Sinusoidal Alternating Waveform Asst. Lect. Hayder S.

Ahmed

Lecture one

Sinusoidal Alternating Waveforms

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Sinusoidal Alternating Waveform Asst. Lect. Hayder S. Ahmed

1.1 Introduction

We now turn our attention to the analysis of networks in which the

magnitude of the source varies in a set manner. Of particular interest is the
time-varying voltage that is commercially available in large quantities and is
commonly called the ac voltage. (The letters ac are an abbreviation for
alternating current.)
Each waveform in Fig. 1 is an alternating waveform available from
commercial suppliers. The term alternating indicates only that the waveform
alternates between two prescribed levels in a set time sequence. To be
absolutely correct, the term sinusoidal, square-wave, or triangular must also
be applied.

Fig.1 alternating waveforms.

The pattern of particular interest is the sinusoidal ac voltage in Fig. 1. Since

this type of signal is encountered in the vast majority of instances. One of
the important reasons for concentrating on the sinusoidal ac voltage is that it
is the voltage generated by utilities throughout the world (electrical,
electronic, communication, and industrial systems).
The wide range of theorems and methods introduced for dc networks will
also be applied to sinusoidal ac systems. Although the application of
sinusoidal signals raises the required math level.

1.2 Sinusoidal AC Voltage Characteristics and Definitions:

Generation
Sinusoidal ac voltages are available from a variety of sources. The
most common source is the typical home outlet, which provides an ac
voltage that originates at a power plant; such a power plant is most
commonly fueled by water power, oil, gas, or nuclear fusion. In each
case an ac generator (also called an alternator), as shown in Fig. 2(a), is
the primary component in the energy-conversion process.
The power developed by one of the energy sources listed will turn a
rotor (constructed of alternating magnetic poles) inside a set of windings

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Sinusoidal Alternating Waveform Asst. Lect. Hayder S. Ahmed

housed in the stator (the stationary part of the dynamo) and will induce a
voltage across the windings of the stator, as defined by Faraday’s law,

Through proper design of the generator, a sinusoidal ac voltage is

developed that can be transformed to higher levels for distribution
through the power lines to the consumer. For isolated locations where
power lines have not been installed, portable ac generators [Fig. 2(b)] are
available that run on gasoline. As in the larger power plants, however, an
ac generator is an integral part of the design.
In an effort to conserve our natural resources, wind power and solar
energy [Fig. 2 (c and d)] are receiving increasing interest from various
districts of the world that have such energy sources available in level and
duration that make the conversion process viable.
Sinusoidal ac voltages with characteristics that can be controlled by
the user are available from function generators, such as the one in Fig.
2(e). By setting the various switches and controlling the position of the
knobs on the face of the instrument, one can make available sinusoidal
voltages of different peak values and different repetition rates.

Fig. 2 Various sources of ac power: (a) generating plant; (b) portable ac generator; (c) wind-
power station;(d) solar panel; (e) function generator.

Definitions

The sinusoidal waveform in Fig. 3 with its additional notation will now
be used as a model in defining a few basic terms. These terms, however, can
be applied to any alternating waveform. The vertical scaling is in volts or
amperes and the horizontal scaling is in units of time.

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Sinusoidal Alternating Waveform Asst. Lect. Hayder S. Ahmed

Fig.3 Important parameters for a sinusoidal voltage.

Waveform: The path traced by a quantity, such as the voltage plotted as a

function of some variable such as time (as above), position,
degrees, radians, temperature, and so on.

Instantaneous value: The magnitude of a waveform at any instant of time;

denoted by lowercase letters (e1, e2).

Peak amplitude: The maximum value of a waveform as measured from its

average, or mean, value, denoted by uppercase letters
(such as Em for sources of voltage and Vm for the voltage
drop across a load).

Peak-to-peak value: Denoted by Ep-p or Vp-p (as shown in Fig. 3), the full
voltage between positive and negative peaks of the
waveform, that is, the sum of the magnitude of the
positive and negative peaks.
Periodic waveform: A waveform that continually repeats itself after the
same time interval.

Period (T): The time of a periodic waveform.

Cycle: The portion of a waveform contained in one period of time. The
cycles within T1, T2, and T3 in Fig. 3 may appear differently in Fig. 4,
but they are all bounded by one period of time and therefore satisfy
the definition of a cycle.

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Sinusoidal Alternating Waveform Asst. Lect. Hayder S. Ahmed

Fig. 4 Defining the cycle and period of a sinusoidal waveform.

Frequency ( f ): The number of cycles that occur in 1 s see Fig. 5.

Fig.5 Demonstrating the effect of a changing frequency on the period of a sinusoidal waveform.

The unit of measure for frequency is the hertz (Hz), where

1 hertz (Hz) = 1 cycle per second (1)

(cps)
Since the frequency is inversely related to the period—that is, as one
increase, the other decreases by an equal amount—the two can be related by
the following equation:

(2)
f = Hz
T = seconds(s)

(3)

EXAMPLE 1 For the sinusoidal waveform in Fig. 6:

a. What is the peak value?
b. What is the instantaneous value at 0.3 s and 0.6 s?
c. What is the peak-to-peak value of the waveform?
d. What is the period of the waveform?
e. How many cycles are shown?
f. What is the frequency of the waveform?

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Sinusoidal Alternating Waveform Asst. Lect. Hayder S. Ahmed

Fig. 6 Example 1.
Solutions:
a. 8 V.
b. At 0.3 s, -8 V; at 0.6 s, 0 V.
c. 16 V.
d. 0.4 s.
e. 3.5 cycles.
f. 2.5 cps, or 2.5 Hz.

EXAMPLE 2 Find the period of periodic waveform with a frequency of

a. 60 Hz.
b. 1000 Hz.

Solutions:
a.
b.

H.W. Determine the frequency of the waveform in Fig. 7.

Fig. 7: H.W.

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Sinusoidal Alternating Waveform Asst. Lect. Hayder S. Ahmed

1.3 Defined Polarities and direction

In each case, the polarity and current direction will be for a period of
time in the positive portion of the sinusoidal waveform, while for the next
equal period it reverses. To take care of this problem, a positive sign is
applied if the voltage is above the axis, as shown in Fig. 8 (a). For a current
source, the direction in the symbol corresponds with the positive region of
the waveform, as shown in Fig. 8 (b). A lowercase letter is employed for
each to indicate that the quantity is time dependent; that is, its magnitude
will change with time.

Fig. 8 (a) Sinusoidal ac voltage sources; (b) sinusoidal current sources.

1.4 The Sinusoidal Waveform

The sinusoidal waveform is the only alternating waveform whose

shape is unaffected by the response characteristics of R, L, and C
elements.
In other words, if the voltage across (or current through) a resistor, inductor,
or capacitor is sinusoidal in nature, the resulting current (or voltage,
respectively) for each will also have sinusoidal characteristics, as shown in
Fig. 9. If any other alternating waveform such as a square wave or a
triangular wave were applied, such would not be the case.

Fig. 9 The sine wave is the only alternating waveform whose shape is not altered by the response
characteristics of a pure resistor, inductor, or capacitor.

The unit of measurement for the horizontal axis can be time (as appearing in
the figures thus far), degrees, or radians see Fig. 10.

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Sinusoidal Alternating Waveform Asst. Lect. Hayder S. Ahmed

Fig. 10 Plotting a sine wave versus (a) degrees and (b) radians
.
A number of electrical formulas contain a multiplier of π. For this reason, it
is sometimes preferable to measure angles in radians rather than in degrees.

The quantity π is the ratio of the circumference of a circle to its diameter.

The term radian can be defined as follows: If we mark off a portion of the
circumference of a circle by a length equal to the radius of the circle, as
shown in Fig. 11, the angle resulting is called 1 radian. The result is

Fig. 11 Defining the radian.

One full circle has 2π radians, as shown in Fig. 12. That is,

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Sinusoidal Alternating Waveform Asst. Lect. Hayder S. Ahmed

Fig. 12 There are 2π radians in one full circle of 360°.

The conversions equations between the two are the following:

(4)

(5)
Applying these equations, we find

It is of particular interest that the sinusoidal waveform can be derived

from the length of the vertical projection of a radius vector rotating in a
uniform circular motion about a fixed point see Fig. 13.

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Sinusoidal Alternating Waveform Asst. Lect. Hayder S. Ahmed

Fig. 13 Generating a sinusoidal waveform through the vertical projection of a rotating vector.

The velocity with which the radius vector rotates about the center,
called the angular velocity, can be determined from the following equation:

(6)

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Sinusoidal Alternating Waveform Asst. Lect. Hayder S. Ahmed

Substituting into Eq. (6) and assigning the lowercase Greek letter omega (ω)
to the angular velocity, we have

(7)
and
(8)
Since ω is typically provided in radians per second, the angle α obtained
using Eq. (8) is usually in radians. The time required to complete one
revolution is equal to the period (T) of the sinusoidal waveform in Fig. 13(i).
The radians subtended in this time interval are 2π. Substituting, we have

(9)
(10)

EXAMPLE 3 Determine the angular velocity of a sine wave having a

frequency of 60 Hz.
Solution:
( )( ) ⁄

EXAMPLE 4 Given ω = 200 rad/s, determine how long it will take the
sinusoidal waveform to pass through an angle of 90°.
Solution: , and

However, a must be substituted as π/2(=90°) since ω is in radians per

second:
⁄
⁄
H.W. (1) Determine the frequency and period of the sine wave when the
angular velocity equal 500 rad/s.
ans: T= 12.57 ms and f = 79.58 Hz

H.W. (2) Find the angle through which a sinusoidal waveform of 60 Hz will
pass in a period of 5 ms.
ans: = 1.885 rad and 108°.

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Sinusoidal Alternating Waveform Asst. Lect. Hayder S. Ahmed

1.5 General Format for the sinusoidal Voltage or Current

The basic mathematical format for the sinusoidal waveform is

where Am is the peak value of the waveform and α is the unit of measure for
the horizontal axis, as shown in Fig. 14.

Fig. 14 Basic sinusoidal function.

Due to Eq. (8), the general format of a sine wave can also be written

For electrical quantities such as current and voltage, the general format is

i = Im sin ωt = Im sin α (11)

e = Em sin ωt = Em sin α (12)

EXAMPLE 5 Given e = 5 sin α, determine e at α = 40° and α = 0.8π.

Solution: For α = 40°,

e = 5 sin 40° = 5(0.6428) = 3.21 V

For α = 0.8π,

() ( )

and e = 5 sin 144° = 5(0.5878) = 2.94 V

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Sinusoidal Alternating Waveform Asst. Lect. Hayder S. Ahmed

The angle at which a particular voltage level is attained can be determined

by rearranging the equation
e = Em sin α
in the following manner:

which can be written

(13)
Similarly, for a particular current level,

(14)
EXAMPLE 6
a. Determine the angle at which the magnitude of the sinusoidal function
v = 10 sin 377t is 4 V.
b. Determine the time at which the magnitude is attained.
Solutions:
a.

However, Fig. 15 reveals that the magnitude of 4 V (positive) will be

attained at two points between 0° and 180°. The second intersection
is determined by

Fig. 15 Example 6.

In general, therefore, keep in mind that Eqs. (13) and (14) will
provide an angle with a magnitude between 0° and 90°.

b. , and so ⁄ . However, α must be in radians. Thus,

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Sinusoidal Alternating Waveform Asst. Lect. Hayder S. Ahmed

( ) ( )
and

⁄
For the second intersection,
( ) ( )
and

EXAMPLE 7 Sketch e = 10 sin 314t with the abscissa

a. angle (α) in degrees.
b. angle (α) in radians.
c. time (t) in seconds.

Solutions:
a. See Fig. 16. (Note that no calculations are required.)
b. See Fig. 17. (Once the relationship between degrees and radians is
understood, no calculations are required.)

Fig. 16 horizontal axis in degrees. Fig.17 horizontal axis in radians.

c. See Fig. 18.

360°:
180°:
90°:
30°:

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Sinusoidal Alternating Waveform Asst. Lect. Hayder S. Ahmed

Fig 18 horizontal axis in milliseconds.

EXAMPLE 8 Given i = 6 × 10-3 sin 1000t, determine i at t =2 ms.

Solution:

α = ωt = 1000t = (1000 rad/s)(2 × 10-3 s) = 2 rad

() ( )
( )( ) ( )( )

H.W. (1) Sketch 6 sin 754 t with the abscissa

a. angle in degrees.
b. angle in radians.
c. time in seconds.

H.W. (2) Find the amplitude and frequency of the following waves:
a. 20 sin 377 t
b. 12 sin 2π120 t
c. 106 sin 10000 t
d. -7.6 sin 43.6 t
e. -8 sin 10058t

H.W. (3) If e = 500 sin 176 t, how long (in seconds) does it take this
waveform to complete 1/2 cycle?

H.W. (4) Given v = 25 sin 𝜶, determine v at 𝜶 = 1.4π.

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Sinusoidal Alternating Waveform Asst. Lect. Hayder S. Ahmed

1.6 Phase Relation

Thus far, we have considered only sine waves that have maxima at π/2
and 3π/2, with a zero value at 0, π, and 2π, as shown in Fig. 17. If the
waveform is shifted to the right or left of 0°, the expression becomes

( )

where θ is the angle in degrees or radians that the waveform has been
shifted.
If the waveform passes through the horizontal axis with a positive-
going (increasing with time) slope before 0°, as shown in Fig.19, the
expression is
( )

Fig. 19 Defining the phase shift for a sinusoidal function that crosses the horizontal axis with a
positive slope before 0°.

If the waveform passes through the horizontal axis with a positive-

going slope after 0°, as shown in Fig. 20, the expression is

( )

Fig. 20 Defining the phase shift for a sinusoidal function that crosses the horizontal axis with a
positive slope after 0°.

If the waveform crosses the horizontal axis with a positive-going slope 90°
(π/2) sooner, as shown in Fig. 21, it is called a cosine wave; that is,

( ) ( )
or

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Sinusoidal Alternating Waveform Asst. Lect. Hayder S. Ahmed

( ) ( )
The terms leading and lagging are used to indicate the relationship
between two sinusoidal waveforms of the same frequency plotted on the
same set of axes. In Fig. 21, the cosine curve is said to lead the sine curve by
90°, and the sine curve is said to lag the cosine curve by 90°. The 90° is
referred to as the phase angle between the two waveforms. In language
commonly applied, the waveforms are out of phase by 90°. If both
waveforms cross the axis at the same point with the same slope, they are in
phase.

Fig. 21 Phase relationship between a sine wave and a cosine wave.

The geometric relationship between various forms of the sine and

cosine functions can be derived from Fig. 22.

Fig. 22 Graphic tool for finding the relationship between specific sine and cosine functions.

(15)

In addition, note that

(16)

EXAMPLE 9 What is the phase relationship between the sinusoidal

waveforms of each of the following sets?

a. v = 10 sin(ωt + 30°)
i = 5 sin(ωt + 70°)

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Sinusoidal Alternating Waveform Asst. Lect. Hayder S. Ahmed

b. i = 15 sin(ωt + 60°)
v = 10 sin(ωt - 20°)
c. i = 2 cos(ωt + 10°)
v = 3 sin(ωt - 10°)
d. i = -sin(ωt + 30°)
v = 2 sin(ωt + 10°)
e. i = -2 cos(ωt - 60°)
v = 3 sin(ωt - 150°)
Solutions:
a. See Fig. 23.
i leads v by 40°, or v lags i by 40°.

Fig. 23 Example 9(a): i leads v by 40°.

b. See Fig. 24.

i leads v by 80°, or v lags i by 80°.

Fig. 24 Example 9(b): i leads v by 80°.

c. See Fig. 25.

( ) ( )
( )
i leads v by 110°, or v lags i by 110°.

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Sinusoidal Alternating Waveform Asst. Lect. Hayder S. Ahmed

Fig. 25 Example 9(c): i leads v by 110°.

d. See Fig. 26.
( ) ( ) ( )

v leads i by 160°, or i lags v by 160°.

Or using

( ) ( ) ( )

i leads v by 200°, or v lags i by 200°.

Fig. 26 Example 9(d): v leads i by 160°.

e. See Fig. 27.

( ) ( ) ( )

Fig. 27 Example 9(e): v and i are in phase.

However, ( )
So that ( ) ( )
( )
v and i are in phase.

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Sinusoidal Alternating Waveform Asst. Lect. Hayder S. Ahmed

1.7 Average Value

The above equation can be extended to include any variable quantity,

such as current or voltage, if we let G denote the average value, as follows:

( ) (17)

The algebraic sum of the areas must be determined since some area
contributions are from below the horizontal axis. Areas above the axis are
assigned a positive sign and those below it a negative sign. A positive
average value is then above the axis, and a negative value is below it.

The average value of any current or voltage is the value indicated on a

dc meter. In other words, over a complete cycle, the average value is the
equivalent dc value. In the analysis of electronic circuits to be considered in
a later course, both dc and ac sources of voltage will be applied to the same
network.

EXAMPLE 10 Determine the average value of the waveforms in Fig. 28.

Fig. 28 Example 10.

Solutions:
a. By inspection, the area above the axis equals the area below over one
cycle, resulting in an average value of zero volts. Using Eq.(17) gives
( )( ) ( )( )

b. Using Eq. (17) gives

( )( ) ( )( )

as shown in Fig. 29.

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Sinusoidal Alternating Waveform Asst. Lect. Hayder S. Ahmed

Fig. 29 Defining the average value for the waveform in Fig. 28(b).

In reality, the waveform in Fig. 28(b) is simply the square wave in

Fig. 28(a) with a dc shift of 4 V; that is,
v2 = v 1 + 4 V
EXAMPLE 11 Find the average values of the following waveforms over
one full cycle:
a. Fig. 30.
b. Fig. 31.

Fig. 30 Example 11(a).

Fig. 31 Example 11(b).

Solutions:
a.
( )( ) ( )( )

Note Fig. 32

Fig. 32 The response of a dc meter to the waveform in Fig. 30.

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Sinusoidal Alternating Waveform Asst. Lect. Hayder S. Ahmed

b.
( )( ) ( )( ) ( )( )

Note Fig. 33

Fig. 33 The response of a dc meter to the waveform in Fig. 31.

1.8 Effective (rms) Values

This section begins to relate dc and ac quantities with respect to the

power delivered to a load. It will help us determine the amplitude of a
sinusoidal ac current required to deliver the same power as a particular dc
current. The question frequently arises, How is it possible for a sinusoidal ac
quantity to deliver a net power if, over a full cycle, the net current in any one
direction is zero (average value = 0)?
During the positive or negative portions of a sinusoidal ac current, power
is being delivered at each instant of time to the resistor. The power delivered
at each instant, of course, varies with the magnitude of the sinusoidal ac
current.
A fixed relationship between ac and dc voltages and currents can be
derived from the experimental setup shown in Fig. 34. A resistor in a water
bath is connected by switches to a dc and an ac supply. If switch 1 is closed,
a dc current I, determined by the resistance R and battery voltage E, is
established through the resistor R. The temperature reached by the water is
determined by the dc power dissipated in the form of heat by the resistor.

Fig. 34 An experimental setup to establish a relationship between dc and ac quantities.

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Sinusoidal Alternating Waveform Asst. Lect. Hayder S. Ahmed

If switch 2 is closed and switch 1 left open, the ac current through the
resistor has a peak value of Im. The temperature reached by the water is now
determined by the ac power dissipated in the form of heat by the resistor.
The ac input is varied until the temperature is the same as that reached with
the dc input. When this is accomplished, the average electrical power
delivered to the resistor R by the ac source is the same as that delivered by
the dc source.
The power delivered by the ac supply at any instant of time is

However,

Therefore,

and

(18)
The average power delivered by the ac source is just the first term.
Equating the average power delivered by the ac generator to that delivered
by the dc source,

which, in words, states that

the equivalent dc value of a sinusoidal current or voltage is ⁄√ or 0.707

of its peak value.

The equivalent dc value is called the rms or effective value of the sinusoidal
quantity.
As a simple numerical example, it requires an ac current with a peak
value of √ (10) = 14.14 A to deliver the same power to the resistor in Fig.
34 as a dc current of 10 A.

(19)
The relationship between the peak value and the rms value is

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Sinusoidal Alternating Waveform Asst. Lect. Hayder S. Ahmed

(20)
Similarly,

(21)
EXAMPLE 12 Find the rms values of the sinusoidal waveform in each part
in Fig. 35.

Fig. 35 Example 12.

Solution: For part (a), Irms = 0.707(12 × 10-3 A) = 8.48 mA. For part (b),
again Irms = 8.48 mA. Note that frequency did not change the
effective value in (b) compared to (a). For part (c), Vrms =
0.707(169.73 V) ≈ 120 V.
EXAMPLE 13 The 120 V dc source in Fig. 36(a) delivers 3.6 W to the
load. Determine the peak value of the applied voltage (Em) and the
current (Im) if the ac source [Fig. 36(b)] is to deliver the same power to
the load.

Fig. 36 Example 13.

Solution:

√ ( )( )

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Sinusoidal Alternating Waveform Asst. Lect. Hayder S. Ahmed

√ ( )( )
EXAMPLE 14 Find the rms value of the waveform in Fig. 37.

Solution: v2 (Fig. 38):

( )( ) ( )( )
√ √

Fig. 37 Example 14. Fig.38 The squared waveform of Fig. 37.

EXAMPLE 15 Calculate the rms value of the voltage in Fig. 39.

Fig. 39 Example 15.

2
Solution: v (Fig. 40):

Fig. 40 The squared waveform of Fig. 39.

( )( ) ( )( ) ( )( )
√

√ √ √

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Sinusoidal Alternating Waveform Asst. Lect. Hayder S. Ahmed

H.W. (1) Determine the average and rms values of the square wave in Fig.
41.

Fig. 41 H.W. (1)

1.9 Peak Factor and Form Factor

What is Peak Factor

Peak Factor is also known as Crest Factor or Amplitude Factor.
It is the ratio between maximum value and RMS value of an alternating
wave.

For a sinusoidal alternating voltage:

For a sinusoidal alternating current:

What is Form Factor

The ratio between RMS value and Average value of an alternating
quantity (Current or Voltage) is known as Form Factor.

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