
➢ All satellite Tx C/A code at same frequency -> 1575.42 MHz (L1) (154*10.23
MHz)
➢ Modulation used is BPSK.
➢ L1 frequency is 154 times the master clock frequency of 10.23 MHz.
➢ C/A code has clock rate of 1.023 MHz and has 1023 bits, so the PN sequence
lasts for 1 ms.
➢ P Code Tx using BPSK modulation at L2carrier frequency 1227.6 MHz
(120*10.23 MHz) and is also Tx with BPSK modulation on L1 carrier
frequency, in phase quadrature with C/A code BPSK modulation.

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Signal generation in GPS satellite

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C/A Code Generator

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Simplified GPS Receiver

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GPS C/A Code Accuracy

RMS error = √(URE1)2 + (URE2)2 + (URE3)2 + (URE4)2
Range error for C/A code measurements (m)

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Dilution of Precision (DOP)

➢ Horizontal DOP (HDOP) -> most important DOP factors. It provides error metric in x and
y directions.
➢ HDOP -> 1.5 (typical value)
➢ Horizontal measurement error for a C/A code Rx -> 14.3 m with SA off.
50 m with SA on. (Both values are in 1DRMS)
➢ 2DRMS accuracy of 28.6 m with SA off.

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GDOP : Geometrical Dilution of Precision, (measure of accuracy in 3D position and time)

PDOP : Position Dilution of Precision (measure of accuracy in 3-
D position), also called spherical DOP
HDOP : Horizontal Dilution of Precision (measure of accuracy in 2D positi
on, for example Latitude and Longitude)​
VDOP : Vertical Dilution of Precision (measure of accuracy in 1D positi on, Height)
TDOP : Time Dilution of Precision (measure of accuracy in Time)
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Satellite Signal Acquisition

• GPS signals are very weak (SS), with noise power typically exceeding signal power by 19 dB in
a receiver with an omnidirectional antenna.
• That makes it impossible to tune a conventional radio receiver to a GPS satellite
• However, if an L-band antenna with a gain exceeding 30 dB is used to track a GPS satellite,
the CNR will be approximately 10 dB and the BPSK C/A code can be demodulated and
observed directly.
• In a conventional GPS C/A code receiver, the signal can only be observed and utilized after
correlation between the received signal and an identical locally generated C/A code
• Given no information about which satellites are visible (a cold start) a search must be
conducted to find the exact frequency of the received signal and the start position of its C/A
code sequence.
• GPS satellites have a high orbital velocity, 3.865 km/s, so there is significant Doppler shift in
the received signals that exceeds the bandwidth of the receiver when in signal acquisition
mode.
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• A frequency search as well as a code search must be undertaken to obtain lock to a

satellite’s C/A code.
• The angle between the spacecraft velocity vector and a receiver on earth is 76.1° when a
GPS satellite is at the horizon for a zenith pass, so the maximum velocity component
toward a receiver is 928 m/s, giving a maximum Doppler shift in the L1 signal of vr/λ =
4.872 kHz, ignoring the effect of earth rotation.
• Allowing the satellite to reach an elevation angle of 5° or 10° before it is used for a position
measurement limits the Doppler shift that must be accommodated by the receiver to ± 4
kHz.
• However, low cost GPS receivers do not have highly stable oscillators, which may drift in
frequency as the receiver warms up, forcing a carrier frequency search across a wider
frequency range.
• Rather than starting at the lowest frequency and working through to the highest
frequency, a search begins with the most likely Doppler shift and receiver frequency offset,
based on the last known values.
• The frequency step size is set by the bandwidth of the bandpass filter that follows the
correlator. This is typically 500 Hz or 1 kHz.
• A narrow filter bandwidth improves the SNR of the signal but requires more steps in
frequency in the acquisition process.
• Only when the receiver is set to the correct frequency is it possible to lock to the C/A
codes of the GPS satellites.
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• A typical search and signal acquisition process follows these steps.

1. Select a receiver frequency.
2. Select a satellite (by SV number). Generate that satellite’s C/A code.
3. Try all 1023 start positions of the code to attempt to correlate with the
received signal.
4. Repeat step 3 several times. If correlation is obtained, repeat another three
time to confirm.
5. If no correlation is obtained, try a different SV code. Repeat until all 24
operational SV codes have been tried.
6. If no correlation obtained, change to a different receiver frequency.
7. Repeat steps 2–6 until a satellite is acquired.
8. Once the first satellite is acquired, decode the navigation message to find
other visible satellites and their Doppler shifts, then repeat the acquisition
process, which will be much quicker given the additional information
available.
9. Change to tracking mode in which Doppler shift and code rate are tracked
through frequency and code lock loops.KYK 35

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• A GPS receiver with a 1 kHz signal acquisition loop bandwidth must search up to eight
receive frequencies to allow for the ±4 kHz Doppler shift of the received signal.
• The local oscillator in the GPS receiver consists of a numerically controlled oscillator (NCO)
followed by a frequency multiplier.
• The NCO base frequency is the 10.23MHz master oscillator in the receiver, which is locked
to the GPS satellite clock.
• The receiver must also search each of 1023 C/A code positions in one chip steps, or 2046
code positions in half bit steps, for all of the 24 C/A codes.
• Hence the combination of Doppler frequency and code position potentially requires a
search 8,184 (8x1023) or 16,368 (8x2046) Doppler frequency and code positions for each
of the C/A codes.
• This can be a lengthy process from a cold start, which is why GPS receivers have 12
channels of digital signal processing (DSP) that can work in parallel to speed up the search
process.
• If no signals are found from the first 12 C/A codes, some of the next 12 C/A codes must be
present.
• Most GPS receivers can acquire four satellites KYK within 30 seconds from a cold start. 37

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Non-coherent delay lock loop and

navigation message recovery. KYK 38

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Costas loop used to demodulate

the 50 Hz BPSK navigation message KYK 39

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Differential GPS
• The accuracy of GPS measurements can be increased considerably by using Differential GPS (DGPS)
techniques.
• There are several forms of DGPS, all of which are intended to increase the accuracy of a basic GPS
position measurement.
• A second, fixed, GPS receiver at a reference station is always required in a DGPS system.
• In the simplest forms of DGPS, a second GPS receiver at a known position continuously calculates its
position using the GPS C/A code.
• The calculated (x, y, z) location is compared to the known location of the station and the differences
in x, y, and z are sent by a radio telemetry link to the first GPS receiver.
• However, this technique works well only if the two stations are close together and use the same four
satellites for the position calculation.
• In a more sophisticated form of DGPS, the monitoring station at a known location measures the
error in pseudorange to each satellite that is visible at its location and telemeters the error values to
users in that area.
• This allows other GPS users to select which satellites they want to observe and extends the area
over which the DGPS system can operate.
• The errors in a C/A code measurement are reduced to well below 1m using this approach.
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Differential GPS

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• The most accurate forms of DGPS use the relative phase of the many signals in
the GPS transmissions to increase the accuracy of the timing measurements.
• Suppose that you count the number of cycles of the 1575.42 MHz L1 carrier
wave between a satellite and a GPS receiver, and that the GPS satellites are
stationary for the length of time it takes to make the count at two separate
locations.
• The wavelength of the L1 carrier is 0.19043 m, so movement of the receiver by
0.01 m directly away from the satellite would change the phase angle of the
received wave by 18.9°.
• If the total number of cycles between the satellite and the receiver is known,
and fractional cycles are measured with a phase resolution of 20°, the true
distance to the satellite can be found to 0.01 m accuracy.
• In principle, measurements that compare the phase angle of the received L1
carriers from several GPS satellites could therefore be used to detect receiver
movements at the centimeter level.
• This is called differential phase or kinematic DGPS.
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• The obvious difficulty is that we cannot count the number of cycles of the L1 carrier
between the satellite and the receiver.
• However, we can make phase measurements and time of arrival comparisons for
various GPS signals at two different locations and resolve motion between the two
locations.
• If one of the receivers is a fixed reference station, it is then possible to locate the
second GPS receiver very accurately with respect to that fixed location.
• This technique is valuable in land surveying, for example, where a reference station
can be set up at a known location, such as the corner of a plot of land, and the
position of the plot boundary relative to that point can be measured.
• The same technique can be used to find the position of an aircraft relative to an
airport runway so that a precision approach path can be established.
• The difficulty with DGPS phase comparison measurements is that the L1 carrier has
cycles that repeat every 0.19043 m, and one cycle is identical to the next.
• This creates range ambiguity, which must be resolved by reference to the
wavelengths of other signals.
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• The 10.23MHzP-code transmission of the L1 carrier has a P-code chip length in space of
29.326 m, which is 154 cycles of the L1 carrier.
• The ambiguity of the carrier waveform can be resolved within the 29.326 m length of a P-
code chip by comparison of the time of arrival of a particular cycle of the L1 carrier with the
time since the start of the P code chip.
• Similar ambiguity resolution for the 29 m P-code chips is possible using the length of the C/A
code chip and the C/A code sequence.
• The length of a C/A code chip at 1.023MHz is 293.255 m, and the length of a C/A code
sequence is 293.255 km.
• When ambiguity resolution is applied using all of these waveforms, very small movements of
the receiver can be detected and ambiguity out to 293 km can be removed.
• Aircraft flight paths have been tracked to an accuracy of 2 cm over distances of tens of
kilometers using phase comparison DGPS techniques.
• The P-code can be used for real time differential measurements without knowledge of P-
code itself, because only a comparison of the time of arrival of the code bits is required.

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Conclusion
• Understood
• Radio and Satellite Navigation
• GPS Position Location Principles
• Receivers and Codes
• Satellite Signal Acquisition
• Navigation Message
• Signal Levels, Receiver Operation
• GPS C/A Code Accuracy
• Principle of Differential GPS
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Thank you for your attention

&
Queries if any

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