Endocrine System

The endocrine system interacts with the nervous system to coordinate and integrate body activities by means of
hormones .

Endocrine tissues and organs secrete hormone into body fluids (mainly blood and lymph) directly using diffusion.

Five major functions of hormones

a) Regulate metabolic processes (e.g. thyroid hormones).

b) Control the rate of chemical reactions (e.g. growth hormone).

c) Aid in the regulation of blood glucose level (e.g. insulin and glucagon).

d) Regulate water and electrolyte balances (e.g. antidiurectic hormone, calcitonin, and aldosterone).

e) Play a vital role in reproduction, growth and development (e.g. estrogens , progesterone, and testosterone).
Classification of Hormones
Hormones can be classified according to chemical composition,
solubility properties, location of receptors, and the nature
of the signal used to mediate hormonal action within the cell.

a) Amines, these are simple molecules.

b) Protein hormones: made of amino acids joined by peptide
bonds. (Fat insoluble; as a result cannot diffuse across the
membrane of target cells) .
c) Steroid hormones: made of fatty acids using cholesterol as a
functional group. (Fat-soluble; as a result can diffuse into target
cells).
• Hormones that are
secreted by
endocrine glands
and travel to target
cells directly are
called nontropic
hormones

• Hormones that are

secreted by an
endocrine gland
(e.g. pituitary
gland) and travels
to another
endocrine gland ,
causing the second
gland to secrete
another hormone,
are referred to as
tropic hormones.
Hormone Action
Most hormones adhere to the following action plan :
a) endocrine gland synthesizes the hormone .
b) Hormone diffuses into capillaries .
c) Hormone is transported by blood or lymph toward target cells .
d) Hormone diffuses out of capillaries at target tissue, and causes an effect in target cells .

Actions of steroid hormones

1. Steroid hormones bind to a protein transporter during the transport in blood.
2. When they have arrived at the target cells , the protein transporter (being fat-insoluble) is repelled by the cell
membrane, while the steroid hormone (being fat-soluble) diffuses into the cytoplasm of target cell.
3. Steroid hormone also diffuses across the nuclear envelope and enters into the nucleus of target cell.
4. Steroid hormone binds to a specific receptor located on a particular gene of target cell’s DNA.
5. This binding alters the genetic information within that gene, resulting in a new messenger RNA (mRNA) being
produced after transcription.
6. This new mRNA will be translated into a new protein (or enzyme) in the cytoplasm of target cell .
7. the new protein or enzyme causes a specific effect to occur within the target cells .
Action of protein hormones

1. A protein hormone is transported in the blood or lymph by itself, without a transporter .

2. When it has arrived at the target cell, the protein hormone binds with a specific receptor
embedded in the cell membrane of target cell.

3. This binding activates a series of chemical reactions (“cascade reactions”) in the cytoplasm of
target cell .

4. The product of these reactions is a substance known as the “secondary messenger” (usually
cAMP, IP3, Ca+2 ), which acts on behalf of the protein hormone , causes a potent effect in the
target cell (usually within the cytoplasm).

5. Since protein hormones never diffuse to the DNA of target cells, no new proteins or enzymes
are made at the end
Cellular Responses
Hypothalamic hormones that regulate the Anterior Pituitary
PIUITARY GLAND

The pituitary gland is a small pea-sized gland that plays a major role in regulating vital body functions and general
wellbeing.
It is referred to as the body's 'master gland' because it controls the activity of most other hormone-secreting glands.
The pituitary gland is divided into two parts: anterior pituitary gland and posterior pituitary gland.
The pituitary hormones are released directly into the blood and travel through the blood vessels until they reach
specific target organs.
The production and secretion of hormones by the anterior lobe are under the regulation of the hypothalamus.
There are four hormones secreted by the anterior pituitary gland that control the functions of other endocrine glands.
These hormones include
1. Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), 2. Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH),
3. Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), and
4. Luteinizing hormones (LH)
In addition, the anterior lobe secretes two more hormones that have direct effects on specific organs.
These hormones include Growth hormone (GH) or somatotropic hormone (STH) and
Prolactin
Regarding the posterior pituitary gland, two different hormones, namely Oxytocin and ADH, are stored there.

Apart from the anterior and posterior lobes, the intermediate part that connects the two lobes secretes melanocyte-
stimulating hormone, which stimulates melanin production in the skin. It also regulates appetite and sex drive.
Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
➢ A glycoprotein that stimulates the production and secretion of thyroid hormones (T3 and T4) by the thyroid gland.
➢ The thyroid hormones play a vital role in regulating metabolism, energy homeostasis, growth, and nervous system
activities.
➢ An overproduction of TSH leads to hyperthyroidism, whereas a lack of TSH causes hypothyroidism.

Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

➢ Stimulates the adrenal gland to release stress hormones, especially cortisol.
➢ Under stressful conditions, cortisol is released in high amounts in the blood and regulates the body’s reaction to stress.
➢ In particular, cortisol increases glucose metabolism, regulates blood pressure, and reduces inflammation.
➢ In addition, cortisol plays a central role in fight or flight response, which is an adaptive response of the body to perceived
threats.
➢ Overproduction of ACTH can lead to Cushing’s syndrome, whereas a low ACTH level can result in adrenal insufficiency.
➢ Cushing's Syndrome can affect many different organs in the body and causes a variety of symptoms:
Moon face, Buffalo hump , Weight gain – especially in the abdomen while the arms and legs become skinny
Increased body hair – especially on the arms, face, and around the belly button
Thinning skin, Acne, Easy bruising, Leg swelling, Purple stretch marks on the abdomen and legs
Constantly rosy cheeks
Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormones (LH)
➢ These hormones are collectively known as gonadotrophins,
➢ They stimulate the ovary to release estrogen and progesterone and the testes to release testosterone.
➢ Both LH and FSH play important roles in regulating the growth and maturation of sperm and egg cells.
➢ Abnormal production of these hormones causes menstruation-related problems, sexual malfunction, and
infertility.

Prolactin
➢ This hormone stimulates the mammary glands to produce milk after childbirth. A high prolactin level can affect
the functions of ovary and testes.
Growth hormone (GH)
GH is vital for normal physical growth in children; its levels rise progressively during childhood
and peak during the growth spurt that occurs in puberty.
In biochemical terms, GH stimulates protein synthesis and increases fat breakdown to provide
the energy necessary for tissue growth.
Growth hormone has two distinct types of effects:
Direct effects are the result of growth hormone binding its receptor on target cells. Fat cells
(adipocytes), for example, have growth hormone receptors, and growth hormone stimulates
them to break down triglyceride and suppresses their ability to take up and accumulate
circulating lipids.
Indirect effects are mediated primarily by a insulin-like growth factor-I (IGF-I), a hormone that
is secreted from the liver and other tissues in response to growth hormone. A majority of the
growth promoting effects of growth hormone is actually due to IGF-I acting on its target cells

GH deficiency is one of the many causes of short stature and dwarfism.

In adults, the overproduction of GH causes acromegaly.
Patients with acromegaly have a prominent jaw, a large nose, and large hands and feet, as
well as enlargement of most other tissues, including the tongue, heart, liver, and kidneys. .
In children, too much GH causes gigantism, a condition of abnormal growth.
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH).
This hormone is also known as vasopressin.
It controls water retention by the kidney and regulates fluid
balance and mineral concentration in the body.
It also causes constriction of the blood vessels.
A low ADH level can increase urination and trigger a thirsty
feeling. This condition is known as diabetes insipidus.

Oxytocin
This hormone stimulates uterine contraction, which is essential
during the delivery of a baby.
It also stimulates milk secretion during breastfeeding.
Thyroid Hormones:
The thyroid gland is a small organ that’s located in the front of the neck, wrapped around the windpipe (trachea).
It’s shaped like a butterfly, smaller in the middle with two wide wings that extend around the side of your throat.
The thyroid gland produces two thyroid hormones, triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4), and releases them as
needed by the body.
The hypothalamus and the pituitary gland help control the thyroid gland.
The hypothalamus produces thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH), which stimulates the pituitary gland to release
thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH).
A low level of T3 tells the hypothalamus to release more TRH, and it tells the pituitary to release more TSH.
The thyroid gland releases T3 and T4 until the body is receiving the required amount.
The physiological effects of thyroid hormones are listed below:
▪ Increases the basal metabolic rate
▪ Depending on the metabolic status, it can induce lipolysis or lipid synthesis.
▪ Stimulate the metabolism of carbohydrates
▪ Anabolism of proteins. They can also induce catabolism of proteins in high doses.
▪ In children, thyroid hormones act synergistically with growth hormone to stimulate bone growth.
▪ The impact of thyroid hormone in CNS is important. During the prenatal period, it is needed for the maturation of
the brain. In adults, it can affect mood.
▪ Thyroid hormone affects fertility, ovulation, and menstruation.
Thyroid hormone synthesis includes the
following steps:

(1) iodide (I-) trapped by the thyroid follicular

cells;
(2) diffusion of iodide to the apex of the cells;
(3) transport of iodide into the colloid;
(4) oxidation of inorganic iodide to iodine and
incorporation of iodine into tyrosine residues
within thyroglobulin molecules in the colloid;
(5) combination of two DIT molecules to form
tetra iodothyronine (T4) or of MIT with DIT to
form T3;
(6) uptake of thyroglobulin from the colloid into
the follicular cell by endocytosis, fusion of the
thyroglobulin with a lysosome, and proteolysis
and release of T4, T3, DIT, and MIT;
(7) release of T4 and T3 into the circulation; and
(8) de-iodination of DIT and MIT to yield tyrosine.
Hypothyroidism, caused by an underactive thyroid gland,
typically manifests as bradycardia, cold intolerance,
constipation, fatigue, and weight gain.
Hyperthyroidism caused by increased thyroid gland function
manifests as weight loss, heat intolerance, diarrhea, fine
tremor, and muscle weakness.

Iodine is an essential trace element absorbed in the small

intestine. It is an integral part of T3 and T4. Sources of iodine
include iodized table salt, seafood, seaweed, and vegetables.
Decreased iodine intake can cause iodine deficiency and
decreased thyroid hormone synthesis. Iodine deficiency can
cause cretinism (is a condition of severe physical and mental
retardation due to iodine deficiency) , goiter, myxedema coma
(severe hypothyroidism leading to decreased mental status,
hypothermia, and other symptoms related to slowing of
function in multiple organs. It is a medical emergency with a
high mortality rate), and hypothyroidism
Pancreas
Pancreas is both exocrine and endocrine gland. The exocrine
part secretes pancreatic fluid into the duodenum after a meal.
The endocrine part secretes various types of hormones.
A cells – producing glucagon.
B cells – producing insulin.
D cells – producing somatostatin.
F cells – producing pancreatic polypeptide.

Function
Pancreatic hormones are responsible for storage of fat and
glucose, as glycogen, after meal.
Enables the mobilization of energy reserves as a result of food
deprivation, stress, physical activity.
Maintain the constant plasma glucose concentration.
Promote growth.
Insulin
Structure
Insulin is a peptide that contains an α-chain 21 amino acids
long linked to a 30 amino acid β-chain via two disulfide bridges.
The precursor to insulin is preproinsulin, which contains a
signal sequence that is further removed in the endoplasmic
reticulum converting the precursor into its pro-hormone
referred to as proinsulin. Proinsulin is changed into insulin after
removal of a C-peptide from the pro-hormone.
Function
Insulin has anabolic and lipogenic effects. The storage of
glucose in the liver is stimulated & also activates enzymes to
promote glycolysis and glycogenesis. In addition, it promotes
the uptake and storage of amino acids in the kind of proteins
and promotes growth.

Insulin contains two inter-chain disulfide bonds between the A

and B chains (A7-B7 and A20-B19), and one intra-chain linkage
in the A chain (A6-A11).
Insulin deficiency results in. The effects of hyperglycemia are salt and water depletion due to an osmotic diuresis,
weight loss, tiredness, hyperglycemias, vomiting, hypotension, infections, hyperventilation (due to ketoacidosis) and
impaired conscious level and coma.

Diabetes Mellitus
There are two types recognized.
One type of diabetes mellitus is insulin-dependent, type-1, which is caused by insulin deficiency.
Another type is non-insulin-dependent, type 2, which is caused by a shortage of insulin receptors.
In both cases the level of glucose in blood is increased and this leads to glycosuria, polyuria and polydipsia.
Since lipolysis is no longer inhibited, fatty acids are liberated in a large quantities.
Fatty acids can be used as a source of energy, although, this leads to formation of acetoacetic acids and acetone
(ketosis).
As a result of so many fatty acids the liver begins to store triacylglycerols which leads to the development of fatty
liver.
Glucagon

Glucagon is a hormone that is involved in controlling blood sugar (glucose) levels.

It is produced by the alpha cells, found in the islets of Langerhans, in the pancreas,
from where it is released into the bloodstream.
Glucagon is a 29-amino acid polypeptide.
The glucagon-secreting alpha cells surround the insulin-secreting beta cells, which
reflects the close relationship between the two hormones.

Glucagon’s role in the body is to prevent blood glucose levels dropping too low. To do
this, it acts on the liver in several ways:

1. It stimulates the conversion of stored glycogen (stored in the liver) to glucose,

which can be released into the bloodstream. This process is called glycogenolysis.

2. It promotes the production of glucose from amino acid molecules. This process is
called gluconeogenesis.

3. It reduces glucose consumption by the liver so that as much glucose as possible can
be secreted into the bloodstream to maintain blood glucose levels.
4. Glucagon also acts on adipose tissue to stimulate the breakdown of fat stores into
the bloodstream.
Glucagon works along with the hormone insulin to control blood sugar levels and keep them within set levels.
Glucagon is released to stop blood sugar levels dropping too low (hypoglycaemia), while insulin is released to
stop blood sugar levels rising too high (hyperglycaemia).

The release of glucagon is stimulated by low blood glucose, protein-rich meals and adrenaline (another
important hormone for combating low glucose). The release of glucagon is prevented by raised blood glucose
and carbohydrate in meals, detected by cells in the pancreas.
Adrenal glands
They are also known as suprarenal glands, are small, triangular-shaped glands located on top of both
kidneys.
An adrenal gland is made of two main parts:

1. The adrenal cortex is the outer region and also the largest part of an adrenal gland. It is divided into
three separate zones: zona glomerulosa, zona fasciculata and zona reticularis. Each zone is responsible
for producing specific hormones.

2. The adrenal medulla is located inside the adrenal cortex in the center of an adrenal gland. It
produces “stress hormones,” including adrenaline.

Adrenal glands produce hormones that help regulate your metabolism, immune system, blood
pressure, response to stress and other essential functions.
Cortisol

Cortisol is a glucocorticoid hormone produced by the zona fasciculata that plays several important roles in the body. It
helps control the body’s use of fats, proteins and carbohydrates; suppresses inflammation; regulates blood pressure;
increases blood sugar; and can also decrease bone formation.

This hormone also controls the sleep/wake cycle. It is released during times of stress to help your body get an energy
boost and better handle an emergency situation.

What happens if I have too little cortisol?

Low levels of cortisol can cause weakness, fatigue, and low blood pressure and the condition is known as Addison’s
disease. The symptoms include:
1. extreme weakness.
2. mental confusion.
3. dizziness.
4. nausea or abdominal pain.
5. vomiting.
6. fever.
7. a sudden pain in the lower back or legs.
8. a loss of appetite.
What happens if I have too high cortisol?

Cushing’s Syndrome:
1. rapid weight gain mainly in the face, chest and abdomen
contrasted with slender arms and legs.
2. a flushed and round face.
3. high blood pressure.
4. osteoporosis.
5. skin changes (bruises and purple stretch marks)
6. muscle weakness.
7. mood swings, which show as anxiety, depression or
irritability.
Aldosterone
This mineralocorticoid hormone produced by the zona glomerulosa plays a central role in regulating blood pressure and certain
electrolytes (sodium and potassium). Aldosterone sends signals to the kidneys, resulting in the kidneys absorbing more sodium
into the bloodstream and releasing potassium into the urine. This means that aldosterone also helps regulate the blood pH by
controlling the levels of electrolytes in the blood.

Hyperaldosteronism is a condition in which one or both adrenal glands produce too much of the hormone aldosterone.
Weakness.
Tingling feelings.
Muscle spasms.
Temporary paralysis.
Extreme thirst.
Frequent urination (having to urinate often)
Hypoaldosteronism:
Extreme fatigue.
Weight loss and decreased appetite.
Darkening of your skin (hyperpigmentation)
Low blood pressure, even fainting.
Salt craving.
Low blood sugar (hypoglycemia)
Nausea, diarrhea or vomiting (gastrointestinal symptoms)
Abdominal pain.
Epinephrine (Adrenaline) and Norepinephrine
(Noradrenaline)

The adrenal medulla, the inner part of an adrenal gland, controls

hormones that initiate the flight or fight response.
The main hormones secreted by the adrenal medulla include
epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline), which
have similar functions.

Among other things, these hormones are capable of increasing the

heart rate and force of heart contractions, increasing blood flow to the
muscles and brain, relaxing airway smooth muscles, and assisting in
glucose (sugar) metabolism. They also control the squeezing of the
blood vessels (vasoconstriction), helping maintain blood pressure and
increasing it in response to stress.

Like several other hormones produced by the adrenal glands,

epinephrine and norepinephrine are often activated in physically and
emotionally stressful situations when your body needs additional
resources and energy to endure unusual strain.
Excess of Adrenaline or Noradrenaline:

Pheochromocytoma

Pheochromocytoma is a tumor that results in excess

production of adrenaline or noradrenaline by the adrenal
medulla that often happens in bursts.

Pheochromocytomas may cause persistent or sporadic high

blood pressure that may be difficult to control with regular
medications.
Other symptoms include headaches, sweating, tremors, anxiety
and rapid heartbeat.